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APPLICATION NOTE
One Technology Way • P.O. Box 9106 • Norwood, MA 02062-9106, U.S.A. • Tel: 781.329.4700 • Fax: 781.461.3113 • www.analog.com
INTRODUCTION
RECTANGULAR PULSE (TIME DOMAIN)
Data transmission systems that must operate in a bandwidth- 2
limited environment must contend with the fact that constraining –TO TO
2 2
the bandwidth of the transmitted signal necessarily increases
the likelihood of a decoding error at the receiver. Bandwidth
limited systems often employ pulse-shaping techniques that
A
allow for bandwidth containment while minimizing the 1
AMPLITUDE
likelihood of errors at the receiver.
Before digital filters were available, pulse shaping was accom-
plished with analog filters. Unfortunately, the response of an
analog filter is affected by variations in component values due 0
to specified tolerance ranges, temperature, and aging. The
response of a digital filter, by contrast, is solely dependent on
the filter coefficients, which are invariant to both temperature
06897-001
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
and aging. Therefore, digital pulse-shaping filters have become TIME (IN UNITS OF TO)
an integral part of many digital data transmission systems. This Figure 1. A Single Rectangular Pulse (T = TO, A = 1)
application note describes the fundamentals of pulse shaping
and the tradeoffs associated with the design of digital pulse- In sophisticated transmission systems, multiple amplitudes
shaping filters. and/or multiple simultaneous pulses transmit a single unit of
data. As such, each single unit of data can represent more than
THE RECTANGULAR PULSE one bit. The group of bits that a single unit of data represents is
The most basic information unit in a digital transmission referred to as a symbol. The trivial case, of course, is the single
scheme is a rectangular pulse. It has a defined amplitude, bipolar pulse of Figure 1 where each unit of data is a single bit
A, and defined duration, T. Such a pulse is shown in Figure 1, (symbol and bit are synonymous in this case).
where A = 1, T = To, with the pulse centered about the time The pulses used to transmit symbols occupy a fixed time inter-
origin at t = 0. Typically, a sequence of such pulses (each val, T (as in Figure 1). Thus, the pulse rate is 1/T pulses per
delayed by T seconds relative to the previous one) constitutes second, which leads to a symbol rate of 1/T symbols per second.
the transmission of information. The information, in this The unit, symbols per second, is often referred to as baud. The
case, is encoded in the amplitude of the pulse. The simplest data transmission rate in bits per second is the baud rate
case is when a binary 0 is encoded as the absence of a pulse multiplied by the number of bits represented by each symbol.
(A = 0) and a binary 1 is encoded as the presence of a pulse For example, if a symbol represents four bits, then the bit rate is
(A = constant). Since each pulse spans the period T, the maxi- four times the symbol rate. This means that a lower transmission
mum pulse rate is 1/T pulses per second, which leads to a data rate can be used to transmit symbols as opposed to directly
transmission rate of 1/T bits per second. transmitting bits, which is the primary reason that the more
In more sophisticated data transmission schemes, the pulse sophisticated data transmission systems encode groups of bits
amplitude can take on both positive and negative values with into symbols. The remainder of this application note focuses on
multiple discrete amplitudes used to encode more than one bit a single bipolar pulse for transmitting one bit at a time. That is, a
into the pulse. For example, four levels can be used to encode logical 1 is represented by the presence of a pulse of unit
two bits in which each level is uniquely associated with one of amplitude and a logical 0 by the absence of a pulse (that is, zero
the four possible bit patterns. In some cases, multiple pulses are amplitude). The concepts discussed in this application note,
transmitted simultaneously, which allows even more bits to be however, extend directly to the more sophisticated encoding
encoded (see the Multibit Symbol Encoding section). schemes.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction ...................................................................................... 1 Group 1 Plots: Error at the Edge of the Pass Band........................7
The Rectangular Pulse ..................................................................... 1 Group 2 Plots: Error at the Nyquist Frequency.............................8
Spectrum of a Rectangular Pulse.................................................... 3 Group 3 Plots: Minimum Stop Band Attenuation ........................9
The Raised Cosine Filter.................................................................. 3 Multibit Symbol Encoding ............................................................ 10
Pulse Shaping .................................................................................... 4 References........................................................................................ 11
Digital Pulse-Shaping Filters........................................................... 5
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AN-922
SPECTRUM OF A RECTANGULAR PULSE pulse interval, whereas the smoothed (or filtered) pulse exhibits
The frequency content (or spectrum) associated with the pulse ripples both before and after the pulse interval. At the receiver,
of Figure 1 is shown in Figure 2. The spectrum of the pulse is the ripples can lead to incorrect decoding of the data, because
obtained by applying the Fourier transform to the time domain the ripples associated with one pulse interfere with the pulses
waveform of Figure 1. The shape of the spectrum is the well- before and after it. However, the choice of a proper filter can
known sin(x)/x response, which is often referred to as the sinc yield the desired bandwidth reduction while maintaining a time
response. The null points (where the spectral magnitude is domain shape that does not interfere with the decoding process
zero) always occur at integer multiples of fO, which is the pulse of the receiver.
(or symbol) rate. Therefore, the null points are solely determined This filter is the well-known raised cosine filter and its
by the pulse period, T. In theory, the nulls and peaks extend in frequency response is given by
frequency out to ±∞ with the peaks approaching zero magnitude. τ,
However, because the frequency span of Figure 2 is only ±4 fO, 0≤ω≤c
2⎡τ (ω − c ) ⎤
only four null points are evident on each side of the f = 0 line. H (ω) = τ { cos ⎢ ⎥⎦ }, c ≤ ω≤d
⎣ 4α
RECTANGULAR PULSE SPECTRUM 0, ω>d
– fO fO
where:
TO ω is radian frequency (2πf).
1
τ is the pulse period (equivalent to TO in Figure 1).
α is the roll off factor.
MAGNITUDE
c is equal to π (1 − α)/τ.
PULSE SPECTRUM d is equal to π (1 + α)/τ.
A plot of the raised cosine frequency response is shown in
0 Figure 3 (normalized to τ = 1). The raised cosine filter gets its
name from the shape of its frequency response, rather than its
impulse (or time domain) response.
RAISED COSINE SPECTRUM
06897-002
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 1.5
infinite frequency. In many data transmission applications, the Figure 3. The Raised Cosine Frequency Response
transmitted signal must be restricted to a certain bandwidth.
The response characteristic of the raised cosine filter is
This can be due to either system design constraints or govern-
adjustable via a parameter known as the roll off factor
ment regulation. In such instances, the infinite bandwidth
represented by the symbol α, where 0 ≤ α ≤ 1.
associated with a rectangular pulse is not acceptable. The
bandwidth of the rectangular pulse can be limited, however, by In the case of α = 0, the frequency response is confined to
forcing it to pass through a low-pass filter. The act of filtering ½ fO (the green trace).
the pulse causes its shape to change from purely rectangular to a For α = 1, the frequency response is confined to fO (the
smooth contour without sharp edges. Therefore, the act of blue trace).
filtering rectangular data pulses is often referred to as pulse
For values of α between 0 and 1, the frequency response is
shaping.
restricted to an intermediate range between ½ fO and fO (the
Unfortunately, limiting the bandwidth of the rectangular pulse red trace shows the response for α = ½).
necessarily introduces a damped oscillation. That is, the
rectangular pulse exhibits nonzero amplitude only during the
Rev. 0 | Page 3 of 12
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The dashed black trace is the spectrum of a rectangular pulse interval, then the ripples from adjacent pulses are crossing
and is included for the sake of comparison. through zero. Therefore, they do not interfere with the decision
There are three significant frequency points associated with the making process.
RAISED COSINE TIME DOMAIN RESPONSE
raised cosine response. The first is known as the Nyquist frequency, 1.5
which occurs at ½ fO (that is, ½ the pulse rate). According to –TO TO
2 2
communication theory, this is the minimum possible bandwidth
that can be used to transmit data without loss of information. 1.0
Note that the raised cosine response crosses through the ½
amplitude point at ½ fo regardless of the value of α. The second
AMPLITUDE
significant frequency point is the stop band frequency (fSTOP) 0.5
defined as the frequency at which the response first reaches α=1
zero magnitude. It is related to α by:
fO 0
f STOP = (1 + α)
2
α=0 α = 1/2
The third, and final, significant frequency point is the pass band
–0.5
06897-004
frequency (fPASS) defined as the frequency at which the response –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
FREQUENCY (NORMALIZED TO SYMBOL PERIOD)
first begins to depart from its peak magnitude. The raised
cosine response is perfectly flat from f = 0 (DC) to fPASS, where: Figure 4. The Raised Cosine Time Domain Response
Rev. 0 | Page 4 of 12
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DIGITAL PULSE-SHAPING FILTERS Generally, digital pulse-shaping filters are implemented as finite
Raised cosine filters are frequently implemented as digital impulse response (FIR) filters rather than as infinite impulse
rather than analog filters. A digital implementation means that response (IIR) filters for several reasons.
the filter is subject to the constraints of a Nyquist system. That • FIR filters can be easily designed with linear phase
is, the filter sample rate must be twice that of the input band- response, which can be of paramount importance in
width in order to avoid aliasing. If a digital pulse shaping filter applications that must guarantee constant group delay.
operates at a sample rate of fO (the symbol rate), then the
• FIR filters do not suffer from limit cycles, which often
maximum input bandwidth must be limited to ½ fO. This poses
plague IIR designs. Limit cycles are small oscillations that
a problem because Figure 3 shows that the required bandwidth
persist at the output of the filter even when the input signal
is greater than ½ fO for α > 0 and can extend to fo for α = 1. The
is removed.
implication is that digital pulse-shaping filters must oversample
the symbol pulses by at least a factor of two in order to • FIR filters are intrinsically stable because they do not
accommodate bandwidths as high as fO. incorporate feedback. The IIR architecture, on the other
hand, does have feedback so the choice of coefficients has
Although digital filters typically produce a desired frequency
an impact on stability. In fact, an IIR filter can oscillate if
domain response, they actually perform the filtering task in the
care is not taken to ensure an unconditionally stable design.
time domain. That is, the digital filter coefficients (taps) define
the impulse response of the filter (a time domain characteristic), • If the filter is implemented in hardware (as opposed to
which produces the desired frequency response. Therefore, the software), FIR filters lend themselves to a polyphase
digital filter design task is greatly simplified with knowledge of architecture, which significantly reduces the amount of
the desired impulse response rather than the frequency response. hardware required. This is important because an IIR filter
To this end, the impulse response of the raised cosine filter is generally requires fewer filter coefficients (or taps) than an
given in the following equation. FIR filter with a similar frequency response characteristic.
Since the amount of hardware required to implement the
⎛ ⎛ πt ⎞ ⎞ ⎛⎜ παt ⎞ ⎞
⎜ sin⎜ ⎟ ⎟ cos⎛⎜ ⎟ ⎟ filter is directly proportional to the number of taps, FIR
τ
h(t ) = ⎜ ⎝ ⎠ ⎟ × ⎜⎜ ⎝ τ ⎠ ⎟ filters tend to be more hardware intensive. However, the
⎜ ⎛ πt ⎞ ⎟ ⎟
⎛ 2α t ⎞
2
⎟⎟ hardware reduction offered by the polyphase option tends
⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎜⎜ 1 − ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎝ τ ⎠ ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ τ ⎠ ⎠ to make the IIR hardware advantage less significant.
The variable definitions are the same as for the raised cosine For the sake of brevity, only the FIR implementation is
frequency response, except that the time variable, t, replaces the considered in this application note. However, regardless of
frequency variable, ω. Although h(t) is indeterminate for t = 0 whether one chooses a FIR or IIR digital filter implementation,
and undefined for t = ±τ/(2α), it can be shown that: the filter response is, at best, an approximation of the ideal
response (raised cosine in this case). The degree to which the
h (0 ) = 1
filter response matches the ideal response is dependent on two
and parameters: the amount of over sampling (M) and the number
τ ⎞ α ⎛ π ⎞ of taps (N).
h⎛⎜ ± ⎟ = sin⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2α ⎠ 2 ⎝ 2α ⎠ Generally, N is chosen to be an integer multiple of M when
designing a FIR for the purpose of pulse shaping. This guaran-
Likewise, the impulse response of the square-root raised cosine
tees that the impulse response of the filter spans an integer
filter is given by
number of pulses. As such, the number of filter taps is given by
⎡ ⎛ π(1 + α )t ⎞ τ ⎛ π(1 − α )t ⎞ ⎤
⎢ cos⎜ ⎟+ sin⎜ ⎟⎥ N=D×M
⎛ 4α ⎞ ⎢ ⎝ τ ⎠ 4 αt ⎝ τ ⎠⎥
h(t ) = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ where D and M are both integers.
⎝ π τ ⎠ ⎢ α
2
⎥
1 − ⎛⎜ ⎞
4 t
⎢ ⎟ ⎥ The filter order is odd or even based on whether N is odd or
⎣ ⎝ τ ⎠ ⎦
even. If a particular filter order is preferred, then it is customary
Again, h(t) is undefined at t = 0, but it can be shown that to add 1 to N to yield the desired order. Note that the value of D
⎛ 1 ⎞⎡ defines the number of symbols spanned by the impulse response
h(0 ) = ⎜⎜ ⎛ 4 ⎞⎤
⎟⎟ ⎢1 + α⎜ − 1⎟⎥ of the filter. Generally, a larger D means a better approximation
⎝ τ ⎠⎣ ⎝ π ⎠⎦
of the ideal response. Unfortunately, the complexity of the filter
It turns out that h(t) is also undefined at t = ± τ/(4α), but is proportional to D, so it is advantageous to use the smallest
without remedy. Therefore, avoid designing a square-root raised value of D that meets the filtering requirements. Determination
cosine filter with any taps that coincide with this value of t. of the smallest acceptable value of D can be a daunting task,
especially if the filter must be designed to handle a wide range
of α values. This is because the frequency response of the filter
Rev. 0 | Page 5 of 12
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is affected by the roll off factor (α), the number of symbols Each group consists of four plots arranged in a 2 × 2 grid. The
spanned by the impulse response (D), the oversampling factor left side is for an even order filter and the right side is for an
(M), and the filter order (odd or even number of taps). odd order filter. The upper two plots are for an oversampling
To assist with the choice of D, a collection of surface plots are factor of 2 (M = 2) and the lower two plots are for an over-
provided on the following pages. These plots are intended as a sampling factor of 7 (M = 7). Only two oversampling factors are
guide for selecting a workable value of D for a given set of shown for the sake of brevity. The goal of the plots is to indicate
filtering requirements. The plots were produced from simula- general trends rather than to serve as a comprehensive collection
tions that used floating-point operations. Therefore, the plots of data.
do not include the quantization and/or truncation errors that Inspection of the plots reveals some clues about the relation-
must be considered if a fixed-point design is employed. ships between the various design parameters (M, D, and α).
Generally, quantization and truncation tend to reduce stop
• As α approaches zero, D must increase dramatically to
band attenuation, which makes applications with an aggressive
maintain a given level of pass band, stop band, and Nyquist
stop band requirement more sensitive to their effects.
performance. Thus, a filter design that accommodates both
The α and D values covered by each plot are 0.05 ≤ α ≤ 1 and small and large values of α must be designed with a D value
2 ≤ D ≤ 20. The plots are organized into three major groups large enough to satisfy the filter requirements for the
corresponding to the three significant frequency points: pass- smallest α value.
band edge, Nyquist frequency, and stop band. All the plots
• The smallest acceptable value of D is primarily driven by
employ decibel units on the vertical scale.
the minimum stop band attenuation requirement. This is
• Group 1: pass band edge frequency, f = ½(1 − α)fO. especially true for small α values. For example, when
Group 1 plots the error of the filter response at the pass- α = 1, the minimum stop band attenuation is nearly 80 dB
band edge frequency relative to 0 dB (or unity, which is the for D = 20, but the same value of D only yields about
magnitude of the ideal raised cosine response at the pass- 20 dB attenuation when α = 0.05.
band edge).
• The amount of oversampling (M) has little impact on filter
• Group 2: Nyquist frequency, f = ½ fO (which is ½ the performance other than to reduce the variation in stop
symbol rate). band attenuation for small changes in D or α.
Group 2 plots the error of the filter response at the Nyquist
• The choice of an even or odd filter design appears to be
frequency relative to −6 dB (or ½, which is the magnitude
academic. The odd design offers an advantage at the
of the ideal raised cosine response at the Nyquist frequency).
Nyquist frequency point, but only for small D and α.
• Group 3: the stop band, f ≥ ½(1 + α)fO.
Group 3 plots the minimum stop band attenuation, which
is the smallest attenuation value that occurs across the
entire stop band: ½(1 + α)fO ≤ f ≤ ½ MfO.
Rev. 0 | Page 6 of 12
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06897-007
Figure 5. M = 2, Even Order Filter Figure 7. M = 7, Even Order Filter
TH TH
ALP DEP
ALP DEP
HA BOL
HA BOL
SYM SYM
06897-008
06897-006
Rev. 0 | Page 7 of 12
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06897-011
Figure 9. M = 2, Even Order Filter Figure 11. M = 7, Even Order Filter
NYQUIST ERROR (dB)
06897-012
Figure 10. M = 2, Odd Order Filter Figure 12. M = 7, Odd Order Filter
Rev. 0 | Page 8 of 12
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ATTENUATION (dB)
ATTENUATION (dB)
PT H TH
ALP L DE
ALP
HA DEP
HA BO BOL
SYM SYM
06897-015
06897-013
Figure 13. M = 2, Even Order Filter Figure 15. M = 7, Even Order Filter
MINIMUM STOP BAND
ATTENUATION (dB)
TH
ALP
HA DEP ALP DEP
TH
BOL HA BOL
SYM SYM
06897-014
06897-016
Figure 14. M = 2, Odd Order Filter Figure 16. M = 7, Odd Order Filter
Rev. 0 | Page 9 of 12
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A MAX/3
0
–A MAX/3
1101 1001 0001 0101
–A MAX
0100 0000 1101 0111 0101 1001 0010 1010
SYMBOL
A MAX VALUES
1100 1000 0000 0100
A MAX/3 I
–AMAX AMAX
0
–A MAX/3
1110 1010 0010 0110
–A MAX
06897-018
Q
PULSES
Rev. 0 | Page 10 of 12
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REFERENCES
Gentile, K., 2002, “The Care and Feeding of Digital Pulse-Shaping Filters”, RF Design Magazine (April).
Gibson, J. D., 1993, Principles of Analog and Digital Communications, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall.
Rev. 0 | Page 11 of 12
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NOTES
Rev. 0 | Page 12 of 12