“Characterization of Damage Evolution on Metallic Components using

Ultrasonics Non-Destructive Methods”

“Report of the Research Plan in the PhD

Program in Electronic Engineering”

Juan Fernando Piñal Moctezuma

Director: PhD. José Luis Romeral Martínez

Co-Director: PhD. Miguel Delgado Prieto

June, 2016
Thesis Project
Thesis Project Information

Doctorate student and Directors information

Doctorate Student:
Juan Fernando Piñal Moctezuma
Electronic Engineering Department. Doctoral Program
MCIA Center (Motion Control and Industrial Applications)
Thesis Director and Co-Director:
PhD. José Luis Romeral Martínez
UPC - Electronic Engineering Department
MCIA Center (Motion Control and Industrial Applications)
Director

PhD. Miguel Delgado Prieto

UPC - Electronic Engineering Department
MCIA Center (Motion Control and Industrial Applications)
Researcher

Provisional Thesis Title

“Characterization of Damage Evolution on Metallic Components using
Ultrasonics Non-Destructive Methods”

Research Plan Abstract

It is understandable that structures and machinery will eventually fail due to a bad operation,
for working on an overload regime, or just by aging factors, however when fault becomes
unexpected, besides of this will cause a negative economic impact, dangerously, compromise
the life of people. Thus, nowadays is imperative that, on one hand, managers of these
infrastructure program regular inspections and maintenance for their assets, and in the other
hand designers and manufacturers have the proper tools in order to produce better and more
reliable materials. The aim of this research is to conduct investigation on the fields of
ultrasonic evaluation techniques means in order to propose novel measurement
strategies and data processing methods that help to characterize the behavior of
metallic materials for the understanding of its performance. Besides, this document
contains the thesis proposal, including the schedule, the work-plan, an overview of non-
destructive evaluation with emphasis on ultrasonic technology, and an overview of current
mechanical assays for metals.
PhD. José Luis Romeral Martínez gives consent to present this Thesis project.

PhD. José Luis Romeral Martínez. Thesis Director

PhD. Miguel Delgado Prieto gives consent to present this Thesis project.

i
PhD. Miguel Delgado Prieto. Thesis Co-Director
Thesis Project
Tables of Content

Contents of Document
DOCTORATE STUDENT AND DIRECTORS INFORMATION .......................................................................................... I

PROVISIONAL THESIS TITLE ..................................................................................................................................... I

RESEARCH PLAN ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................................... I

INDEX OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................................................ III

ACRONYMS AND DEFINITIONS .............................................................................................................................. IV

CHAPTER 1. THESIS PROPOSAL ......................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 RESEARCH TOPIC ................................................................................................................................................. 1

1.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM ............................................................................................................................................ 5
1.3 HYPOTHESES....................................................................................................................................................... 7
1.4 AIM AND OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................................................................... 8

CHAPTER 2. STATE OF THE ART ........................................................................................................................ 9

2.1 TENSILE, IMPACT, AND HARDNESS TESTING OF METALS ................................................................................................ 9

2.1.1 Tensile Testing ..................................................................................................................................... 9
2.1.2 Impact Strength ................................................................................................................................. 10
2.1.3 Hardness ............................................................................................................................................ 10
2.1.4 Essential Work of Fracture ................................................................................................................. 11
2.1.5 Hole Expansion Test ........................................................................................................................... 11
2.2 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING ................................................................................................................................ 12
2.2.1 Methods of NDE ................................................................................................................................. 12
2.2.2 Probability of Detection (POD) of Non-Destructive Methods ............................................................. 15
2.3 ULTRASONIC TECHNOLOGIES ON NDE .................................................................................................................... 16
2.4 ULTRASONIC INSPECTION ..................................................................................................................................... 16
2.5 ACOUSTIC EMISSION........................................................................................................................................... 18
2.5.1 Signal Propagation ............................................................................................................................ 19
2.6 GUIDED WAVE TESTING ...................................................................................................................................... 19
2.7 ACOUSTO ULTRASONIC INSPECTION ....................................................................................................................... 20

CHAPTER 3. RESEARCH SCHEDULE .................................................................................................................. 21

3.1 METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................................................ 21

3.2 MATERIALS AND RESOURCES ................................................................................................................................ 22
3.3 WORK-PLAN ..................................................................................................................................................... 24
3.4 CHRONOGRAM .................................................................................................................................................. 28

REFERENCES......................................................................................................................................................... 29

ii
Thesis Project
Tables of Content

INDEX OF FIGURES

FIGURE 2-1: SOME EXAMPLES OF APPLICATIONS OF SOUND ..................................................................................... 16

FIGURE 3-1: PROPOSED METHODOLOGY FOR DEVELOPING THIS RESEARCH WORK. ....................................................... 21
FIGURE 3-2: PART OF THE INFRASTRUCTURE OF THE MCIA CENTRE .......................................................................... 22
FIGURE 3-3: LABORATORY OF METALLIC MATERIALS OF CTM. ................................................................................ 23
FIGURE 3-4. EXPECTED CHRONOGRAM FOR THE THESIS WORK. ................................................................................ 28

iii
Thesis Project
Tables of Content

ACRONYMS AND DEFINITIONS

AE Acoustic Emission
AI Artificial Intelligence
AU Acousto-Ultrasonic
ASTM American Society of the International Association for Testing and Materials
CM Condition Monitoring
EEE Electrical, Electronic and Electromechanical
EMAT Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer
DAQ Data Acquisition
DE Destructive Evaluation
DPA Destructive Physical Analysis
DSP Digital Signal Processing
DT Destructive Testing
DM Damage Prognosis
GW Guided Wave
NDC Non-Destructive Characterization
NDE Non-Destructive Evaluation
NDI Non-Destructive Inspection
NDT Non-Destructive Testing
POD Probability of Detection
SHM Structural Health Monitoring
SPM Statistical Process Control
STFT Short Time Fourier Transform
UT Ultrasonic Testing
WT Wavelet Transform

iv
Thesis Project
Thesis Proposal. Research Topic

Chapter 1. THESIS PROPOSAL

1.1 Research Topic

In most general terms, damage can be defined as changes introduced into a system, either
intentionally or unintentionally, that adversely affect the current or future performance of
that system [1]. In this sense, evaluation of damage is relevant to all engineering fields.
Nowadays is carried out in conjunction with six multidisciplinary areas, for which monitoring
and assessing damage are the principal concerns:

1) Structural Health Monitoring

2) Condition Monitoring
3) Non-Destructive Evaluation
4) Destructive Testing
5) Statistical Process Control
6) Damage Prognosis

All these areas use transducers in order to know the status of structures, machinery, processes
or materials by detecting faults, damages or defects, taking advantage of the physical
properties of matter and its response to the different forms of energy exerted on it in order
to survey the integrity of such elements. However, in order to introduce the research topic
of this thesis proposal, the definition of each of these damage evaluation approaches is
presented.

The process of implementing a damage identification strategy for aerospace, civil and
mechanical engineering infrastructure is referred as Structural Health Monitoring. Here, damage
is defined as changes to the material and/or geometric properties of these systems, including
changes to the boundary conditions and system connectivity, which adversely affect the
system’s performance [2]. SHM implicates the online supervision of a system which evolves
through time, measuring with a defined periodicity, extracting critical damage features,
executing a statistical evaluation of these features in order to establish the actual health
condition of the system, and lastly the data generation regarding to the ability of the structure

1
Thesis Project
Thesis Proposal. Research Topic

to continue performing its intended function with the inevitable aging and damage
accumulation.

Condition Monitoring of machinery is the measurement of various parameters related to the

mechanical condition of rotating and reciprocating machinery (such as vibration, bearing
temperature, oil pressure, oil debris, and performance), which makes it possible to determine
whether the machinery is in good or bad mechanical condition [3].

According to the American Society of the International Association for Testing and Materials
(ASTM), in the guideline of Standard Terminology for Non-Destructive Examinations, Non-
Destructive Evaluations or Non-Destructive Testing [4], is defined as the development and
application of technical methods to examine materials or components in ways that do not
impair future usefulness and serviceability in order to detect, locate, measure and evaluate
flaws; to assess integrity, properties and composition; and to measure geometrical
characteristics. NDE is critical and necessary in order to determine the safety and reliability
of a system. Usually it is an offline process and performs in sectored fashion. Main aims of
NDE are damage characterization and severity check measurement (if previously exists
indication of damage).

Destructive Testing is a set of methods to testing a material that degrades the sample under
investigation [5], generating on it a permanent variation of its chemical structure or its
dimensional geometry. These methods are usually easier to implement, provides more data,
and are more affordable to interpret than NDE. DT fits better, for objects that will be
produced on mass, for example: on EEE (electrical, electronic and electromechanical)
production devices -under the name of Destructive Physical Analysis-, in the designing of
bituminous materials to paving roads, in software designing area to force a program to
collapse in an uncontrolled routine and so test its robustness, or in the Automotive field
when an automobile is crashed to assess the safety.

Statistical Process Control is a set of tools for managing processes, and determining and
monitoring the quality of the outputs of an organization. It is also a strategy for reducing
variation in production, deliveries, processes, materials, attitudes and equipment [6]. These
statistical strategies have been used to recollect and analyze changes in measured time series
[2], in order to detect and reduce variability by using a variety of sensors to monitor changes
in the process.

2
Thesis Project
Thesis Proposal. Research Topic

When damage is confirmed, Damage Prognosis (DP) is used to predict the remaining life of a
system [2]. DP is defined as the estimated remaining useful life of engineered systems [7],
projecting the operation of the system through damage evaluation of these, reporting the
likely loading scenario for that system, and forecasting its remaining useful life by means of
simulation and prior events. The effective advancement of a DP capacity will demand
additional development and the composing of multiple technology disciplines including
telemetry hardware and a collection of deterministic and probabilistic predictive modeling
potentials, beside of competences to quantify the uncertainty of these forecasts [8].

In recent years these strategies have been implemented and have proven their effectiveness.
It has been seen that for complex structural and material systems, the ability to diagnose and
predict structural failures through embedded sensing, actuation and data management can
reduce operating costs [9] [10], while increasing safety [11]. The essential commercialization
motivations for the technology are life cycle cost, prevention of catastrophic failure and
evaluation of hard to reach places. Early detection of damage and appropriate retrofitting
will aid in preventing failure of structures and equipment and will save money spent on
maintenance and ensure that structure will operate safe and efficiently during its whole
intended life. For instance, as civil infrastructures get older, monitoring their structural
integrity and devising and improving monitoring methods are both gaining priority for
owners, engineers and researches. In this area, bridges constitute one class of aging
infrastructure that require effective damage detection, especially due to their economic
significance (high building costs) as well as their direct effects on public safety. Many bridges
in use today were built decades ago and are now subjected to increased loads or changes in
loads patterns that originally designed for, that will cause deterioration and aging with a
probably result of structural failure [12]. In Australia, there are about 33,500 bridges with a
replacement value about 16.4 billion dollars and annual maintenance expenditure of about a
$100 million dollars [13]. In the United States on 2003, out of a total 597,377 bridges, 164,971
that is around 27.6 percent, were identified as being either structurally deficient of
functionally obsolete, as reported by the Federal Highway Administration, in year 2004 the
Highway Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation Program (HBRRP) had to invest more than
$3.5 billion of dollars in order to replace or rehabilitate deficient bridges [14], with a proper
strategy of monitoring and preventive maintenance it is possible to earn substantial
economical savings on life-cycle costs [15], and most important to avoid fatalities.

3
Thesis Project
Thesis Proposal. Research Topic

However, there is a prior stage to that of “in-service” monitoring, which implies the
characterization of the materials that will be used during the asset manufacturing. Indeed,
industrially, punching procedures are widely used by manufacturers of sheet metal and metal
forming companies, such as those associated with the automotive sector, which ensures the
required levels of quality material. In this regard, punching tests known as Hole Expansion
Test, consist of hole expansion till the maximum capacity previous to detect cracks. Such
procedures are being highly significant for the automotive industrial sector, since the metallic
properties of non-rotating vehicle parts are being continuously improved to meet the various
requirements of the automotive industry, such as vehicle weight containment, crash
performance improvement, energy saving considerations and environmental protection. This
tests are carried out during the initial design stages (metal properties assessment), but also
during the quality procedures of steel sheet.

4
Thesis Project
Thesis Proposal. Research Problem

1.2 Research Problem

Technological and Scientific Advances in Non-Destructive Evaluation of materials, made

over the last twenty years in this field, have contributed to the recognition of these techniques
as a powerful, proven and very well suited set of tools on diverse engineering disciplines.

Nevertheless, these techniques have not been fully exploited and there is still progress to do,
particularly, a problem found for this thesis work is that many laboratory assays make use of
specialized equipment, however these, are starting to lack of enough data resolution of the
phenomena being characterized. Specifically, for the Essential Work Fracture test, most of
the machinery commercially available only make use of a strain sensor to characterize the
stress-strain behavior of the material under examination [16] [17].

Certainly these equipment have proved to perform effectively their propose for the last forty
years in this given application (EWF) [18], but with the progress of Materials engineering and
the advent of new developments, the measurement methods of these machinery it is
beginning to be insufficient.

A few research of applying acoustic emission on EWF has been done [19] [20] [21] [22][23],
most of these work has been done with aim to validate the AE technique on certain type of
material. Nevertheless, for some ultrasonic technique (AU, GW, UI) there are not reported
work.

Some possible reasons might be that:

 Particularly in metals, the AE signals exhibit faster time-varying behavior due to

multiple mode and multipath propagation [24], so the available hardware technology
to capture entirely the phenomenon was limited, due the demanded specifications
(several channels to be captured, high frequencies conversion, deep resolution
conversion, manipulation of data converted, lack of standardized instrumentation).

 Lack of calibration methodology (selection of transductors, location of these on

specimens, etc.) to make a proper acquisition of the test.

 Because the absence of bases of knowledge with recorded data, there is have been a
slow development of DSP and AI techniques on this area.

 Studying of the state of the art of fracture characterization of metals by acoustic

emission test.

5
Thesis Project
Thesis Proposal. Research Problem

Another application that is considered to study is the metallic punching test, as a research
analytical potential of noise as a tool for characterization of the condition, i.e. stages
of generation, propagation and final fracture in mechanical tests on metallic sheet.

It is curious that, despite of modern studies of Acoustic Emission phenomena were born
through the use of destructive evaluation machinery (viz., Pendulum Impact Testing) [25],
and there had been many disciplines of engineering with successful applications of NDT,
nowadays exists an absence of these methods on the laboratory environment.

Detection and identification of these phenomena allow advanced mechanical design tests
and a detailed characterization of the behavior of the material. In this sense, noise emissions
are a source variable mechanical pattern detection capabilities stages of incipient cracks in
materials. However, considering the current state of technology, specific research is necessary
to determine in real time the specific patterns contained in the EA associated with the
different stages of fracture in these types of applications.

In conclusion, there is a need to improve the phenomenon characterization of metal

fracture on laboratory updating the manner of that this is captured and analyzed. The
actual methods to examine it need to be reinforced by solid framework of analysis and
processing in order to tackle these issues and strive towards a better understanding of damage
in materials.

6
Thesis Project
Thesis Proposal. Hypotheses

1.3 Hypotheses

In order to approach the presented research problems, the following hypotheses have been
formulated as a starting point for this research work:

 The use of NDT based on Ultrasonics Technologies (i.e., Acoustic Emission,

Acousto Ultrasonic or Ultrasonic Testing) will add more resolution to standard
mechanical testing of metals.

 During test will be possible to correlate the damage stages in the specimen under
evaluation, with the frecuencial content of the digitized version of the obtained
electrical signals.

 With an appropriate procedure of selection and placement of transductors, and the

correct manipulation of electrical signals, will be possible to monitoring the acoustic
activity of the evaluated specimen by not only placing the sensors directly on this,
but inspecting the chassis of the machine used to make the testing.

 Using the suitable DSP technique will do possible not only suppressing noise of the
obtained signals, but to enhance the significant regions of this one, in order to do a
better subsequent analysis of the phenomena.

 Adequate arrangement of sensors on the evaluated specimen will provide enough

information that will able to quantize and forecast damage evolution.

7
Thesis Project
Thesis Proposal. Aim and Objectives

1.4 Aim and Objectives

The aim of this thesis proposal is to work in the state of the art development of
characterization of damage on metals, for this, stages of damage of the materials
under test will have to be identified and analyzed, making emphasis at early stages
by the use of ultrasonic technologies means, attempting to adapt them to this particular
application by a proper calibration of instruments and DSP techniques.

To successfully achieve this purpose, the following specific objectives will have to be
accomplished:

 Studying of the state of the art of destructive testing of metals.

 Studying of the state of the art of fracture characterization of metals by acoustic

emission test.

 Studying of the state of the art of fracture characterization of metals by ultrasonic,

acousto-ultrasonic and guided wave test.

 Designing and assembling a digital acquisition system based on the specifications of

the commercially available equipment for ultrasonic technologies.

 Calibrating the instrumentation for the specific kind of mechanical assay, via a proper
selection, location, and definition of the number of transductors, cabling,
amplification stages, definition of a scanning technique, noise suppression
mechanical techniques, etc.

 Evaluate the use of EMAT sensors in order to make faster and reachable inspections
by means of suitable processing of acquired signals.

 Generate a knowledge base with the experiments measured experiments.

 Proposing, designing and validating a set of indicators (viz., STFT, WT, Cepstral
analysis, etc.) to characterize damage that correlates the obtained data of the NDE
of the mechanical essays.

8
Thesis Project
Thesis Proposal. State of the Art

Chapter 2. STATE OF THE ART

2.1 Tensile, Impact, and Hardness Testing of Metals

The ductility and strength (measured by a tensile test), related hardness properties and
fracture toughness (or impact resistance) are the three most frequently required materials
properties. A secondary batch include properties related to torsion, shear, bending and
fatigue (although usually on components rather than raw materials) with additional
measurements of creep behavior required for elevated temperature service. Service behavior
such as wear resistance is usually inferred from other tests while intrinsic properties such as
density and damping capacity are generally only considered by the designer.

2.1.1 Tensile Testing

Tensile tests are usually carded out on wire, strip or machined samples with either circular or
rectangular cross section. Test pieces are screwed into or gripped in jaws and stretched by
moving the grips apart at a constant rate while measuring the load and the grip separation.
This data is plotted as load vs extension and then converted to engineering stress
(load/original area) vs engineering strain (fractional change in length over the test section
assuming the deformation is uniform). In special circumstances, the actual stress and strain
may be calculated if the true cross section is measured during the test. International standards
set out the requirements for sample size, test methods and equipment and includes examples
of the typical shapes of stress vs strain plots which may be expected when tensile tests are
performed. The uniform section gauge length (where the deformation is presumed to be
contained) can be between 25 and 100mm tong. The orientation of the sample relative to
rolling or solidification directions will obviously affect the results obtained.

Normal parameters measured are the yield stress at 0.2% deformation (estimated by using a
rule parallel to the initial linear portion of the load/elongation plot and offsetting the
measurement by 0.2% displacement), the maximum stress, Rm or the ultimate tensile stress
(UTS), i.e. the maximum applied stress and the ductility which is measured by percent
reduction in area of the fracture face or the percentage change in gauge length. If the sample
necks significantly, the (high strain) final part of the curve will dip below the UTS. Brittle

9
Thesis Project
Thesis Proposal. State of the Art

materials will only deform by a small amount before fracture. The slope of the linear portion
approximates the elastic modulus (or Young’s modulus) while the area under the entire, non-
linear portion of the curve gives the energy absorbed during deformation, and is thus an
indication of toughness.

2.1.2 Impact Strength

Impact strength is measured by allowing a pendulum to strike a grooved machined test piece
and measuring the energy absorbed in the break. The Izod test is at ambient temperature
while the temperature controlled Charpy test, uses typically 10x10mm, rectangular cross
section samples cut at specified orientations to the material axes. The absorbed energy
decreases at lower temperatures. Absorbed energies >27J are generally considered
satisfactory. In ferrous materials a low ductile to brittle transition temperature is important
for structures such as LPG tanks so that they will not suffer catastrophic brittle failure when
chilled. After fracture, the percentage of brittle fracture area is estimated.

2.1.3 Hardness

Hardness is not an intrinsic property of a material. The values ascribed are due to a complex
combination of deformation and elastic behavior. Conversion between hardness scales and
tensile strength is carried out, but the conversions are empirical because the measurements
are of a combination of material properties.

The common methods are:

 Vickers (AS1817) which uses a microscope to measure the depression caused on a

polished surface by a diamond indenter with a load of kilograms.
 Brinell (AS1816) which uses large loads (up to 3000kg) on a rough polished surface
and gives impressions from 2 to 6mm.
 Rockwell (AS1815) which forces a pointed probe into the surface and measures the
increase in penetration when the load is increased from one level (minor load) to
another (major load). The penetration is in tens of micrometers and if the sample
deforms or moves, significant errors may arise.
 Rebound (AS2731) where the bounce of a ball indicates the resistance to surface
deformation (i.e. hardness).

10
Thesis Project
Thesis Proposal. State of the Art

 Electronic rebound (ASTM A956) which uses the ratio of spring driven impact
velocity to rebound velocity to give an LD value which is converted into
conventional hardness numbers, and
 Microhardness where loads less than 1kg are used for Vickers or Knoop indenters.
Knoop indenters are common in the USA where they are used for thin sheet. There
is good evidence that loads of less than 100gm give significant inaccuracies in results.
 Scratch (Mohs) or file tests are fairly qualitative and imprecise.

All of these hardness techniques deform the surface and if the surface is non uniform or
there are variations in hardness through the material or an indent is too close to an edge or
another impression, then inaccuracies occur. A practical check on all but the Rockwell and
rebound methods, is that the impression on the surface is clear and symmetrical.

When hardness values are used to estimate ultimate strength, errors will occur if the material
is cold worked or, in the case of steel, austenitic. The conversion does not give an estimate
of yield strength.

2.1.4 Essential Work of Fracture

The Essential Work of Fracture (EWF) concept is used to characterize the fracture of thin
plates on plane stress, this approach is a mean of partitioning the energy associated with
fracture into two parts [26], consisting in separating, based on dimensional considerations,
the work dissipated within the plastic zone from the total work of fracture in order to provide
an estimate of the work spent per unit area within the fracture process zone (FPZ) to break
the material, if the ligament of a sheet specimen is completely yielded before initiation, and
the plastic zone is confined to the ligament, then the plastic work dissipated for the complete
fracture is proportional to the plastic volume at initiation and the work in the FPZ is
proportional to the fracture area. That is, the plastic work and the EWF scale differently with
samples dimensions [26].

2.1.5 Hole Expansion Test

This test uses a flat sheet specimen with a circular hole in the center which is clamped
between annular die platies and deformed by a punch, thereby expanding and untimely
cracking the edge of the hole. Flat-bottomed hemispherical and conical punches have been
used, and in some cases, die plates have been equipped with lock beads to prevent drawing-
in of the flange. The punch should be well lubricated and should have a large profile radius.

11
Thesis Project
Thesis Proposal. State of the Art

A spacer can be used between the punch and the specimen. The hole expansion test is
terminated when a visible edge crack or fractured hole diameter is perceived [27]. Currently,
the experimental technique shortcomings in detecting the onset and spread of the crack, and
these are just the key parameters of the test. It has been reported the use of techniques based
on Digital Image Correlation (DIC), but the type of mechanical testing methods optical
tracking difficult process of deformation and rupture. In this regard, tests and punching
sketch known as Hole Expansion Tests, HET consist of a hole and expanded the maximum
capacity to detect opening hole without cracking. Thus, the possibility of having a test could
determine where HET monitored in real time nucleation and subsequent stages would have
immediate repercussions industrial

2.2 Non-Destructive Testing

Regardless of the selected strategy (i.e., NDE, SHM, CM, etc.) for a given particular application
(e.g., industrial, aerospace, civil, medical, geophysical, etc.) to monitoring damage, it is
important to understand that this nondestructive detection is feasible due to the underlying
phenomena that occur in particles, materials and objects, since all of these are governed by
physical rules, in consequence they all eventually will respond to external stimulus of a source
of energy on a specific manner. This response can be captured by the use of a sensor and
translated conveniently into an electrical signal, which can be manipulated in order to store,
transform, and/or process it.

2.2.1 Methods of NDE

Nowadays, an ample variety of techniques are used in order to detect defects, using for this
several forms of energy (depending of the selected technique), with the purpose to excite
particles, materials, or objects, and thus being capable to measure variability on these. Table
2.2-1 summarizes the most applied methods on the field of nondestructive damage
detection.The understanding of the underlying phenomena of these methods, will be able to
individuals (i.e., technicians, engineers, instructors,) of being capable to implement, design,
certificate, standardize, measure, and most important, to choose the appropriate method, for a
given particular application, in order to obtain quality information about damage in materials.
Needless to say that there is not a better method than another, each one has its own
particularities, advantages and disadvantages, however it is possible to combine some methods
for evaluating a single parameter in order to increase confidence, and assessing the quality of
structures, machinery or materials [28].
12
Thesis Project
Thesis Proposal. State of the Art

Table 2.2-1
Most commonly used Non-Destructive Methods and some important features.
Detectable
Method Physical Principle Techniques Advantages Limitations
Defects
Large surfaces Not suitable on
can be rapidly porous materials
inspected
Solvent
Removable Admitted to Surface preparation is
detect cracks, Cheaper than crucial
pores and other
Water-
Dye Penetrant Capillary Action other defects methods
Washable Required post-
that break the
surface of the cleaning for chemical
Objects with removal
Post- material difficult
emulsifiable
geometry are
easily Required chemical
inspected handling directions
Only works on
Large surfaces ferromagnetic
can be rapidly materials
Yokes
inspected
Used to survey Large electrical
Prodes
for flaws on Affordable currents required
Magnetic equipment
Magnetic Permeability the surface
Particle Coils and subsurface Crucial alignment of
of materials Easy surface magnetic field and
Central preparation flaw
Conductor
Required post-
demagnetization
Test probe
Can only be used on
does not
conductive materials
require to be
in contact
with the Ferromagnetic
Eddy Current material materials need a pre-
Used to survey treatment to add
for flaws on magnetic
Alternating Minimal
Electromagnetic Focault currents the surface permeability
Current Field surface
and subsurface preparation
of materials Finite depth
Remote Field penetration
Used to
characterize
materials Surface’s finish and
roughness may add
noise to readings
Nearly all
materials can
be inspected
Film Deep skills and
Radiography training required
Easiness to
Used to inspect
Computed Availability to both
achieve images complex
Radiography sides of the structure
of objects in shapes and
Radiographic Radiation multi-layered
function of
Computed their density structures Expensive
Tomography and thickness instrumentation
Minimum
Digital part Hazardous radiation
Radiography preparation exposure

13
Thesis Project
Thesis Proposal. State of the Art

Detectable
Method Physical Principle Techniques Advantages Limitations
Defects
Superior
depth
Straight capabilities
Beam (Pulse- than other
Echo) methods Imperative use of
coupling media
Angle Beam Only one side
Used to survey of the Considerable training
for flaws on material is and skills required
Immersion the surface required to
Body testing and subsurface make the
Ultrasonic Reference standards
(Compressional/Shear) on a variety of inspection
Inspection must be followed
mechanical waves Through materials,
transmission including
Distance of Parallel linear defects
metals, plastics
the flaw is could be unnoticed
and wood
Phased Array provided
Expensive
Time of Used to instrumentation
Flight characterize
Diffraction materials

The method cannot

differentiate between
Superior external-internal
range distance flaws
capabilities
than other Difficult to detect
methods small size flaws
Transmission
– Reflection Used to survey
Guided Wave Superficial mechanical Possibility to Not very effective at
for flaws on
Ultrasonic Test waves inspect hard- survey areas near of
Through metallic pipes
to-reach accessories (valves,
transmission elements gates, etc.)

Distance of Considerable training

the flaw is and skills required
provided
Expensive
instrumentation
Only suitable to
detect creation of
new flaws

Particular tests are

not perfectly
Materials can replicable
Acoustic be inspected
Emission on service Expensive
Used to detect
Passive early stages of instrumentation
Stress waves Materials can
detection damage on
materials be monitored Provides only
during their qualitative damage
entire history information (unless
service there exists a model
of the surveyed
object). For
quantitative damage
estimation it is
necessary to combine
with another method

14
Thesis Project
Thesis Proposal. State of the Art

2.2.2 Probability of Detection (POD) of Non-Destructive Methods

Defect detection is subjected on an extensive variability of circumstances, some are

controllable like the skills and training of the operator, verification of instruments,
development of procedures, etc., while many others are random such as: energy reflectivity
on materials, orientation, shapes, roughness, defect size, curvature, location, etc.

The action of a NDE instrument or system may be described as a signal output or as a direct
or indirect image. After an inspection, it is necessary to identify the condition of the element
surveyed through a discrimination of this signals or images, this identification can be
performed by a human operator or be automated by the use of a machine [29].

A collection of multiplex indicators with intrinsic variability are implicated on a NDE, this
variability is present in both, the measurement procedure and in the element under
evaluation. It is possible to consider this measurement-classification procedure as a
conditional probability problem. The outcome of this procedure can be categorized into one
of the following zones:

 True Positive (TP): A flaw was detected and exists.

 False Positive (FP): A flaw was detected but there not exists (Type II error).

 False Negative (FN): A flaw was not detected but there exists (Type I error).

 True Negative (TN): A flaw was not detected and there not exists.

FN and TP outcomes, provide the total number of events for positive calls (effective events
of defects), TN and FP outcomes, provide the total number of events for false alarms
(effective number of non-defects), therefore, POD is defined as in equation 2-1:

𝑇𝑃
𝑃𝑂𝐷 =
𝑇𝑃 + 𝐹𝑁

2-1

15
Thesis Project
Thesis Proposal. State of the Art

2.3 Ultrasonic Technologies on NDE

Ultrasound, is the known phenomenon of sound with a pitch excessively high (frequencies
greater than 20kHz) like to being perceived by humans. Ultrasonics is the field of study and
application of ultrasounds (see Figure 2-1).

Earthquakes M>6
0.0001 – 0.1Hz

Infrasound
<19Hz 1st octave of Tone of a
a pipe organ CRT Television
10 – 32.7Hz 16.744kHz

Sound
20Hz – 20kHz Ultrasonic cleaning Acoustic Emission Radar Interferometry Picosecond Laser
and and Medical Therapy and Ground Ultrasonics
ultrasonic welding 200kHz – 2MHz Penetrating Radar 10GHz – 1THz
20 - 40kHz 2GHz
Ultrasound
>20kHz
Guided Wave Testing Ultrasonic Inspection Acoustic
and Maximum animal hearing and Medical microscopy
range (dolphin) Sonography cryogenic
150kHz 2MHz – 20MHz 5GHz

Figure 2-1: Some examples of applications of sound, divided on three regions: Infrasound, Sound
and Ultrasound. The use of the ultrasonic waves fits in a large field of applications, over an extended
gamut of frequencies and intensities, including cutting, cleaning and welding at lower boundary, going
through NDE and Medical applications, and at the upper end Acoustic Microscopy and Picosecond
Laser Ultrasonics. Some authors conventionally name the frequencies above 1GHz as Hypersonics
region [30].

Ultrasonic methods do not use sound as intuitively is known by humans (like perturbed air),
but actually they use periodical mechanical stresses (mechanical stress waves) applied on the
object to evaluate. This stress waves can be “injected” on the material in order to stimulate it
and analyze its response (e.g., Ultrasonic Inspection, Guided Wave Testing and Picosecond
Laser Ultrasonics), or monitoring continuously so that a detection system identifies physical
changes on materials (viz., Acoustic Emission Technique).

2.4 Ultrasonic Inspection

Ultrasonic testing is a method to control materials with low or moderate acoustical

attenuation as metals, ceramics or polymers. Inner and outer lack of homogeneities may be
found. If the time of flight can be measured, it is also possible to determine velocities or the
thickness of objects or coatings. The usual frequency range lies between 0.5 MHz to 20 MHz
[29].

In solids, sound waves can propagate in four principle modes that are based on the way the

16
Thesis Project
Thesis Proposal. State of the Art

particles oscillate. Sound can propagate as longitudinal waves, transverse or shear waves,
surface waves and in thin materials as plate waves. Longitudinal and shear waves are the two
modes of propagation most widely used in ultrasonic testing.

In longitudinal waves, the oscillations occur in the longitudinal direction or the direction of
wave propagation. Since compressional and dilatational forces are active in these waves, they
are also called pressure or compressional waves. They are also sometimes called density
waves because their particle density fluctuates as they move. Compression waves can be
generated in gases and liquids, as well as solids because the energy travels through the atomic
structure by a series of compression and expansion movements [11].

In the transverse or shear wave, the particles oscillate transverse to the direction of
propagation. Shear waves require an acoustically solid material for effective propagation and,
therefore, are not effectively propagated in materials such as gases or most liquids. Shear
waves are usually generated in materials using the mode conversion from longitudinal waves.

The basic technique of ultrasonic inspection is simple: a transducer transforms a voltage pulse
into an ultrasonic pulse (wave). One places the transducer onto a specimen and transmits the
pulse into the test object. The pulse travels through the object, responding to its geometry and
mechanical properties. The signal is then either transmitted to another transducer (pitch–catch
method) or reflected back to the original transducer (pulse–echo method) [31]. Either way, the
signal is transformed back into an electrical pulse, which is observed on an oscilloscope. The
observed signal can give a detailed account of the specimen under investigation. Using either
method, we can determine:

 The ultrasonic wave velocity in or thickness of the specimen.

 The presence of a flaw, defect, or delamination, and its size, shape, position, and
composition.

 Material properties, such as density and elastic constants (Young’s Modulus,

Poisson’s ratio, etc.)

 Part geometry or the nature of layered media.

 Finally, a transducer can be scanned across a surface to create a 2-D or even a 3-D
image of a specimen.

17
Thesis Project
Thesis Proposal. State of the Art

2.5 Acoustic Emission

The acoustic emission (AE) testing method is a unique nondestructive testing (NDT)
method where the material being inspected generates signals that warn of impending failure.
Acoustic emission testing is based on the fact that solid materials emit sonic or ultrasonic
acoustic emissions when they are mechanically or thermally stressed to the point where
deformation or fracturing occurs [32].

During plastic deformation, dislocations move through the material’s crystal lattice structure
producing low-amplitude AE signals, which can be measured only over short distances under
laboratory conditions. The AE test method detects, locates, identifies, and displays flaw data
for the stressed object the moment the flaw is created. Therefore, flaws cannot be retested
by the AE method. In contrast, ultrasonic testing detects and characterizes flaws after they
have been created. Almost all materials produce acoustic emissions when they are stressed
beyond their normal design ranges to final failure [33].

It has been said that the first practical use of AE occurred in about 6500 B.C. as pottery
makers listened to the cracking sounds made by clay pots that had been allowed to cool too
quickly [34]. By experience the potters learned that cracked pots were structurally defective
and would fail prematurely. However, the father of modern AE testing was Josef Kaiser of
Germany. In 1950, Kaiser published his Ph.D. thesis, which was the first comprehensive
investigation of acoustic emissions. He made two important discoveries, the first was that
material emits minute pulses of elastic energy when placed under stress. His second discovery
stated that once a given load was applied and the acoustic emission from that noise had
ceased, no further emission would occur until the previous stress level was exceeded, even if
the load was removed and later reapplied. This so-called “Kaiser effect” can be time
dependent for materials with elastic aging. The principle is used in present-day AE proof
testing of fiberglass and metallic pressure vessels.

Nowadays the final goal of monitoring AE phenomena is to provide beneficial information

to prevent fatal fracture, by correlating detected AE signals with growing fracture process or
deterioration. AE activity is observed transiently or unexpectedly, and the signals generally
contain higher frequency components over the audible range as well as a variety of durations.
A signal triggering is conventionally made by setting threshold. In the case of trigger-
monitoring, only the signals, of which amplitudes exceed the threshold levels, are recognized
as AE signals. In the early age of AE measurement, the performance of transient waveform-

18
Thesis Project
Thesis Proposal. State of the Art

recorders was so poor in the early age of AE monitoring as that parametric features of the
waveforms were normally employed for evaluating AE characteristics. These are hit,
amplitude, counts, duration and so forth [37] [38].

Approaches in recording and analyzing AE signals can be divided into two main groups:
parameter-based (classical), and signal-based (quantitative) AE techniques [38].

2.5.1 Signal Propagation

A short, transient AE event is produced by a very fast release of elastic energy for a specific
dislocation movement. This local dislocation is the source of the elastic wave that propagates
in all directions and cannot be stopped. It is similar to a microscopic earthquake with its
epicenter at the defect. On flat surfaces, the wave propagates as concentric circles around
the source and multiple installed sensors can detect it. Like a pebble thrown in water, the
amplitude of the concentric waves is attenuated with increasing time and distance. The
maximum distance where an AE event can be detected depends on material properties,
geometry of the test object, its content and environment, etc. On flat or cylindrical surfaces,
AE events can be detected at several meters, which is a great advantage for this method.

2.6 Guided Wave Testing

Guided Wave testing (GWT) is one of latest methods in the field of non-destructive
evaluation. The method employs mechanical stress waves that propagate along an elongated
structure while guided by its boundaries. This allows the waves to travel a long distance with
little loss in energy. Nowadays, GWT is widely used to inspect and screen many engineering
structures, particularly for the inspection of metallic pipelines around the world. In some
cases, hundreds of meters can be inspected from a single location. There are also some
applications for inspecting rail tracks, rods and metal plate structures [35].

Although Guided wave testing is also commonly known as Guided Wave Ultrasonic Testing
(GWUT) or Ultrasonic Guided Waves (UGWs) or Long Range Ultrasonic Testing (LRUT),
it is fundamentally very different from conventional ultrasonic testing. Guided wave testing
uses very low ultrasonic frequencies compared to those used in conventional UT, typically
between 10~100kHz. Higher frequencies can be used in some cases, but detection range is
significantly reduced. In addition, the underlying physics of guided waves is more complex
than bulk waves.

19
Thesis Project
Thesis Proposal. State of the Art

2.7 Acousto Ultrasonic Inspection

Acousto-Ultrasonics is a new method for non-destructive testing and evaluation of the plates,
which was proposed by American scientists at the end of the 1970 [36]. The term of Acousto-
Ultrasonics may be taken as a contraction of acoustic emission simulation with ultrasonic
sources. In acousto-ultrasonic approach, the sender and receiver probes are usually coupled
to the same surface of the tested object. This satisfies the need of testing on one side in many
cases. In order to excite the stress waves, which propagate parallel to the surface of the tested
plate, the sender is coupled directly to a surface with fluid (coupling). These stress waves are
taken as the simulation of acoustic emission. But in this technique loading is not needed
which is necessary in the acoustic emission detect. The transducer receives these stress waves
at certain distance from the transmitting transducer. So the acousto-ultrasonic method is also
an ultrasonic testing in nature.

In acousto-ultrasonics, a stress wave factor (SWF) is used to characterize acousto-ultrasonic

waves. The SWF is based directly on acoustic emission practice such as energy, peak voltage
or ring-down. It indicates the energy of the received signal in the given time domain or
frequency domain. The modes of the ultrasonic waves in the plate are complicated because
of the arrangement of the transducers in the acousto-ultrasonic approach. It may be thought
that, in the tested plates, there are lamb waves and the waves, which are reflected many times
between the two surfaces of the plate. But the SWF often used disregards the nature of the
ultrasonic propagation. This greatly limits the utilization of the acousto-ultrasonic technique.

20
Thesis Project
Thesis Proposal. Research Schedule

Chapter 3. RESEARCH SCHEDULE

In this section the proposed research schedule for the thesis is presented, describing the
methodology, the tasks to be tackled, the required materials and resources and the
chronogram of the working plan to achieve the objectives.

3.1 Methodology
Definition Stage

State of the Art review

Problem definition
Experimental setup and Test

Instrumentation and DAQ

selection
measurements

Establishment of measurements
specifications and requirements

Knowledge base construction

Analysis and characterization of damage

Proposal of Condition Indicators for statical Proposal of Condition Indicators for

inspection (based on GWT, UT or AU) dynamical inspection (based on AE)

Validation through Validation through

analysis of results analysis of results
Not Suitable Not Suitable

Suitable Suitable

Characterization of damage stages for Characterization of damage stages for

statical inspection dynamical inspection
Acoustic imaging of damage

Proposal of generation of images from

characterization results

Validation through
analysis of results
Not Suitable

Suitable

Conclusions

Figure 3-1: Proposed Methodology for developing this research work.

21
Thesis Project
Thesis Proposal. Research Schedule

3.2 Materials and Resources

This section describes the materials and resources considered for the proper development of
this research work covering software and existent equipment in other research groups.

Validation of the work to be developed in this research is essential. In order to acquire reliable
experimental data, it will be mandatory to have the proper laboratory equipment, for this
purpose.

For the initial stage it will be necessary to design, construct and start up a proper DAQ
(hardware/software) system, this will be based on the specifications of the commercially
available equipment for ultrasonic technologies. As part of this first stage it will be obligatory
to define too, the appropriate set of instrumentation in order to emit and capture ultrasound
waves. For this part of the thesis, the MCIA Centre will provide the required resources to
purchase the necessary equipment, besides of this, the Centre already counts with a set of
acoustic instrumentation, that is:

 6 (2 Mistras, 2 Vallen Systeme, 2 Olympus) pre-amplifiers.

 1 Olympus (5077PR) pulser.
 2 Mistras R15a (150kHz) transductors.
 4 Vallen Systeme (from 150kHz to 900kHz) transductors.
 10 Olympus (from 500kHz to 7.5MHz) transductors.

Besides of 5 properly equipped laboratories –see Figure 3-2- (Electronics applications,

Mechatronics systems, Smart grids, Simulation and Virtual Lab for studies) spread over an
area of 300m2.

a) Part of the laboratory b) Realization of an acoustic inspection

Figure 3-2: Part of the infrastructure of the MCIA Centre. a) Electronics Laboratory. b) Some of
the Acoustics instrumentation inventory.

22
Thesis Project
Thesis Proposal. Research Schedule

For the next stage, with the aim of perform the experimental testing, the Centre Tecnològic de
Manresa (CTM), which is a technological reference of the region regarding to R+D+I, and
specifically at technology of materials, will lend its infrastructure of the laboratory of
Technology on Metallic Materials. This specialized laboratory has a set of equipment to
perform mechanical assays, some of them are:

 Laboratory double effect hydraulic press, 150-50 Tons

 Servo-hydraulic machine of 250kN for components fatigue testing
 Servo-hydraulic machine of 15kN for testing elastomers
 Resonance machine of 150kN for fatigue tests
 Tube furnace
 Muffle furnace
 Universal electromechanical machines for mechanical testing (200 and 250kN)
 Optical unit for measuring deformations (GOM)
 Optical microscopes
 Confocal microscope
 Swept field electronic microscope (FE-SEM equipped with EDX and EBSD)
 Nanoindenter
 Instrumented micro-durometer
 Tribometers for testing wear under different conditions

a) Metallic specimen under test

b) Instron 5585H for tensile test

Figure 3-3: Laboratory of Metallic Materials of CTM.

23
Thesis Project
Thesis Proposal. Research Schedule

In the final stage of the methodology, with the purpose of generate the algorithms to process
the obtained data from the experiments, validate the reliability of these, and characterize the
evolution of damage, the mathematical software MATLAB® will be used.

3.3 Work-plan

The methodology for the development of this thesis, is divided into 6 general sections and
18 tasks. According to the thesis planning, this will allow to complete the research work in a
total time of 36 months. The aim of each section is:

 Section 0. Initial tasks and approach to subject-matter.

 Section 1. State of the art review: basis of research problem.
 Section 2. Definition and collection of hardware and instrumentation.
 Section 3. Knowledge base construction by measurement of experiments.
 Section 4. Proposition, implementation and validation of indicators of damage
characterization for static and dynamic evaluations.
 Section 5. Proposition, implementation and validation of generation of images via
damage characterization.
 Section 6. General conclusions and results publishing.

Section 0. Initial tasks and approach to subject-matter.

T0.1 Initial formation on topics of:
 Damage evaluation.
 Non-destructive evaluation.
 Acoustic emission testing.
 Ultrasonic inspection.
 Standards of ultrasonic NDE.
 Continuum mechanics and stress waves.
 Fracture of metals.

Section 1. State of the art review: basis of research problem.

T1.1 Bibliographical research of the most relevant articles on the topics of:
 Applications of ultrasonic NDE on characterization of damage evolution.
 Novelty features of ultrasonic NDE.

24
Thesis Project
Thesis Proposal. Research Schedule

 Fracture characterization of materials by ultrasonic NDE means.

 Methodologies of experimental setup of ultrasonic NDE techniques.
T1.2 State of the art analysis and specific definition of the problems to be
addressed.

Section 2. Definition and gathering of hardware and instrumentation.

T2.1 Analysis of the commercially available equipment and instrumentation for

ultrasonic NDE.
 Search of manufacturers.
 Examination of hardware specifications.
 Examination of software specifications.
 Inquiry of the monetary cost.
T2.2 Analysis of the commercially available data loggers, digitizers and digitizers
based on oscilloscopes systems.
 Search of manufacturers.
 Examination of hardware specifications.
 Examination of software specifications.
 Inquiry of the monetary cost.
T2.3 Evaluation and discussion of the requirements of the equipment for a proper
measuring of the experiments.

T2.4 Purchase and setup of the acquired equipment.

T2.5 Documentation of results, discussions and conclusions.

Section 3. Knowledge base construction by the measurement of experiments.

T3.1 Analysis of the commercially available equipment and instrumentation for

ultrasonic NDE.
 Analysis and selection of the state of the art procedures of mechanical
assays using ultrasonic NDE techniques.
 Recorded trials of assays using AE. Evaluation of the integrity of the
obtained data.
 Recorded trials of assays using UI. Evaluation of the integrity of the
obtained data.
 Recorded trials of assays using AU. Evaluation of the integrity of the
obtained data.

25
Thesis Project
Thesis Proposal. Research Schedule

 Recorded trials of assays using GW. Evaluation of the integrity of the

obtained data.
 Experimental trials of damage location by the use of AE triangulation
techniques.
 Experimental trials of damage location by the use of UI triangulation
techniques.
 Experimental trials of damage location by the use of AU triangulation
techniques.
 Experimental trials of damage location by the use of GW triangulation
techniques.
 Evaluation of the use of EMAT sensors.

T3.2 Generation of the knowledge base by the record of essays by the use of the
combination of AE and the best suited technique (UI, AU or GW).

T3.3 Documentation of results, discussions and conclusions.

Section 4. Proposition, implementation and validation of indicators of damage

characterization for static and dynamic evaluations.

T4.1 Theoretical study, comparison and implementation of the best suited

technique for the knowledge base.
 Implementation of a temporal analysis technique for the static case.
 Implementation of a statistical analysis technique for the static case.
 Implementation of a frecuencial analysis technique for the static case.
 Implementation of a temporal analysis technique for the dynamic case.
 Implementation of a statistical analysis technique for the dynamic case.
 Implementation of a frecuencial analysis technique for the dynamic case.
 Validation of the implemented techniques.
 Optimization of the implemented techniques.
T4.2 Documentation of results, discussions and conclusions.

Section 5. Proposition, implementation and validation of images via damage

characterization.

T5.1 Theoretical study, comparison, implementation and validation of the best

suited technique for images generation via damage stages.

T5.2 Documentation of results, discussions and conclusions.

26
Thesis Project
Thesis Proposal. Research Schedule

Section 6. General conclusions and results publishing.

In this stage the results and generated knowledge during the research process will be
presented to the academic faculty, and the scientific society.

T6.1 Scientific dissemination. During the development of the thesis, with the
obtained results, the proposed algorithms and the methodologies developed, it is
expected to publish on some of the following congresses and journals:

CONFERENCES:
 International Conference on Durability of Building Materials and
Components (DBMC).
 International Materials Research Congress – Materials Research Society
Symposium (IMRC - MRS).
 ECCOMAS Thematic Conference Smart Structures and Materials
(SMART).
 International Conference on Structural Engineering, Mechanics and
Computation (SEMC).
 IEEE International Ultrasonics Symposium (IUS).
 Review of Progress in Quantitative Nondestructive Evaluation (QNDE).

JOURNALS:
 Engineering Fracture Mechanics, An International Journal.
 Meccanica, An International Journal of Theoretical and Applied
Mechanics.
 Experimental Mechanics, An International Journal of the Society for
Experimental Mechanics.
 Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing.
 Journal of Nondestructive Evaluation.
 Ultrasonics.
 Engineering Failures Analysis
T6.2 Compilation of results and conclusions.
 This task consists on the collection of all the information generated
during the research period including internal documentation, conclusions
from sections 1 to 5 and related publications in the field, in order to
elaborate the thesis document.

T6.3 Deposit and public defense of the dissertation.

27
 2015 2016 2017 2018
Sep. Oct. Nov. Dic. Ene. Feb. Mar. Abr. May. Jun. Jul. Ago. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dic. Ene. Feb. Mar. Abr. May. Jun. Jul. Ago. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dic. Ene. Feb. Mar. Abr. May. Jun. Jul. Ago.
Thesis Project

S.0 Initial tasks and approach to subject-matter

T.0.1
3.4 Chronogram

S.1 State of the art review: basis of research problem

Thesis Proposal. Research Schedule

T.1.1
T.1.2
Definition and collection of
S.2
hardware and instrumentation
T.2.1
T.2.2
T.2.3
T.2.4
T.2.5
Knowledge base

28
S.3 construction through
experiments
T.3.1
T.3.2
T.3.3
Proposition and implementation of indicators of damage
S.4
characterization
T.4.1
T.4.2
Proposition and implementation of
S.5
generation of images

Figure 3-4. Expected chronogram for the thesis work.

T.5.1
T.5.2

S.6 General conclussions and results publishing

T.6.1
T.6.2
T.6.3
Thesis Project
References

REFERENCES

[1] C. R. Farrar and K. Worden, Structural Health Monitoring: A Machine Learning Perspective.
2013.

[2] C. R. Farrar and K. Worden, “An introduction to structural health monitoring.,”

Philos. Trans. R. Soc., vol. 365, no. 1851, pp. 303–15, 2007.

[3] N. K. Kushwaha, B. Rinkesh, P. Prince, and M. Hardik, “Condition Based Monitoring

of Rotating Machines Using Piezoelectric Material,” pp. 303–308, 2014.

[4] ASTM Standard E1316, “Terminology for nondestructive examinations standard,”

ASTM Int., pp. 1–72, 2016.

[5] M. D. Licker, Dictionary of Engineering, 2nd ed. Chicago: McGraw-Hill, 2003.

[6] J. S. Oakland, Statistical Process Control, Fifth., no. C. Oxford: Butterworth -

Heinemann, 2003.

[7] C. R. Farrar and N. a J. Lieven, “Damage prognosis: the future of structural health
monitoring.,” Philos. Trans. A. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci., vol. 365, no. 1851, pp. 623–632,
2007.

[8] C. R. Farrar, H. Sohn, F. M. Hemez, M. C. Anderson, M. T. Bement, P. J. Cornwell,

S. W. Doebling, J. F. Schultze, N. Lieven, and A. N. Robertson, “LA-14051-MS
Damage Prognosis: Current Status and Future Needs,” Los Alamos, 2003.

[9] D. M. Frangopol, K.-Y. Lin, and Estes A.C., “Life-cycle cost design of deteriorating
structures,” J. Struct. Engng ASCE, vol. 123, no. 10, pp. 1390 – 1401, 1997.

[10] M. M. Ettouney and S. Alampalli, Infrastructure Health in Civil Engineering: Applications

and Management, vol. II. 2011.

[11] S. A. Mohammed M.Ettouney, Infrastructure Health in Civil Engineering, Theory and

components, vol. I. 2012.

[12] M. Kaphle, “Analysis Of Acoustic Emission Data For Accurate Damage Assesment
For Structural Health Monitoring,” pp. 5–21, 2012.

29
Thesis Project
References

[13] M. Kaphle, A. Tan, D. Thambiratnam, and T. Chan, “Effective Discrimination of

Acoustic Emission Source Signals for Structural Health Monitoring,” Adv. Struct. Eng.,
vol. 15, no. 5, pp. 707–716, 2012.

[14] F. Ansari, Ed., Sensing issues in civil structural health monitoring. Springer, 2005.

[15] J. S. Kong and D. M. Frangopol, “Life-Cycle Reliability-Based Maintenance Cost

Optimization of Deteriorating Structures with Emphasis on Bridges,” J. Struct. Eng.,
vol. 129, no. 6, pp. 818–828, 2003.

[16] S. Djebali, S. Larbi, and A. Bilek, “Tenacity of Sheet Steel ST37-2 by the Essential
Work of Fracture Method,” Procedia Eng., vol. 114, pp. 306–313, 2015.

[17] Instron Corporation, “Reference Manual - Equipment: Instron Series 5500 Load
Frames Including Series 5540, 5560, 5580,” 2005.

[18] M. L. Maspoch, E. Franco-Urquiza, J. Gámez-Pérez, M. Sánchez-Soto, J. I. Velasco,

O. O. Santana, and A. B. Martínez, “Application of post-yielding fracture mechanics
to polymers,” Rev. Latinoam. Metal. y Mater., vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 101–118, 2010.

[19] D. R. Moore, A. Pavan, and R. Brown, Fracture Mechanics Testing Methods for Polymers
Adhesives and composites, vol. 21, no. 3. 2002.

[20] D. Arencón, M. Antunes, A. B. Martínez, and J. I. Velasco, “Study of the fracture

behavior of flexible polypropylene foams using the Essential Work of Fracture
(EWF),” Polym. Test., vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 217–225, 2012.

[21] H. Anuar, S. H. Ahmad, R. Rasid, S. N. Surip, T. Czigany, and G. Romhany, “Essential

Work of Fracture and Acoustic Emission Study on TPNR Composites Reinforced by
Kenaf Fiber,” J. Compos. Mater., vol. 41, no. 25, pp. 3035–3049, 2007.

[22] S. Chaki, W. Harizi, G. Bourse, and M. Ourak, “Multi-technique approach for non
destructive diagnostic of structural composite materials using bulk ultrasonic waves,
guided waves, acoustic emission and infrared thermography,” Compos. Part A Appl.
Sci. Manuf., vol. 78, pp. 358–361, 2015.

[23] M. Bentahar and R. El Guerjouma, “Monitoring progressive damage in polymer-

based composite using nonlinear dynamics and acoustic emission.,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.,
vol. 125, no. 1, pp. EL39–L44, 2009.

[24] D. Zhang, G. Venkatesan, A. Tewfik, and M. Kaveh, “Acoustic emission transient

30
Thesis Project
References

detection based on linear modelresiduals,” Ninth IEEE SP Work., no. 2, pp. 188–191,
1998.

[25] H. M. Tensi, “The Kaiser-Effect and Its Scientific Background,” J. Acoust. Emiss., vol.
22, pp. 1–16, 2004.

[26] A. B. Martinez, J. Gamez-Perez, M. Sanchez-Soto, J. I. Velasco, O. O. Santana, and

M. Ll Maspoch, “The Essential Work of Fracture (EWF) method - Analyzing the
Post-Yielding Fracture Mechanics of polymers,” Eng. Fail. Anal., vol. 16, no. 8, pp.
2604–2617, 2009.

[27] H. Ericsson, “Handbook of Metalforming Processes,” 1999.

[28] S. K. Verma, S. S. Bhadauria, and A. Saleem, “Review of Nondestructive Testing

Methods for Condition Monitoring of Concrete Structures,” J. Constr. Eng., vol.
20113, no. 2008, p. 11, 2013.

[29] L. Thomas, Non-Destructive Evaluation Methods. .

[30] J. D. N. Cheeke, Fundamentals and applications of ultrasonic waves. 2012.

[31] Y. Cheng, Y. Deng, J. Cao, X. Xiong, L. Bai, and Z. Li, Multi-wave and hybrid imaging
techniques: a new direction for nondestructive testing and structural health monitoring., vol. 13, no.
12. 2013.

[32] C. J. Hellier, Introduction to nondestructive testing. 2003.

[33] R. T. Committee, “Recommendation of RILEM TC 212-ACD: acoustic emission and

related NDE techniques for crack detection and damage evaluation in concrete*,”
Mater. Struct., vol. 43, no. 9, pp. 1187–1189, 2010.

[34] V. M. Malhotra and N. J. Carino, “Handbook on nondestructive testing of concrete,”

New York, pp. 1–365, 2004.

[35] C. Niezreck, Structural Health Monitoring and Damage Detection, Volume 7, vol. 7. Springer,
2015.

[36] A. Vary, “The Acousto-Ultrasonic Approach,” Acousto-Ultrasonics, pp. 1–21, 1988.

31