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The function of a cooling system is to remove heat from processes or equipment. Heat removed
from one medium is transferred to another medium, or process fluid. Most often, the cooling
medium is water. However, the heat transfer concepts and calculations discussed in this chapter
can also be applied to other fluids.
Efficient removal of heat is an economic requirement in the design and operation of a cooling
system. The driving force for the transfer of heat is the difference in temperature between the
two media. In most cooling systems, this is in the range of 10-200°F. The heat flux is generally
low and in the range of 5,000 to 15,000 Btu/ft²/hr. For exceptional cases such as the indirect
cooling of molten metal, the heat flux can be as high as 3,000,000 Btu/ft²/hr.
The transfer of heat from process fluids or equipment results in a rise in temperature, or even a
change of state, in the cooling water. Many of the properties of water, along with the behavior of
the contaminants it contains, are affected by temperature. The tendency of a system to corrode,
scale, or support microbiological growth is also affected by water temperature. These effects, and
the control of conditions that foster them, are addressed in subsequent chapters.
TYPES OF SYSTEMS
Water heated in the heat exchange process can be handled in one of two ways. The water can be
discharged at the increased temperature into a receiving body (once-through cooling system), or
it can be cooled and reused (recirculating cooling system).
There are two distinct types of systems for water cooling and reuse: open and closed recirculating
systems. In an open recirculating system, cooling is achieved through evaporation of a fraction of
the water. Evaporation results in a loss of pure water from the system and a concentration of the
remaining dissolved solids. Water must be removed, or blown down, in order to control this
concentration, and fresh water must then be added to replenish the system.
A closed recirculating system is actually a cooling system within a cooling system. The water
containing the heat transferred from the process is cooled for reuse by means of an exchange
with another fluid. Water losses from this type of system are usually small.
Each of the three types of cooling systems-once-through, open recirculating, and closed
recirculating-is described in detail in later chapters. The specific approach to designing an
appropriate treatment program for each system is also contained in those chapters.
Heat Transfer
The following is an overview of the complex considerations involved in the design of a heat
exchanger. Many texts are available to provide more detail.
In a heat transfer system, heat is exchanged as two fluids of unequal temperature approach
equilibrium. A higher temperature differential results in a more rapid heat transfer.
However, temperature is only one of many factors involved in exchanger design for a dynamic
system. Other considerations include the area over which heat transfer occurs, the characteristics
of the fluids involved, fluid velocities, and the characteristics of the exchanger metallurgy.
Process heat duty, process temperatures, and available cooling water supply temperature are
usually specified in the initial stages of design. The size of the exchanger(s) is calculated
according to important parameters such as process and water flow velocity, type of shell, layout
of tubes, baffles, metallurgy, and fouling tendency of the fluids.
Factors in the design of a heat exchanger are related by the heat transfer equation:
Q = UA ∆Tm
where
Q = WC ∆T + W∆H
where
Rt = r1 + r2 + r3 + r4 + r5
Where
The log mean temperature difference (DTm ) is a mathematical expression addressing the
temperature differential between the two fluids at each point along the heat exchanger. For true
countercurrent or cocurrent flow:
When there is no change in state of the fluids, a countercurrent flow exchanger is more efficient
for heat transfer than a cocurrent flow exchanger. Therefore, most coolers operate with a
countercurrent or a variation of countercurrent flow. Calculated ∆Tm formulas may be corrected
for exchanger configurations that are not truly countercurrent.
MONITORING
Heat transfer equations are useful in monitoring the condition of heat transfer equipment or the
efficacy of the treatment programs. The resistance of the tube is constant; system geometry does
not change. If flow velocities are held constant on both the process side and the cooling water
side, film resistance will also be held constant. Variations in measured values of the U coefficient
can be used to estimate the amount of fouling taking place. If the U coefficient does not change,
there is no fouling taking place on the limiting side. As the exchanger fouls, the U coefficient
decreases. Therefore, a comparison of U values during operation can provide useful information
about the need for cleaning and can be utilized to monitor the effectiveness of treatment
programs.
The use of a cleanliness factor or a fouling factor can also be helpful in comparing the condition of
the heat exchanger, during service, to design conditions. The cleanliness factor (Cf) is a
percentage obtained as follows:
The resistance due to fouling, or fouling factor (Rf), is a relationship between the initial overall
heat transfer coefficient (Ui) and the overall heat transfer coefficient during service (Uf) expressed
as follows:
Heat exchangers are commonly designed for fouling factors of 0.001 to 0.002, depending on the
expected conditions of the process fluid and the cooling water.