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- Saliva
o Secreted by salivary glands
o Consists of about 99.5% water
o Acts as lubricant for mastication and for swallowing
o Vehicle for excretion of
Certain drugs (ethanol and morphine),
Inorganic ions (K+, Ca2+, HCO3)
Thiocyanate
Iodine
IgA
o pH: usually about 6.8
- Mastication subdivides the food, increasing its solubility and surface area for enzyme atta
- Saliva contains an amylase
o Salivary amylase
Capable of bringing about the hydrolysis of starch and glycogen to maltose
Readily inactivated at pH 4.0 or less
o Lingual lipase
Secreted by dorsal surface of tongue (Ebner’s glands)
In rat, it is the only preduodenal lipase
- Stomach concents (chyme) are introduced during digestion into the duodenum through pyloric valve
- Alkaline content of pancreatic and biliary secretion neutralizes acid of chime and changes the pH to alkaline side
o This shift necessary for the activity of the enzymes containe in pancreatic and intestinal juice but it inhibits further action of pepsin
- Bile emulsifies, neutralizes, and excretes cholesterol and bile pigments
o Composition of bile
o Properties of bile
Emulsification
Bile salt has ability to lower surface tension
Enable them to emulsify fatsand dissolve fatty acids and water-insoluble soaps
Present of bile in intestine is important to accomplish digestion and absorption of fats as well as absorption of fat-soluble
vitamins A, D, E, K
Neutralization of acid
Bile
o pH slightly above 7
o Neutralizes acid chime from the stomach and prepares it for digestion in the intestine
Excretion
Bile is important vehicle for bile acid, and cholesterol excretion
Also removes many drugs, toxin, bile pigments, and inorganic substances (Cu, Zinc, Hg)
o Pancreatic secretion contains enzymes for attacking all the major foodstuffs
Pancreatic secretion is a nonviscid watery fluid
Contains some proteins and organic and inorganinc compounds
o Na+, K+, HCO3, and Cl
o Ca2+, Zn2+, HPO4, SO4 – in small amounts
pH is distinctly alkaline
o 7.5-8.0 or higher
Trypsin, chymotrypsin, and elastase are endopeptidase
Trypsin
o Specific for peptide bonds of basic amino acids
Chymotrypsin
o Specific for peptide bonds containing uncharged amino acid residues such as aromatic amino acids
Elastase
o Has broad specificity in attacking bonds next to small amino acids residues such as glycine, alanine, serine
ALL THREE ENZYMES ARE SECRETED AS ZYMOGEN
Enterokinase
o Activates tyrpsinogen
o Secreted by intestinal mucosa
o Hydrolyzes a lysine peptide bond in the zymogen releasing small polypeptide that allows molecule to unfold as
active trypsin
Once tryspsin is formed, it will attack other zymogens in pancreatic secretion such as
Chymotrypsinogen chymotrypsin
Proelastase elastase
Procarboxypeptidase carboxypeptidase
Carboxypeptidase is an exopeptidase
Attacks the carboxyl terminal peptide bond, liberating single amino acids
o Amylse attacks starch and glycogen
Pancreatic α-amylase
Starch-splitting action of pancreatic function is due to this enzyme
Similar in action to salivary amylase, hydrolyzing starch and glycogen to
o Maltose
o Maltotriose (three α-glucose residues linked by α14 bonds)
o Mixture of branched oligosaccharids
o Nonbranched oligosaccharides and some glucose
o Lipae attackes the primary ester link of triacylglycerols
Pancreatic lipase
Acts at the oil-water interface of finely emulsified lipid droplets
o Formed by mechanical agitation in the gut in presence of products of
Lingual and gastric lipase activity
Facilitates hydrolysis of pancreatic lipase, particularly in milk triacylglycerol
Bile salts
Colipase
Protein present in pancreatic secretion
Function Is to overcome bile salt inhibition by
o Binding in a 1:1 molar ration with lipase
o Binding to bile salt-covered traicylglycerol interface
Anchors lipase to its triacylglycerol substrate
Phospholipase A2
Also present in pancreatic secretion)
Secreted in proforms and require activation by tryptic hydrolysis of specific peptide
bonds
Secreted in proforms and require activation by tryptic hydrolysis of specific peptide
bonds
Phospholipids
Ca2+ is necessary in their activity
Inhibited by bile salts
Specific for hydrolysis of primary ester linkages, at positions 1 and 3 of triacylglycerols
2nd and 3rd fatty acids are hydrolyzed from triacylglycerol with difficulty by this enzyme
o Digestion proceeds by removal of terminal fatty acids to produce 2-monoacylglycerol
o Reuires isomerization to a primary ester linkage to achieve complete hydrolysis
o Relatively slow process
o 2-monoacylglycerol are major end product
Enetrostatin
A pentapeptide that acts as a satiety signal for lipids
Bile salt- activated lipase
Present in human milk ester
An added factor for ensuring complete digestion of milk fat when it comes into contact with bile salts in duodenum
Important in premature infants
Identical to a pancreatic bile salt-activate lipase
o Cholesteryl esters are broken down by a specific hydrolase
By cholesteryl hydrolase (cholesterol esterase)
o Ribonuclease (RNAse) and deoxyribonuclease (DNase)
Responsilble for digestion of dietary nucleic acids
o Phospholipase A2, hydrloyzes the ester bond in the 2 position of glycerophospholipids
Both biliary and dietary origins to form lysophospholipids
Being deterdents, aid emulsification and digestion of lipids
- Intestinal secretion complete the digestive process
o Intestinal juice secretd by glands of Brunner and Lieberkuhn contains digestive enzymes, includes:
Aminopeptidase
An exopeptidase
Attacking peptide bonds next to amino terminal amino acids of polypeptides and oligopeptides
Dipeptidase
o Complete digestion of dipeptides to free amino acids
Disaccharidases and oligosaccharidases
α-glucosidase (maltase)
o removes single glucose residues from α(14)- linked oligosacchardies and disaccharidesm, starting from the
nonreducing ends
sucrose-isomaltase complex
o found as the proenzyme on one polypeptide chain by as active enzymes on separate polypeptides chain but as
active enzymes on separate polypeptides chain
o hydrolyzes sucrose and 16 bonds in α-limit dextrins
β-glucosidase (lactase)
o Removes galactose from lactose
o Which also attacks cellobiose and other β-glycosides
o Has a second catalytic site that splits glycosylceramides
Trehalase
o For hydrolyzing trehalose
o Remain attached to brush border of enterocyte while the catalytic domains are free in the lumen to react with
substrate
Phosphatase
Removes phosphate from certain organic phosphates such as hexose phosphates, glycerophosphate, and nucleotides
derived from diet and digestion of nucleic acids by nucleases
Polynucleotidases
Which split nucleic acids into nucleotides
Nucleosidases (nucleoside phosphorylases)
Catalyze phosphorolysis of nucleosides to give free nitrogen base plus a pentose phosphate
Phospholipase
Attack phospholipids to produce glycerol, fatty acids, phosphoric acid, and bases such as choline
o The major products of digestion are assimilated
Products of digestion
Carbohydrates monsaccharides (glucose)
Proteins amino acids
Triacylglycerol fatty acids, glycerol, monoacylglycerol
Nucleic acid nucelobases, nucleosides, an pentoses
Dietary fiber
Make up the bulk of the residues from digestion
ABSORPTION FROM THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT RESULTS IN PASSAGE OF NUTRIENTS INTO THE HEPATIC PORTAL VEIN OR THE LYMPHATICS
- Small intestine
o Main absorptive organ
o About 90% of ingested food and water are absorbed
- 2 pathways for the transport of materials absorbed by the intestine
o Hepatic portal system
Which leads directly to the liver and transporting water-soluble nutrients
o Lymphatic vessels
Which lead to the blood by way of thoracic duct and transport lipid-soluble nutrients
- Carbohydrates are absorbed as monosaccharides
o Absorbed from jejunum into blood of portal venous system in the form of monosaccharides chiefly as
Hexose (glucose, fructose, mannose, and galactose)
Pentose sugars (ribose)
o 2 mechanism are responsible for the absorption of monosaccharides
Active transport
Molecular configurations that seem necessary for active transport , which are present in glucose and galactose
o OH on carbon 2
o Pyranose ring
o Methyl or substituted methyl group on carbon 5
Simple diffusion
Fructose is transported by this mechanism
o By means of a sodium-independent facilitative transporter (GLUT)
o Glucose facilitates fructose absorption
- Active absorption of glucose is powered by the sodium pump
o Sodium-dependent glucose transporter (SLGT 1) binds glucose and Na+
Transport them both through plasma membrane of intestinal cell
o Active transport of glucose in inhibited by ouabain (a cardiac glycoside)
An inhibitor of sodium pump
o Phlorhizin
Known inhibitor of glucose reabsorption in the kidneytubule
o Hydrolysis of lactose proceeds at only half the rate for sucrose accounting that digestion of lactose does not lead to saturation of transport
mechanism for glucose and galactose
- The products of lipid digestion are absorbed from bile salt micelles
o Bile salts pass on the ileum, where most are absorbed into the enterohepatic circulation by an active process
o Phospholipids of dietary and biliary origin
Hydrolyzed by phospholipase A2 of pancretice secretion to factty acids and lysophospholipids
Are also absorbed form the micelles
o Cholesteryl esters are hydrolyzed by cholesteryl ester hydrolase of pancreatice juice,
o Over 98% of dietary lipid is normally absorbed
o 1-monoacylglycerols are further bydrolyzed to produce free glycerol and fatty acids by an intestinal lipase (glycerol esterhydrolase)
o 2-monoacylglycerols are reconverted to triacylglycerols via monoacylglycerol pathway
- The products of protein digestion are absorbed as individual amino acids
o Natural (L) isomer of amino acid is actively transported across intestine from mucosa to serosa
Vitamin B6 (pyridoxal phosphate) may be involved in this transfer
2,4-dinitrophenol inhibits transport
Can be transported by Na+-dependent mechanism
A neutral amino acid carrier
o Phenylalanine carrier
o Methionine carrier
o A carrier specific for imino acids such as prline and hydroxyproline
- Bacteria in the large intestine cause putrefaction and fermentation
o During putrefaction and fermentation, bacteria produce various gases
CO2, methane, hydrogen, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide,
Acetic, lactic, propionic, butyric acid
o Bacterial decomposition of phosphatidylcholine may produce choline and related toxic amines such as neurine
o Many amino acids undergo decarboxylaion as a result of action of intestinal bacteria to produce toxic amines (ptomaines)
o Such decarboxylation reactions produce
Cadaverine from lysine
Agmatine from arginine
Tyramine from tyrosine
Putrescine from ornithine
Histamine form histidine
Indole and methylindole (skatole: responsible for odor of feces) from Tryptophan
o Oral administration of neomycin reduce quantity of ammonia delivered from intestine to blood
- Site of absorption of nutrients
o Jejunum
Glucose, other monosaccharides, some disaccharides, monoacylglycerol,glycerol, cholesterol, FA, amino acids, peptides, vitamins,
folate, electrolytes, iron, calcium, water
o Ileum
Bile acids, vitamin B12, electrolytes, and water
- Intestinal bacteria are also beneficial
o Intestinal flora make up 25% of dry weight of feces
CLINICAL ASPECTS
JUNDAGRIT™