System – It is a set of integrated component called subprogram or procedures or

subroutine or sub functions which are working together to achieve a predefined goal. Each
of these components are integral part of the system without which the system becomes
incomplete. Hence a system with its all components which are also known as subsystem can
be called a total system depends on the complexity of the problem (i.e. complex systems
have more sub systems). Each of the sub systems are in constant interaction with one
another. This interaction is possible via a logical separating surface in between them called
interface.
One can break a system to multiple levels of subsystem until the lowest level of sub-system
is reached called black box. At the black box level the subsystem accepts an unique input,
performs an unique task and produces an unique output.
All the subsystems are enclosed within the logical interface surrounding the full system
called system boundary. The system boundary act as a separator between what is
included in the system and what is outside its super view. The component outside the
system boundary are called environment. Generally the environment includes the users
and end-users directly interacting with the system.
Types of System
1. Open System : This system has the capacity of taking input from the environment and
producing output to the environment.
Example : Any good computer program is an open system.
2. Closed system : This system does not interact with the environment via inputs or
outputs.
Example : Nuclear reaction in a closed chamber.
3. Physical System : It exist in real life and one can feel it by truth.
Example : Computer hardware system.
4. Logical/Conceptual/Abstract System : This system does not exist in real life and it is
a product of human mind.
Example : Computer S/W, Educational system etc.
5. Manual System : Here all the activity concerned are performed manually or
mechanically without using electronic aids.
Example : Card punching system.
6. Information System : Here all activities are done partially or fully by computers. The
basic subsystems available here are
a) Software
b) Live ware
c) Hardware
d) Procedures
Example : Railway reservation system.
Approaches of system development
A) Structures analysis and design/develop method (SADM)
The following steps implement the system in real life.
i) Study the current system in details.
ii) If needed break up the activities of current system into smaller module.
iii) Try to visualize the activities performed by each of these parts using the help of logical
model, hire the program or system documentation tools. These tools exist logically in
the computer and created by the s/w developer.
iv) The users of the future system interact with the s/w developer giving suggestion for
possible modification in the logical model.
v) Step (iii) & (iv) are performed over and over again until the final model is achieved.
vi) When the code satisfied the program, the model finalized.
vii) Debug the program from errors of all types.
viii) After debugging is completed, purchase the necessary hardware (in necessary /and
install) to develop system on the m/c for use.
ix) Give user training for operating the new system.
B) System Prototyping Method (SPM)
(SPM is more user friendly than SADM, because it gives small model (prototype) of
flowchart suggested by SADM)The steps followed here are totally similar to SADM, but is
more preferred and advantageous than SADM. Instead of logical model the end-user
interacts with the s/w developer via a physical model. The physical model is a prototype
model of the system to be developed. Any modifications desired by the user can be more
easily reflected and understood by both software developer and the user. Any changes
desired by the user on the prototype model are automatically used to update. The
programming tools clearly designed by the s/w developer. This approach is longer and
costly, but changes of errors here are lesser.
C) System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) - The software development life cycle
(SDLC) is a framework defining tasks performed at each step in the software development
process. SDLC is a structure followed by a development team within the software
organization. It consists of a detailed plan describing how to develop, maintain and replace
specific software. The life cycle defines a methodology for improving the quality of software
and the overall development process.
This term is also known as the software development process.

SDLC framework includes the following steps:

1. Perform Preliminary investigation.

2. Development of systems study character (group). Feasibility Study
3. Feasibility study.
4. Identify the system development constraints.
5. Documenting the existing system.
6. Find out the drawbacks of current system. System Analysis
7. Identify new system goal.
8. Find out alternative solutions.
9. Hardware and software solutions.
10. Designing input forms and screens
11. Design of output reports and screens.
12. Design of files. System Design
13. Design of central for the system.
14. Ergonomics design.
15. Coding of programs.
16. Unit testing. System Testing
17. Integrity testing.
18. User training.
19. System change over.
20. Transcription of data files. System
21. Post implementation review. Implementation
22. system maintenance.
1. Perform Preliminary investigation
In this stage the end users of the organization have of feeding that they have some
drawbacks in the current system. Some modification should be advisable for coping with the
current stage in business needs. The problem faced by the personnel would differ from post
to post and it will not be possible for every one to know everybody’s problem. Hence it is
advisable that individual personnel try to trace out his own problem.
2. Development of systems study character
In this stage the organization creates a group of persons representing personnel from each
and every group of activities in the organization. This is necessary because all the persons
in the group may discuss their problems with one another such that the problems may be
linked. One should not that all the problems are discussed here because all types of
problems are discussed here because all types of persons from the organization are found
here. Till this step the management of the organization perform all study without the help of
computer personnel and it creates some report that can be used as a guide for the
computer personnel recruit or higher in the later stage.
3. Feasibility study
In this stage the computer personnel studies the initial report for system requirements.
Based on this the s/w developer proposes multiple solutions called candidate solutions.
One of these solutions will be selected for future s/w development process. The selection
process gives guide to individual candidate solutions based in their advantages and
disadvantages.
We consider the following factor for studying candidate solution :
a) Social or operational feasibility
That the sample solution is socially acceptable by the worker’s of the organization.
b) Technical feasibility
It ensures that the s/w and h/w purchased desired are technically viable to be used in the
environment of the organization.
c) Economical feasibility
It ensures that the system solution does not become a burden economically to the
organization.
Using the above criteria the candidate solutions are graded. The details of each and every
candidate solutions with their advantages and disadvantages are grouped together in a
feasibility report and the best of all these solutions called the most feasible solution is
selected for further stages of SLDC.
4. Identify the system development constraints
The stage allow the s/w developer to checkout the problem that he may face while
developing the system in the real life. All these problems are supposed to be constraints in
developing the system. If all possible constraints are identified then naturally the s/w
developer will have some solution for solving those problems. This prevents wastage of time
and money. The sample constraints that he may face are –
a) Making the management understand the reasons for the cost of the new system.
b) The work face and the union organization may be well informed about the installation of
new system.
c) Ensuring that the organizations personnel understand that their won’t be any jobs
insecurity be installing computers.
5. Documenting the existing system
Here the s/w developer team breakup into small group and then each group studies each
part of the current system separately. Each group understand what are the inputs, activities
and outputs of each part of the current system. After the current system has been studies in
details the s/w developers document their activities using some documentation tools (eg.
Flowchart). When the full system has been documented link wise in parts the s/w developer
team tries to link these separate parts together such that a pictorial representation of the
full system is obtained. This diagram facilitates current system study.

6. Find out the drawbacks of current system

Here it is the job of the s/w developer team to find out the problem faced in the old system.
Each and every problem should be discussed in details. Avoiding or missing the discussion
of a single problem may carry the current problem in the new system. This stage is
essential for the complete identification of current system requirements.
7. Identify new system goal
Here the primary objective of the s/w developer is to ensure that the problems already
discussed in last stage are removed first in the new system. Other than this the s/w
developer should discussed with the end user to find out the problem needs that may be
expected from the new system in future. This step ensures that the s/w does not get
absolute due to minor changes in business environment. For this the s/w developer should
have the capacity of forcing the future to some extent.
8. Find out alternative solutions
Now since the s/w developer has a complete idea about the expectations in the new system.
Hence he may formulate the possible approaches for solving the new system. From the
multiple available approaches concerning different combinations of h/w and s/w, the best
approach is selected.
9. Hardware and software solutions
The h/w and s/w are required for running the new system – may be obtained using various
methods. If the system h/w is costly and is required for a small period of time then hiring of
h/w is preferred. Else it is advisable to purchase the s/w. The s/w required may be obtained
directly from the market. Such s/w are cheap but have generalized facilities. On the other
hand one may develop the s/w in house. In that case the s/w became customized to user
needs, but is costly. It depends on the management or s/w developer to make or buy the
s/w.
10. Designing input forms and screens
In this stage the s/w developer tries to figure out the possible structure for the input forms
and screen required in the new system. Both these items should be clear avoiding excessive
details such that non computer person like data entry operators and customer do not face
any problem in using it. Both the input forms and screens are highly related because they
use the same piece of data. The input form is used by the customer for supplying his data
via some paper document to the data entry operator and the data entry operator uses the
input screen to enter data in the system.
Generally the input screen is implemented by good programming code. The input screen
should have provisions for displaying possible error messages on the screen understandable
by the user.
Note : One may use screen layout forms for designing screen.
11. Design of output reports and screens
In this stage the necessary output require from a system are designed. Generally output
generated by any system are of two type :
1. Soft copy output or output screen
2. Hard copy output or output report
No matter what the input is. It should be cleared to the point, and unambiguous, avoiding
excessive details. This is because the output produced will be used by common person for
taking decisions in real life. In case of hard copy output two types of paper may be used as
follows :
a) Blank page output – Here the output is totally printed by the printer on spot.
Generally it is preferred where time is not an important factor.
b) Pre-printed form output – This page contain an overall structure of the report to be
printed and it is ready mode available from the press. Generally this sort of output is
desired where time becomes an important factor. Pre-printed forms outputs are more costly
than the first one.
12. Design of files
Here one is concerned with the specifying the details of the structure of the data files to be
used in the new system. Here one does not store the data in the files. The various detail
that can be specified about file design are :
a) Name of files, there need in the system.
b) Field names, types and sizes to be used in the files.
c) If the file is broken up into smaller files, then the relation between the broken files via
the linking field between them.
d) Specify the files organization i.e.,
i) Serial
ii) Sequential
iii) Index sequential
iv) Relative
13. Design of central for the system
Generally in any system data is supplied from the environment, which then get processed
and some output is generated. To make the working of the system full proof one needs to
specify controls in the system that would limit entry, processing and output of unwanted
data. These controls are basically program logic or utility that ensures that the computer
does not work on GIGO mode. The various possible controls are :
a) Input control - Avoids entry of error data in the system.
Example – layout check, picture check, range check, sub-range check, echo check, flash
pack check etc.
b) Processing control – Here unwanted data or data of different conditions are processed
separately based on different criteria of controls.
Example – Avoiding any number divided by zero in a program.
c) Output check – It ensure that logical output is generated by a system compared to real
life incident
Example – Average of persons appearing in a shop daily should be rounded to the nearest
integer value.
d) Access check – It prevent unauthorized access of an important system by any
outsider. This is generally done for security purposes using concept like password, login and
account number.
14. Ergonomics design
This stage ensures that the personnel using the computer system would suffer from
minimum stress and strain when using the computer for a large period of time continuously.
This concept ensures maximum productivity from the user within a stipulated time.
Example – Color, contrast of monitor, using of an anti-glare screen, oval shaped mouse
etc.
15. Coding of programs
Here the programs are required for the new systems are coded s/w developer. Generally it
is available to break up a large and complex program into smaller sub programs so as to
ensure that minimum effort is required by individual programmer and program development
can take place simultaneously by multiple s/w developers ensuring quicker program
development. The programs are corrected from all the syntax errors here.
16. Unit testing/Modular Testing
After all the programs have been written, one needs to test them for logical error using test
data. Generally unit testing means testing individual sub-programs separately for the
availabilities of errors. Breaking up the testing process in this approach decreases the
complexity of locating errors.
17. Integration Testing
When all the sub-programs have been properly checked and were found OK, then the sub-
programs are together to be executed as a complete system called integration testing.
Generally this testing locates the interface errors, within sub-programs.
18. User Testing
Here the new system is made understandable to the users of the organization by giving
proper training. This training is given by the s/w developer themselves and is of period one
week to one month. After this training period is completed, if the user face any problem
then he may refer the user manual also supplied by the s/w developer. Generally the user
manual is a hard copy containing the complete details of the system and how to operate it.
The user training period is made as less as possible to ensure that the expenses involve for
user training is minimum.
19. System Change Over
This stage removes the old system from being used and implements the new system in its
place. But any business organization tries to make this change over processes as simple as
possible. Based on the requirements of any organization any of the following change over
process may be implemented by the organization.
a) Direct change over – Here all the parts of the new system substitute the old working
system completely in one step. It is the fastest, cheapest but the least dependable change
over process.
b) Phase change over – Here the changes over occurs for the full system in a step wise
manner one part at a time. It is the most time consuming, hence cost by.
c) Pilot run - It is a mixture of the first two change over process. Here any single part of
the new system is implemented in real life. If it works properly, then all the remaining parts
are implemented.
d) Parallel run – Here the new system and the old system work together side by side.
This helps the organization to get a comparative study of the efficiency of the new system
against the old one. But it is the costliest, because man-power is required for running the
two systems simultaneously. When the user satisfied with the performance of the new
system then the new system is implemented in real life.
20. Transcription of Data File
Here all the data being used in the old system is changed to some usable form suitable to
the new system. Generally data is transcripted in an acceptable form for the new s/w. This
stage mainly involves data entry operation. The files already created earlier are supplied
with the real life data here.
21. Post Implementation Review
Here the users of the new system try to line-tune the newly created s/w based on their
personal needs. The basic structure of the s/w remains unchanged. Only minor
modifications are made to make the s/w more user friendly. Suggestions for modifications
are kept forward by the user of the new system only after the system has been
implemented in the real life i.e., post implementation review.
22. System Maintenance
Any good system slowly becomes obsolete as time passes. System maintenance ensures
that modifications made in the old system makes it as good as a new one. This avoids
redeveloping the system from scrap. Thus saving time and money. Generally system
maintenance is done by the original software developer via some contract called AMC
(Annual Maintenance Contract). Generally for good system maintenance is the largest and
costliest for all the system. If major modifications are required for the system then the s/w
is rebuild from scrap.
Software Requirement
One of the biggest problem in software development, particularly for large and complex
system, is that what is desired from the software (i.e. the requirement) is not understood.
To completely specify the requirements, all the functionality interfaces and constraints have
to be specified before software development has commenced. In other wards, for specifying
the requirements, the clients and the developers have to visualize what the software
behavior should be once it is developed.