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Lecture 8
Antennas
Part 1 - Basics and Mechanical Scanning
Transmitter
Propagation
Medium Power Waveform
Amplifier Generation
Target
T/R
Radar
Switch
Cross
Section
Antenna Signal Processor Computer
Parameter
Tracking Thresholding Detection
Estimation
Data
Recording
Photo Image
Courtesy of US Air Force
Used with permission.
Track Pt G2 λ2 σ G = Gain
Radar S / N= This
Equation (4 π )3 R4 k Ts Bn L Lecture
Ae = Effective Area
Ts = System Noise
Radar
Search Pav Ae ts σ Temperature Equation
Radar S / N= Lecture
Equation 4 π Ω R4 k Ts L L = Losses
Mechanical Scanning
Antenna Electronic Scanning Hybrid Mechanical and Frequency
Antenna Scanning Antenna
IEEE New Hampshire Section
Radar Systems Course 4
Antennas Part 1 1/1/2010 IEEE AES Society
Outline
• Introduction
• Other Topics
• Introduction
• Antenna Fundamentals
– Basic Concepts
– Field Regions
Near and far field
– Electromagnetic Field Equations
– Polarization
– Antenna Directivity and Gain
– Antenna Input Impedance
Antennas
Curtains W8JKs
Yagi-Udas
Antennas
Curtains W8JKs
Yagi-Udas
z
Electric Current
on Wire Dipole
b a/2
a
y
a/2
x λ/4
λ/2
Electric Field Distribution λ
3λ/2
(~ Magnetic Current) in an Aperture 2λ
~ ~
Calculate Phasor : E ( x, y , z ) = ê E ( x, y , z ) e j α
Instantaneous r ~
Harmonic Field is : E ( x, y , z; t ) = ê E ( x, y , z ) cos (ωt + α )
• Introduction
• Antenna Fundamentals
– Basic Concepts
– Field Regions
Near and far field
– Electromagnetic Field Equations
– Polarization
– Antenna Directivity and Gain
– Antenna Input Impedance
Radiating Fields
(Free Space)
Transmission Line /
Waveguide
Transmitter
Antenna
R < 0.62 D λ 3
R > 2D 2 λ
• Energy is stored in vicinity of antenna • All power is radiated out
• Near-field antenna Issues • Radiated wave is a plane wave
– Input impedance • Far-field EM wave properties
– Mutual coupling – Polarization
– Antenna Gain (Directivity)
– Antenna Pattern
– Target Radar Cross Section
(RCS)
R r
E
Plane Wave
D r r̂ Propagates
H Radially Out
r
r ff ro e − jkr 1 r ff x Standard
H (r , θ, φ ) ≅ H ( θ, φ ) = r̂ × E Spherical
r η Coordinate
System
μo
where η≡ = 377 Ω is the intrinsic impedance of free space Electric Field
εo z Magnetic Field
k = 2π λ is the wave propagation constant λ
x y
• Introduction
• Antenna Fundamentals
– Basic Concepts
– Field Regions
Near and far field
– Electromagnetic Field Equations
– Polarization
– Antenna Directivity and Gain
– Antenna Input Impedance
B(r , t ) = B oe j( k ⋅ r − ω t )
• In the far field, when the distance from the source great,
they are well approximated by plane waves when they
impinge upon a target and scatter energy back to the radar
r
• The Poynting Vector, S , is defined as:
r r r
S ≡ E x H (W/m2)
• It is the power density (power per unit area) carried by an
electromagnetic wave
r r
• Since both E and H are functions of time, the average
power density is of greater interest, and is given by:
( )
r 1 r r*
S = Re E x H
2
• For a plane wave in a lossless medium
r 1 r2 μo
S = E ≡ WAV where η =
2η εo
r2 r 2
U(θ, φ) ≅ r Wrad (θ, φ) =
2
E ( r , θ, φ )
2η
r2 ⎡ r r
E θ ( r , θ, φ ) + E φ ( r , θ, φ ) ⎤
2 2
≅
2η ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
1 ⎡ ro ro
E θ (r , θ, φ ) + E φ ( r , θ, φ ) ⎤
2 2
≅ (W/steradian)
2η ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
r ro e − jkr
where E(r , θ, φ) = E (θ, φ) = far field electric field intensity
r
E θ , E φ = far field electric field components
μo
and η=
εo
• Total Power Radiated 2π π
Prad = ∫ ∫ U(θ, φ) sin θ dθ dφ
0 0
(W)
• Introduction
• Antenna Fundamentals
– Basic Concepts
– Field Regions
Near and far field
– Electromagnetic Field Equations
– Polarization
– Antenna Directivity and Gain
– Antenna Input Impedance
r̂
Eθ Eφ
Major Axis
Minor Axis
– Linear
Eφ –Vertical or Horizontal
–Circular
Two components are equal in amplitude,
and separated in phase by 90 deg
Right-hand (RHCP) is CW above
Left-hand (LHCP) is CCW above
Eφ
Courtesy of MIT Lincoln Laboratory, Used with permission – Elliptical
IEEE New Hampshire Section
Radar Systems Course 21
Antennas Part 1 1/1/2010 IEEE AES Society
Polarization
Electromagnetic
Wave Electric Field
Magnetic Field
Vertical Horizontal
Linear Linear
(with respect (with respect
to Earth) E to Earth)
E
(For over-water surveillance) (For air surveillance looking upward)
Courtesy of MIT Lincoln Laboratory, Used with permission
IEEE New Hampshire Section
Radar Systems Course 22
Antennas Part 1 1/1/2010 IEEE AES Society
Circular Polarization (CP)
Propagation Direction
Into Paper
r̂
Electric
Eθ Field
Right-Hand
(RHCP)
Eφ
Left-Hand
(LHCP)
Eφ
IEEE New Hampshire Section
Radar Systems Course 23
Antennas Part 1 1/1/2010 IEEE AES Society
Circular Polarization (CP)
Propagation Direction
Into Paper
r̂
Eθ
Right-Hand
(RHCP)
Eφ
Left-Hand
(LHCP)
Figure by MIT OCW.
Eφ Electric Field
IEEE New Hampshire Section
Radar Systems Course 24
Antennas Part 1 1/1/2010 IEEE AES Society
Outline
• Introduction
• Antenna Fundamentals
– Basic Concepts
– Field Regions
Near and far field
– Electromagnetic Field Equations
– Polarization
– Antenna Directivity and Gain
– Antenna Input Impedance
D
• Difference between gain and directivity is antenna loss G=
LA
• “Rules of Thumb” 65 λ
θB =
(degrees) θ B and φ Bare the azimuth and
26,000 D
G=
θB φB elevation half power beamwidths (degrees)
Gain (dBi)
60 1 60
-10
0.5
90 90
-20
120 120
Polar Plot -30 Linear Plot
150 150 From MIT OCW
45
180 0 90 135
Theta θ (deg)
180
θ = angle down from z-axis
Far Field Radiation Intensity Gain / Pattern
⎡ ⎛π ⎞⎤ ⎡ 2⎛ π ⎞⎤
⎢ cos⎜ cos θ ⎟ ⎥ ⎢ cos ⎜ cos θ ⎟ ⎥ ⎡ 2⎛ π ⎞⎤
cos ⎜ cos θ ⎟ ⎥
− jkr 2
⎢ ⎝ ⎠⎥ I ⎝2 ⎠⎥ 4 π U(θ ) ⎢
E ff (θ ) = θˆ jη o U(θ ) = η o 2 ⎢
I e 2
G (θ ) = = 1.643 ⎢ ⎝2 ⎠⎥
2π r ⎢ sin θ ⎥ 8π ⎢ sin θ
2
⎥ Pin ⎢ sin θ
2
⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
Radiated Power
⎡ ⎛π ⎞⎤ 2 4 π U max
⎜ θ ⎟⎥ I Go = = 1.643
I o e − jkr ⎢ ⎝ 2 Prad = η o Cin (2π )
cos cos
H (θ ) = φ j
ˆ ⎢ ⎠⎥ Pin
8π
ff
2π r ⎢ sin θ ⎥ 2π
1 − cos y Effective A = λ Do = 0.13λ2
2
⎢
⎣
⎥
⎦ Cin (2π ) = ∫ dy ≈ 2.435
4π
e
y Area
Adapted from Balanis, Reference 1, pp182 - 184 0
• Introduction
• Antenna Fundamentals
– Basic Concepts
– Field Regions
Near and far field
– Electromagnetic Field Equations
– Polarization
– Antenna Directivity and Gain
– Antenna Input Impedance
Γ
Loss (Ohmic, Dielectric)
Transmission Antenna
Radiation Resistance 1 2
Line
(Power Radiated) Prad = Io Rr
2
VMax
Reactance
(Energy Stored)
Standing Wave VMin
Courtesy of MIT Lincoln Laboratory, Used with permission
• Introduction
• Antenna Fundamentals
D
Beam Axis
- 10
-20
Parabolic Surface
Antenna Feed
at Focus
D
Beam Axis
Wavefront
40
180λ
Beamwidth (deg) ≅ 0
1 3 5 7 9
πD
Aperture Diameter D (m)
Antenna Feed
•Feed structure reduces antenna
at Focus efficiency
D
Beam Axis
• Introduction
• Antenna Fundamentals
Aperture Blockage
Pattern with Pattern with
No Blockage Blockage Feed and its supports
-10
Masts onboard a ship
Shadow Blockage
pattern FPS-16
Pattern
Courtesy of US Air Force
-20
Adapted
-30 from Skolnik,
Reference 2
-20 -10 0 10 20
Angle (degrees)
Aperture Blockage
Pattern with Pattern with
No Blockage Blockage Feed and its supports
-10
Masts onboard a ship
Shadow Blockage
pattern Pattern TRADEX
-20
-30
-20 -10 0 10 20
Angle (degrees)
SPS-49
SPS-48
P-15 Flatface
Courtesy of US Air Force
• Introduction
• Antenna Fundamentals
• Note that the electric field is the Inverse Fourier Transform of the
Aperture Illumination.
Adapted from Skolnik, Reference 1
IEEE New Hampshire Section
Radar Systems Course 46
Antennas Part 1 1/1/2010 IEEE AES Society
Effect of Source Distribution
on Antenna Pattern of a Line Source
Uniform Cosine
Aperture Distribution Aperture Distribution
⎛ ⎞ π ⎡ sin(ψ + π / 2) sin(ψ − π / 2 ) ⎤
a/2
E(φ ) =
z
∫ exp⎜ j 2 π sin φ ⎟ dz E(φ ) = ⎢ +
−a / 2 ⎝ λ ⎠ 4 ⎣ (ψ + π / 2 ) (ψ − π / 2) ⎥⎦
sin[π(a / λ ) sin φ]
E(φ ) =
π(a / λ ) sin φ
0
Relative Radiation Intensity (dB)
Cosine Uniform
Illumination Illumination Curves Normalized
to 0 dB at Maximum
-10
E(φ )
2
-20
-30
-4π -2π 0 2π 4π
Adapted from Skolnik, Reference 1 π(D / λ ) sin φ ~0.9 dB Loss
y A(x, y ) = A x (x ) A y (y )
aperture of radius a:
a
Parabolic: A(z ) = 1 − (1 − Δ ) z 2
Δ=1.0 1.0 51 λ/D 13.2
Δ=0.8 0.994 53 λ/D 15.8
Δ=0.5 0.970 56 λ/D 17.1
Δ=0 0.833 66 λ/D 20.6
Cosine-squared + pedestal
0.33 + 0.66 cos 2 ( π z / 2) 0.88 63 λ/D 25.7
Spillover
Feed Blockage
- 0.5
Loss (dB)
Taper
-1.0
Efficiency
Total Loss
-1.5
-2.0
-20.0 -17.5 -15.0 -12.5 -10.0 -7.5 -5.0
Feed Pattern Edge Taper (dB) Adapted from Cooley in Skolnik, Reference 4
• Introduction
• Antenna Fundamentals
Flared
Flared Corrugated
Pyramidal Horn
Conical Horn Conical Horn
Compound Flared
Multimode Horn Segmented
Finned Horn
Aperture Horn
• Simple flared pyramidal (TE01) and conical (TE11) horns used for
pencil beam, single mode applications
• Corrugated, compound, and finned horns are used in more
complex applications
– Polarization diversity, ultra low sidelobes, high beam efficiency, etc.
• Segmented horns are used for monopulse applications
Adapted from Cooley in Skolnik, Reference 4
IEEE New Hampshire Section
Radar Systems Course 54
Antennas Part 1 1/1/2010 IEEE AES Society
Cassegrain Reflector Antenna
Note size of
man
Ray Trace for csc2 Antenna Pattern FAA ASR Radars Use
csc2 Antenna Reflector Shaping
Parabolic Reflector
Csc2 Shaped Reflector
Parabolic Reflector
ASR-9 Antenna
0
Frequency = 3 GHz 5° 10°
15°
θ = 0° 20°
-20
Feed horns
2.5 in. square
-30
-10 0 10 20 30 40
Angle (deg)
Outputs
to
Antenna
R
f
Horn
From Transmitter
– Problem 2.20
– Problems 9.2, 9.4, 9.5, and 9.8
• Introduction
• Antenna Fundamentals
• Other Topics