measurement

The user's guide

Radar level

Peter Devine Radar level measurement The user's guide

 Radar level measurement
- The users guide
Peter Devine

written by
Peter Devine
additional information
Karl Grießbaum
type setting and layout
Liz Moakes
final drawings and diagrams
Evi Brucker

© VEGA Controls / P Devine / 2000

All rights reseved. No part of this book may reproduced in any way, or by any means, without prior
permissio in writing from the publisher:
VEGA Controls Ltd, Kendal House, Victoria Way, Burgess Hill, West Sussex, RH 15 9NF England.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Devine, Peter
Radar level measurement - The user´s guide
1. Radar
2. Title
621.3´848

ISBN 0-9538920-0-X

Cover by LinkDesign, Schramberg.

Printed in Great Britain at VIP print, Heathfield, Sussex.
 Contents

Foreword ix
Acknowledgement xi
Introduction xiii

Part I
1. History of radar 1
2. Physics of radar 13
3. Types of radar 33
1. CW-radar 33
2. FM - CW 36
3. Pulse radar 39

Part II
4. Radar level measurement 47
1. FM - CW 48
2. PULSE radar 54
3. Choice of frequency 62
4. Accuracy 68
5. Power 74

5. Radar antennas 77
1. Horn antennas 81
2. Dielectric rod antennas 92
3. Measuring tube antennas 101
4. Parabolic dish antennas 106
5. Planar array antennas 108
Antenna energy patterns 110

6. Installation 115
A. Mechanical installation 115
1. Horn antenna (liquids) 115
2. Rod antenna (liquids) 117
3. General consideration (liquids) 120
4. Stand pipes & measuring tubes 127
5. Platic tank tops and windows 134
6. Horn antenna (solids) 139
B. Radar level installation cont. 141
1. safe area applications 141
2. Hazardous area applications 144
 Foreword

To suggest that any one type of level The purpose of this publication is
transmitter technology could be regar- quite specific, and that is to explain
ded as 'universal' would be unrealistic some of the principles involved, and to
and potentially irresponsible due to the show that by applying some simple
variation and complexity of available guidelines, what is obviously a sophi-
applications when liquids, powders and sti-cated technology can be simple and
solids are all considered. However, the reliably used in an enormously wide
rate at which radar based level trans- range of industrial and process applica-
mitters have established themselves tions.
over the last couple of years would We make no apology for including a
tend to suggest that this technology is chapter on Vega specific products, and
closer to that definition that any princi- hope this guide stimulates a radar user,
ple has ever been. or some greater depth of knowledge if
I have personally been involved in you have some experience, we look
the development, applications, sales forward to hearing from you.
and marketing of level transmitters,
controllers and indicators of most types Mel Henry
over the last twenty years. In that time Managing Director
nothing has, in my opinion, come close Vega Controls Ltd.
to matching the significance of radar in
terms of its overall suitability, for not
just conventional but extreme process
conditions applications for the vast
majority of substances in vessels of vir-
tually any size or complexity.
This unique principle combined with
current reflections processing software,
materials of construction, simplicity of
installation and transmitter digital com-
munications allows this to be conside-
red as a day to day 'first consideration'
for level, whereas only a very short
time ago it was regarded as expensive
and specialised - this is no longer the
case.

ix
 Acknowledgements

In writing and compiling this book I assistance in producing and collating

had the invaluable assistance of several pictures and photographs.
colleagues from VEGA in Schiltach Thank to all the other unnamed con-
both in the developing department and tributors.
within the product management. Finally, the most important contribu-
Particular thanks must go to Karl tors to this book are all VEGA radar
Griessbaum for his lucid explanations users world wide without whom our
of the 'secrets' of pulse radar; his insi- high level of expertise in process radar
ght into the workings of FM - CW measurement applications would not be
radar and the drawings to accompany possible.
the explanations. Thanks also to
Juergen Skowaisa and Juergen Motzer Peter Devine
for their technical contributions to the Technical manager
book. Vega Controls Ltd.
The publication of 'radar level mea-
surement - the user´s guide' is a reflec-
tion of the wealth of product knowled-
ge of radar level application experience
in the VEGA group of companies and
our agents and distributors world wide.
This experience has accelerated
since the advent of the VEGAPULS 50
series two wire, loop powered radar.
I would like to thank all those who
contributed to the section on radar
applications. This in-cludes Doug
Anderson, Dave Blenkiron, Chris
Brennan, Graeme Cross and John
Hulme in the UK, Paal Kvam of
Hyptech in Norway, Dough Groh and
his colleagues at Ohmart VEGA in the
USA, and Juergen Skowaisa and Roger
Ramsden from VEGA Germany. Thank
also to the VEGA marketing depart-
ment in Germany and the UK for their

xi
 Introduction

The technical benefits of radar as a Now radar is an affordable option

level measurement technique are clear. for process level measurement. We
Radar provides a non-contact sensor compare it closely with all of the other
that is virtually unaffected by changes process level techniques and give many
in process temperature, pressure or the examples of the myriad applications of
gas and vapour composition within a radar across all industries.
vessel. Radar level measurement has come
In addition, the measurement accu- of age. We hope that this book will be
racy is unaffected by changes in densi- invaluable in helping you to see the
ty, conductivity and dielectric constant potential of this latest and almost uni-
of the product being measured or by air versal level measurement technology.
movement above the product. More than anything, we hope that
These benefits have become more you enjoy delving into the pages of this
significant to the process industry since book.
the advent of low costs, high perfor-
mance, two wire loop powered radar Peter Devine
level transmitters. Technical manager
This breakthrough, in the summer of Vega Controls Ltd
1997, produced an unprecedented
boom in the use of non-contact micro-
wave radar transmitters for liquid and
solids process level application.
'Radar level measurement - the
user´s guide' is offered as a reference
book for all those interested in the tech-
nology, the application, and the prac-
tical installation of radar level sen-sors.
We cover many practical process level
applications rather than the closed
niche market of custody transfer mea-
surement.
Radar history, physics and techni-
ques are presented as well as descripti-
ons of types of ra-dar antenna and
mechanical and electrical installations.

xiii
 1. History of radar

James Clerk Maxwell predicted the

existence of radio waves in his theory
of electromagnetism as long ago as
1864. He showed mathematically that
all electromagnetic waves travel at the
same velocity in free space,
independent of their wavelength. This
velocity is of the order of 300,000 kilo-
metres per second, the speed of light.
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, verified
Maxwell’s theory by experiments car-
ried out in 1886-87 at Karlsruhe
Polytechnic. He used a spark gap trans-
mitter producing bursts of high fre-
quency electromagnetic waves at about
455 MHz, or a wavelength of 0.66
metres.
Hertz confirmed that these electro-
magnetic radio waves had the same James Clerk Maxwell -
velocity as light and could be reflected predicted the existence of radio waves in
by metallic and dielectric bodies. In his theory of electromagnetism
addition to their reflective properties, (Pic. 1.1 - J.C.M.F)
Hertz demonstrated that radio waves
exhibit refraction, diffraction, polariza-
tion and interference in the same way
as light. These early experiments in
reflecting radio waves off metal plates
were the first manifestations of radar as
we know it today.
The first practical form of radar was
produced by a German engineer,
Christian Hülsmeyer. Patented in vari-
ous countries in 1904 as the
‘Telemobiloscope’, Hülsmeyer’s appa-
ratus was described as ‘A Hertzian
wave projecting and receiving appara-
tus adapted to indicate or give
warning of the presence of a metallic
Heinrich Hertz -
body, such as a ship or a train, in the
Hertz confirmed by experiment that elec-
line of projection of such waves’. tromagnetic radio waves have the same
An addition to the patent in the same velocity as light and can be reflected by
year described ‘Improvements in metallic and dielectric bodies
Hertzian wave projecting and receiving (Pic. 1.2 - I.N.T)

1
 Prior to World War II, radar was
being developed independently in a
number of different countries, includ-
ing Britain, Germany, the United
States, Italy, France and the Soviet
Union.
In 1934, following a series of exper-
iments at the Naval Research
Laboratory in the United States, a
patent was granted to Taylor, Young
and Hyland for a ‘System for detecting
objects by radio’.
In February 1935, British scientist,
Robert Watson-Watt presented a paper
on ‘The detection and location of air-
craft by radio methods’ to the Tizard
Committee for the Scientific Survey of
Air Defence.
Christian Hülsmeyer
produced the first practical radar
patented in 1904
(Pic. 1.3 - D.M.M)

apparatus for locating the position of

distant metal objects’.
A successful demonstration of the
telemobiloscope was made at the
International Shipping Congress in
Rotterdam in 1904, and also to the
German navy. However, the telemo-
biloscope was considered to be limited
and was not a commercial success.
Guglielmo Marconi, is famous for
pioneering trans-Atlantic radio commu-
nications. In 1922 Marconi had also
recognised the potential of using short
wave radio for the detection of metallic
objects. Marconi envisaged the use of
radio for ship to ship detection at night Guglielmo Marconi
or in fog. However, he did not appear recognised the potential of using short
to receive the support or have the wave radio for the detection of metallic
resources to carry these ideas further at objects in 1922
the time. (Pic. 1.4 - GEC Marconi)

2

Sir Robert Watson - Watt
was a senior figure in the development
of British radar in the 1930’s & 40’s
(Pic. 1.5 - I.W.M)
Subsequently, a practical demonstra-
tion was carried out using a BBC radio
transmitter at Daventry. About five and
a half miles (9 km) away, a separate
radio receiver connected to an oscillo-
scope was used to detect the presence
of a Handley Page Heyford aircraft as
it flew between the transmitter and
receiver.
Both the American system and
Watson-Watt’s Daventry experiment
were types of continuous wave (CW)
radar. Called CW wave-interference
radar or bistatic CW radar, a continu-
ous single frequency was transmitted
from one point and detected by a
receiver at a separate location. The
receiver also detects doppler shifted
echoes from the target object. The
interference between the frequency of
the direct signal and reflected signals at
1. History of radar
a slightly different frequency indicated
the presence of the target object.
If you are unfortunate enough to live
on an airport flight path, you may have
witnessed this effect on your television
screen. As an aircraft approaches, the
picture on the screen may flicker with
regular horizontal bands scrolling verti-
cally on the screen. These diminish
when the aircraft is directly overhead
and then continue as the aircraft moves
away.
Although it proved a point at
Daventry, CW wave-interference radar
was not a practical device. It could
detect the presence but not the position
of the target.
After Daventry, the British effort
continued at Orford Ness and then
nearby Bawdsey Manor on the Suffolk
coast. It was clear that pulse radar
would be needed to provide the
required distance and direction infor-
mation essential for a defensive radio
detection system.
The British, under the direction of
Watson-Watt developed a defensive
system of CH (Chain Home) radar sta-
tions which eventually covered all of
the coastal approaches to Britain. The
standard chain home radars had a rela-
tively low frequency of between 22 &
30 MHz (wavelength 10 to 13.5
metres). They had a power of 200 kilo-
watts and a range of up to 190 kilo-
metres.
However, the long range CH radar
transmitters were blind to low flying
aircraft and therefore they were supple-
mented by CHL (Chain Home Low)
radar transmitters which had a shorter
range and covered the lower altitudes
that were overlooked by the main CH
3

British Chain Home Radar aerials -
Radar was instrumental in the defence
of Britain during the second world war
(Pic. 1.6 - I.W.M)
transmitters. They operated on a fre-
quency of 200 MHz (wavelength 1.5
metres).
It is well documented that the CH
and CHL network of radar stations
were a crucial factor during the Battle
of Britain in the summer of 1940. It
enabled the fighters of the Royal Air
Force to be deployed when and where
they were needed and rested when the
threat receded. The limited resources in
men and machines were not wasted in
long standing patrols.
German radar research was also con-
ducted in secret in the late 1930’s.
Whereas the development effort in
Britain was focused on air defence, in
Germany separate radar developments
were carried out for the Navy, Army
and Luftwaffe.
Companies involved in German
naval research produced a range of ship
4
mounted sea search radar transmitters
called Seetakt. These were delivered as
early as 1938 with a frequency of 366
MHz (wavelength 82 cm) and were
installed on many vessels including the
famous battleships, Bismarck and Graf
Spee.
German Naval developments also
produced the Freya range of search
radars operating on 125 MHz (wave-
length 2.4 metres). These were found to
be effective for tracking aircraft at long
range, and were subsequently supplied
to the Luftwaffe for early warning.
However, they could not provide alti-
tude information.
Other German radars in wide use
were the parabolic antenna Würzburg
and Würzburg Riese (Giant Würzburg)
transmitters. The standard Würzburgs
were generally used for directing
searchlights and flak batteries and the
Würzburg Riese for tracking individual
intruders and directing night fighters to
intercept them.
In a similar fashion to the British
Chain Home system, the Germans built
a defensive network of ‘Himmelbett’
radar stations. The literal translation of
Himmelbett is four poster bed. The
four ‘posts’ of the bed consisted of a
Freya early warning radar, a Würzburg
radar for tracking the intruding aircraft,
a Würzburg radar to guide the night
fighter to the intruder and a Seeburg
plotting table (Seeburgtisch) to monitor
the interception.
This defensive radar system became
known by the British as the
‘Kammhuber Line’ after the German
general in charge of night fighters.
 1. History of radar

Above - The famous aerial reconnaissance

photograph of a German Würzburg radar
antenna at Bruneval in northern France.
This image alerted the British to the
presence and advanced state of German
defensive radar which led to a commando
action in which components from the
radar were taken back to Britain for
analysis
(Pic. 1.7 - I.W.M)

Right - The German Würzberg radar was

used for directing searchlights and flak
batteries and for tracking individual tar-
gets and directing interceptors to them
(Pic. 1.8 - P.D)

5
 Both Britain and Germany devel-
oped airborne radar for fighter inter-
ception by night. British airborne radar
trials started in 1937 with the produc-
tion AI Mark 1 taking to the air in May
1939. The first practical British
Airborne Interception radar was the AI
Mark IV which was first tested in
August 1940.
In Germany the Lichtenstein air-
borne radar was available in mid 1941.
The characteristic external radar aerial
array of the Lichtenstein caused signifi-
cant aerodynamic drag. This could
reduce the aircraft speed by as much as
40 kilometres per hour. By 1943 the
range had been extended to 6000
metres.
British Airborne Radar - AI Mark IV
developed for fighter interception by night
in 1940
(Pic. 1.9 - I.W.M)
6
It became clear to radar researchers
that a shorter ‘centimetric’ wavelength
would be more useful for a number of
applications. This would enable a more
focused airborne radar that would not
suffer from the ground returns that
restricted capabilities of the first air-
borne radars. The higher frequency
could be used for a ground mapping
radar unit to locate towns and other
geographic features.
The problem was how to find a
method of generating sufficient power
at the desired wavelength of 10
centimetres.
German Airborne Radar ‘Lichtenstein’
available in mid 1941 - the external aerial
radar caused significant aerodynamic drag
(Pic. 1.10 - I.W.M)
 1. History of radar

In late February 1940, an historic

breakthrough was made by John
Randall and Harry Boot, researchers at
the University of Birmingham, when
they tested their world changing inven-
tion the Cavity Magnetron.
The heart of this cavity magnetron
was a simple solid copper block with
six cavities machined into it. In the
Cavity Magnetron -
centre was the cathode. When a strong
the world changing invention by John
magnetic field and high voltage was
Randall and Harry Boot invented in 1940
applied between the copper block and (Pic. 1.11 - GEC)
the cathode, the stream of electrons res-
onated in unison within the cavities Production of cavity magnetrons fol-
instead of passing directly to the copper lowed very quickly and the power out-
block anode. The frequency of oscilla- put was significantly increased. Britain
tion was calculated to be about 3 GHz developed microwave airborne inter-
(10 centimetre wavelength). ception AI radar sets for night fighters
The theoretical calculations of the which had a vastly improved long and
prototype cavity magnetron were cor- near range. The British microwave air-
rect. The actual wavelength was found borne interception radar was the AI
to be 9.87 centimetres and the all Mark VII which was introduced in mid
important power of the prototype was 1942. The improved AI Mark VIII was
400 Watts. mass produced and in wide use by
early 1943.

The Cavity Magnetron was used in centrimetric ‘microwave’ airborne radar and pro-
duced a quantum leap in performance. The radar dish was protected inside a
plastic nose assembly
(Pic. 1.12 & 1.13 - H.R.A)

7
 Britain also used the cavity mag-
netron in the development of a ground
mapping radar called H2S. This device
enabled aircraft to be accurately navi-
gated to their destinations without the
aid of ground based beacons or beams.
Britain shared this secret microwave
technology with the United States
where additional development took
place at the Radiation Laboratory with-
in the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology. From the work carried out
at MIT, further airborne interception
radars and gun laying radars were mass
produced and delivered to the allied
forces. The American SCR-720 (known
as AI Mark X in Britain) was first
delivered to the USAAF by late 1942.
This radar unit became a standard
device long after the war had finished.
War time secrecy meant that radio
detection devices were given coded
names. In Britain, the early chain home
radar was called RDF after the existing
Radio Direction Finding systems in the
hope that it would mislead their real
Modern radar systems are exemplified by this ‘AWAC’ airborne early warning aircraft.
Multiple targets can be detected at extreme range
(Pic. 1.14 - P.D)
8
function.
In the same way in Germany,
radar was disguised as ‘Dezimeter
Telegraphie’ or ‘De-Te’, translated as
decimetric telegraphy
It was the Americans who intro-
duced the now universally used palin-
drome, RADAR or RAdio Detection
And Ranging.
The history of the development of
radar during the course of the Second
World War is a huge subject in
itself. Many devices were developed.
Measures and counter measures were
taken in the radar war.
Since 1945, radar has been used for
an increasing number of peaceful appli-
cations. The giant Würzburg parabolic
radar transmitters of the Second World
War became post war radio telescopes.
The basic designs were developed and
enlarged and can be seen at the well
known Jodrell Bank Observatory near
Manchester which has a dish diameter
of 75 metres.
Viewed from Earth, the planet Venus
 1. History of radar

is one of the brightest celestial bodies.

However, the mysteries of our close
neighbour in the Solar System were
only uncovered with the assistance of
radar. The surface of Venus is shrouded
in dense clouds of vapour including
carbon dioxide gas at pressures of 90
bar and an average temperature of
750 K.
Earth bound pulse radar measure-
ments over an extended period of time
were used to calculate the radius of the
orbit of Venus. Doppler shift measure-
ments from the surface were used to
calculate the rate of rotation of the
shrouded planet. The Venus ‘day’ was
found to be 243 Earth days.
During the 1970’s, radar mapping of
the planet’s surface by space probe
uncovered surface features such as
craters.

Jodrell Bank - the observatory near

Manchester which has a 75 metre
dish diameter
(Pic. 1.15 - P.D)

Detection by radar is not always desirable. Huge sums of money have been spent
reducing the radar signature of the F117 stealth fighter
(Pic. 1.16 - P.D)

9
 Radar technology is part of our
everyday lives. The cavity magnetron
is used in microwave ovens.
Continuous wave (CW) radars are used
in automatic door detection and vehicle
speed measurement. Other well known
civilian radar applications include air
traffic control, shipping and weather
radar.
Radar altimeters developed in the
1930’s use a form of radar called
FM - CW or Frequency Modulated
Continuous Wave radar.
In the 1970’s, the same FM - CW
measurement technique was used in
the production of the first radar level
tank gauge. Initially these radar level
transmitters were used to measure
petroleum products in supertankers.
Further developments of FM - CW
level transmitters led to their use on
shore based storage tanks in the mid
1980’s. Originally these were expen-
sive, high accuracy systems for fiscal
measurement of petroleum products.
10
Later, lower accuracy FM - CW radar
transmitters became available for the
process industry.
In the late 1980’s, pulse radar level
transmitters were developed for process
measurement applications. The avail-
ability of suitable crystals and solid
state components such as GaAs FET
oscillators enabled cost effective radar
level transmitters to enter the market.
In 1997 a significant improvement
in the specification of radar level trans-
mitters was achieved. VEGA produced
the world’s first two wire, loop pow-
ered, intrinsically safe radar level trans-
mitter. For the first time low cost, high
specification radar level transmitters
became available.
It is likely that these advances will
continue into the new millennium and
that radar level transmitters will
become a commodity item in the same
way as differential pressure transmit-
ters.
In the field of radar level
measurement, technological
advances have resulted in
two wire, intrinsically safe
transmitters
(Pic. 1.17 - Vega)
 1. History of radar

Comparing the old with the new

A raw oscilloscope echo trace had to be interpreted by skilled operators using the British
war time Chain Home Low radar
(Pic. 1.18 & 1.19 - I.W.M)

Comprehensive information is available on the PC echo trace of the latest two wire loop
powered radar level transmitters
(Pic. 1.20 - Vega Pic. 1.21 - Vega)

11
 Inhalt

Foreword ix
Acknowledgement xi
Introduction xiii

Part I
1. History of radar 1
2. Physics of radar 13
3. Types of radar 33
1. CW-radar 33
2. FM - CW 36
3. Pulse radar 39

Part II
4. Radar level measurement 47
1. FM - CW 48
2. PULSE radar 54
3. Choice of frequency 62
4. Accuracy 68
5. Power 74

5. Radar antennas 77
1. Horn antennas 81
2. Dielectric rod antennas 92
3. Measuring tube antennas 101
4. Parabolic dish antennas 106
5. Planar array antennas 108
Antenna energy patterns 110

6. Installation 115
A. Mechanical installation 115
1. Horn antenna (liquids) 115
2. Rod antenna (liquids) 117
3. General consideration (liquids) 120
4. Stand pipes & measuring tubes 127
5. Platic tank tops and windows 134
6. Horn antenna (solids) 139
B. Radar level installation cont. 141
1. safe area applications 141
2. Hazardous area applications 144
 2. Physics of radar
Electromagnetic waves
Th e velocity of light in free space is
299,792,458 metres per second, but
who is timing? For the purposes of the
calculations in this book, we will call it
300,000 kilometres per second or
3 x 108 metres per second.
Maxwell’s theories of electro-
magnetism were confirmed by the
experiments of Heinrich Hertz. These
show that all forms of electromagnetic
radiation travel at the speed of light in
free space. This applies equally to long
wave radio transmissions, microwaves,
infrared, visible and ultraviolet light
plus X-rays and Gamma rays.
Maxwell showed that the velocity of
light in a vacuum in free space is given
by the expression :
Examples :-
1 or 26 x 108 metres per second.
co =
(µ o x εo)
co velocity of electromagntic wave
in a vacuum in metres / second
µo the permeability of free space
(4 π x 10 -7 henry / metre)
εo the permittivity of free space
(8.854 x 10 -12 farad / metre)
amplitude
The velocity of an electromagnetic
wave is the product of the frequency
and the wavelength.
c = f xλ
[Eq. 2.2]
c velocity of electromagnetic
waves in metres / second
f frequency of wave in second -1
λ wavelength in metres
The original cavity magnetron had
a wavelength of 9.87 centimetres.
This corresponds to a frequency of
3037.4 MHz (3.0374 GHz).
The frequency of a pulse radar
level transmitter may be 26 GHz
The wavelength is 1.15 centimetres.
[Eq. 2.1] The electromagnetic waves have an
electrical vector E and a magnetic vec-
tor B that are perpendicular to each
other and perpendicular to the direction
of the wave. This will be discussed and
illustrated further in the section on
polarization. The electrical vector has
the major influence on radar applica-
tions.
λ direction of wave
Fig 2.1
13
The Electromagnetic spectrum

10 8 10 7 10 6 10 5 10 4 10 3 10 2 10 1 10 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4

electric waves radio waves infra

10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 10 8 10 9 10 10 10 11 10 12

3m 0.3 m 3 cm 3 mm

100 MHz 1 GHz 10 GHz 100 GHz

The microwave frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Radar level transmitters range between 5.8 GHz (5.2cm) and 26 GHz (11.5mm)

14
 2. Physics of radar

10 -5 10 -6 10 -7 10 -8 10 -9 10 -10 10 -11 10 -12 10 -13 10 -14 10 -15 10 -16 m

red ultra violet X rays gamma rays

10 13 10 14 10 15 10 16 10 17 10 18 10 19 10 20 10 21 10 22 10 23 10 24 Hz

Fig 2.2 Electromagnetic spectrum.

All electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light in free space. This spectrum
shows the range of frequencies and wavelengths from electric waves to
gamma rays

15
Permittivity
In electrostatics, the force between
two charges depends upon the magni-
tude and separation of the charges and
the composition of the medium
between the charges. Permittivity ε is
the property of the medium that effects
the magnitude of the force. The higher
the value of the permittivity, the lower
the force between the charges. The
value of the permittivity of free
space (in a vacuum) εo, is calculated
indirectly and empirically to be:
8.854 x 10-12 farad / metre.
Relative permittivity or
dielectric constant εr
The ratio of the permittivity of a
medium to the permittivity of free
space is a dimensionless property
called ‘relative permittivity’ or ‘dielec-
tric constant’. For example, at 20° C
the relative permittivity of air is close
to that of a vaccum and is only about
1.0005 whereas the relative permittivi-
ty of water at 20° C is about 80.
(Dielectric constant is also widely
known as DK.)
The value of the dielectric constant
of the product being measured is very
important in the application of radar to
level measurement. In non-conductive
products, some of the microwave ener-
gy will pass through the product and
the rest will be reflected off the surface.
This feature of microwaves can be
used to advantage or, in some circum-
stances, it can create a measurement
problem.
16
Permeability µ and relative
permeability µr
The magnetic vector, B, of an elec-
tromagnetic wave also has an influence
on the velocity of electromagnetic
waves. However, this influence is neg-
ligible when considering the velocity in
gases and vapours which are non-mag-
netic. The relative permeability of the
product being measured has no signifi-
cant effect on the reflected signal when
compared with the effects of the rela-
tive permittivity or dielectric constant.
For the non-magnetic gases above the
product being measured, the value of
the relative permeability, µr = 1.
Frequency, velocity and wave-
length
As we have already stated, the fre-
quency (f), velocity (c) and wavelength
(λ) of the electromagnetic waves are
related by the equation c = f x λ.
The frequency remains uninfluenced
by changes in the propagation medium.
However, the velocity and wavelength
can change depending on the electrical
properties of the medium in which they
are travelling. The speed of propaga-
tion can be calculated using equation
2.3.
co
c =
(µ x ε )
r r [Eq. 2.3]
c velocity of electromagnetic wave
in the medium in metres/second
co velocity of electromagnetic
waves in free space
µr the relative permeability
(µ medium / µo)
εr the relative permittivity

Changes in the wavelength and
velocity of microwaves are apparent in
certain radar level applications.
Changes in temperature, pressure and
gas composition have a small effect on
the running time of microwaves
because the dielectric constant of the
propagation medium is altered to a
greater or lesser extent. This is dis-
cussed in detail later.
Radar level transmitters can be used
to measure conductive liquids through
low dielectric ‘windows’ such as glass,
polypropylene and PTFE. The opti-
mum thickness of the low dielectric
window is a half wavelength or multi-
ple of half wavelength.
For example, polypropylene has a
dielectric constant εr of 2.3 and the
half wavelength at a frequency of 5.8
GHz is 17 mm compared with a half
wavelength of about 26 mm in a vacu-
um. It follows that the speed of
Empty vessel: large echo
from metal
bottom
Fig 2.3 - Effect of dielectric constant on the running time of a microwave radar
2. Physics of radar
microwaves in polypropylene is about
two thirds of the speed in air.
As with low dielectric windows,
non-conductive, low dielectric constant
liquids may absorb more power than
they reflect from the surface. The
velocity of the microwaves within the
liquid is slower than in the vapour
space above.
For example, if there is about 0.5
metres of solvent in the bottom of a
metallic vessel, a radar level transmitter
may see a larger echo from the vessel
bottom than from the product. This
large echo will appear to be further
away than it really is because the run-
ning time within the solvent is slower.
For this reason, special considerations
must be made within the echo process-
ing software to ensure that the radar
follows the solvent level and does not
follow the vessel bottom as it apparent-
ly moves away!
As the vessel fills with
solvent two echoes
are received. The
echo from the vessel
bottom appears
further away because
the running time of
the microwaves in
solvent is slower
solvent echo
17
 The same effect can be experienced when looking at interface detection using
guided microwave level transmitters to detect oil and water or solvent and aqueous
based liquids.
reference echo
Fig 2.4 Oil/water interface
(water without oil) detection using a
guided microwave
level transmitter. Note
that the water echo
oil echo water echo has a reduced ampli-
tude and appears to be
further away. The
running time of
microwaves in oil is
slower than in air

Effects on the propagation

speed of microwaves
Microwave radar level transmitters The dielectric constant or relative
can be applied almost universally permittivity can be calculated as
because, as a measurement technique, follows :
they are virtually unaffected by process
temperature, temperature gradient, vac- εr = 1 + (εrN - 1) x θN x P
uum and normal pressure variations, θ x PN
gas or vapour composition and move-
ment of the propagation medium. [Eq. 2.4]
However, changes in these process
conditions do cause slight variations in εr calculated dielectric constant
the propagation speed because the (relative permittivity)
dielectric constant of the propagation εrN dielectric constant of gas/vapour
medium is altered. under normal conditions
(temperature 273 K, pressure 1 bar
Calculating the propagation absolute)
speed of microwaves θN temperature under normal
The temperature, pressure and the conditions, 273 Kelvin
gas composition of the vapour space all
have an effect on the dielectric constant PN pressure under normal
of the propagation medium through conditions, 1 bar absolute
which the microwaves must travel. θ process temperature in Kelvin
This in turn affects the propagation
speed or running time of the instru- P process pressure in bar absolute
ment.

18
 2. Physics of radar

From equation 2.4 and equation 2.3,
we can calculate the percentage error
caused by variations in the dielectric
constant of different gases and vapours
and the relative effects of changes in
process temperature and pressure.
Gases and vapours
By definition, the dielectric constant
in a vacuum is equal to 1.0. The dielec-
tric constants of the gases and vapours
that may be present above the product
differ but they have only a very small
effect on the accuracy of radar.
Radar level transmitters are usually
calibrated in air. For this reason, the
following tables show
1. Dielectric constant of different gases
at normal temperature and pressure
(273K, 1 Bar A)
2. Percent error in the running time in
the gases compared with air

Table 2.1 The dielectric constants under normal conditions, εrN and the error caused by
the dielectric constant of typical process gases under normal conditions

ε rN (dielectric % Error from air (at

Gas / Vapour constant at normal normal temperature
conditions) and pressure)
Vacuum 1.0000 + 0.0316
Air 1.000633 0.0
Argon 1.000551 + 0.0041
Ammonia / NH 3 1.006976 + 0.3154
Hydrogen Bromide HBr 1.002994 - 0.1178
Hydrogen Chloride HCl 1.004078 - 0.1717
Carbon Monoxide / CO 1.000692 - 0.00295
Carbon Dioxide / C0 2 1.000985 - 0.0176
Ethane / C 2 H6 1.001503 - 0.0434
Ethylene / C 2H4 1.001449 - 0.0407
Helium 1.000072 + 0.0280
Hydrogen / H 2 1.000275 + 0.0179
Methane / CH 4 1.000878 - 0.0122
Nitrogen / N 2 1.000576 + 0.00285
Oxygen / O 2 1.000530 + 0.0052

19
 Temperature
High temperature or large temperature gradients have very little effect on the
transit time of microwaves within an air or vapour space. At a temperature of
2000° C the variation is only 0.026% from the measurement value at 0° C. Radar
level transmitters with air or nitrogen gas cooling are used on molten iron and steel
applications.

0.03

0.025

0.02
% error

0.015

0.01

0.005

0.0
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000

Temperature in ° C

Fig 2.5 Temperature effect on radar measurement of air at a constant pressure of 1 BarA

20
 2. Physics of radar

Pressure
Pressure does have a small but more significant influence on the velocity of
electromagnetic waves. At a pressure of 30 Bar, the error is only 0.84%. However
this becomes more significant and at a pressure of 100 Bar there is a velocity
change of 2.8%. If the pressure is varying constantly between atmospheric pressure
and 100 Bar, the velocity variations can be compensated using a pressure transmit-
ter.

10

8
% error

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Pressure in Bar (absolute)

Fig 2.6 The influence of pressure on radar measurement in air at a constant temperature
of 273 K

21
Waveguides, stilling tubes & bypass tubes
In the preceding equations, we have
assumed that the microwaves are
travelling in ‘free space’ in a vacuum.
However, in practice the proximity
of metallic vessel walls and other
structures will have an influence on
the propagation velocity of the
microwaves. This is particularly true
when microwave radar level transmit-
ters are fitted inside bypass tubes or
stilling tubes or when a horn antenna is
fitted with a waveguide extension.
When microwaves are propagating
Electromagnetic waves exhibit the same properties as light.
· Reflection
· Polarization
· Diffraction
Reflection of electromagnetic waves
Conductive products
Using a spark gap transmitter,
Heinrich Hertz demonstrated that elec-
tromagnetic waves could be reflected
off metallic objects and objects with a
relatively high dielectric constant.
In the same way, radar can easily
measure conductive aqueous liquids
such as acids and caustic and other
conductive products ranging from
molten metal to saturated spent grain in
the brewing process.
When microwaves from a radar hit a
conductive surface the electrical field E
is short circuited. The resultant current
in the conductive product causes the
microwaves to be re-transmitted or
reflected from the surface.
22
within a metallic tube the running time
appears to slow down because the
microwaves travel further bouncing
off the inside wall of the tube and
currents are set up on the inside surface
of the tube.
This effect is discussed in more
detail in the chapters on antennas and
mechanical installations. The wave-
guide effect can be compensated during
calibration and the use of stilling tubes
and bypass tubes can be beneficial in
some level applications.
· Refraction
· Interference
Radar level transmitters have no
problem in measuring conductive liq-
uids and solids because the microwaves
with frequencies between 5.8 GHz and
26GHz are readily reflected off a con-
ductive surface producing relatively
large echoes.
Non-conductive products
If a liquid or solid is non-conductive,
the value of the dielectric constant (rela-
tive permittivity εr) becomes more
important. The theoretical amount of
reflection at a dielectric layer can be cal-
culated using equation 2.5
 2. Physics of radar

Transmitted power: W1
Reflected power: W2
Dielectric constant: εr 4 x εr
Then the percentage of reflected Π = 1- 2
power at the dielectric layer, (1 + ε )r

W2
Π = [Eq. 2.5]
W1

Typical examples are as follows:

Toluene Acetone
Solvent with a low dielectric constant, Solvent with a dielectric constant,
εr = 2.4 εr = 20

4x (2.4) 4x ( 20 )
Π = 1- Π = 1-
2 2
(1 + (2.4)) (1 + (20) )
4.46% power is reflected 40 % power is reflected

100
Π x 100% power reflected

80

60

40

20

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Dielectric constant, εr

Fig 2.7 Reflected radar power depends upon the dielectric constant of the product
being measured

23
 In radar level measurement the reflected energy from a product surface becomes
more critical at a dielectric constant (εr) of less than 5. The following graph shows
this important region.
20
Π x 100% power reflected

15

10

0
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Dielectric constant, εr
Fig 2.8 Reflected radar power depends upon the dielectric constant of the product being
measured. This graph shows the critical region where care must be taken over
choice of radar antenna

- 10
Loss L, dB

- 20

- 40

- 60
1.02.51.5 3.0
2.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Dielectric constant, εr
Fig 2.9 Reflection loss in dB: loss L = 10 log Π

Most electrically conductive products or products with a dielectric constant of

more than 1.5 can be measured using microwave radar level transmitters. Stilling
tubes can be used to concentrate the microwaves for lower dielectric constant
products.

24
 2. Physics of radar

Polarization
Electromagnetic waves have an
electrical vector E and magnetic vector
B that are in phase but perpendicular to
each other. The direction of propaga-
tion of the waves is perpendicular to
the electrical and magnetic vectors as
shown in the diagram below.
Polarization defines the orientation
of the electromagnetic waves and refers
to the direction of the electrical vector
E. Most process radar level transmitters
exhibit linear polarization as in the dia-
gram. The direction of the linear polar-
ization is set by the orientation of the
signal coupler from the microwave
module. The properties of the polariza-
tion of microwaves can be important in
the application of radar to level mea-
surement.
In television and microwave com-
munications, linear polarization is also
referred to as horizontal or vertical
polarization depending on the relative
orientation of the aerials or antennas.

direction of wave

Fig 2.10 Diagram showing linear polarization and the relative orientation of the electric
vector E, the magnetic vector B and the direction of propagation of the
microwaves

25
 Another form of polarization is
elliptical polarization. A specific form
of elliptical polarization is circular
polarization where the electrical vector
E and magnetic vector B rotate through
360° within the space of a single wave-
length, when a linear or circular polar-
ized signal is reflected the direction of
polarization is reversed. With circular
polarization it is possible to use the
reversal of polarization to distinguish
between a direct echo and an echo that
has made two reflections.
Fig 2.11 Circular polarization involves rotation of the electrical and magnetic vectors
through 360° within a wavelength
26
Circular polarization can also be
used in search radars to separate the
reflections from aircraft or ships from
interference echoes from rain. The
almost spherical shape of the rain drops
causes a definite reversal of polariza-
tion which can be easily rejected by the
receiving antenna. However, the scat-
tered reflections from the ship or air-
craft provide roughly equal amounts of
reversed and un-reversed energy that
enables detection.
 2. Physics of radar

The linear polarization that is com- In some applications, the effect of

mon with process radar level transmit- false echoes within a vessel can be sig-
ters can be used to minimise the effects nificantly reduced by rotating the radar
of false echo returns from the internal in the connection flange or boss. The
structure of a process vessel. These principle is illustrated below and
false echoes could be reflected from detailed in the section on mechanical
probes, welds, agitators and baffles. installations in Chapter 6.
Polarization can be used to reduce the amplitude of false echoes

Direction of wave

Large echo

Fig 2.12 If a metallic or high dielectric object is orientated in the same plane as the
electrical vector of the polarized microwaves, the radar level transmitter will
receive a large amplitude echo

Direction of wave

Small echo

Fig 2.13 If the same object is orientated at right angles to the plane of the electrical vector,
the received echo will have a smaller amplitude

27
Diffraction
Beam angle is often discussed in
relation to radar transmitters. This can
give the impression that the radar
antenna can direct a finely focused
beam towards the target. Unfortunately
this is not the case.
In practice, although they are
designed to produce a directed beam, a
radar antenna radiates some energy in
all directions. As well as the main lobe
side lobes
antenna
Fig 2.14 The lobe structure of antenna beams is caused by diffraction and destructive
interference
Refraction
In the same way as light is refracted
at an air/glass or air/water interface,
microwaves are refracted when they
encounter a change in dielectric. This
could be a low dielectric window
(PTFE/glass/polypropylene) or a non-
conductive low dielectric liquid such as
a solvent.
a a
reflected
energy
microwave
interface
dielectric window / product
refracted
energy B
28
which accounts for most of the radiated
power, there are also weaker side lobes
of energy. This phenomenon is caused,
in part, by diffraction. In addition to
this, destructive interference causes the
null points or notches that form the
characteristic side lobes.
Chapter 5 provides a detailed expla-
nation of beam angles, side lobes and
types of antennas.
main lobe
The angle of refraction depends on
the angle of the incident wave and also
on the ratio of the dielectric constants
at the interface.
It is possible to utilise the refractive
properties of electromagnetic waves to
construct a dielectric lens that will
focus microwaves.
Fig 2.15 Refraction & reflection
 2. Physics of radar

Interference - Phase
Problematic interference effects are caused primarily by the inadvertent mixing
of signals that are out of phase. The microwave signals have a sinusoidal wave-
form.

Phase angle

45°

Fig 2.16 In this illustration both of the sine waves have an identical frequency and
amplitude but the second wave has a 45° phase lag

Interference can be ‘constructive’ where in-phase signals produce a signal with a

higher amplitude or it can be destructive where signals that are 180° out of phase
effectively cancel each other out.
signals in-phase constructive interference

180° out of phase destructive interference

Fig 2.17 Illustration of constructive and destructive interference

29
 Interference
Microwaves can manifest interfer-
ence effects in exactly the same way as
light. Potentially this can cause mea-
surement problems. The causes of
interference should be understood and
avoided by design and installation con-
siderations.
The wrong choice of antenna, instal-
lation of an antenna up a nozzle, posi-
tioning transmitters too close to vessel
walls or other obstructions can all lead
to interference of the signal. The chap-
ter on mechanical installation should
help a radar level user to avoid this
potential problem.
However, we use destructive inter-
ference to our advantage when we
apply pulse radar level measurement
through a low dielectric ‘window’ to
measure conductive or high dielectric
liquids.

+ =

C
B’

B B”

Fig 2.18 Interference caused by positioning an antenna too close to the vessel wall. If a
radar level transmitter is installed too close to the vessel wall it is possible that
interference will occur. With indirect reflection A B’ B’’ C, the phase may be
altered by 180° when compared with the direct reflection A B C. For this reason
the microwaves may partially cancel out due to destructive interference

30
 2. Physics of radar

The thickness of the dielectric win-
dow must be a half wavelength of the
window material. When the half wave-
length is used, there is destructive inter-
ference between the reflection off the
top surface of the window and the
reflection off the internal second surface
of the window.
There is a 180° phase shift between
these reflections and they cancel each
other out. This type of installation
is explained more fully in Chapter 6
on the mechanical installations of
radar level transmitters together with
a table showing the optimum thickness
of most important plastics and glasses
which are suitable for penetration with
radar sensors.

reflection with
emitted wave phase shift from top
surface
reflection without
phase shift from
internal surface
plastic vessel ceiling

emitted wave

reflection with phase shift off

top surface of window

reflection without phase shift

off internal face of window

Fig 2.19 Destructive interference is a benefit when using pulse radar to measure through
a low dielectric window. The reflection from the top surface and the reflection
from the internal second surface cancel each other if the thickness is a half
wavelength

31
 Contents

Foreword ix
Acknowledgement xi
Introduction xiii

Part I
1. History of radar 1
2. Physics of radar 13
3. Types of radar 33
1. CW-radar 33
2. FM - CW 36
3. Pulse radar 39

Part II
4. Radar level measurement 47
1. FM - CW 48
2. PULSE radar 54
3. Choice of frequency 62
4. Accuracy 68
5. Power 74

5. Radar antennas 77
1. Horn antennas 81
2. Dielectric rod antennas 92
3. Measuring tube antennas 101
4. Parabolic dish antennas 106
5. Planar array antennas 108
Antenna energy patterns 110

6. Installation 115
A. Mechanical installation 115
1. Horn antenna (liquids) 115
2. Rod antenna (liquids) 117
3. General consideration (liquids) 120
4. Stand pipes & measuring tubes 127
5. Platic tank tops and windows 134
6. Horn antenna (solids) 139
B. Radar level installation cont. 141
1. safe area applications 141
2. Hazardous area applications 144
 3. Types of radar
1a. CW, continuous wave radar
In continuous wave or CW Radar, a
continuous unmodulated frequency is
transmitted and echoes are received
from the target object. If the target
object is stationary, the frequency of
the return echoes will be the same as
the transmitted frequency. The range of
the object cannot be measured.
However, the frequency of the return
signal from a moving object is changed
depending on the speed and direction
of the object. This is the well known
‘doppler effect’. The doppler effect is
apparent when the siren note of an
emergency vehicle changes as it speeds
past a pedestrian. The pitch of the siren
f + f dp
requ ency t
rece ived f
frequenc t,
m itted
trans
Fig 3.1 CW radar uses doppler shift to derive speed measurement
note is higher as it approaches the lis-
tener and lower as it recedes. The
doppler effect is also used by
astronomers to monitor the expansion
of the Universe. By measuring the ‘red
shift’ of the spectrum of distant stars
and galaxies the rate of expansion can
be measured and the age of distant
objects can be estimated.
In the same way, when an object that
has been illuminated by a CW Radar
approaches the transmitter, the frequen-
cy of the return signal will be higher
than the transmitted frequency. The
echo frequency will be lower if the
object is moving away.
yv
tvelocit
targe
hλ
ave lengt
yf w
33
 In Fig 3.1, the aircraft is travelling
towards the CW radar. Therefore the
received frequency is higher than
the transmitted frequency and the sign
of fdp is positive. If the aircraft was
travelling away from the radar at the
λ x fdp c x fdp
v = = transmitted signal
2 2 x ft
[Eq. 3.1]
1b. CW wave-interference radar or bistatic CW radar
We have already mentioned that CW
radar was used in early radar detection
experiments such as the famous
Daventry experiment carried out by
Robert Watson - Watt and his col-
leagues. In this case, the transmitter
and receiver were separated by a con-
siderable distance. A moving object
was detected by the receiver because
there was interference between the fre-
1c. Multiple frequency CW radar
Standard continuous wave radar is
used for speed measurement and, as
already explained, the distance to a sta-
tionary object can not be calculated.
However, there will be a phase shift
between the transmitted signal and the
return signal.
If the starting position of the object
is known, CW radar could be used to
detect a change in position of up to half
wavelength (λ/2) of the transmitted
wave by measuring the phase shift of
the echo signal. Although further
movement could be detected, the range
34
same speed, the received frequency
would be ft - fdp.
The velocity of the target in the
direction of the radar is calculated by
equation 3.1
c is the velocity of microwaves
v is the target velocity
ft is the frequency of the
fdp is the doppler beat frequency
which is proportional to velocity
ft+fdp is received frequency. The sign
of fdp depends upon whether the
target is closing or receding
quency received directly from the
transmitter and the doppler shifted fre-
quency reflected off the target object.
Although the presence of the object is
detected, the position and speed cannot
be calculated.
In essence, this is what happens
when a low flying aircraft interferes
with the picture on a television screen.
See Fig 3.2.
would be ambiguous. With microwave
frequencies this means that the useful
measuring range would be very limited.
If the phase shifts of two slightly
different CW frequencies are measured
the unambiguous range is equal to the
half wavelength (λ/2) of the difference
frequency. This provides a usable dis-
tance measurement device.
However, this technique is limited to
measurement of a single target.
Applications include surveying and
automobile obstacle detection.
 target

transmitted reflected signal

signal indirect (doppler shift)

transmitted signal direct

transmitter television interference

Fig 3.2 The effect of low flying aircraft on television reception is similar to the method of
detection by CW wave-interference radar
3. Types of radar

35
2. FM-CW, frequency modulated continuous wave radar
Single frequency CW radar cannot
be used for distance measurement
because there is no time reference mark
to gauge the delay in the return echo
from the target. A time reference mark
can be achieved by modulating the fre-
quency in a known manner.
If we consider the frequency of the
transmitted signal ramping up in a
linear fashion, the difference between
the transmitting frequency and the
frequency of the returned signal will be
proportional to the distance to the
target.
frequency
If the distance to the target is R,
and c is the speed of light, then the
time taken for the return journey is:-
∆t = 2xR
c
[Eq. 3.2]
We can see from Fig. 3.3 that if
we know the linear rate of change of
the transmitted signal and measure the
difference between the transmitted and
received frequency fd, then we can
calculate the time ∆t and hence derive
the distance R.

cy
u en
r eq
df
m itte y
ns e nc
tra qu
re
e df
c eiv
re
∆t

fd ∆t = 2xR
c

time

Fig 3.3 The principle of FM - CW radar

36
 3. Types of radar

In practice, the FM - CW signal has 24 GHz and 26 GHz.

to be cyclic between two different fre-
quencies. Radio altimeters modulate
between 4.2 GHz and 4.4 GHz. Radar
level transmitters typically modulate
between about 9 GHz and 10 GHz or
The cyclic modulation of FM - CW
radar transmitter takes different forms.
These are sinusoidal, saw tooth or
triangular wave forms.

FM - CW wave forms transmitted frequency

received frequency

frequency Fig 3.4 Sine wave

Commonly used on air-
4.4GHz
craft radio altimeters
between 4.2 and
4.4 GHz
time

4.2GHz

frequency
Fig 3.5 Triangular wave
Used on FM - CW
radar transmitters

time

frequency Fig 3.6 Saw tooth wave

10 GHz Most commonly used
on most FM - CW
process radar level
9 GHz transmitters
time

37
 If we look at a triangular wave
form we can see that there is an inter-
ruption in the output of the difference
frequency , fd. In practice, the received
signal is heterodyned with part of the
transmitted frequency to produce the
difference frequency which has a posi-
tive value independent of whether the
modulation is increasing or decreasing.
The diagram below makes the
assumption that the target distance is
not changing. If the target is moving,
there will be a doppler shift in the dif-
ference frequency.

frequency

time

difference
frequency
fd
time

Fig 3.7 & 3.8 The change in direction between the ramping up and down of the frequency
creates a short break in the measured value of the difference frequency.
This has to be filtered out. The transmitted frequency is represented by the
red line and the received frequency is represented by the dark blue line.
The difference frequency is shown in light blue on the bottom graph

38

3. Pulse radar
a. Basic pulse radar
Pulse radar is and has been used
widely for distance measurement since
the very beginnings of radar technolo-
gy. The basic form of pulse radar is a
pure time of flight measurement. Short
pulses, typically of millisecond or
nansecond duration, are transmitted
and the transit time to and from the tar-
get is measured.
The pulses of a pulse radar are not
discrete monopulses with a single peak
3rd pulse 2nd pulse
Transmitted pulses
Fig 3.9 Basic pulse radar
The inter pulse period (the time
between successive pulses) t is the
inverse of the pulse repetition
frequency fr or PRF. The pulse duration
or pulse width, τ, is a fraction of the
inter pulse period.
The inter pulse period t effectively
defines the maximum range of the
radar.
Example
The pulse repetition frequency
(PRF) is defined as
1 Txc
fr =
t 2
3. Types of radar
of electromagnetic energy, but are in
fact a short wave packet. The number
of waves and length of the pulse
depends upon the pulse duration and
the carrier frequency that is used.
These regularly repeating pulses
have a relatively long time delay
between them to allow the return echo
to be received before the next pulse is
transmitted.
1st pulse
If the pulse period t is 500 microsec-
onds, then the pulse repetition frequen-
cy is two thousand pulses per second.
In 500 microseconds, the radar pulses
will travel 150 kilometres. Considering
the return journey of an echo reflected
off a target, this gives a maximum the-
oretical range of 75 kilometres.
If the time taken for the return
journey is T, and c is the speed of light,
then the distance to the target is
R=
[Eq. 3.3]
39
b. Pulse doppler radar
The pulses transmitted by a standard
pulse radar can be considered as a very
short burst of continuous wave radar.
There is a single frequency with no
modulation on the signal for the dura-
tion of the pulse.
If the frequency of the waves of the
transmitted pulse is ft and the target is
moving towards the radar with velocity
v, then, as with the CW radar already
described, the frequency of the return
pulse will be ft + fdp , where fdp is the
doppler beat frequency. Similarly, the
received frequency will be ft - fdp if the
target is moving away from the radar.
Therefore, a pulse doppler radar can
be used to measure speed, distance and
direction.
The ability of the pulse doppler
radar to measure speed allows the sys-
tem to ignore stationary targets. This is
also commonly called ‘moving target
indication’ or MTI radar.
In general, an MTI radar has accu-
rate range measurement but imprecise
speed measurement, whereas a pulse
doppler radar has accurate speed mea-
surement and imprecise distance mea-
surement.
40
The velocity of the target in the
direction of the radar is calculated in
equation 3.4:
λ x fdp c x fdp
c = =
2 2 x ft
[Eq. 3.4]
This is the same calculation as for
CW radar. The distance to the target is
calculated by the transit time of the
pulse, equation 3.3.
Txc
R =
2
[Eq. 3.3]
As well as being used to monitor
civil and military aircraft movements,
pulse doppler radar is used in weather
forecasting. A doppler shift is measured
within storm clouds which can be dis-
tinguished from general ground clut-
ter. It is also used to measure the
extreme wind velocities within a torna-
do or ‘twister’.
 Pulse doppler radar

ft

f t + f dp

Fig 3.10 Pulse doppler radar provides target speed, distance and direction
3. Types of radar

41
c. Pulse compression and ‘Chirp’ radar
With pulse radar, a shorter pulse
duration enables better target resolution
and therefore higher accuracy.
However, a shorter pulse needs a sig-
nificantly higher peak power if the
range performance has to be main-
tained. If there is a limit to the maxi-
mum power available, a short pulse
will inevitably result in a reduced
range.
With limited peak power, a longer
pulse duration, τ , will provide more
frequency
radiated energy and therefore range but
(with a standard pulse radar) at the
expense of resolution and accuracy.
Pulse compression within a ‘Chirp’
radar is a method of achieving the
accuracy benefits of a short pulse radar
together with the power benefits of
using a longer pulse. Essentially, Chirp
radar is a cross between a pulse radar
and an FM - CW radar.

f1

f2

time

t1 t2
τ
amplitude

time

Fig 3.11 Chirp radar wave form. Chirp is a cross between pulse and FM - CW radar

42

Each pulse of a Chirp radar has lin-
ear frequency modulation and a con-
stant amplitude.
The echo pulse is processed through
a filter that compresses the echo by
creating a time lag that is inversely
Long frequency modulated echo pulse
Fig 3.12 Pulse compression of chirp radar echo signal
Pulse compression of chirp radar echo signal
Another method of echo compres-
sion uses binary phase modulation
where the transmitted signal is special-
ly encoded with segments of the pulse
either in phase or 180° out of phase.
The return echoes are decoded by a fil-
ter that produces a higher amplitude
and compressed signal.
The name ‘Chirp’ radar comes from
the short rapid change in frequency of
the pulse which is analogous to the
chirping of a bird song.
3. Types of radar
proportional to the frequency.
Therefore, the low frequency that
arrives first is slowed down the most
and the subsequent higher frequencies
catch up producing a sharper echo sig-
nal and improved echo resolution.
Filter
Time lag
Frequency
Compressed
signal
The above methods of radar detec-
tion are used widely in long range dis-
tance or speed measurement. In the
next chapter we look at which of these
methods can be applied to the unique
problems involved in measuring liquid
or solid levels within process vessels
and silos.
43
 Part II

Radar level measurement

Radar antennas
Radar level installations

45
 Contents

Foreword ix
Acknowledgement xi
Introduction xiii

Part I
1. History of radar 1
2. Physics of radar 13
3. Types of radar 33
1. CW-radar 33
2. FM - CW 36
3. Pulse radar 39

Part II
4. Radar level measurement 47
1. FM - CW 48
2. PULSE radar 54
3. Choice of frequency 62
4. Accuracy 68
5. Power 74

5. Radar antennas 77
1. Horn antennas 81
2. Dielectric rod antennas 92
3. Measuring tube antennas 101
4. Parabolic dish antennas 106
5. Planar array antennas 108
Antenna energy patterns 110

6. Installation 115
A. Mechanical installation 115
1. Horn antenna (liquids) 115
2. Rod antenna (liquids) 117
3. General consideration (liquids) 120
4. Stand pipes & measuring tubes 127
5. Platic tank tops and windows 134
6. Horn antenna (solids) 139
B. Radar level installation cont. 141
1. safe area applications 141
2. Hazardous area applications 144
radar_applied_to_level_rb.qxd 15.01.2007
4. Radar level measurement
The benefits of radar as a level mea-
surement technique are clear.
Radar provides a non-contact sensor
that is virtually unaffected by changes
in process temperature, pressure or the
gas and vapour composition within a
vessel.
In addition, the measurement accu-
racy is unaffected by changes in densi-
ty, conductivity and dielectric constant
of the product being measured or by air
movement above the product.
The practical use of microwave
radar for tank gauging and process ves-
sel level measurement introduces an
interesting set of technical challenges
that have to be mastered.
If we consider that the speed of light
is approximately 300,000 kilometres
per second. Then the time taken for
18:46 Seite 47
a radar signal to travel one metre
and back takes 6.7 nanoseconds or
0.000 000 006 7 seconds.
How is it possible to measure this
transit time and produce accurate ves-
sel contents information?
Currently there are two measure-
ment techniques in common use for
process vessel contents measurement.
They are frequency modulated continu-
ous wave (FM - CW) radar and PULSE
radar
In this chapter we explain FM - CW
and PULSE radar level measurement
and compare the two techniques. We
discuss accuracy and frequency consid-
erations and explore the technical
advances that have taken place in
recent years and in particular two wire,
loop powered transmitters.
47
radar_applied_to_level_rb.qxd 15.01.2007 18:46
FM-CW, frequency modulated continuous wave
The FM - CW radar measurement
technique has been in use since the
1930's in military and civil aircraft
radio altimeters. In the early 1970's this
method was developed for marine use
measuring levels of crude oil in super-
tankers. Subsequently, the same tech-
nique was used for custody transfer
level measurement of large land based
storage vessels. More recently, FM -
CW transmitters have been adapted for
process vessel applications.
FM - CW, or frequency modulated
continuous wave, radar is an indirect
method of distance measurement. The
transmitted frequency is modulated
between two known values, f1 and f2,
and the difference between the trans-
mitted signal and the return echo
signal, fd, is measured. This difference
frequency is directly proportional to the
f2
Transmitted signal
fd
frequency
∆t
f1
t1
Fig 4.1 The FM - CW radar technique is an indirect method of level measurement.
fd is proportional to ∆t which is proportional to distance
48
Seite 48
transit time and hence the distance.
(Examples of FM - CW radar level
transmitters modulation frequencies are
8.5 to 9.9 GHz, 9.7 to 10.3 GHz and 24
to 26 GHz).
The theory of FM - CW radar is
simple. However, there are many prac-
tical problems that need to be
addressed in process level applications.
An FM - CW radar level transmitter
requires a voltage controlled oscillator,
VCO, to ramp the signal between the
two transmitted frequencies, f1 and f2.
It is critical that the frequency sweep is
controlled and must be as linear as pos-
sible. A linear frequency modulation is
achieved either by accurate frequency
measurement circuitry with closed loop
regulation of the output or by careful
linearisation of the VCO output includ-
ing temperature compensation.
Received
signal
time
 Voltage Controlled Oscillator VCO
Directional Directional f (t + Dt)
Coupler Coupler

f(t)
Linear sweep
V(t) control loop f (t + Dt)

Mixer
Voltage Frequency f(t)
Control Measurement

Filter

Linear ramp generator

Intermediate
frequency
Amplifier

Signal sampling
Front end control function and
Fast Fourier transforms (FFT)

Signal Microprocessor

Fig 4.2 Typical block diagram of FM - CW radar. A very accurate linear sweep is required
4. Radar level measurement

49
radar_applied_to_level_rb.qxd 15.01.2007
FM - CW block diagram (Fig 4.2)
The essential component of a fre-
quency modulated continuous wave
radar is the linear sweep control cir-
cuitry. A linear ramp generator feeds a
voltage controller which in turn ramps
up the frequency of the Voltage
Controlled Oscillator. A very accurate
linear sweep is required. The output
frequency is measured as part of the
closed loop control.
The frequency modulated signal is
directed to the radar antenna and
Simple storage applications usually
have a large surface area with very lit-
tle agitation, no significant false echoes
from the internal structure of the tank
and relatively slow product movement.
These are the ideal conditions for
which FM - CW radar was originally
developed.
However, in process vessels there is
more going on and the problems
become more challenging.
50
18:46 Seite 50
hence towards the product in the ves-
sel. The received echo frequencies are
mixed with a part of the transmission
frequency signal. These difference fre-
quencies are filtered and amplified
before Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)
analysis is carried out. The FFT
analysis produces a frequency spec-
trum on which the echo processing and
echo decisions are made.
Pic 2 Typical glass lined
agitated process
vessel. A radar
must be able to
cope with various
false echos from
agitatior blades
and baffles
Low amplitude signals and false
echoes are common in chemical reac-
tors where there is agitation and low
dielectric liquids.
Solids applications can be trouble-
some because of the internal structure
of the silos and undulating product sur-
faces which creates multiple echoes.
An FM - CW radar level sensor
transmits and receives signals simulta-
neously.
radar_applied_to_level_rb.qxd 15.01.2007
4. Radar level measurement
fd1, -f d2 , -fd3, -fd4, -fd5
f2
f1
t1
Transmitted signal
Real echo signal
False echo signals
Fig 4.3a FM - CW radar level transmitters in an active process vessel
In an active process vessel, the vari-
ous echoes are received as frequency
differences compared with the frequen-
cy of the transmitting signal. These fre-
quency difference signals are received
by the antenna at the same time. The
amplitude of the real echo signals are
small compared with the transmitted
signal. A false echo from the end of the
antenna may have a significantly high-
er amplitude than the real level echo.
The system needs to separate and iden-
tify these simultaneous signals before
processing the echoes and making an
echo decision.
The separation of the various
received echo frequencies is achieved
using Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)
analysis. This is a mathematical proce-
18:46 Seite 51
dure which converts the jumbled array
of difference frequencies in the time
domain into a frequency spectrum in
the frequency domain.
The relative amplitude of each fre-
quency component in the frequency
spectrum is proportional to the size of
the echo and the difference frequency
itself is proportional to the distance
from the transmitter.
The Fast Fourier Transform requires
substantial processing power and is a
relatively long procedure.
It is only when the FFT calculations
are complete that echo analysis can be
carried out and an echo decision can be
made between the real level echo and a
number of possible false echoes.
51
radar_applied_to_level_rb.qxd 15.01.2007 18:46 Seite 52

Mixture of frequencies received by FM - CW radar

fd1, fd2, fd3, fd4, fd5 etc combined

Signal amplitude

Fig 4.3b combined echo frequencies are received simultaneously

Combination of mixed difference frequencies received by FM - CW radar

Individual difference frequencies fd1, f d2 , fd3, are shown
Signal amplitude

Fig 4.3c The individual frequencies must be separated from

the simultaneously received jumble of frequencies

52
radar_applied_to_level_rb.qxd 15.01.2007 18:46 Seite 53

4. Radar level measurement

Frequency spectrum echoes

Each echo is within an envelope curve of frequencies
amplitude

frequency

Fig 4.4 FM - CW frequency spectrum after Fast Fourier transform. The Fast Fourier
transform algorithm converts the signals from the time domain into the frequency
domain. The result is a frequency spectrum of the difference frequencies. The
relative amplitude of each frequency component in the spectrum is proportional to
the size of the echo and the difference frequency itself is proportional to the
distance from the transmitter. The echoes are not single frequencies but a span
of frequencies within an envelope curve

Complex process vessels and solids
applications can prove too difficult for
some FM - CW radar transmitters.
Even a simple horizontal cylindrical
tank can pose a serious problem. This
is because a horizontal tank produces
many large multiple echoes that are
caused by the parabolic effect of the
cylindrical tank roof. Sometimes the
amplitudes of the multiple echoes are
higher than the real echo. The proces-
sors that carry out the FFT analysis are
swamped by different amplitude sig-
nals across the dynamic range all at the
same time. As a result, the FM - CW
radar cannot identify the correct echo.
As we shall see, this problem does
not affect the alternative pulse radar
technique.

53
radar_applied_to_level_rb.qxd 15.01.2007
PULSE radar level transmitters
Pulse radar level transmitters pro-
vide distance measurement based on
the direct measurement of the running
time of microwave pulses transmitted
to and reflected from the surface of the
product being measured.
Pulse radar operates in the time
domain and therefore it does not
require the Fast Fourier transform
(FFT) analysis that characterizes FM -
CW radar.
As already discussed, the running
time for a distance of a few metres is
measured in nanoseconds. For this rea-
son, a special time transformation pro-
Fig 4.5 Pulse radar operates purely within the time domain. Millions of pulses are
transmitted every second and a special sampling technique is used to produce a
‘time expanded’ output signal
54
18:46 Seite 54
cedure is required to enable these short
time periods to be measured accurately.
The requirement is for a ‘slow motion’
picture of the transit time of the
microwave pulses with an expanded
time axis. By slow motion we mean
milliseconds instead of nanoseconds.
Pulse radar has a regular and period-
ically repeating signal with a high pulse
repetition frequency (PRF). Using a
method of sequential sampling, the
extremely fast and regular transit times
can be readily transformed into an
expanded time signal.
radar_applied_to_level_rb.qxd 15.01.2007 18:46 Seite 55

4. Radar level measurement

To illustrate this principle, consider
the sine wave signal in Fig 4.6. It is a
regular repeating signal with a period
of T1. If the amplitude (voltage value)
of the output of the sine wave is sam-
pled into a memory at a time period T2
T1
which is slightly longer than T1, then a
time expanded version of the original
sine wave is produced as an output.
The time scale of the expanded output
depends on the difference between the
two time periods T1 and T2.

Periodic
Signal
(sine wave)

Sampling
T2
signal

Expanded
time signal

Fig 4.6 The principle of sequential sampling with a sine wave as an example.
The sampling period, T2, is very slightly longer than the signal period, T1. The
output is a time expanded image of the original signal

A common example of this principle sequential sampling is applied to

is the use of a stroboscope to slow pulse radar level measurement. The
down the fast periodic movements of example shown is a VEGAPULS trans-
rotating or reciprocating machinery. mitter with a microwave frequency of
Fig 4.7 shows how the principle of 5.8 GHz.

T1
Periodic
Signal
(radar echoes) Emission Echo
pulse pulse

T2

Sampling
signal

Fig 4.7 Sequential sampling of a pulse radar echo curve. Millions of pulses per second
produce a periodically repeating signal. A sampling signal with a slightly longer
periodic time produces a time expanded image of the entire echo curve

55
radar_applied_to_level_rb.qxd 15.01.2007
This periodically repeating signal
consists of the regular emission pulse
and one or more received echo pulses.
These are the level surface and any
false echoes or multiple echoes. The
transmitted pulses and therefore the
received pulses have a sine wave form
depending upon the pulse duration. A
5.8 GHz pulse of 0.8 nanosecond dura-
tion is shown in Fig 4.8.
The period of the pulse repetition is
shown as T1 in Fig 4.7. Period T1 is
Example
The 5.8 GHz, VEGAPULS radar level transmitter has the following pulse repeti-
tion rates.
Transmit pulse 3.58 MHz
Reference pulse 3.58 MHz - 43.7 Hz
Therefore the time expansion factor
is 81920 giving a time expanded pulse
repetition period of 22.88 milliseconds.
There is a practical problem in sam-
pling the emission / echo pulse signals
of a short (0.8 nanosecond) pulse at 5.8
GHz. An electronic switch would need
to open and close within a few picosec-
onds if a sufficiently short value of the
5.8 GHz sine wave is to be sampled.
These would have to be very special
and expensive components.
56
18:46 Seite 56
the same for the emission pulse repeti-
tion as for any echo pulse repetition as
shown.
However, the sampling signal
repeats at period of T2 which is slight-
ly longer in duration than T1. This is
the same time expansion procedure by
sequential sampling that has already
been described for a sine wave. The
factor of the time expansion is deter-
mined by T1 / (T2-T1).
Fig 4.8 Emission pulse (packet).
The wave form of the 5.8
GHz pulse with a pulse
duration of 0.8
nanoseconds
T1 = 279.32961 nanoseconds
T2 = 279.33302 nanoseconds
The solution is to combine sequen-
tial sampling with a ‘cross correlation’
procedure.
Instead of very rapid switch sam-
pling, a sample signal of exactly the
same profile is generated but with a
slightly longer time period between the
pulses.
Fig 4.9 compares sequential sam-
pling by rapid switching with sequen-
tial sampling by cross correlation with
a sample pulse.
radar_applied_to_level_rb.qxd 15.01.2007 18:46 Seite 57

4. Radar level measurement

Emission / Echo pulse

Sample signal

Sampling with picosecond switching Sampling by cross correlation with a

sample pulse

Fig 4.9 Comparison of switch sampling with ‘cross correlation’ sampling. The pulse
radar uses cross correlation with a sample pulse. This means that rapid ‘picosec-
ond’ switching is not required

Instead of taking a short voltage signal on the time expanded curve

sample, cross correlation involves mul-
tiplying a point on the emission or echo
signal by the corresponding point on
the sample pulse. The multiplication
leads to a point on the resultant signal.
All of these multiplication results, one
after the other, lead to the formation of
the complete multiplication signal.
Fig 4.10 shows a short sequence of
multiplications between the received
signal (E) and the sampling pulse
signal (M). The resultant E x M curves
are shown on page 58.
Then the E x M curve is integrated
and represented on the expanded curve
as a dot. The sign and amplitude of the
depends on the sum of the area of the
E x M curve above and below the zero
line. The final integrated value corre-
sponds directly to the time position of
the received pulse E relative to the
sample pulse M.
The received signal E and sample
signal M in Fig 4.10 are equivalent to
the periodic signal (sine wave) and
sample signal in Fig 4.6. The result of
the integration of E x M in Fig 4.10 is
directly analogous to the expanded
time signal in Fig 4.6.

57
radar_applied_to_level_rb.qxd 15.01.2007 18:46 Seite 58

ExM

max

Integral 0
ExM
min

Fig 4.10 Cross correlation of the received signal E and the sampling M.
The product E x M is then integrated to produce the expanded time curve. The
technique builds a complete picture of the echo curve

The pulse radar sampling procedure
is mathematically complicated but a
technically simple transformation to
achieve. Generating a reference signal
with a slightly different periodic time,
multiplying it by the echo signal and
integration of the resultant product are
all operations that can be handled easi-
ly within analogue circuits. Simple, but
good quality components such as diode
mixers for multiplication and capaci-
tors for integration are used.
This method transforms the high
frequency received signal into an accu-
rate picture with a considerably
expanded time axis. The raw value
output from the microwave module is
an intermediate frequency that is simi-
lar to an ultrasonic signal. For example
the 5.8 GHz microwave pulse becomes
an intermediate frequency of 70 kHz.
The pulse repetition frequency (PRF)
of 3.58 GHz becomes about 44 Hz.

58
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4. Radar level measurement

Pulse echoes in a process vessel are separated in time

amplitude

t1 t 2 t3 t4 t5

time

transmit pulse

Fig 4.12 With a pulse radar, all echoes (real and false) are separated in time. This allows
multiple echoes caused by reflections from a parabolic tank roof to be easily
separated and analysed

Pulse radar operates entirely within
the time domain and does not need the
fast and expensive processors that
enable the FM - CW radar to function.
There are no Fast Fourier Transform
(FFT) algorithms to calculate. All of
the pulse radar processing is dedicated
to echo analysis only.
Part of the pulse radar transmission
pulse is used as a reference pulse that
provides automatic temperature com-
pensation within the microwave mod-
ule circuits.
The echoes derived from a pulse
radar are discrete and separated in time.
This means that pulse radar is better
equipped to handle multiple echoes and
false echoes that are common in
process vessels and solids silos.
Pulse radar takes literally millions of
‘shots’ every second. The return echoes
from the product surface are sampled
using the method described above. This
technique provides the pulse radar with
excellent averaging which is particular-
ly important in difficult applications
where small amounts of energy are
being received from low dielectric and
agitated product surfaces.
The averaging of the pulse technique
reduces the noise curve to allow small-
er echoes to be detected. If the pulse
radar is manufactured with well
designed circuits containing good qual-
ity electronic components they can
detect echoes over a wide dynamic
range of about 80 dB. This can make
the difference between reliable and
unreliable measurement.

59
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Fig 4.11 Block diagram of PULSE radar microwave module

60
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4. Radar level measurement
Pulse block diagram - (Fig 4.11)
The raw pulse output signal (inter-
mediate frequency) from the pulse
radar microwave module is similar, in
frequency and repetition rate, to an
ultrasonic signal.
This pulse radar signal is derived in
hardware. Unlike FM - CW radar,
PULSE does not use FFT analysis.
Therefore, pulse radar does not need
expensive and power consuming
processors.
The pulse radar microwave module
generates two sets of identical pulses
with very slightly different periodic
times. A fixed oscillator and pulse for-
mer generates pulses with a frequency
of 3.58 MHz. A second variable oscil-
lator and pulse former is tuned to a
Pic 3 Two wire pulse radar level transmitter mounted in a process reactor vessel
18:46 Seite 61
frequency of 3.58 MHz minus 43.7 Hz
and hence a slightly longer periodic
time. GaAs FET oscillators are used to
produce the microwave carrier fre-
quency of the two sets of pulses.
The first set of pulses are directed
to the antenna and the product being
measured. The second set of pulses are
the sample pulses as discussed in the
preceding text.
The echoes that return to the anten-
na are amplified and mixed with the
sample pulses to produce the raw, time
expanded, intermediate frequency.
Part of the measurement pulse sig-
nal is used as a reference pulse that
provides automatic temperature com-
pensation of the microwave module
electronics.
61
radar_applied_to_level_rb.qxd 15.01.2007 18:46 Seite 62

Choice of frequency
Process radar level transmitters
operate at microwave frequencies
between 5.8 GHz and about 26 GHz.
Manufacturers have chosen frequencies
for different reasons ranging from
licensing considerations, availability of
microwave components and perceived
technical advantages.
There are arguments extolling the
virtues of high frequency radar, low
frequency radar and every frequency
radar in between.
In reality, no single frequency is
ideally suited for every radar level
measurement application. If we com-
pare 5.8 GHz radar with 26 GHz radar,
we can see the relevant benefits of high
frequency and low frequency radar.

2.6 GHz

5.8 GHz

Fig 4.14 Comparison of 5.8 GHz and 26 GHz radar antenna sizes. These instruments
have almost identical beam angles. However this is not the full picture when it
comes to choosing radar frequencies

62
radar_applied_to_level_rb.qxd 15.01.2007
4. Radar level measurement
Antenna size - beam angle
The higher the frequency of a radar
level transmitter, the more focused the
beam angle for the equivalent size
antenna.
With horn antennas, this allows
smaller nozzles to be used with a more
focused beam angle.
For example, a 1½" (40 mm) horn
antenna radar at 26 GHz has approxi-
mately the same beam angle as a 6"
(150 mm) horn antenna at 5.8 GHz.
However, this is not the complete
picture. Antenna gain is dependent on
the square of the diameter of the anten-
na as well as being inversely propor-
tional to the square of the wavelength.
Focusing at different frequencies
5 GHz 10 GHz
Fig 4.13 For a given size of antenna, a higher frequency gives a more focused beam
18:46 Seite 63
Antenna gain is proportional to:-
diameter
2
wavelength 2
Antenna gain also depends on the aper-
ture efficiency of the antenna.
Therefore the beam angle of a small
antenna at a high frequency is not
necessarily as efficient as the equiva-
lent beam angle of a larger, lower fre-
quency radar. A 4" horn antenna radar
at 6 GHz gives excellent beam focus-
ing.
A full explanation of antenna gain
and beam angles at different frequen-
cies is given in Chapter 5 on radar
antennas.
15 GHz 20 GHz 25 GHz
63
radar_applied_to_level_rb.qxd 15.01.2007
Antenna focusing and false echoes
A 26 GHz beam angle is more
focused but, in some ways, it has to be.
The wavelength of a 26 GHz radar is
only 1.15 centimetres compared with a
wavelength of 5.2 centimetres for a
5.8 GHz radar.
The short wavelength of the 26 GHz
radar means that it will reflect off many
Fig 4.15 a Low frequency radar has a wider beam
Fig 4.15 b High frequency radar has a much
64
18:46 Seite 64
small objects that may be effectively
ignored by the 5.8 GHz radar. Without
the focusing of the beam, the high fre-
quency radar would have to cope with
more false echoes than an equivalent
lower frequency radar.
angle and therefore, if the installation
is not optimum, it will see more false
echoes. Low frequencies such as
5.8 GHz or 6.3 GHz tend to be more
forgiving when it come to false echoes
from the internal structure of a vessel
or silo
narrower beam angle for a given
antenna size. The narrower beam angle
is important because the short
wavelength of the higher frequencies,
such as 26 GHz, reflect more readily
from the internal structures such as
welds, baffles, and agitators.
The sharper focusing avoids this
problem
radar_applied_to_level_rb.qxd 15.01.2007
4. Radar level measurement
Agitated liquids and solid measurement
High frequency radar transmitters
are susceptible to signal scatter from
agitated surfaces. This is due to the sig-
nal wavelength in comparison to the
size of the surface disturbance.
The high frequency radar will
receive considerably less signal than an
equivalent 5.8 GHz radar when the liq-
Fig 4.16 High frequency radar transmitters are
Condensation and build up
High frequency radar level transmit-
ters are more susceptible to condensa-
tion and product build up on the anten-
na. There is more signal attenuation at
the higher frequencies, such as 26 GHz.
Also, the same level of coating or con-
densation on a smaller antenna natural-
ly has a greater effect on the perfor-
mance.
A 6" horn antenna with 5.8 GHz fre-
quency is virtually unaffected by con-
densation. Also, it is more forgiving of
product build up.
18:46 Seite 65
uid surface is agitated. The lower
frequency transmitters are less affected
by agitated surfaces.
It is important that, whatever the fre-
quency, the radar electronics and echo
processing software can cope with very
small amplitude echo signals. As dis-
cussed, pulse radar has an advantage in
this area no matter what the frequency.
susceptible to signal scatter from
agitated surfaces. This is due to the
signal wavelength in comparison to the
size of the surface disturbance. It is
important that radar electronics and
echo processing software can cope with
very small amplitude echo signals.
By comparison, 5.8 GHz radar is not as
adversely affected by agitated liquid
surfaces. Lower frequency radar is
generally better suited to solid level
applications
Steam and dust
Lower frequencies such as 5.8 GHz
and 6.3 GHz are not adversely affected
by high levels of dust or steam. These
frequencies have been very successful
in applications ranging from cement,
flyash and blast furnace levels to steam
boiler level measurement.
In steamy and dusty environments,
higher frequency radar will suffer from
increased signal attenuation.
65
radar_applied_to_level_rb.qxd 15.01.2007 18:46 Seite 66

Foam However, the thickness of foam will

The effect of foam on radar signals
is a grey area. It depends a great deal
on the type of foam including the foam
density, dielectric constant and conduc-
tivity. However, low frequencies such
as 5.8 GHz and 6.3 GHz cope with low
density foam better than higher fre-
quencies such as 26 GHz.
For example, a 26 GHz radar signal
will be totally attenuated by a very thin
detergent foam on a water surface. A
5.8 GHz radar signal will see through
this type of foam and continue to see
the liquid surface as the foam thickness
increases to 150 mm or even 250 mm.
cause a small measurement error
because the microwaves slow down
slightly as they pass through the foam.
When foam is present, it is impor-
tant to provide the radar manufacturer
with as much information as possible
on the application.
Minimum distance
Higher frequency radar sensors have
a reduced minimum distance when
compared with the lower frequencies.
This can be an additional benefit when
measuring in small vessels and stilling
tubes.

Summary of the effects of radar frequency

Better focusing at higher emitting frequency means:

.. higher antenna gain (directivity)

less false echoes
. reduced antenna size
focusing

5 GHz 10 GHz 15 GHz 20 GHz 25 GHz

frequency range

Fig 4.17 Focusing and radar frequency

66
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4. Radar level measurement

Reduced signal strength caused by

damping at higher emitting frequency
caused by:
reduced signal caused by damping

.. condensation
build - up
. steam and dust

5 GHz 10 GHz 15 GHz 20 GHz 25 GHz

frequency range

Fig 4.18 Signal damping and radar frequency

Higher damping caused by agitated

product surface

.. wave movement
material cones with solids
.
reflection from medium

signal scattered

5 GHz 10 GHz 15 GHz 20 GHz 25 GHz

frequency range

Fig 4.19 Signal strength from agitated and undulating surfaces and radar frequency

67
radar_applied_to_level_rb.qxd 15.01.2007
Accuracy
There is no inherent difference in
accuracy between the FM - CW and
PULSE radar level measurement tech-
niques.
In this book, we are concerned
specifically with process level mea-
surement where ‘process accurate’ and
cost effective solutions are required.
The achievable accuracy of a
process radar depends heavily on the
type of application, the antenna design,
the quality of the electronics and echo
processing software employed.
The niche market for custody trans-
fer level measurement applications is
outside the scope of this book. These
custody transfer radar ‘systems’ are
used in bulk petrochemical storage
tanks. Large parabolic or planar array
antennas are used to create a finely
focused signal. A lot of processing
power and on site calibration time is
used to achieve the high accuracy.
Temperature and pressure compensa-
tion are also used.
Range resolution and
bandwidth
In process level applications, both
FM - CW and PULSE radar work with
an ‘envelope curve’. The length of this
envelope curve depends on the band-
width of the radar transmitter. A wider
bandwidth leads to a shorter envelope
curve and therefore improved range
resolution. Range resolution is one of a
number of factors that influence the
accuracy of process radar level trans-
mitters.
68
18:46 Seite 68
Pulse radar bandwidth
The carrier frequency of a pulse
radar varies from 5.8 GHz to about
26 GHz.
The pulse duration is important
when it comes to resolving two adja-
cent echoes. For example, a one
nanosecond pulse has a length of about
300 mm. Therefore, it would be diffi-
cult for the radar to distinguish between
two echoes that are less than 300 mm
apart. Clearly a shorter pulse duration
provides better range resolution.
An effect of a shorter pulse duration
is a wider bandwidth or spectrum of
frequencies.
For example, if the carrier frequency
of a pulse is 5.8 GHz and the duration
is only 1 nanosecond, then there is a
spectrum of frequencies above and
below the nominal carrier frequency.
The amplitude of the pulse spectrum of
frequencies changes according to a
sin x
x
curve.
The shape of this curve is shown in
Fig 4.21.
The null to null bandwidth BWnn of
a pulse radar is equal to
2
τ
where τ is the pulse duration.
It is clear from the curve that the
amplitude of frequencies reduces sig-
nificantly away from the main pulse
frequency.
radar_applied_to_level_rb.qxd 15.01.2007 18:46 Seite 69

4. Radar level measurement

pulse frequency
5.8 GHz

4.8 GHz 6.8 GHz

shorter pulse bandwidth BW nn,

2
better range resolution equal to τ

Fig 4.20 Pulse radar range resolution.
The guaranteed range
resolution is the length of the
pulse. A shorter pulse has a
wider bandwidth and better
range resolution
Fig 4.21 The null to null bandwidth
BWnn of a radar pulse is equal
to 2 / τ where τ is the pulse
duration. Example a 5.8 GHz
radar with a pulse duration of
one nanosecond has a null to
null bandwidth of 2 GHz

Pulse radar envelope curve

Fig 4.22 shows how a pulse radar
echo curve is used in process level
measurement.
A higher frequency pulse with a
shorter pulse duration will allow better
range resolution and also better accura-
cy because the leading edge of the
Fig 4.22 Envelope curve with pulse radar
envelope curve is steeper.

High frequency, short

duration pulse

Lower frequency pulse with

longer duration

Fig 4.23 A shorter pulse duration gives better range resolution. The combination of
shorter pulse duaration and higher frequency allows better accuracy because the
leading edge of the envelope curve is steeper

69
radar_applied_to_level_rb.qxd 15.01.2007 18:46 Seite 70

FM-CW radar bandwidth A wider bandwidth produces narrower

The bandwidth of an FM - CW radar is
the difference between the start and
finish frequency of the linear frequency
modulation sweep.
Unlike pulse radar, the amplitude of the
FM - CW signal is constant across the
range of frequencies.
difference frequency ranges for each
echo on the frequency spectrum. This
leads to better range resolution in the
same way as with shorter duration puls-
es with pulse radar.
This is explained in the following dia-
grams and equations.

frequency
∆F x 2R
fd =
Ts x c
[Eq. 4.1]
fd

∆F ∆F bandwidth
Ts sweep time
R distance
fd difference frequency
c speed of light
time
Ts

Fast Fourier Transform

The FAST FOURIER

TRANSFORM produces a
frequency spectrum of all echoes
amplitude such as that at fd.
fd
There is an ambiguity ∆fd for each
echo fd.

2
∆fd =
Ts
[Eq. 4.2]
∆fd
frequency

70
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4. Radar level measurement

The ambiguity of the distance R,

is ∆ R

amplitude ∆R ∆fd
=
R R fd

2
∆R Ts
= ∆F x 2 R
R
Ts x c
∆R distance

∆R c
=
R ∆F x R

∆R c
=
∆F
Fig 4.24 to 4.26 - FM - CW range resolution
[Eq. 4.3]

From equation 4.3, it can be seen In process radar applications, each

that with an FM - CW radar the range
resolution ∆R is equal to:-
c show that the Fast Fourier Transforms
∆F
Therefore, the wider the bandwidth, the
better the range resolution.
Examples:
A linear sweep of 2 GHz has a range
resolution of 150 mm whereas a 1 GHz
bandwidth has a range resolution of
300 mm.
echo on the frequency spectrum is
processed with an envelope curve. The
above equations (Equations 4.1 to 4.3)
(FFTs) in process radar applications do
not produce a single discrete difference
frequency for each echo in the vessel.
Instead they produce a difference fre-
quency range ∆fd for each echo within
an envelope curve. This translates into
range ambiguity.

71
radar_applied_to_level_rb.qxd 15.01.2007 18:46 Seite 72

FM - CW frequency spectrum - bandwidth and range resolution

Frequency spectrum - narrow bandwidth of linear sweep

amplitude

envelope curves
around echoes

frequency

Frequency spectrum - wide bandwidth of linear sweep

amplitude

envelope curves
around echoes

frequency

Fig 4.28 Illustration of envelope curve around the frequency spectram of FM - CW

radars. The same four echoes are shown for radar transmitters with different
bandwidths. An improvement in the range resolution is achieved with a wider
bandwidth of the linear sweep

Other influences on accuracy

As we have demonstrated, FM - CW
and PULSE process radar transmitters
use an envelope curve for measure-
ment. A wider bandwidth produces bet-
ter range resolution. The correspond-
ingly short echo will have a steep slope
and therefore a more accurate measure-
ment can be made. Other influences on
accuracy include signal to noise ratio
and interference.
A high signal to noise ratio allows
more accurate measurement while
interference effects can cause a distur-
bance of the real echo curve leading to
inaccuracies in the measurement.
Choice of antenna and mechanical
installation are important factors in
ensuring that the optimum accuracy is
achieved.

72
radar_applied_to_level_rb.qxd 15.01.2007
4. Radar level measurement
High accuracy radar
High accuracy of the order of
+ 1 mm is generally meaningless in an
active process vessel or a solids silo.
For example, a typical chemical reactor
will have agitators, baffles and other
internal structures plus constantly
changing product characteristics.
Although custody transfer level
measurement applications are not in the
scope of this book, this section discuss-
es how a higher accuracy can be
achieved.
Pulse radar
For most process applications, mea-
surement relative to the pulse envelope
curve is sufficient. However, if the liq-
uid level surface is flat calm and the
echo has a reasonable amplitude, it is
possible to look inside the envelope
curve wave packet at the phase of an
individual wave.
However, the envelope curve of a
high frequency radar with a short pulse
duration is sufficiently steep to produce
a very accurate and cost effective level
transmitter for storage vessel applica-
tions.
Fig 4.29 Higher accuracy of pulse radar
level transmitters can be
achieved by looking at the phase
of an individual wave within the
envelope curve. This is only
practical in slow moving storage
tanks
18:46 Seite 73
FM - CW radar
The fundamental requirement for an
accurate FM - CW radar is an accurate
linear sweep of the frequency modula-
tion.
As with the pulse radar, it is possible
to look inside the envelope curve of the
frequency spectrum if the application
has a simple single echo that is charac-
teristic of a liquids storage tank. This is
achieved by measuring the phase angle
of the difference frequency. However,
this is only practical with custody
transfer applications where fast and
expensive processors are used with
temperature and pressure compensa-
tion.
frequency error
f2
f2
t1
Fig 4.30 It is essential that the linear
sweep of the FM - CW radar is
accurately controlled
73
radar_applied_to_level_rb.qxd 15.01.2007
Power
Microwave power
Radar is a subtle form of level mea-
surement. The peak microwave power
of most process radar level transmitters
is less than 1 milliWatt. This level of
power is sufficient for tanks and silos
of 40 metres or more.
The average power depends on the
sweep time and sweep repetition rate of
FM - CW radar and on the pulse dura-
tion and pulse repetition frequency of
pulse radar transmitters.
An increase in the microwave power
will produce higher amplitude echoes.
However, it will produce higher ampli-
tude false echoes and ringing noise
as well as a higher amplitude echoes
off the product surface. The average
microwave power of a Pulse radar can
be as little as 1 microWatt.
Processing power
FM - CW radars need a high level of
processing power in order to function.
This processing power is used to calcu-
late the FFT algorithms that produce
the frequency spectrum of echoes.
The requirement for processing power
has restricted the ability of FM - CW
radar manufacturers to make a reliable
two wire, intrinsically safe radar trans-
mitter.
Pulse radar transmitters work in the
time domain without FFT analysis and
therefore they do not need powerful
processors for this function.
Safety
The low power output from
microwave radar transmitters means
that they are an extremely safe method
of level measurement.
74
18:46 Seite 74
Two wire, loop powered radar
Pulse radar
The low energy requirements of
pulse radar enabled the first ever two
wire, loop powered, intrinsically safe
radar level transmitter to be introduced
to the process industry in mid-1997.
The VEGAPULS 50 series of pulse
radar transmitters have proved to be
very capable in difficult process condi-
tions. The performance of the two wire,
4 to 20 mA, sensors is equal to the four
wire units that preceded them.
The pulse microwave module only
needs a 3.3 volt power supply with
a maximum power consumption of
50 milliWatts. This drops down to
5 milliWatts when it is in stand-by
mode. The difference between the two
wire pulse and the four wire pulse is
that the two wire radar sends out bursts
of pulses and updates the output about
once every second. The four wire sends
out pulses continuously and updates
seven times a second.
With high quality electronics, the
complete 24 VDC, 4 to 20 mA trans-
mitter is capable of operating at only
14 VDC. This allows it to directly
replace existing two wire sensors.
Pulsed FM - CW
The low power requirements of
pulse radar have allowed two wire
radar to become sucessful. FM - CW
radar requires processing power and
time for the FFT's to be calculated.
Power saving has been used to produce
a ‘pulsed’ FM - CW radar. However,
this device is limited to simple storage
applications because the update time is
too long and the processing too limited
for arduous process applications.
radar_applied_to_level_rb.qxd 15.01.2007 18:46 Seite 75

4. Radar level measurement

Summary of radar level techniques

FM - CW (frequency modulated continuous wave) radar
· Indirect method of level measurement
· Requires Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) analysis to convert signals into a fre-
quency spectrum
· FFT analysis requires processing power and therefore practical FM - CW
process radars have to be four wire and not two wire loop powered
· FM - CW radars are challenged by large numbers of multiple echoes (caused
by the parabolic effects of horizontal cylindrical or dished topped vessels)

PULSE radar
· Direct, time of flight level measurement
· Uses a special sampling technique to produce a time expanded intermediate
frequency signal
· The intermediate frequency is produced in hardware and does not require FFT
analysis
· Low processing power requirement mean that practical and very capable two
wire, loop powered, intrinsically safe pulse radar can be used in some of the
most challenging process level applications

75
 Contents

Foreword ix
Acknowledgement xi
Introduction xiii

Part I
1. History of radar 1
2. Physics of radar 13
3. Types of radar 33
1. CW-radar 33
2. FM - CW 36
3. Pulse radar 39

Part II
4. Radar level measurement 47
1. FM - CW 48
2. PULSE radar 54
3. Choice of frequency 62
4. Accuracy 68
5. Power 74

5. Radar antennas 77
1. Horn antennas 81
2. Dielectric rod antennas 92
3. Measuring tube antennas 101
4. Parabolic dish antennas 106
5. Planar array antennas 108
Antenna energy patterns 110

6. Installation 115
A. Mechanical installation 115
1. Horn antenna (liquids) 115
2. Rod antenna (liquids) 117
3. General consideration (liquids) 120
4. Stand pipes & measuring tubes 127
5. Platic tank tops and windows 134
6. Horn antenna (solids) 139
B. Radar level installation cont. 141
1. safe area applications 141
2. Hazardous area applications 144
 5. Radar antennas
The function of an antenna in a radar
level transmitter is to direct the maxi-
mum amount of microwave energy
towards the level being measured and
to capture the maximum amount of
energy from the return echoes for
analysis within the electronics.
Antennas for level measurement
come in five basic forms:
· Horn (cone) antenna
· Dielectric rod antenna
· Measuring tube antenna
(stand pipes/ bypass tubes etc.)
· Parabolic reflector antenna
· Planar array antenna
Horn antennas and dielectric rod
antennas are already commonly used
within process level measurement. We
will be discussing how these designs
have been developed for increasingly
arduous process conditions and how
antenna efficiencies have been
improved. The horn antenna and ver-
sions of the dielectric rod antenna are
also used in measuring tube applica-
tions within the process industry.
Parabolic antennas and planar array
antennas have been applied to fiscal
measurement radar systems rather than
for level measurement within process
vessels. We will discuss the design of
these antennas although at present their
use in process vessels is limited.
Antenna basics
An important aspect of an antenna is
directivity. Directivity is the ability of
the antenna to direct the maximum
amount of radiated microwave energy
towards the liquid or solid we wish to
measure.
No matter how well the antenna is
designed, there will be some
microwave energy being radiated in
every direction. The goal is to max-
imise the directivity.
Fig 5.1 shows the pattern of radiated
energy from a typical horn antenna.
This is a 250 mm (10") horn antenna
operating at a frequency of 5.8 GHz.
The measurements are made some
distance from the antenna in what is
called the far field zone. It is clear that
most of the energy is contained within
the main lobe, but also there is a rea-
sonable amount of energy contained
within the various side lobes.
Technical information and sales lit-
erature on radar level transmitters
quote beam angles for different anten-
nas. Clearly there is not a tight beam.
The convention is to measure the angle
at which the microwave energy has
reduced to 50 percent of the value at
the central axis of the beam.
This is quoted in decibels:-
the - 3dB point.
77
 Farfield E_Abs (Theta); Phi=90,0 deg.

90

120 60
Max.: 20,4 dB

150 30

180 0
0 10 20 30

150 30

120 60

90
main lobe direction : 0,0 deg.
angular width (3dB) : 14,9 deg.
side lobe suppression : 21,6 dB

Extent of measured microwave energy showing

main lobe and side lobes

The - 3 dB point is the beam angle i.e. the energy

has reduced to 50%

Side lobe energy

Fig 5.1 Typical radiation pattern from a radar level transmitter

Radiation patterns of different antennas and radar frequencies are compared at the
end of this chapter.

78
 5. Radar antennas

A measure of how well the antenna by the antenna in a specific direction to

is directing the microwave energy is the power per unit of solid angle if the
called the ‘antenna gain’. total power was radiated isotropically,
Antenna gain is a ratio between the that is to say, equally in all directions.
power per unit of solid angle radiated

isotropic power

directional power

Isotropic equivalent with total power

radiating equally in all directions

Directional power from antenna

Fig 5.2 Illustration of antenna gain

Antenna gain ‘G’ can be calculated as follows:

2
πxD 4π x A
G = ηx ( λ
) = ηx λ2
[Eq. 5.1]

Where η = aperture efficiency The aperture efficiencies of radar

level antennas are typically between
D = antenna diameter.* η = 0.6 and η = 0.8.
It is clear from equation 5.1 that
A = antenna area.* the directivity improves in proportion
to the antenna area. At a given fre-
λ = microwave wavelength * quency, a larger antenna has a narrow-
er beam angle
* must be same units

79
 Also, we can see that the antenna
gain and hence directivity is inversely
proportional to the square of the wave-
length.
For a given size of antenna the beam
angle will become narrower at higher
frequencies (shorter wavelengths). For
example the beam angle of a 5.8 GHz
radar with a 200 mm (8") horn antenna
is almost equivalent to a 26 GHz radar
with a 50 mm (2") horn antenna. This
means that a 26 GHz antenna is lighter
and easier to install for the same beam
angle. However, as discussed in
Chapter 4, this is not the whole story
when choosing the right transmitter for
an application.
For a standard horn antenna the
beam angle φ, that is the angle to the
minus 3 dB position, can be calculated
using equation 5.2.

λ
Beam angle φ = 70° x
D
[Eq. 5.2]

The following graph shows horn anten- most common radar frequencies,
na diameter versus beam angle for the 5.8 GHz, 10 GHz and 26 GHz.

Antenna beam angles (diameter / frequency)

80
5.8 GHz
beam angle in degrees (-3dB)

10 GHz
60
26 GHz

40

20

0
50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250
antenna diameter, mm

Fig 5.3 Graph showing relation between horn antenna diameter and beam angle for
5.8 GHz, 10Ghz and 26GHz radar

80

1. Horn antennas
The metallic horn antenna or cone
antenna is well proven for process level
applications. The horn is mechanically
robust and in general it is virtually
unaffected by condensation and prod-
uct build up, especially at the lower
radar frequencies such as 5.8 GHz.
There are variations in the internal
design of horn antennas. The
microwaves that are generated within
the microwave module are transmitted
down a high frequency cable for encou-
pling into a waveguide. The metal
waveguide then directs the microwaves
towards the horn of the antenna. A low
dielectric material such as PTFE,
ceramic or glass is often used within
the waveguide.
5. Radar antennas
At the transition from the wave-
guide to the horn of the antenna the low
dielectric material is machined to a
pointed cone. The angle of this cone
depends on the dielectric constant of
the material. For example, ceramic has
a sharper angle than PTFE.
The microwaves are emitted from
this pointed cone in a controlled way
and are then focused towards the target
by the metal horn.
After reflection from the product
surface, the returning echoes are
collected within the horn antenna for
processing within the electronics.
Fig 5.4 The transition of
microwaves from the low
dielectric waveguide into the
metallic horn where they are
focused towards the product
being measured
81
Horn antenna design 1
Fig 5.5
In this first design of horn antenna
the HF cable signal coupling is into an
air filled waveguide with a rectangular
cross section. The microwaves are
directed towards the antenna. There is a
transition from rectangular to circular
cross section. At this point the wave-
guide changes to PTFE with a ¼ wave-
length step design. The waveguide is
then glass filled until it reaches the
inside of the antenna horn where it
changes to a PTFE cone for the imped-
ance matching into the vapour space in
the horn
This PFTE cone in combination with
the metallic horn focuses the
microwaves towards the target.
82
1. HF Cable
1 2. Signal coupling
3. Waveguide (air filled)
2
Transition rectan-
3
4 gular to circular
cross section
5
6
7 4. PTFE transition
8
5. Glass waveguide
9
6. Metallic grid
7. Seal between glass
and PTFE
8. PTFE cone
9. Metal horn antenna
An antenna of this design is capable
of withstanding process temperatures
up to 250° C and up to 300 Bar.
A potential problem with the design
is the sealing between the PTFE and
glass on the process side. The thermal
expansion of glass and PTFE are differ-
ent and it is possible for condensation
to get between the glass and PTFE and
to affect the transmission and receipt of
the microwave signals.
The explosion proof design requires
metallic grid around the glass of the
waveguide at the joint between the
housing casting and the flange casting.
 5. Radar antennas
Horn antenna design 2
Fig 5.6

1. HF cable

2. Signal coupling
1
3. Waveguide
(PTFE filled)
2
3
4. Process seals Viton
4 or Kalrez

5 5. PTFE cone

6. Metallic horn
antenna
6

With this antenna design, the HF
cable is encoupled into the PTFE mate-
rial inside the waveguide. The metal
waveguide is welded to the flange and
there are two process seals between the
metal waveguide and the PTFE. These
seals protect the signal coupler from
the process. This seal material can be
Viton for stainless steel horn antennas
or Kalrez for Hastelloy C horn anten-
nas.
There is a continuous transition for
the microwaves within a single piece of
PTFE which is machined into a cone
form for the transition into the horn
antenna. The PTFE cone and the metal-
lic conical horn focus the microwaves
and collect the return signals in the
usual manner.
An antenna of this design is capable
of withstanding a process temperature
of 200° C + and a process pressure of
40 Bar.
This antenna design can also be used
on very high temperature, ambient
pressure applications with air or nitro-
gen gas cooling of the antenna.

83
Horn antenna design 2a
Fig 5.7 Very high temperature, ambient pressure applications.
Air/nitrogen cooling through flange
Air / N2
This adaptation of the previous
antenna allows the antenna to be cooled
with air or nitrogen gas.
This is achieved by drilling two
holes, 180° apart, laterally from the
flange edge into the horn antenna next
to the PTFE cone. The flow of air or
nitrogen prevents hot gases from
affecting the PTFE and the viton seal
and it effectively cools the entire flange
and horn area.
This technique has been used suc-
cessfully with very high temperatures,
including 1500° C + in the steel indus-
try with applications such as blast
84
1. HF cable
1 2. Signal coupling
2 3. Waveguide
(PTFE filled)
3
4 4. Tappings for
air/nitrogen keeps
antenna area cool
5. Metallic horn
antenna
furnace burden level and molten iron
ladle levels. The microwaves are unaf-
fected by the air movement within the
horn area.
In addition to cooling, this air purg-
ing technique is also used for solids
applications where very high levels of
conductive dust, such as carbon, heavi-
ly coat the inside of the horn and cause
signal attenuation.
Water purging has also been used
where heavy product build up is
expected.

Horn antenna design 3
Fig 5.8 Special enamel coated antenna
This antenna is also a development
of the antenna design in Fig 5.6.
The waveguide, PTFE transition
cone and process flange are standard.
The face of the flange is all PTFE.
The difference is in the application
of a special enamel (glass) coated horn
that provides excellent process materi-
als compatibility without resorting to
more expensive metals such as
Tantalum.
The external dimensions of the
antenna represent a simple cylinder.
The internal dimensions of the antenna
are identical to a standard horn antenna
(150 mm (6")) is illustrated. At the bot-
tom of the antenna there is a gradual lip
5. Radar antennas
1 1. Signal coupling
2
2. PTFE waveguide
3
4 3. PTFE flange face
5
4. PTFE seal
6
5. Lapped flange
7
6. Steel internals of
horn antenna
7. Enamelled coating
between the external cylinder and the
internal horn.
The top of the cylinder has a flange
for sealing between the PTFE transition
cone and the process flange and also
between the glassed antenna and the
vessel nozzle. External studs hold the
enamel antenna to the process flange
and PTFE seals are used to provide
internal sealing.
The antenna is manufactured from
carbon steel with blue enamel coating
which is identical to the enamel found
in glass lined vessels. It provides the
efficiency benefits of a horn antenna
with first class materials compatibility.
85
Horn antenna design 4
Fig 5.9 High temperature / high pressure antenna with ceramic waveguide
The above antenna has been
designed with both high temperature
and high pressure in mind. The
mechanical strength and sealing ability
of PTFE degrades at elevated tempera-
ture and is therefore limited to about
200° C.
This special design of radar has
a chemically and thermally stable
ceramic (Al2O3) waveguide within a
stainless steel or Hastelloy C horn
antenna and flange. The ceramic
waveguide is fused to a ‘vacon’ steel
bush using a special brazing technique.
‘Vacon’ is used because it has a
coefficient of thermal expansion that is
similar to ceramic, whereas normal
86
1. Connection to HF
cable from
1 microwave module
2 2. Coaxial tube to
signal coupling
3. Signal coupling in
ceramic waveguide
3
4 4.Vacon/ceramic
brazing seal
5
5. Graphite seal
6
6. Ceramic waveguide
cone
stainless steel expands more than twice
as much as ceramic. A double graphite
seal is fitted on the process side of the
‘vacon’ bush. The entire waveguide
assembly is laser welded to ensure that
the transmitter is gas tight and that
differential thermal expansion is
negligible.
In order to withstand constant pro-
cess temperatures of 400° C, the elec-
tronics housing of the radar is mechani-
cally isolated from the high process
temperature by a temperature extension
tube. The microwave module is con-
nected via the HF cable and an air
coaxial tube to the signal coupler in the
ceramic waveguide.
 5. Radar antennas

Fig 5.10 Close up of ceramic waveguide assembly

1
1. HF cable (coaxial)
2
3
2. Signal coupling
4
5 3. Ceramic waveguide

6 4. Brazing of ceramic
to vacon

5. Vacon bush

6. Graphite seal

7. Metallic horn
antenna
7

Fig 5.11 This antenna design is capable

of with standing 160 Bar at
400° C with dual graphite seals.
Graphite seals have proved to be
superior to tantalum seals

Ceramic signal coupling

Vacon/ceramic brazing

Graphite / Tantalum seal

87
Adapting horn antenna radars
a. Measurement through a PTFE window
Another possible variation of a horn
antenna radar is measurement through
a low dielectric window. We have dis-
cussed Hastelloy, Tantalum and the
special enamel coated horn antenna.
However, if a liquid is being measured
and it is conductive or has a dielectric
constant of more that εr = 10, then it is
possible to measure through a low
dielectric window or lens.
Some antennas are manufactured
with a PTFE window as part of the
construction.

Antenna housing

Horn antenna

Process flange
PTFE window
Fig 5.12 Horn antenna radar is constructed with a metal housing around the antenna
and a PTFE process ‘window’

Fig 5.13 Variations of this design include the use of cone shaped windows. The cone can
point towards the horn or towards the process

88
 5. Radar antennas

b. Horn antenna -
waveguide extension
In the first section of Chapter 6,
Radar level installations, we discuss
how horn antenna radars should be
installed. It is recommended that the
end of the antenna is a minimum of
10 mm inside the vessel. A 150 mm
(6") horn antenna is 205 mm (8") long.
If the nozzle is longer than 200 mm,
we should consider a waveguide exten-
sion piece between the radar flange and
the horn antenna. Waveguide exten-
sions should only be used with highly
reflective products.
Fig 5.14 Extended waveguide horn
c. Horn antenna - antenna to enable measurement
bent waveguide extensions in long nozzles or through a
As well as simple waveguide exten-
concrete tank or sump roof
sions it is possible to bend waveguide
extensions in order to avoid obstruc-
tions or to utilise side entry flanges.
A simple 90° bend or an ‘S’ shaped
extension tube are possible.
The waveguide extensions should be
free from any internal welds and the
minimum radius of curvature should be Waveguide
200 mm. extension with ‘S’
bend

Fig 5.15 Waveguide extensions

with bends. The direction
of the polarization is
important

Waveguide extension with 90° bend

89
High frequency radar antennas
The majority of antennas in this
chapter are designed for microwave
frequencies of between 5.8 GHz and
10 GHz. Later in this chapter, we dis-
cuss the use of radar in measuring
tubes where there is a minimum critical
diameter for each frequency. A measur-
ing tube is a waveguide. The minimum
theoretical tube diameter for a 5.8 GHz
radar is 31 mm.
At a higher frequency the minimum
diameter of a waveguide is smaller.
At this minimum diameter, the
microwaves are established within the
waveguide with a single mode and
hence a single velocity.
As the waveguide diameter increas-
es in size, more modes become estab-
lished for the given frequency.
Measurement problems will be
encountered if there are multiple modes
within an antenna waveguide. This is
because with different modes the
microwaves travel at different veloci-
ties in the waveguide and therefore a
single target will reflect more than one
return echo. Measurement will become
inaccurate or impossible.
For this reason, the encoupling of a
high frequency radar must be made into
a small waveguide. The small wave-
guide assemblies of high frequency
radar are susceptible to contamination
by condensation and build up when
compared with lower frequencies such
as 5.8 GHz.
90
A special patented high frequency
antenna design from VEGA minimises
the potential problems associated with
small waveguide assemblies.
The encoupling is made within a
small PTFE waveguide to establish a
single mode. As the microwaves travel
towards the horn antenna, there is a
carefully designed transition that
increases the diameter of the PTFE
waveguide while maintaining the single
mode.
The increased diameter of the PTFE
waveguide reduces the adverse effects
of condensation and build up where the
tapered cone of the waveguide enters
the metallic horn of the antenna.
Compare this design with horn
antenna design 2, Fig 5.6. The 5.8 GHz
radar does not need a transition in the
waveguide diameter and the angle of
the metallic horn is not as sharp as for
the high frequency radar.
Viton or Kalrez process seals are fit-
ted between the PTFE and stainless
steel body of the waveguide.
Extended versions of the high
frequency antenna design involve
lengthening the HF cable within a
stainless steel extension tube and weld-
ing the waveguide assembly to the end
of the extension tube.
 5. Radar antennas

Fig 5.16 High frequency (26GHz) horn antenna design

1. HF cable from
microwave module

2. Signal coupling into

smaller diameter PTFE
waveguide assembly

3. Carefully designed
transition from small
diameter to larger
1 diameter without
affecting the waveguide
mode
2
4. Viton or Kalrez process
seals between PTFE and
3
stainless steel of the
4 waveguide
5. Cone shape of PTFE
waveguide for the
transition into the
5
metallic horn of the
antenna
6. Metallic horn antenna
of high frequency radar.
6
It has a sharper angle
than the lower frequency
radars

91
2. Dielectric rod antennas
The dielectric rod antenna is an
extremely useful option when applying
radar level technology to modern
process vessels. Dielectric rods can be
used in vessel nozzles as small as
40 mm (1½") and they are manufac-
tured from PP, PTFE or ceramic wetted
parts.
This means that, normally, radar
level transmitters can be retro-fitted
into existing tank nozzles and they
have low cost materials compatibility
with most aggressive liquids including
acids, alkalis and solvents.
The design of dielectric rod antennas
has been refined in recent years.
Essentially the microwaves are fed
from the microwave module through an
HF cable to a signal coupler in the
waveguide. As with the horn antenna
the waveguide can be air filled or filled
with a low dielectric material such as
PTFE .
The waveguide feeds the
microwaves to the antenna. The
microwaves pass down the parallel
section of the rod until they reach the
tapered section of the rod. The tapered
section of the rod acts like a lens and it
focuses the microwaves towards the
product being measured. The size and
shape of the dielectric rod depends on
the frequency of the microwaves being
transmitted.
92
The reflected echoes are captured in
a similar fashion for processing by the
radar electronics.
Rod antennas should only be used
on liquids and slurries and not on pow-
ders and granular products.
There are some important considera-
tions when applying rod antenna
radars.
First of all, the tapered section of the
rod must be entirely within the vessel.
If the tapered section is in a nozzle,
it will cause ‘ringing’ noise that will
effectively blind the radar. This is
explained more fully in Chapter 6.
Also, it can be seen from Fig 5.17
that the microwaves rely on the rod
antenna being clean. If a rod antenna is
coated in viscous, conductive and adhe-
sive products, the antenna efficiency
will deteriorate very quickly.
With the horn antenna product build
up is not a particular problem.
However, product build up works
against the reliable functioning of a rod
antenna radar.
 5. Radar antennas

Fig 5.17 Dielectric rod antenna

The microwaves travel down the inactive

parallel section of the rod towards the
tapered section .

The tapered section of the rod focuses the

microwaves toward the liquid being
measured .

It is very important that all of the tapered

section of the rod must be inside the vessel

It is not good practice to allow a rod

antenna to be immersed in the product

If a rod antenna is coated in viscous,

conductive and adhesive product, the
antenna efficiency will deteriorate

93
Rod antenna design 1
Fig 5.18 Rod antenna for short process nozzles

1
2 1. HF cable
3
2. Process connection
PVDF boss

3. Signal coupling
4 within PTFE/PP
filled waveguide

4. Inactive section
with metallic wave-
guide, PTFE/PP
inner and outer
parts

5. Solid PTFE/PP
active tapered
section of antenna
focuses the
microwaves towards
the product surface

This rod antenna is a simple and low
cost design that provides a radar level
transmitter with good materials com-
patibility. It is ideal for vented and low
pressure vessels such as acid and alkali
tanks. It is designed for use in short
1½" BSP / NPT process nozzles. The
nozzle height should not exceed 60 mm
(2½").
The process connection is a 1½"
PVDF boss and the antenna is
polypropylene (PP) or PTFE.
The HF cable from the microwave
module is coupled into PTFE/PP inside
a metallic tube that acts as a wave-
guide. This metallic tube is totally
enclosed within the PTFE/PP parallel
section of the antenna. The microwaves
pass down the metallic waveguide
directly to the tapered section of the
antenna where they are focused
towards the product being measured.

94
 5. Radar antennas
Rod antenna design 2
Fig 5.19 Rod antenna with solid PTFE extendible rod

1. HF cable
1
2. Signal coupling
2
3 3. Air waveguide
4
5 4. PTFE cone

5. Process connection

6 6. Solid PTFE parallel

section length can
be extended

7. Solid PTFE tapered

7 section

With this design of rod antenna the
signal coupling is into an air filled
waveguide. The microwaves are direct-
ed towards the antenna. There is a tran-
sition to PTFE via a cone shaped ele-
ment. The microwaves continue
through the PTFE waveguide to the
solid PTFE dielectric rod. The tapered
section of the rod focuses the
microwaves towards the product being
measured.
If this type of antenna is to be used
in a long nozzle, the parallel section of
the solid rod is extended to ensure that
the tapered section is entirely within
the vessel.
An extended, solid PTFE rod anten-
na can suffer from ‘ringing’ noise
caused by microwave leakage from the
parallel section resonating within the
nozzle. See Fig 5.20.

95
Fig 5.20 Extended rod antenna in solid PTFE. This design can suffer from ‘ringing’
noise caused by leakage of microwave energy from the parallel section of the
solid PTFE rod resonating in the vessel nozzle

In theory, the microwaves should Also the PTFE expands at elevated

travel within the parallel section for the
entire length until it reaches the tapered
section. However, in practice, some of
the microwave energy escapes from the
parallel sides.
Some solid PTFE rod antennas
are supplied with screw - on extendible
antennas.
In addition to the ‘ringing’ noise
problem described, this design can suf-
fer from condensation forming between
the rod sections causing signal
attenuation.
temperatures and under certain process
conditions it is possible for the rod sec-
tions to detach.
The potential problems of solid
PTFE rod antennas have been solved
by the latest designs. It is important to
have a completely inactive parallel sec-
tion within a vessel nozzle. This is
achieved by special screening or signal
coupling beyond the nozzle.

96

Rod antenna design 3
Fig 5.21 Extended rod antenna with inactive section and signal coupling below nozzle
level
This antenna is designed for use in
nozzles of either 100 mm length or
250 mm length. All wetted parts of the
antenna are PTFE. The parallel section
that is designed to be within the nozzle
has a PTFE coating on a cast metal
tube.
Below this parallel section is the
active, solid PTFE, tapered antenna.
The HF cable from the microwave
module is fed through the metal casting
and the signal coupling is made just
above the tapered rod. The parallel and
5. Radar antennas
1. HF cable
1 2. Rod extension
casting
(metal within PTFE)
2
3. Signal coupling at
the bottom of the
rod extension
4. Inactive section
3
4 5. Solid PTFE tapered
‘active’ section of
rod antenna
tapered sections are sealed together and
are designed to withstand a process
temperature of 150° C .
This antenna design is used with
1½" BSP (M) stainless steel bosses or
with PTFE faced flanged transmitters.
The flanged version is designed for
maximum chemical resistance to acids,
alkalis and solvents. The flange face is
PTFE with a tight seal between the
flange PTFE and the top of the PTFE
covered inactive section.
97
Extended rod antenna Extended rod antenna
for 250 mm nozzle for 100 mm nozzle

Fig 5.22 Extended rod antenna with inactive section and signal coupling below nozzle
level. All wetted parts are PTFE on the flanged version of this antenna

For less arduous applications a stainless steel extension tube is used instead of the
PTFE covered tube. The tapered section of the antenna is made of polyphenylene
sulphide (PPS).

Fig 5.23 Extended rod antenna with stainless steel inactive section and PPS rod antenna.
This is for less chemically arduous process conditions

98

Rod antenna design 4
Fig 5.24 Extended rod antenna with metallic grid waveguide extension within carbon
impregnated PTFE inactive rod. Tapered active section of virgin PTFE
This design of dielectric rod antenna
is for use with flanged process connec-
tions.
The HF cable is connected into a
PTFE filled waveguide which directs
the microwave energy towards the rod
antenna. There is a PTFE male screwed
fitting at the end of the waveguide
within the process flange. The fabricat-
ed, one piece, rod antenna screws on to
this connection.
The antenna flange facing and the
parallel section of the antenna have car-
bon impregnated PTFE wetted parts.
Inside the parallel section of the rod
there is a tubular metallic grid that acts
5. Radar antennas
1. HF cable
1 2. Signal coupling
2 3. PTFE waveguide
3
4 4. Screwed connection
5
5. Carbon impregnated
PTFE antenna parallel
6 section and flange face
6. Internal metal grid acts
as extended waveguide
and prevents microwave
7 leakage from the
parallel section of the
antenna
7. PTFE waveguide
8 8. Virgin PTFE tapered
antenna
as an extension to the waveguide.
Inside the grid the waveguide is virgin
PTFE, outside the grid the PTFE is car-
bon impregnated.
At the end of the parallel section,
there is a transition into a solid PTFE
tapered rod which provides the imped-
ance matching and focusing of the
microwaves towards the product being
measured.
This antenna has the option for
100 mm or 250 mm nozzle lengths. As
already discussed, the tapered section
must be entirely within the vessel.
99
Rod antenna design 5
Fig 5.25 This is a high temperature ceramic rod antenna design. There is temperature
separation between the electronics and the signal coupling (similar to the high
temperature horn antenna Fig 5.10). The ceramic rod has a sharper taper than
the equivalent PTFE rod

1. Signal coupling

2. Ceramic waveguide

3. Process seal (graphite or

tantalum)

4. Active tapered ceramic

rod

Rod antennas are available with the
dielectric rod manufactured from
ceramic (Al2O3).
Ceramic has good chemical and
thermal resistance. However, care must
be taken when installing ceramic rods
because they are brittle and prone to
accidental damage.

100

3. Measuring tube antennas
As discussed, conical horn antennas
and dielectric rod antennas are used
widely within the process industry.
In general horn antennas are
mechanically more robust and do not
suffer as much from build up or heavy
condensation.
On the other hand, dielectric rods
are smaller, weigh less and can be con-
structed from low cost but chemically
Bypass tube and stand pipes are used for the following reasons:
· Highly agitated liquid surfaces -
a stilling tube ensures that the
radar sees a calm surface with
no scattering of the echo signal
· Low dielectric liquids such as
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) -
a stand pipe concentrates and
guides the microwaves to the
product surface giving the
maximum signal strength from
liquids with low levels of
reflected energy
· Toxic and dangerous chemicals -
a stand pipe installation makes a
small antenna size possible.
This can be used to look through
a full bore ball valve into the
stand pipe.
The instrument can be isolated
from the process for
maintenance
5. Radar antennas
resistant plastics such as PTFE and
polypropylene.
However, there are applications
within the process industry where the
installation of an antenna directly with-
in a vessel is not suitable for reasons of
vessel design or radar functionality. In
these cases a measuring tube (bypass
tube or a stand pipe within the vessel)
may be an alternative.
· Small vessels - stand pipes or
bypass tubes can be used for
measurement in very small
process vessels such as vacuum
receivers. There may not be
enough head space for a rod
antenna or a suitable connection
for a horn antenna. A small bore
tube can be used with a radar
· Foam - a stilling tube can often
prevent foam affecting the
measurement
· Replacing existing floats and
displacers - radar can be
installed directly into existing
bypass tubes
101
Measuring tube radar 1 - horn antennas
Fig 5.26 Installation of horn antenna radars into stand pipes or bypass tube
DN50 DN80
∅ 50 ∅ 80
Horn antenna radars are most com-
monly used in measuring tube level
applications. Stilling tube internal
diameters can be 40 mm (1 ½"), 50 mm
(2"), 80 mm (3"), 100 mm (4") and 150
mm (6"). Larger tubes are possible.
Normally, the 40 mm and 50 mm
tubes do not require a horn. The PTFE
or ceramic waveguide impedance
matching cone can be installed directly
into the tube.
102
DN100 DN150
∅ 100 ∅ 150
For 80 mm and above, the appropri-
ate horn antenna is attached and this is
designed to fit inside the tube.
As discussed in Chapter 2, Physics
of radar and Chapter 6, Radar level
installations, the linear polarization of
the radar must be directed towards the
tube breather hole or mixing slots, or
towards the process connections in the
case of a bypass tube.
 5. Radar antennas
Measuring tube radar 2 - offset rod antennas
Fig 5.27 Offset rod antenna for use on 50 mm and 80 mm measuring tubes

1. HF cable
1
2. Signal coupling

3. PTFE faced flange

4. Offset short solid PTFE

rod antenna
2
3

The standard length dielectric rod This design is similar in construction

antennas should not be installed within
measuring tubes. There is a high level
of ‘ringing’ noise which severely
reduces the efficiency of the antenna.
However, a special design of short,
offset rod antenna can be used on small
diameter tubes (50 mm and 80 mm).
to rod antenna design 3. All wetted
parts are in PTFE and the short antenna
is off centre. This asymmetric design
produces improved signal to noise
ratios within a measuring tube.

103
Microwave velocity within measuring tube
The speed of microwaves within a The microwaves bounce off the
measuring tube is apparently slower sides of the tube and small currents are
when compared to the velocity in free induced in the walls of the tube. For a
space. The degree to which the running circular tube, or waveguide, the
time slows down depends on the diam- velocity change is calculated by the
eter of the tube and the wavelength of following equation :
the signal.

cwg is the speed of microwaves in

{ }
2 the measuring tube / waveguide
λ co
cwg = co x 1- is the speed of light in free
( 1.71d )2 λ
space
is the wavelength of the
microwaves
[Eq. 5.3]
d is the diameter of the measur-
ing tube

Fig 5.28 The transit time of microwaves

is slower within a stilling tube.
This effect must be compensated
within the software of the radar
level transmitter

104
 5. Radar antennas

There are different modes of propa-
gation of microwaves within a wave-
guide. However, an important value is
the minimum diameter of pipe that will
allow microwave propagation.
The value of the critical diameter,
dc , depends upon the wavelength λ of
the microwaves: The higher the fre-
quency of the microwaves, the smaller
the minimum diameter of measuring
tube that can be used.
Equation 5.4 shows the relationship
between critical diameter and wave-
length. For example, 5.8 GHz has a
wavelength λ of ~ 52 mm. The mini-
mum theoretical tube diameter is
dc = 31 mm
With a frequency of 26 GHz, a
wavelength of 11.5 mm, the minimum
tube diameter is dc = 6.75 mm. In prac-
tice the diameter should be higher. The
diameter for 5.8 GHz should be at least
40 mm.

dc = λ
1.71
[Eq. 5.4]

100
% speed of light, c

80

60

40

20

0
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
Tube diameter / wavelength, d / λ
Fig 5.29 Graph showing the effect of measuring tube diameter on the propagation speed
of microwaves

Higher frequencies such as 26 GHz The installation requirements of

will be more focused within larger radar level transmitters in measuring
diameter stilling tubes. This will min- tubes are covered in the next chapter.
imise false echoes from the stilling tube
wall.

105
4. Parabolic dish antennas
Fig 5.30 Typical parabolic antenna
The subject of this book is radar
level measurement in process vessels.
Although they are usually applied to
custody transfer applications and not
process vessel applications, the subject
of antennas would not be complete
without discussion of parabolic anten-
nas.
The parabolic antenna is well known
to all. The parabolic form is widely
seen from satellite television dishes and
radio telescopes to car headlights and
torch beams.
106
1. Feed from microwave
module
2. Parabolic reflector -
secondary antenna
1
3. Primary antenna
4. Focus of parabolic
reflector
2
3
4
The main structure of a parabolic
antenna is the parabolic reflector dish.
This is usually of stainless steel con-
struction and is designed to focus the
microwaves as accurately as possible.
The microwaves are fed through the
centre of the dish to the primary anten-
na that is in front of the dish at the
focus. The microwave energy is trans-
mitted from the primary antenna back
towards the parabolic dish, the sec-
ondary antenna, which reflects the
energy and focuses it towards the prod-
uct being measured.

The reflected energy is captured by
the dish and focused back to the prima-
ry antenna for echo analysis.
Parabolic antennas are used widely
in custody transfer applications and are
well proven in large storage tanks.
The benefits of parabolic antennas in
these applications are clear. The good
focusing of the paraboloid shape
ensures high antenna gain or directivi-
ty. Also this narrow beam angle results
in higher sensitivity.
However, parabolic antennas are
large, heavy, relatively complex and
expensive to manufacture. These fac-
tors limit the use of parabolic antennas
in most process level applications.
The central feed to the primary
antenna at the focus of the dish causes
a blind area directly in front of the
5. Radar antennas
antenna. This can reduce the antenna
efficiency.
Parabolic antennas have been
applied to bitumen storage tanks where
build up on the parabolic dish is said to
cause minimum signal attenuation. If
the primary antenna was coated in vis-
cous product, this would cause a major
problem to the signal strength.
In conclusion, the parabolic antenna
has a niche application in fiscal mea-
surement of large, slow moving prod-
uct tanks, but is not suitable for the
arduous conditions that are prevalent in
the wide variety of vessels within the
process industries.
Pic 1. Parabolic antennas have been
around since the beginning of
radar
107
5. Planar array antennas
Fig 5.31 Planar antenna - side view
Planar array antennas were original-
ly designed and built for aerospace
radar applications. When the nose cone
of a modern jet fighter is removed, it
reveals a flat circular disk faced with
dielectric material and covered with
small slots instead of the more ‘tradi-
tional’ parabolic metal dish. This flat
disk is typical of the planar array anten-
nas which have been developed for use
on radar level transmitters.
Planar array antennas have the
advantage of being relatively small and
light in weight especially when com-
pared with parabolic antennas.
108
1
1. Electronics housing
2. Process flange
2
3. Antenna feed
4. Stainless steel back
5. Microwave absorbing
material
3
6. Microwave patches
7. PTFE process seal
5
6
7
The construction of a planar array
antenna for a radar level transmitter is
quite complex. The antenna is backed
with a round stainless steel disk that
provides rigidity and strength to the
assembly. The steel disk is faced with a
microwave absorbing material. This
material ensures that the microwave
energy is directed towards the process
and that there is no ‘ringing’ noise
interference from microwave energy
bouncing off the steel back plate.

Fig 5.32 Cut away of planar array antenna for radar level transmitter
The microwaves pass in a common
feed from the microwave module
through the stainless steel and absorp-
tion material to a feed network across
the area of the planar antenna. A pattern
of microwave patches are fed from this
network.
There is a pattern of microwave ele-
ments across the area of the antenna.
Each element is built up of three or
more microwave patches with dielec-
tric material between. This forms a
multiple microwave array with many
individual elements transmitting from
the face of the planar antenna.
5. Radar antennas
1. Stainless steel back to
antenna provides rigidity
2. Microwave feed through
antenna back into feed
1 network to microwave
2 patches
3. Microwave absorbing
material prevents
3 ringing from stainless
4 steel back
4. Microwave patches with
5 low dielectric layers
between them focus the
microwaves from each
element of the array
5. PTFE process seal with
anti-static elements
Finally, the microwave elements and
the bonding materials that form the
structure of the planar antenna are pro-
tected by a PTFE process seal covering
the face of the antenna. Additional anti-
static material is used for hazardous
area applications.
Planar antennas can be designed
with good focusing of the microwaves
and minimal side lobes. As well as
applications within vessels, they can be
used for measuring tube applications.
109
Antenna energy patterns
At the beginning of this chapter we
stated that the definition of ‘beam
angle’ is the angle at which the
microwave energy measured at the cen-
tre line of the radar beam has reduced
to 50% or minus 3 dB.
We discussed directivity and antenna
gain and stated that even the best
designed antennas have side lobes of
energy. The aim is to maximize the
directivity and minimise the effect of
side lobes.
The metallic horn (or cone) antenna
and the dielectric rod antenna are the
most practical for process level mea-
surement. The following pages show
antenna radiation patterns for different
antenna types, frequencies and sizes.
These can be summarised as follows :

· Larger horn antennas have more focused beam angles

· Dielectric
antennas
rod antennas have more side lobes than horn

· For a given size of horn antenna - the higher the frequency

the more focused the beam angle

1. Comparison of horn antenna beam angle with horn

diameter
The following diagrams show the comparison of 100 mm, 150 mm and 250
mm (4",6" & 10") horn antennas at 5.8 GHz

Farfield E_Abs (Theta); Phi=90,0 deg.

Fig 5.33
90
Horn antenna
120 60
100mm (4"),
Max.: 14,3 dB
frequency 5.8GHz,
beam angle 32°
150 30

180 0
-10 0 10 20

150 30

120 60

90
main lobe direction : 0,0 deg.
angular width (3dB) : 32,1 deg.
side lobe suppression : 16,9 dB

110
 5. Radar antennas

Farfield E_Abs (Theta); Phi=90,0 deg.

Fig 5.34
90
Horn antenna
120 60
150mm (6"),
Max.: 15,4 dB
frequency 5.8GHz,
Beam angle 27.9°
150 30

180 0
-10 0 10 20

150 30

120 60

90
main lobe direction : 0,0 deg.
angular width (3dB) : 27,9 deg.
side lobe suppression : 20,9 dB

Farfield E_Abs (Theta); Phi=90,0 deg.

Fig 5.35
Horn antenna
90
250mm (10"),
120 60
Max.: 20,4 dB frequency 5.8GHz,
Beam angle 14.9°
150 30

180 0
0 10 20 30

150 30

120 60

90
main lobe direction : 0,0 deg.
angular width (3dB) : 14,9 deg.
side lobe suppression : 21,6 dB

111
2 Comparison of dielectric rod antenna with horn antenna
The following show a 5.8 GHz horn Although the beam angles are
antenna compared with a 5.8 GHz rod similar, the rod has more significant
antenna. side lobes.

Farfield E_Abs (Theta); Phi=90,0 deg.

Fig 5.36
90
Dielectric rod
120 60 antenna, 5.8 GHz.
Max.: 15,2 dB
Beam angle 32°
150 30

180 0
-10 0 10 20

150 30

120 60

90
main lobe direction : 0,0 deg.
angular width (3dB) : 32,0 deg.
side lobe suppression : 14,6 dB

Farfield E_Abs (Theta); Phi=90,0 deg.

Fig 5.37
90
150mm (6"), horn
120 60
antenna, 5.8 GHz.
Max.: 15,4 dB
Beam angle 27.9°
150 30

180 0
-10 0 10 20

150 30

120 60

90
main lobe direction : 0,0 deg.
angular width (3dB) : 27,9 deg.
side lobe suppression : 20,9 dB

112
 5. Radar antennas

3 Frequency differences and beam angles

The following diagrams show the antenna. These should be compared
beam angle of 26 GHz radar with a with the previous 5.8 GHz horn
40 mm (1½" ) and 80 mm (3") horn antenna patterns.

Farfield E_Abs (Theta); Phi=90,0 deg.

Fig 5.38
90
40 mm (1½") horn
Max.: 19,3 dB
120 60 antenna, 26 GHz.
Beam angle 18.2°
150 30

180 0
-10 0 10 20

150 30

120 60

90
main lobe direction : 0,0 deg.
angular width (3dB) : 18,2 deg.
side lobe suppression : 17,2 dB

Farfield E_Abs (Theta); Phi=90,0 deg.

Fig 5.39
90
80 mm (3") horn
120 60 antenna, 26 GHz.
Max.: 24,3 dB
Beam angle 9.4°
150 30

180 0
0 10 20 30

150 30

120 60

90
main lobe direction : 0,0 deg.
angular width (3dB) : 9,4 deg.
side lobe suppression : 22,1 dB

113
 Inhalt

Vorwort ix
Danksagung xi
Einleitung xiii

Teil I
1. Geschichte des Radars 1
2. Physikalische Grundlagen des Radars 13
3. Radartypen 33
1. CW-Radar 33
2. FMCW-Radar 36
3. Pulsradar 39

Teil II
4. Radar-Füllstandmessung 47
1. FMCW-Radar 48
2. Pulsradar 54
3. Frequenzwahl 62
4. Genauigkeit 68
5. Leistung 74

5. Radarantennen 77
1. Hornantennen 81
2. Dielektrische Stabantennen 92
3. Standrohrantennen 101
4. Parabolantennen 106
5. Planarantennen 108
Richtcharakteristik von Antennen 110

6. Installation 115
A. Mechanischer Einbau 115
1. Flüssigkeitsanwendungen - Hornantenne 115
2. Flüssigkeitsanwendungen - Stabantenne 117
3. Allgemeine Einbauhinweise 120
4. Standrohre und Bypass-Rohre 127
5. Messung durch Behälterwand und Radarfenster 134
6. Messung von Schüttgütern mit Hornantennen 139
B. Elektrische Anschlussvarianten 141
1. Nicht-Ex-Anwendungen 141
2. Geräte für Ex-Anendungen 144
 6. Installation
Mechanischer Einbau
Der richtige Einbau ist für die
Funktion eines Füllstandradars von
sehr großer Bedeutung. Obwohl die
Signalverarbeitungssoftware moderner
Geräte inzwischen auch schlechte
1. Flüssigkeitsanwendungen - Hornantenne
Stutzen / Muffen
Üblicherweise werden Radarsen-
soren auf einem Behälterstutzen oder
einer Muffe installiert. Referenzpunkt
für die Messung ist die Unterseite des
Geräteflansches.
Die Vorderkante der Hornantenne
sollte immer mindestens 10 mm aus
dem Stutzen heraus in den Behälter
ragen.
Korrekter
Einbau
10 mm
Abb. 6.1
Echoverhältnisse zuverlässig auswerten
kann, ist dies immer noch die wichtig-
ste Vorausetzung für eine funktionie-
rende Messung.
Die Hornantenne eines Gerätes mit
einem Flansch DN 150 (6") ist z.B.
205 mm lang. Ist der Montagestutzen
deutlich länger als 195 mm, sollte eine
Hohlleiterverlängerung verwendet wer-
den. So kann garantiert werden, dass
das Ende der Hornantenne über den
Stutzen hinausragt.
Falscher
Einbau
Abb.6.2
115
Hohlleiterverlängerung und Minimale Messdistanz bei
gebogene Hohlleiter Geräten mit Hornantenne
Eine Hohlleiterverlängerung sollte Mit einer Hornantenne ist es norma-
verwendet werden, wenn ein Radar- lerweise möglich, flüssige Medien bis
gerät mit Hornantenne in einem langen an die Unterkante der Antenne zu
Stutzen installiert wird. Hierfür wird messen. Dies ist allerdings nur
ein Edelstahlrohr zwischen den PTFE / möglich, wenn die Flüssigkeit gute
keramischen Hohlleiter im Flansch und Reflexionseigenschaften hat.
der Hornantenne montiert. Es ist auch Das Eintauchen der Antennen in die
möglich, die Hohlleiterverlängerung Flüssigkeit, eventuell sogar mit Anhaf-
für einen seitlichen Einbau des Gerätes tungen, verursacht insbesondere bei
abzubiegen. Der minimale Biegeradius 6,3 GHz-Geräten kaum Probleme.
für diesen Antennentyp ist 200 mm, der
Winkel sollte nicht über 90° betragen.
Bei der Verwendung eines geboge-
nen Hohlleiters ist die Ausrichtung der
linearen Polarisation des Radars
wichtig. Die Polarisationsrichtung des
Radars sollte horizontal sein, wenn die
Biegung nach unten verläuft.
Verlängerte und gebogene Hohlleiter
sind für Flüssigkeiten mit guten
Reflexionseigenschaften geeignet. Sie
sollten nicht bei Flüssigkeiten mit
niedrigen DK-Werten oder bei
Schüttgütern verwendet werden.

Abb. 6.3: Einbau von Geräten mit

Hornantenne.

116
 6. Installation

2. Flüssigkeitsanwendungen - Stabantenne
Stutzen / Muffen
Eine PTFE-Stabantenne eignet sich
gut bei chemisch aggressiven Produk-
ten wie Säuren und Laugen. Sie wird
oft in der chemischen und pharmazeu-
tischen Industrie benutzt, wo Mischun-
gen aus Lösungsmitteln, Säuren und
Laugen alltäglich sind.
Die PTFE-Stabantennen mit Tri-
Clamp und spaltfreier Dichtkonstruk-
tion sind speziell für Anwendungen in
der Lebensmittelindustrie und für
sterile Behälter optimiert.
Die Stabantenne wird für Flüssig-
keiten und Schlämme, aber nicht für
Schüttgutanwendungen benutzt. Der
Sensor ist meistens in einem einfachen
Stutzen oder in einer Gewindemuffe
eingebaut. Radarsensoren mit Staban-
tenne werden passend für geschraubte
Verbindungen wie 1½" (NPT oder G),
Flanschanschlüsse von DN 50 (2") bis
DN 150 (6") oder hygienische Lebens-
mittelanschlüsse geliefert.
Beim Einbau ist wichtig, dass der
komplette konische Teil der Antenne
aus dem Stutzen in den Behälter
ragt.
Für den Einbau in langen Stutzen
sind Stabantennen mit unterschied-
lichen inaktiven Längen verfügbar.
Typische Längen für diesen inaktiven
Teil, und somit die maximale Länge
des Stutzens, sind 100 mm und
250 mm.

Abb. 6.4: Typische Einbau

einer Stabantenne: Der aktive
konische Teil der Antenne muss
komplett in den Behälter ragen.
Für längere Stutzen sollten
Antennen mit inaktiver Länge
verwendet werden.

117
Falscher Einbau einer Stabantenne
Wenn der konische Abschnitt einer wellen ein starkes Rauschen (Klingeln).
Stabantenne in einem Stutzen montiert Dies führt speziell im Nahbereich zu
wird, erzeugen die abgestrahlten Mikro- einer Verringerung der Messsicherheit.

Abb. 6.5:
Richtig:
Antenne mit angepasstem
inaktiven Teil für lange
Stutzen.
Normale Rauschkurve mit
deutlichem Echo.

Abb. 6.6:
Falsch:
Kurze Stabantenne in einem
langen Stutzen. Produziert
hohes „Klingeln“. Im Nah-
bereich kann dies sogar das
Echo überdecken.

118

Stabantenne direkt auf dem
Behälter
Radarsensoren mit Stabantenne kön-
nen direkt in eine Öffnung in der
Decke eines Tanks montiert werden.
Dies kann entweder über einen Flansch
oder ein Einschraubgewinde gesche-
hen.
Maximale Füllhöhe bei einer
Stabantenne
Wie bereits erklärt, ist es wichtig,
dass der konische Abschnitt einer Stab-
antenne komplett innerhalb des Behäl-
ters ist. Die Gerätesoftware kann das
„Klingeln“ bei einem falschen Einbau
nicht eliminieren. Eine Erhöhung der
Verstärkung würde dies noch weiter
verschlechtern.
Die Länge der Stabantenne ab dem
Flansch bestimmt die maximale Befüll-
höhe im Behälter. Im Idealfall sollte
das flüssige Füllgut die Stabantenne
nicht berühren. Allerdings ist dies
manchmal unvermeidlich, hierbei muss
Folgendes in Betracht gezogen werden.
Mechanische Belastung
Es sollte beachtet werden, dass die
PTFE-Antennen nur beschränkten
mechanischen Belastungen widerstehen
können. Beim Auftreten einer Quer-
kraft kann sie sich biegen und verfor-
men oder sogar brechen. Hat die
Anwendung starke Füllgutbewegun-
gen? Kann die Biegekraft Schaden am
Stab verursachen?
6. Installation
Anhaftungen auf der Stabantenne
Wie schon erklärt, werden die
Mikrowellen bei einer Stabantenne
vom konischen Abschnitt des Stabs
ausgesandt. Taucht nun der Stab in eine
viskose Flüssigkeit ein, und das
Produkt bildet auf der Antenne einen
Überzug, so gefährdet dies die
Messung. Bilden sich starke
Anhaftungen, dann wird das Radar
nicht mehr funktionieren.
Berühren niedrigviskose Flüssig-
keiten wie z.B. Lösungsmittel oder
wasserbasierende Produkte die Stab-
antenne, kann dies sogar einen
Selbstreinigungseffekt haben und die
Messung bleibt stabil. Bei solchen
Medien kann die Antenne bis zur
Hälfte eintauchen. Jedoch ist auch hier
schon mit deutlich verringerter
Messsicherheit und Genauigkeit zu
rechnen.
Nach Möglichkeit sollte ein
Eintauchen der Antenne gänzlich ver-
mieden werden.
119
3. Allgemeine Einbauhinweise:
Horn- und Stabantenne bei Flüssigkeitsanwendungen
Folgendes sollte bei der Montage eines Radargerätes mit Horn- oder
Stabantenne auf einem Behälter berücksichtigt werden.
Montage in Behältern mit Paraboleffekt
gewölbtem Deckel Wird ein Radarfüllstandmessgerät
Ein Radarsensor sollte nicht im im Zentrum eines gewölbten Deckels
Zentrum eines gewölbten Deckels oder montiert, empfängt der Sensor stark
zu nahe an der Gefäßwand montiert überhöhte Vielfachechos. Der Effekt
werden. Die ideale Position ist unge- dieser Vielfachechos kann deutlich auf
fähr ½ Radius von der Außenwand ent- der Echokurve betrachtet werden.
fernt. Gewölbte Tankdeckel können Abb. 6.8 zeigt, dass das dritte Vielfache
sonst als parabolischer Reflektor eine deutlich höhere Amplitude
wirken. aufweist als das erste, tatsächliche
Ist der Radarsensor im „Brenn- Echo. Dieser Effekt kann auch in
punkt“ eines parabolischen Deckels liegenden Rundtanks vorkommen.
montiert, empfängt er deutlich über- Vielfachechos können bei Pulsradar
höhte Vielfachechos. Dies wird ver- durch die Software erkannt werden, da
mieden, wenn der Sensor wie zuvor sie zeitlich deutlich getrennt sind. Wie
beschrieben eingebaut wird. bereits in Kapitel 4 beschrieben, ist
dies bei FMCW ein größeres Problem.

Echokurve

r/2

Abb. 6.7: Die ideale Position für das Abb. 6.8: Dieser Effekt tritt auf, wenn das
Gerät ist bei Behältern mit gewölbtem Gerät in der Spitze eines gewölbten
Deckel bei der Hälfte des Radius. Deckels montiert werden.

120

Störechos
Ebene Flächen, Einbauten z.B. Ver-
steifungen oder auch Einbauten mit
scharfen Kanten verursachen große
Störechos. An diesen Objekten werden
hohe Störamplituden produziert. Runde
Profile hingegen produzieren eine dif-
fuse Reflexion und somit nur geringe
Störechos. Sie sind deshalb vom Gerät
leichter zu verarbeiten als große
Störechos, die von einer ebenen Fläche
stammen.
Können flache Reflexionsebenen im
Messbereich des Radars nicht ver-
Abb. 6.9: Profile mit ebenen Flächen
oder scharfen Ecken verursachen
starke Störechos.
Abb. 6.10: Durch diffuse Reflexion an
runden Teilen werden deutlich gerin-
gere Störechos produziert.
6. Installation
mieden werden, sollten diese mit einem
zur Seite ablenkenden Streublech ver-
sehen werden. Die dann mehrfach
gebrochenen Radarsignale sind in der
Amplitude deutlich kleiner und deshalb
von der Software leichter zu verarbeit-
en.
Diese Maßnahmen müssen umso
gewissenhafter durchgeführt werden, je
geringer der DK-Wert des Produkts ist
und je höher die Genauigkeitsan-
forderungen sind.
Abb. 6.11: Ein Streublech verteilt die
Mikrowellenenergie zur Seite und
reduziert damit die Störechoamplitude.
121
 Vermeiden vom Störechos
Bei der Einbauposition des Radar-
gerätes sollte darauf geachtet werden,
dass sich keine Streben und kein
Befüllstrom im Detektionsbereich des
Radars befinden.
Die folgenden Beispiele zeigen typ-
ische Messprobleme und wie sie ver-
mieden werden können.
122
Absätze
Behälterprofile mit flachen Absätzen
rechtwinklig zur Hauptstrahlrichtung
des Radars erzeugen starke Störechos.
Durch den Einbau eines Streublechs
kann die Störechoamplitude deutlich
reduziert werden, um somit eine zuver-
lässige Messung zu ermöglichen.
Einbauten mit einer rechtwinkligen
Fläche zum Sensor, z.B. Einlässe,
Achsen, sollten mit einem „Dach“ ver-
sehen werden (Abb. 6.13). Hiermit
wird das Radarsignal ebenfalls ge-
streut, die übrigen Störechos können
von der Signalverarbeitungssoftware
herausgefiltert werden.
Abb. 6.12: Streublech an einem
Absatz im Behälter.
Abb. 6.13: Streublech auf Einbauten.
 6. Installation

Behältereinbauten
Einbauten wie z.B. Streben, Leitern, schlecht reflektierenden Produkt ge-
Versteifungen und Sonden verursachen fährden. Durch Anbringen von kleinen
oft Störechos. Durch einen gute Wahl Blechen können diese Störechos
der Einbauposition können viele verkleinert werden. Die Störamplitude
Störechos bereits im Vorfeld vermieden sinkt und kann von der
werden. Signalverarbeitung besser verwertet
Auch Schweißnähte im Behälter werden. Bei der Herstellung des
können Störechos produzieren. Speziell Behälters können Störechos durch
bei höherfrequenten Radargeräten, die Verschleifen der Schweißnähte
nahe an der Wand montiert sind, minimiert werden.
können diese die Messung bei einem

Abb. 6.14: Der Sensor sollte abseits

von Einbauten, z.B. Leitern, mon-
tiert werden.

Abb 6.15: Winkelbleche an

Schweißnähten oder Versteifungen
können Störechos reduzieren.

123
Anhaftungen
Ist der Radarsensor zu nahe an der Der Sensor sollte deshalb immer etwas
Behälterwand montiert, können Pro- Abstand zur Behälterwand haben. Der
duktanhaftungen Störechos erzeugen. ideale Kompromiss ist ½ Radius.

Abb. 6.16: Störechos durch Anhaftungen an der

Behälterwand sollten vermieden werden.

Polarisation
Wie schon in Kapitel 2 besprochen,
sind die Mikrowellen der VEGA -
Radargeräte linear polarisiert.
Obwohl die Polarisation eine grö-
ßere Bedeutung in Standrohren und
Bypassrohren hat, kann sie auch bei
Anwendung in „normalen“ Behältern
von Bedeutung sein. Die Amplitude
von Störechos, z.B. von Streben oder
der Behälterwand, kann oft durch
Drehen des Radarsensors um 45º oder
90º reduziert werden.
Die Richtung der Polarisation wird
durch das Einkoppelsystem festgelegt,
es ist am Gerät durch die Position des
Typenschildes erkennbar.

124
 6. Installation

Ausrichtung des Radargerätes bei Flüssigkeitsanwendungen

(Stab- oder Hornantenne)
Bei Flüssigkeitsanwendungen muss Wird das Gerät angewinkelt, sinkt die
das Radar-Füllstandmessgerät mög- Echoamplitude und die Gefahr von
lichst senkrecht nach unten zur zu Störechos wächst.
messenden Oberfläche geführt werden.

Abb. 6.17: Bei Messungen von

Flüssigkeiten muss der Sensor
senkrecht ausgerichtet sein.

Fließende Produkte
Ein Radarsensor sollte nicht direkt mieden, dass anstelle der Produkt-
über oder in der Nähe einer Befüllung oberfläche der Befüllstrom gemessen
montiert werden. Dadurch wird ver- wird.

Abb. 6.18: Montieren Sie

den Radarsensor abseits von
Befüllströmen.

125
Sensor zu nah an der Behälterwand
Wird der Radarsensor zu nahe an der
Behälterwand montiert, kann dies
starke Interferenzen verursachen. Die
Echos von Anhaftungen, Nieten oder
Schweißnähten überlagern sich mit
dem richtigen Echo. Es muss aus-
reichend Abstand vom Sensor zur
Behälterwand eingehalten werden, um
dies zu verhindern.
Abhängig von der Antennengröße
haben verschiedene Radarfüllstand-
Abb. 6.19: Richtdiagramm einer Antenne mit 150 mm Durchmesser
bei 6,3 GHz.
126
messgeräte unterschiedliche Öffnungs-
winkel (Kapitel 5: Radarantennen).
Im Allgemeinen sollte darauf ge-
achtet werden, dass sich die Behäl-
terwand nicht innerhalb des 3dB-Öff-
nungswinkels der Antenne befindet.
Bei ungünstigen Einbaubedingungen
bzw. Störungen durch die
Behälterwand können die Mess-
verhältnisse durch Verändern der
Polarisation optimiert werden.

4. Standrohre und Bypassrohre
Radar-Füllstandmessgeräte werden
oft für Messungen in Standrohren oder,
Bypassrohren eingesetzt. Diese Art von
Installation kann bei Messungen mit
Schaum, starken Turbulenzen, mecha-
nisch komplexen Behältern oder bei
Flüssigkeiten mit sehr niedrigem DK-
Wert notwendig sein. Radar-Füllstand-
messgeräte werden oft auch benutzt,
um vorhandene Geräte in Rohren zu
ersetzen, z.B. Verdränger und
Schwimmer.
Schaumbildung
Ein dichter, leitfähiger Schaum auf
dem Produkt kann die Messung stören.
Unter diesen Bedingungen ist es wahr-
scheinlich, dass der Radarsensor die
Oberfläche des Schaums messen wird.
Es gibt aber auch Anwendungen mit
Schaum geringer Dichte, der von
Radarwellen problemlos durchdrungen
wird. Allerdings kann hier keine
generelle Aussage getroffen werden,
deshalb muss bei Messungen mit
Schaum stets mit Umsicht und
Erfahrung vorgegangen werden. Lassen
Sie sich bei solch einer Anwendung
vom Sensorhersteller beraten.
Flüssigkeiten mit sehr niedriger
Dielektrizitätszahl
Selbst nichtleitende Produkte und
Flüssigkeiten mit äußerst niedriger
Dielektrizitätszahl wie z.B. Flüssiggas
können in Standrohren trotzdem genau
und zuverlässig gemessen werden. Wie
schon in Kapitel 5 erklärt, konzentriert
das Standrohr die Mikrowellen und
erzeugt so ein starkes Echo von der
Produktoberfläche. Produkte mit
Dielektrizitätszahlen bis zu 1,5 können
so gemessen werden.
6. Installation
Turbulente Produktoberfläche
Starke Turbulenzen, verursacht durch
Rührwerke oder heftige chemische
Reaktionen, beeinflussen die Radar-
messung. Ein Standrohr oder
Bypassrohr mit hinreichender Größe
erlaubt eine zuverlässige Messung
sogar mit starken Turbulenzen im
Behälter. Voraussetzung hierfür ist,
dass das Produkt im Rohr nicht
anhaftet. Leichte Anhaftungen verur-
sachen jedoch in größeren Rohren, z.B.
100 mm Durchmesser, kaum Probleme.
Allgemeine Hinweise zur
Radarmessung in Rohren
Ein Standrohr muss unten offen sein
und sich über dem vollen Messbereich
ausdehnen (d.h. von 0 % bis 100 %
Füllstand). Zum Druckausgleich muss
das Rohr über dem 100 % Punkt eine
Bohrung besitzen. Ausgleichsbohrun-
gen oder Schlitze müssen auf einer
Achse liegen und dürfen maximal auf
zwei gegenüberliegenden Seiten des
Rohrs angebracht werden. Die Ausrich-
tung der Löcher zur Polarisation muss
beachtet werden, bei VEGA-Sensoren
müssen diese senkrecht unter dem
Typschild angebracht sein.
Als eine Alternative zum Standrohr
im Gefäß kann ein Radarsensor auch
außerhalb des Behälters auf einem
Bypassrohr installiert werden. Die
Polarisation muss wie in Abb. 6.21
dargestellt, zu den Prozessver-
bindungen ausgerichtet werden.
127
 E E E

Abb. 6.20: Position von Entlüftungs- Abb. 6.21: Polarisationsrichtung bei

bohrung und Polarisation auf einem einem Bypassrohr.
Standrohr.

Abb. 6.22: Installation auf einem

Bypassrohr. Radarsensoren können
Verdrängersysteme und Schwimmer
problemlos ersetzen.

128
 6. Installation

Polarisation Laufzeitänderung der

Die Sensorpolarisation muss in
einem Bypassrohr in Richtung der Pro-
zessverbindungen und in einem Stand-
rohr in Richtung der Ausgleichs-
bohrungen oder Schlitze ausgerichtet
werden. Die Löcher oder Schlitze
müssen auf einer Achse liegen.
Eine korrekte Polarisation verbessert
die Messung erheblich. Störechos wer-
den dadurch reduziert und somit das
Signal-Rausch-Verhältnis optimiert.
Mikrowellen
Wie bereits in Kapitel 2 und Kapitel
5 erklärt, reduziert sich in einem Stand-
rohr, abhängig vom Durchmesser, der
maximale Messbereich. Verursacht
wird dies dadurch, dass sich die Mikro-
wellen im Rohr langsamer, als
Lichtgeschwindigkeit ausbreiten. In
einem Rohr mit 50 mm Durchmesser
(2") verringert sich die Laufzeit um
20 % und die maximale Länge beträgt
dadurch noch 16 m. Bei einem Rohr
von 100 mm Durchmesser (4")
reduziert sich die nutzbare Länge auf
19 m.

Standrohr zur Messung von inhomogenen Produkten

Abb. 6.23: Durch Schlitze wird eine gute Durchmischung von inhomogenen Produkten
erreicht. Die Polarisation muss in Richtung der Schlitze ausgerichtet werden.

129
Anhaftende Produkte Messrohr mit Kugelhahn
Um Messprobleme und Messfehler Zur Abtrennung des Rohrs bzw. des
bei der Messung von anhaftenden Messgeräts vom Prozess kann ein
Produkten in Standrohren zu vermei- Kugelhahn verwendet werden. Mit dem
den, sollte das Rohr einen Innen- Kugelhahn ist es möglich, Wartungs-
durchmesser von mindestens 100 mm arbeiten durchzuführen, ohne den
(4") haben. Sollen inhomogene Behälter zu öffnen. Dies ist bei
Produkte oder Produkte gemessen wer- Flüssiggas und giftigen Erzeugnissen
den die eine Trennschicht ausbilden, besonders wichtig. Bei geöffnetem
muss das Standrohr Löcher oder lange Ventil sollten möglichst keine Kanten
Schlitze haben. Diese Öffnungen stel- im Durchlass zu sehen sein, dies würde
len sicher, dass die Flüssigkeit durch- sonst zu Störechos führen.
mischt wird und, dass sie sich an den
richtigen Füllstand angleicht. Je inho-
mogener das Produkt, desto mehr Öff-
nungen müssen vorhanden sein.
Die Löcher und Schlitze müssen aus
Gründen der Polarisation in zwei um
180º versetzten Reihen positioniert
werden. Der Radarsensor muss so aus-
gerichtet werden, dass die Polarisation
in Richtung der Löcher ausgerichtet ist.

E E

Abb. 6.25: Mit einem Kugelhahn kann

der Radarsensor vom Behälter getrennt
werden, ohne den Behälter zu öffnen,
bzw. den Prozess zu stoppen.

Abb. 6.24: Die Polarisation muss in

Richtung der Schlitze oder Löcher aus-
gerichtet sein.

130

Konstruktionsrichtlinien für Standrohre
Diagramm 1 (Seite 132) Diagramm 2 (Seite 133)
Für Messung in Stand- oder Bypass-
rohren werden Geräte mit Flansch-
größen DN50 (2"), DN80 (3"), DN100
(4") und DN 150 (6")benutzt.
Diagramm 1 zeigt die Konstruktion
eines Stand- oder Bypassrohrs mit
einem Rohrdurchmesser und Flansch
DN50.
Das Standrohr muss innen glatt sein
(Rauhigkeitswert Rz < 30). Ideal ist ein
durchgehendes Rohr ohne Verbin-
dungsstellen im Messbereich. Werden
größere Rohrlängen benötigt, sollten
die Teilstücke mit Vorschweißflanschen
oder Rohrverschraubungen verbunden
werden. Hierbei ist jedoch darauf zu
achten, dass die Stoßstellen möglichst
spaltfrei und ohne Durchmessersprung
ausgeführt werden. Beim Schweißen
darf kein Verzug entstehen, die
Rohrstärke muss angepasst werden, um
nicht durch das Rohr durch-
zuschweißen.
Rauhigkeiten und Schweißnähte im
Rohr müssen sorgfältig entfernt wer-
den. Diese würden sonst Störechos
verursachen und Anhaftungen begün-
stigen. Schlitze und Löcher müssen
sorgfältig entgratet werden.
6. Installation
Diagramm 2 zeigt die Konstruktion
eines Standrohrs für einen Radarsensor
mit einem DN100 (4") Flansch.
Radarsensoren mit Flanschen von
DN80 (3"), DN100 (4") und DN150
(6") müssen zur Messung im Standrohr
mit einer Hornantenne ausgerüstet sein.
Der Antennendurchmesser sollte hier-
bei möglichst nahe am Innendurch-
messer des Rohrs liegen. Zur Messung
in Rohren DN50 und DN80 sind
spezielle Stabantennen vorhanden. Die
Flanschverbindung zum Gerät ist nicht
mehr kritisch, da sie hinter der
Abstrahlebene der Antenne liegt.
Bei starker Bewegung im Behälter
(z.B. Rührwerk) muss das Standrohr
entsprechend befestigt werden, dies gilt
auch für sehr lange Rohre.
Bei der Messung von Flüssigkeiten
mit niedrigem DK-Wert kann oft der
Nullpunkt nicht sicher gemessen wer-
den, oder es kommt zu starken
Messfehlern im Bodenbereich.
Ausgelöst wird dies dadurch, dass das
Echo des Behälterbodens hinter dem
Rohrende ein stärkeres Echo erzeugt,
als das Produkt selbst. In solchen
Anwendungen kann der Einbau eines
Streublechs am Ende des Rohrs von
Vorteil sein. Die Mikrowellen werden
hiermit zur Seite abgelenkt und das
starke Bodenecho hierdurch vermieden.
Allerdings geht dadurch am Rohrende
Raum verloren, da außerhalb des Rohrs
nicht gemessen werden kann.
131
Diagramm 1

Radarsensor
VEGAPULS 54

Flansch DN 50
Rohrdruchmesser 50 mm

Vorschweißflansch

100%
2.9…6
5…15

Schweißungs der
150…500

Verbindungsmuffe
0.0…0.4

Verbindungsmuffe

Rz ≤ 30

Schweißung des
Vorschweißflansch 2.9 Vorschweißflansches
0.0…0.4

1.5…2
Löcher müssen
gratfrei sein

Halterung des Standrohres

minimal messbare
0% Füllhöhe (0%)

Ablenk- ~45˚ Tankboden

platte

Alle Abmessungen in mm
Abb. 6.26

132
 6. Installation

Diagramm 2

Radarsensor
VEGAPULS 54
Flansch DN 100
Rohrdurchmesser 100 mm

Schweißflansch

Schweißung des
100% Schweißflansches
3.6
5…15
150…500

Schweißung der
Verbindungsmuffe
0.0…0.4

Verbindungsmuffe

Rz ≤ 30

Vorschweißflansch 3.6
Schweißung des
Vorschweiflansches
0.0…0.4

1.5…2
Löcher müssen
gratfrei sein

Halterung des Standrohres

0%
minimal messbare
Füllhöhe (0%)

Ablenk- ~45˚ Behälterboden

Platte
Alle Abmessungen in mm
Abb. 6.27

133
5. Messung durch die Behälterwand und Radarfenster
Die Mikrowellensignale von Radar-
füllstandmessgeräten durchdringen
dielektrische Materialien wie z.B.
PTFE, Polypropylen und Glas. Dies ist
für einige Anwendungen sehr wichtig,
z.B. bei der Messung von hochreinen
Flüssigkeiten in der Pharmaindustrie
oder der Halbleiterfertigung, oder bei
hochaggressiven Produkten in der
chemischen Industrie. In diesen Fällen
ist es aus Sicherheitsgründen und im
Hinblick auf die Produktqualität von
Vorteil wenn der Behälter geschlossen
bleibt.
Ein solche Messung ist bei Produk-
ten mit guten Reflexionseigenschaften
möglich, sie können bei geeignetem
Behältermaterial direkt von oben,
durch die Behälterdecke, gemessen
werden. Produkte mit guter elektrischer
Leitfähigkeit und mit einer Dielek-
trizitätszahl von mehr als 10 sind dafür
geeignet. Bei Messungen in denen es
prozess- oder produktbedingt zu star-
ken Niederschlägen oder Kondensation
an der Behälterdecke kommt, ist dieses
Verfahren mit Vorsicht anzuwenden.

Abb. 6.28: Gut reflektierende Medien können direkt durch die Behälterwand oder durch
ein Messfenster gemessen werden.

134

Reflexionen an der Behälterwand
Wie Licht folgen auch Mikrowellen
den Gesetzen der Reflexion. Obwohl
bei geeignetem Behältermaterial der
größte Teil der Energie durch die
Behälterwand hindurch dringt, wird
immer ein Teil dort reflektiert. Bei
ebener Tankdecke und Aufsetzen des
Radargerätes auf dem Tank wird dieser
Teil der Sendeenergie direkt in die
Antenne zurückreflektiert (Abb. 6.29).
Dies führt zu erhöhtem Rauschen im
Nahbereich.
Abb. 6.29: Eine flache Behälterdecke
produziert eine Störreflexion direkt
zurück in die Antenne.
Messung durch ein dielektrisches Fenster
Mit einem Pulsradar kann auch
durch „dielektrische Fenster“ in
Metalltanks gemessen werden. Das
Fenster muss groß genug und sollte im
Abb. 6.31: Optimale Installation für
ein 6,3 GHz-Radar zur Messung
durch ein dielektrisches Fenster.
6. Installation
Die Qualität der Messung wird
verbessert, wenn das Radargerät über
einem schrägen Bereich des Deckels
(35º bis 50º) in einem Abstand von ca.
400 mm zum Behälter montiert wird.
Der Winkel stellt sicher, dass die
Reflexionen von der Tankwand nicht
direkt in die Antenne strahlen und es
somit nicht zu Störechos kommt.
(Abb. 6.30)
Abb. 6.30: Die Messung über einem
angeschrägten Bereich des Behälter-
deckels verbessert die Messung deut-
Idealfall auch angewinkelt sein. Auch
hier sollte der Sensor auf Abstand zum
Fenster montiert werden.
Anmerkung: Prüfen Sie die
Bestimmungen für den Einsatz von
Radar-Füllstandmessgeräten außerhalb
von geschlossenen Behältern in ihrem
Land. Die geltenden Regeln können
sehr unterschiedlich sein.
135
Messung durch ein dielektrisches Fenster
In einigen Ländern ist es verboten Bei Messungen durch ein Fenster
FMCW-Radar-Füllstandmessgeräte kann eine Verbesserung erzielt werden,
außerhalb eines Metallgefäßes zu wenn die Scheibe eine konische Form
betreiben. In solchen Fällen muss das erhält (siehe Abb. 6.32). Solch eine
Gerät, um die Vorteile eines „dielek- Trennscheibe kann bei geeigneter
trischen Fensters“ nutzen zu können, in Dimensionierung als Linse wirken und
einem metallischen Stutzen über einem die Mikrowellen zusätzlich fokus-
Kunststoff oder Glasfenster installiert sieren. Diese Form begünstigt zusätz-
werden (Abb. 6.32). Dies kann jedoch lich das Ablaufen und Abtropfen von
einen hohen Störpegel verursachen. Kondensat.

Radar-Sensor

metallischer
Stutzen

konische
Teflonscheibe

Abb. 6.32

136
 6. Installation

Dimensionierung des dielektrischen Fensters

Die Wahl der richtigen Material-
dicke ist für die Messung durch ein
Fenster sehr wichtig.
Die entstehenden Interferenzen
durch das Fenster bestehen aus zwei
unterschiedlichen Echos. Das erste
Echo stammt von der äußeren
Oberfläche des Fenstermaterials, an der diese beiden Echos aus (siehe auch
die Mikrowellen ins Fenster eindrin-
gen. An dieser erste Oberfläche, dem
Übergang von DK = 1 auf den DK-
Wert des Fenstermaterials, gibt es eine
180º-Phasendrehung der Mikrowellen.
Das zweite Echo, beim Verlassen des
Fensters, besitzt keine Phasendrehung.
Hier geht es von einem dichteren in ein
weniger dichtes Medium. Durch Wahl
der Fensterdicke als λ/2 der
Mikrowellenfrequenz löschen sich
Kapitel 2).

Reflexion mit
Gesendete Phasendrehung
Welle von der Oberfläche
Reflexion ohne
Phasendrehung von
der inneren Oberfläche

Kunststoffdeckel

Sendesignal

{
Reflexion mit
Phasendrehung
Reflexion ohne Gegenseitige Auslöschung
Phasendrehung

Abb. 6.33: Die optimale Dicke des Fenstermaterials beträgt λ/2 der Radarfrequenz.

137
 Die Tabelle zeigt die optimale Dicke für die wichtigsten Kunststoffe und Gläser
die zum Durchstrahlen geeignet sind. Es wird die optimale Dicke für
6,3 GHz und 26 GHz gezeigt.

Fenstermaterialien für Radarsender: Frequenz 6,3 GHz

zu durchdringendes Material εr optimale Dicke D in mm

PE Polyethylen 2,3 15,5 (31; 46,5 …)
PTFE (Teflon) 2,1 16,5 (33; 49,5 …)
PVDF Polyvinyl ~7 9 (18; 27; 36 …)
PP Polypropylen 2,3 15,5 (31; 46,5 …)
Borosylikat-Glas 5,5 10 (20; 30; 40 …)
Rassotherm-Glas 4,6 11 (22; 33; 44 …)
Labortherm-Glas 8,1 8,5 (17; 26,5; 34…)
Quarzglas ~4 12 (24; 36; 48…)
POM Polyoxymethylen 3,7 12,5 (25;37,5; 50 …)
Polyester 4,6 11 (22; 33; 44 …)
Plexiglas Polyacrylat 3,1 13,5 (27; 40,5; 54 …)
PC Polycarbonat ~2,8 14 (28; 42 ...)

Fenstermaterialien für Radarsender: Frequenz 26 GHz

zu durchdringendes Material εr optimale Dicke D in mm

PE Polyethylen 2,3 3,8 (7,6; 11,4 ...)
PTFE (Teflon) 2,1 4 (8,0; 12,0 ...)
PVDF Polyvinyl ~7 1,8 (3,6; 5,4 ...)
PP Polypropylen 2,3 3,8 (7,6; 11,4 ...)
Borosylikat-Glas 5,5 2,5 (5; 7,5 …)
Rassotherm-Glas 4,6 2,7 (5,4; 8,1 …)
Labortherm-Glas 8,1 2 (4,0; 6,0; 8,0 …)
Quarzglas ~4 2,9 (5,8; 8,7 …)
POM Polyoxymethylen 3,7 3 (6,0; 9,0 ...)
Polyester 4,6 2,7 (5,4; 8,1 ...)
Plexiglas Polyacrylat 3,1 3,2 (6,4; 9,6 ...)
PC Polycarbonat ~2,8 3,6 (7,2; 10,8 ...)

Anmerkung: Die optimale Dicke kann auch durch Aufschichten einiger Lagen
identischen Materials erreicht werden. Die Schichten müssen jedoch ohne Luftspalt
aufeinander liegen. Vielfache der optimalen Dicke führen ebenfalls zu guten
Ergebnissen, jedoch verursacht die Dicke des Fenstermaterials eine
Signaldämpfung.

138

6. Messung von Schüttgütern mit Hornantennen
Zur Messung von Schüttgütern wer-
den fast ausschließlich Hornantennen
verwendet. Dies schließt alle pneuma-
tisch beförderten Erzeugnisse wie
Pulver, Granulate und Körner ein. Die
Stabantenne hat ihre Stärke in
Flüssigkeitstanks.
Die Oberflächen von Schüttgütern in
Silos und Behältern sind selten flach.
Bei Produkten wie z.B. Pulver oder
Granulat sieht das Profil bei Befüllung
und Entleerung zumeist unterschiedlich
aus. Der Winkel des Schüttkegels hängt
vom Produkt selbst, der Füll- und
Entleermethode und von Form und
Abmessungen des Silos ab.
6. Installation
Radar-Füllstandmessgeräte, ebenso
wie Ultraschallwandler, sollten außer-
halb der Mitte zum tiefsten Punkt des
Behälters ausgerichtet montiert werden.
Auch hier sollte das Ende des Horns
mindestens 10 mm in den Behälter
ragen.
Der Radarsensor wird angewinkelt
montiert um immer möglichst senk-
recht zur Produktoberfläche zu senden.
So wird über die gesamte Füllhöhe die
beste Echoamplitude erreicht.
Der Radarsensor sollte abseits vom
Befüllstrom und von Einbauten mon-
tiert werden um möglichst wenig
Störechos zu erhalten.
Abb 6.34: Für Schüttgutanwendungen
werden Hornantennen verwendet. Die
Antenne ist außerhalb der Mitte montiert
und zum tiefsten Punkt im Silo aus-
gerichtet. Dies ergibt bei verschiedenen
Schüttkegeln das beste Messergebnis.
139
Abb. 6.35 und 6.36: Schüttkegel von typischen Schüttgutanwendungen beim Befüllen und
Entleeren.

Hohe Temperaturen und anhaftende Produkte

Bei Anwendungen mit hohen Tem- Hierzu wird der Flansch von zwei
peraturen oder stark anhaftenden gegenüberliegenden Seiten bis zum
Staubablagerungen auf der Antenne Konus der Teflonfüllung durchbohrt.
sollte diese mit Druckluft oder Stick- An diesen Stellen kann dann die Luft-
stoff gespült werden. bzw. Stickstoffspülung angeschlossen
werden.

Abb. 6.37: Luft- bzw. Stickstoffspülung

zum Kühlen und Reinigen der Antenne.

Luft- bzw. Stickstoff

140
 6. Installation

B. Elektrische Anschlussvarianten
In den vergangenen Jahren hat sich
die Auswahl an unterschiedlichen
Radar-Füllstandmessgeräten erhöht.
Zudem haben sich eine Vielzahl von
elektrischen Anschlussmöglichkeiten
für Standard- und Ex-Anwendungen
auf dem Markt etabliert. Diese
umfassen 4 … 20 mA- und ver-
schiedene Feldbussensoren. Bei der
Auswahl eines Radarsensors müssen
die entsprechenden Verkabelungs-
kosten berücksichtigt werden.
Seit ihrer Markteinführung haben
sich eigensichere Zweileiter-
Radarsensoren als vollwertiger Ersatz
für traditionelle Sensoren wie z.B.
Differenzdruckmessumformer oder
Verdränger durchgesetzt. FMCW-
Radarsensoren benötigen jedoch noch
immer die erhöhte Energie aus einer
Vierleiterversorgung. In diesem
Abschnitt werden die möglichen
Beschaltungskonfigurationen für alle
Arten von Radar betrachtet.

1. Nicht-Ex-Anwendungen
a. 4 … 20 mA, Zweileiter-Radarsensor
4 … 20 mA, 24 VDC

Abb. 6.38

b. Vierleiter-Radarsensor mit 4 … 20 mA Stromausgang

20/250 VAC / VDC
4 … 20 mA

Abb. 6.39

c. HART®-Protokoll
Die meisten Zweileiter- und Vierleiter-, 4 … 20 mA Radar-Füllstandmess-
geräte sind mit dem HART®-Protokoll, aufmoduliert auf dem Stromsignal,
verfügbar. Dadurch wird Folgendes möglich:
- Fernparametrierung mit dem HART®-Handheld Programmiergerät
- Einspeisung der HART®-Daten direkt in das Prozessleitsystem
- multi-drop Betrieb mit bis zu 16 Sensoren parallel an einem Strang

141
 d. Feldbus (VBUS)

142
bis zu 15 Sensoren parallel auf zwei Drähten
mit VEGALOG 571 und EV-Eingangskarten maximal 255 Messungen zusammenfassbar

VBUS

VEGALOG 571 mit bis

zu 255 Sensoren

bis zu 15 Sensoren an
einer Zweidrahtleitung

verschiedene Industrie-Standard-
Kommunikationen

Abb. 6.40
 e. Feldbus (Profibus PA)
max. 32 Sensoren gemeinsam an einem Segmentkoppler

Profibus PA

Segmentkoppler

Profibus DP

Abb. 6.41
6. Installation

143
2. Geräte für Ex-Anwendungen
a. eigensicher ia, 4 … 20 mA, Zweileiter-Sensoren mit HART®-Protokoll

Ex ia 4 … 20 mA, 24 VDC

Zener-
barriere

Ex-Bereich Nicht-Ex-Bereich

Abb. 6.42

b. 4 … 20 mA, Zweileiter-EEx-d-ia Sensoren mit Verkabelung

in erhöhter Sicherheit.
- Versorgung 12 bis 36 VDC
- Zener-Barriere in integriertem Ex-d Gehäuse,
eigensicherer Gehäuseteil für Sensorelektronik und zur Bedienung
- keine zusätzliche Trennbarriere erforderlich

Ex ia
4 … 20 mA,
Ex d 24 VDC Ex e
Bedienung,
Display und
Elektronik
eigensicher Zener
ausgeführt barrier

Ex-Bereich Nicht-Ex-Bereich

Abb. 6.43

144
 6. Installation

c. Vierleiter, EEx d ia Versorgung

- Versorgung 24 VDC
- eigensicherer 4 … 20 mA Stromausgang

4 … 20 mA Ex d 24 VDC, Ex e
eigensicher

Zener
barrier
Nicht-Ex-Bereich
Ex-Bereich
Abb. 6.44

d. Vierleiter, 4 … 20 mA, Ex e Versorgung- Exd-Gehäuse

24 VDC, Ex e
Ex d
4 … 20 mA

Nicht-Ex-Bereich

Ex-Bereich
Abb.6.45

e. Vierleiter eigensicher (ib) mit Trennübertrager und Datenkoppler

Display oder
Stromversorgung Signalver-
Ex d arbeitungs-
einheit
Stromversorgung &
digitale Kommunikation
4 … 20 mA

Nicht-Ex-Bereich
Ex-Bereich Abb.6.46

145
 f. Feldbus (VBUS)

146
- max. 15 Sensoren an zwei Leitungen in Ex e, Verdrahtung in erhöhter Sicherheit
- separate Energieversorgung der Sensoren in erhöhter Sicherheit

Separate
Spannungs-
versorgung
Ex e

VEGALOG 571 mit bis

zu 255 Sensoren

VBUS
bis zu 15 Sensoren an einer
Zweidrahtleitung, Ex e

verschiedene Industrie-
Standard-Kommunikationen

Abb 6.47
 g. Feldbus (VBUS)
- max. 15 Sensoren Ex-e (je fünf Sensoren pro Strang, drei Stränge) pro VBUS-Karte
- Verdrahtung in erhöhter Sicherheit ohne externe Versorgung VBUS
Fünf Sensoren an jeder Zweidraht-
leitung versorgt durch diese Leitung

Ex e
Verkabelung

VEGALOG 571

verschiedene Industrie-
Standard-Kommunikationen
6. Installation

Abb. 6.48

147
 h. Feldbus (VBUS)

148
- max. 15 Sensoren, eigensicher Ex ia, pro Ausgangskarte
- je 5 Sensoren pro Zweileiter- Schleife, max. 3 Schleifen pro EV-Karte

VBUS

VEGALOG 571

verschiedene Industrie-
Standard-Kommunikationen
VBUS
Fünf Sensoren an einer Zweidrahtleitung
eigensicher
Abb. 6.49
 i. Feldbus (Profibus PA)
- Ex ia eigensicher, max. 8 Sensoren pro Zweiader-Schleife
- Verbindung über Segmentkoppler zu Profibus DP

Profibus PA

Segmentkoppler

Profibus DP
Acht Sensoren an
einer Zweidrahtleitung eigensicher
6. Installation

Abb. 6.50

149