1
C-02:- STRUCTURE OF ATOM
1. SOME IMPORTANT DATA ABOUT ELECTRON, PROTON AND NEUTRON
Name Mass Charge
Electron (e) 9.1 × 10−𝟑𝟏 kg or 1.602 × 10−𝟏𝟗 C or
5.5 × 10−4 amu −4.8 × 10−10 esu
Proton (p) 1.677 × 10−𝟐𝟕 kg +1.602 × 10−𝟏𝟗 C
or 1.007 amu or +4.8 × 10−10
esu
Neutron (n) 1.678 × 10−𝟐𝟕 kg Neutral
2. ELECTRON
A. Electron was discovered in cathode ray
experiment, under very low pressure (0.01 mn Hg)
and high voltage (10,000 V). In cathode ray
experiment a discharge tube of around 50 cm
length was taken. It was fitted with two electrodes
at the two ends. When a gas was taken in a
discharge tube and a potential of about 10,00 volt
was applied, the following observations were
made:
i. No electric current flows between the electrodes
at ordinary temperature.
ii. When pressure was decreased to about 10−2
atm, electric current began to flow and light is
emitted
iii. When pressure was further lowered to about
10−4 atm the emission of light by the gas stopped
but the glass tube began to glow with fluorescent
light. Thus it was believed that some high energy
radiations were emitted from the cathode which
were causing this emission of fluorescent light.
These emitted radiations were called cathode rays.
Verification: The flow of electric current from
cathode to anode was further checked by making a
hole in the anode and coating the tube behind
anode with phosphorescent material zinc sulphide.
When these rays, after passing though anode, strike
the ZnS coating a bright spot on the coating was
developed (same thing happens in a television set).
e/m Ratio of masses
relative to electron
1.76 × 10𝟖 C/g 1
9.58 × 10𝟒 C/g 1836
Zero 1839
Fig. A cathode ray discharge tube with perforated
anode.
B. Properties of cathode rays
i. They move from cathode to anode.
ii. They are not visible but their behaviour can be
observed with the help of of fluorescent or
phosphorescent materials ( which glow when hit by
them ).
iii. In the absence of electric or magnetic field, they
travel in straight line.
iv. They consist to negatively charged particles
called electrons.
v. They are deflected by electric and magnetic
field.
vi. They have heating effect and cause
incandescence.
vii. They ionize the gas through which they pass.
viii . They produce X-rays on striking against
heavier metals like tungsten.
ix. They can penetrate through thin metal sheets.
x. The characteristics of cathode rays (electrons) do
not depend upon the material of electrodes and the
nature of the gas present in the cathode ray tube.
C. The name electron was given by Stoney
D. The charge on electron was determined by
Millikan in oil drop experiment.
E. The mass of an electron and specific charge was
calculated by J.J. Thomson.
F. The mass of one mole of electron is 0.55 mg and
charge on one mole of electron is 96500 C or 1 F.
3. PROTON
A. Proton was discovered in the anode ray
experiment
Discovery of protons
Goldstein carried out cathode ray experiment with
perforated cathode and observed scintillations on
the photographic plate placed behind the cathode.
2

This proved that some charged particles flow D. neutron and proton
towards cathode. These were called anode rays or
canal rays. Their properties were almost similar to 5. THOMSON MODEL OF ATOM
the properties of cathode rays except few as given This model was proposed by J.J Thomson in 1898
below: According to this model: An atom possesses a
i. They carry positive charge either equal to charge spherical shape (radius = 10−10 m) in which
of electron (e) or some integral multiple (e). positive charge is uniformly distributed and the
ii. Their e/m value depends upon the value of gas electrons are embedded into it, like plums in a
taken in the discharge tube. pudding. Mass of the atom is assumed to be
iii. The behavior of these particles in the magnetic uniformly distributed over the atom. Thomson’s
or electrical field is opposite to that observed for model of an atom is also called plum pudding or
electron or cathode rays. raisin pudding model.
B. Anode rays, are also known as canal rays and were
discovered by E. Goldstein.
C. The specific charge of anode rays is not constant.
It varies from particle to particle.
D. The mass of one mole of proton is 1.007 g.
E. The charge on one mole of proton is 96500 C or
1F.
4. NEUTRON
A. The neutron was discovered by James Chadwick
in 1932. They were discovered though the nuclear
reaction like 49 Be + 42 He → 12
6
C + 10 𝑛 (neutron)
B. The neutron is slightly heavier than poton.
C. The mass of one mole of neutron is 1.0087 g.
D. The neutron is heaviest fundamental particle and
is least stable. Neutron disintegrates to electron,
proton and neutrino. Fig. Thomson Model of Atom
Some other important subatomic particles Limitations
A. Positron: It is positive counterpart of electron, i. It could not explain the results of ionisation and
discovered by Anderson. On combining with scattering experiments performed by Rutherford.
electrons, produce 𝛾 −rays. 6. RUTHERORD’S ATOMIC MODEL
B.Neutrino and antineutrino: These were The model is also called solar or planetary model
discovered by Fermi in 1934. Their mass is of atom. This model was base upon the results of ∝
negligible and have no charge. − scattering experiment. According to this model,
C. 𝝅 − mesons and 𝝁- mesons: These were atom consists of two parts namely nucleus and
discovered by Yukawa. Their mass is in between extra nuclear part. Nucleus is rigid, has positive
that of electron and proton. charge and entire mass is contained in it. Extra
Check Your Grasp nuclear portion contains electrons an electrons
1. Heaviest particle is revolve around the nucleus. Atom is spherical and
A. meson B. neutron most of the space in it is empty.
C. proton D. electron Experiment: A stream of high energy a- particles
2. The mass of the neutron is of the order of from a radioactive source was bombarded at a very
A. 10−23 kg B. 10−24 kg thin gold foil (thickness ≅ 100 nm). A circular
C. 10 −26
kg D. 10−27 kg fluorescent zinc sulphide screen was placed behind
3. The credit of discovering neutron goes to the gold foil to notice the incident 𝑎 − particles.
A. Rutherford B. Langmuir
C. Chadwick D. Austen
4. Neutral atom (atom No>1) has
A. electron and proton
B. neutron and proton
C. neutron, electron and proton
3

Fig. Rutherford’s scattering experiment

Sr.No. Observation Sr.No. Conclusions
1. Most of the 𝑎 − particles passed through the foil 1. Most of the space in the atom is empty.
Are unscattered.

2. A small fraction (almost 0.1%) of the 𝑎 −
particles was scattered by small angles.
3. A very few 𝑎 − particles (≈ 1 in 20,000)
bounced back/deflected by nearly 1800 .
2. The positive charge has to be concentrated in a
very small volume that repelled and deflected
the positively charged 𝑎 − particles.
3. Positively charged region is highly concentrated
And heavy i,e., occupy mass. This region was
called ‘nucleus is negligibly small as compared
to the total volume of the atom.

Limitations
i. According to the classic science, whenever an electric The sum of number of protons and neutrons is called
charge is subjected to acceleration, it emits radiation the mass number of atom. It is denoted by A.
and loses energy. Thus, the orbit becomes smaller and Mass number = No. of protons + No. of neutrons
the electrons will drop into the nucleus. This however A = Z + No. of neutrons,
does not happen. Thus it could not explain the stability ∴ No, of neutrons = A―Z.
on atom. 9. IF X BE THE SYMBOL OF ATOM OF AN
ii. It could not explain the line spectrum of hydrogen ELEMENT THEN ATOM CAN BE
atom. REPRESENTED 𝒁𝑿𝑨
iii. It could not suggest for discontinuous spectrum nature. For example:
iv. It did not say anything about the distribution on 16
i. In 8𝑂 , atomic number, Z = 8 and mass number, A =16
electrons around the nucleus and about their energies. 238
ii. In 92𝑈 , atomic number, Z = 92 and mass number,
Note
A = 238.
Some other points to be remembered
10. SOME IMPORTANT TERMS
i. The size of nucleus is measure in Fermi. 1F = 10−13
A. Isotopes
cm. The radius of nucleus is of the order of 1.5 F to 6.5
The species having same atomic number but different
F. The radius of nucleus is given by the relation: 𝑟𝑛 =
mass number are called isotopes For example:
𝑟𝑜 × 𝐴1/3 1
i. There are three isotopes of hydrogen. These are 1𝐻 ,
Where A = mass number 2 3 1 2 3
𝑟𝑜 = constant whose value is 1.4 F. 1𝐻 , 1𝐻 Or 1𝐻 , 1𝐷 , 1𝑇
ii. The volume of nucleus is about 10−39 𝑐𝑚3 and that of ii. There are two isotopes of chlorine. These are
35 37
atom is 10−24 𝑐𝑚3 . The volume of nucleus is 10−15 17𝐶𝑙 and 17𝐶𝑙 .
times that of an atom. B. Isobars
iii. The density of nucleus is about 1014 g 𝑐𝑚−3 or 108 The species having same mass numbers but different atom
tonnes 𝑐𝑚−3 . numbers are called isobars. For example:
40 40 40 40
iv. The nucleus contains neutrons and protons. These are i. 19𝐾 and 18 𝐴𝑟 ii. 20𝐶𝑎 and 19𝐾
collectively known as nucleons. C. Isotones
v. The size of atom is 10−10 m or 10−8 cm. Species having same number of neutrons are known as
76 78
7. ATOMIC NUMBER isotones. For example: 32𝐺𝑒 and 34𝑆𝑒
The number of protons present in atom is known as Check Your Grasp
atomic number. It is denoted by Z. In a neutral atom, 5. Rutherford’s experiment which established the
the number of electrons is equal to number of protons. nuclear model of the atom used a beam of
Hence, Z = No, of protons = No. of electrons in neutral A. 𝛽 − particles which impinged on a metal foil and got
atom. absorbed.
8. MASS NUMBER
4

B. 𝛾 − rays which impinged on a metal foil and eject Into one another.
electron. C. The emission spectrum is obtained by passing
C. helium atoms which impinged on a metal foil and got radiations emitted by the excited atom though the prism
scattered It consists of bight lines against dark band ground. It is
D. helium nuclei, which impinged on a metal foil and got the electronic characteristic of atom and regarded as the
scattered. finger print of atoms.
6. The ratio of mass of proton and electron is D. An absorption spectrum is obtained by analyzing solar
A. infinite B. 1.8 × 103 light emerging out of solution of a substance. It consists of
C. 1.8 D. none of these dark lines or bands in an otherwise
7. The number of electrons and neutrons of an element is Continuous spectrum.
18 and 20 respectively. Its mass number is E. Violet colour has shortest wavelength while red
A. 2 B. 17 colour has longest wavelength.
C. 37 D. 38 F. A hydrogen spectrum consists of six series of lines.
8. Number of neutrons in heavy hydrogen atom is The wavelength of each line is given by the relation
A. 0 B. 1 1 1 1
= 𝑅𝐻 𝑍 2 [ − ] =𝑣̅
𝜆 𝑛1 2 𝑛2 2
C. 2 D. 3
Where 𝑅𝐻 = Rydberg’s constant = 109677.76 𝑐𝑚−1
11. ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
Electromagnetic radiation is a sort of radiant energy Sr.No. Value of 𝒏𝟏 Value of 𝒏𝟐 Name of series
associated with the electric and magnetic field 1. 𝑛1 = 1 𝑛2 = 2,3 … . … … ..
Lyman
Components. A wave is a sort of disturbance which 2. 𝑛1 = 2 𝑛2 = 3,4 … … …Balmer …
originate from some vibrating source and travels 3. 𝑛1 = 3 𝑛2 = 4,5 … … … Paschen
Outward as a continuous sequences of alternating
4. 𝑛1 = 4 𝑛2 = 5,6 … …Bracket
..
crests and troughs.
5. 𝑛1 = 5 𝑛2 = 6,7 … … … Pfund
Characteristics of Waves
6. 𝑛1 = 6 𝑛2 = 7,8 … … …. Humphery
i. Wavelength : The distance between neighbouring
𝑍 = atomic number, 𝑛𝑣 𝑛2 = electronic level.
crests or troughs is known as wavelength. It is denoted
by 𝜆.
ii. Frequency: The number of times a wave passes
14. PLANCK’S QUANTUM THEORY
through a given points per second is known as
A. Energy is emitted or absorbed in the form of small packet
frequency. It is denoted by v.
called quanta. One quantum of right is called photon. A
iii. Amplitude: It is the maximum height of crest or
photon has no mass.
depth of trough of a wave. It is denoted by A.
B. Energy of radiations is directly proportional to frequency
iv. Velocity: The distance travelled by a wave in one
i.e., E a v or E=hv.
second is called its velocity. All electromagnetic
Where h= Planck’s constant. = 6.626 × 10−34 Js=
radiations travel with same velocity. It is denoted by c.
6.626 × 10−27 ergs
It is equal to 3 × 108 m/sec.
C. A body emits or absorbs whole number quanta only but
v. Wave number : It is reciprocal of wavelength. It is
1 never in fractions.
denoted by 𝑣̅ = . Check Your Grasp
𝜆
12. RELATION BETWEEN WAVELENGTH AND 9. Which of the following has longest wavelength?
FREQUENCY A. Blue colour B. Violet colour
𝑐 = 𝑣 𝜆. C. Red colour D. Yellow colour
Here; c= velocity of light, 𝑣 = frequency 10. The value of Planck’s constant is
𝜆 = Wavelength A. 6.626 × 10−27 ergs B. 66.26 × 10−27 ergs
13. DIFFERENT TYPES OF SPECTRUM C. 6.02 × 10−15 ergs D. 3.01 × 10−23 ergs
A. Electromagnetic spectrum 15. PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
Electromagnetic spectrum is an arrangement of The phenomenon of emission of electrons from the surface
different types of electromagnetic radiation in the of certain metals when radiation of suitable frequency
increasing (called threshold frequency) is incident on it, is called
order of wavelength photoelectric effect.
B. The spectrum obtained by dispersion of ordinary light
Is continuous and has seven bands of colour merging
5

C. 5eV D. 8 × 10−19 eV

SOLUTION: Potential difference of 5V will give

kinetic energy to the electron = 5eV.

According to electromagnetic wave theory, the 16. BLACK BODY RADIATION
kinetic energy of ejected photoelectrons should be
directly proportional to the intensity of radiation. Black body is perfect absorber and perfect emitter of
But in actual, the kinetic energy of photoelectron energy. The radiation emitted by a black body on being
was independent of the intensity of radiation and heated is called black body radiation. The wave length
was found to depend on its frequency. of radiation emitted by a body depends upon its
A. Explanation of photoelectric effect using Planck’s temperature. It increase with decrease in temperature
quantum theory and decreases with increase in temperature. According
According to Planck when a photon strikes a metal to electromagnetic wave theory, the energy of
surface, it uses a part of its energy (binding energy) electromagnetic radiation is directly proportional to
to eject the electron from the metal atom. The intensity.
remaining part of the total energy is given to the It should be independent from frequency and
ejected electron in the form of kinetic energy. wavelength. However the change in colour shows
changes in frequency as well as wavelength. Hence,
electromagnetic wave theory is unable to explain it.
17. BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL
The main points of model are:
A. The electrons keep on revolving in circular orbit
around the nucleus.
B. There is no loss or energy during circular motion.
B. Mathematically: C. The frequency of radiation absorbed or emitted
𝐸 = 𝐵𝑒 + 𝐾𝐸 when transition occurs between two stationary states
Where, 𝐸 = energy of incident photon that differ
BE = binding energy ∆𝐸 𝐸2 −𝐸1
in energy by ∆𝐸 is given by 𝑣 = =
ℎ ℎ
KE = kinetic energy of the ejected electron
D. The electrons can revolve in only those circular
Or ℎ𝑣 = kinetic energy of the ejected electron
orbits where angular momentum is whole number
Or ℎ𝑣 = ℎ𝑣0 + 𝐾𝐸 𝑛ℎ
multiple of ℎ/2𝜋. 𝑖. 𝑒., mvr =
Or KE = ℎ𝑣 − ℎ𝑣0 2𝜋
Or KE = ℎ(𝑣 − 𝑣0 ) E. When electron absorbs energy, then transition of
Thus if electron takes place from lower level to higher energy
i. 𝑣 > 𝑣0 , electron is ejected and will have net kinetic level. However, when electron comes to lower level from
energy. higher level, then energy is emitted.
ii. 𝑣 = 𝑣0 , electron is ejected but will have no kinetic F. The radius of electron in the nth energy is
5.29×10−11 𝑛2
energy. 𝑟= m.
𝑍
iii. 𝑣 < 𝑣0 , electron cannot be ejected as kinetic energy Where 𝑛 = 1,2,3,4, − − − −, energy level
comes out be negative which is impossible. 𝑍 = atomic number
G. The energy of the electron in nth energy level is given
2𝜋2 𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 2
By 𝐸𝑛 = −
𝑛 2 ℎ2
other symbols have usual meaning. Putting the various
values.
2𝜋2 𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4
by 𝐸𝑛 = −
𝑛 2 ℎ2
Other symbols have usual meaning. Putting the various
EXAMPLE:1 The kinetic energy of an electron values.
accelerated from through a potential difference 1311.8 𝑍 2
of 5V will be 𝐸𝑛 = − kJ/mol
𝑛2
A. 5J B. 5erg
6

The energy of electron in nth level in other units of iii. No justification was given for the principle of
energy. quantisation of angular momentum.
313.5 𝑍 2
i. 𝐸𝑛 = − k cal 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1
𝑛2 iv. It does not explain the splitting of spectral lines
13.6 𝑍 2
ii. 𝐸𝑛 = − eV 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚−1 under the influence of electric field (Stark effect) or
𝑛2
21.72×10−19 𝑍 2 magnetic field (Zeeman effect).
iii. 𝐸𝑛 = − J 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 −1 v. It does not explain dual nature (de-Broglie
𝑛2
If 𝐸′𝑛 and 𝐸𝑛 are the energies associated with nth relationship) and Heisenberg principle.
shell of H-atom and H-like species with atomic 20. WAVE MECHANIVAL MODEL OF ATOM
number Z, then 𝐸′𝑛 = 𝑍 2 𝐸𝑛 Dual nature of electron
The energy of electron increases with the increase in i. Einstein has suggested that light cab behave as a wave
value of n and the difference of energy between as well as like particle i,e., has dual nature.
successive orbits decreases. ii. In 1924, de-Broglie suggested that an electron
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 > 𝐸3 − 𝐸2 > 𝐸4 − 𝐸3 etc. behaves both as a material particle and as a wave.
Bohr’s model was modified by Sommerfield. iii. The wavelength 𝜆 associated with a particle of mass
h. The velocity of electron in 𝑛𝑡ℎ energy level is m, moving with velocity v is.
𝑍 ℎ ℎ
𝑉𝑛 = 𝑉0 × , where 𝑉0 = 2.18 × 106 𝑚𝑠 −1 𝜆= = , Where ℎ = Planck’s constant
𝑛 𝑚𝑣 𝑝
18. SUCCESSES OF BOHR MODEL 𝑝 = momentum of electron
i. It explained the stability of an atom. According to iv. This was experimentally verified by Davisson and
Bohr, an electron can not lose energy as long as it Germer by observing diffraction effect with electron
stays in a particular orbit. beam. Let the electron be accelerated with potential V,
ii. It successfully explained the atomic spectrum of then kinetic energy is given by the relation,
hydrogen. 1
𝑚𝑣 2= 𝑒𝑉
iii. It was helpful in calculating the quantities like 2

radius or obit, velocity and energy of electron in an Or 𝑚2 𝑣 2 = 2 𝑒𝑉𝑚. or m v=√2 𝑚𝑒 𝑉

ℎ
orbit of the atom of hydrogen and hydrogen like Or P= √2𝑚𝑒 𝑉 Or = √2 𝑚𝑒 𝑉
𝜆
species. ℎ 12.27
⇒𝜆= = Å
EXAMPLE:2 In Bohr’s orbit, what is the ratio of total √2 𝑚𝑒 𝑉 √𝑉
kinetic energy and total energy of the electron? 𝐂𝐡𝐞𝐜𝐤 𝐘𝐨𝐮𝐫 𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐬𝐩
A. −1 B. −2 11. for which of the following sets of quantum
numbers an electron will have the highest energy
C. +1 D. +2
A. 3,2, 1, 1/2 B. 4,2, −1,1/2
1 C. 4,1,0, −1/2 D. 5,0,0,1/2
SOLUTION: K.E = 𝑚𝑣 2
2

12. Bohr’s model was modified by

𝒁𝒆𝟐
P.E= A. Sommerfield B. Rutherford
𝒓
C. Dalton D. Pauli
𝑍𝑒 2 𝑚𝑣 2
But electrostatic force, = 13. When electrons revolve in stationary orbits,
𝑟 𝑟
A. There is no change in energy level
(Centrifugal force) B. They become stationary
C. They are gaining kinetic energy
∴PE= −𝑚𝑣 2 D. there is increase in energy
1 −1
14. Which of the following expressions gives the de-
Total energy = 𝑚𝑣 2 − 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑚𝑣 2 Broglie relationship?
2 2
ℎ 𝒉
A. =𝑝 B. 𝝀 =
∴ K.E/Total energy = −1 𝑚𝑣 𝒎𝒗
ℎ 𝑣
C. 𝜆 = D. 𝜆𝑚 =
𝑚𝑝 𝑝
19. LIMITATIONS OF BOHR’S THEORY
Heisenberg’s uncertainly principle
i. It does not explain the spectra of atoms having more A. In 1927, Werner Heisenberg proposed a principle,
than one electrons. known as uncertainly principle.

ii. It does not explain the fine structure of atom.

7

B. According to him, it is impossible to measure C. Schrodinger’s wave equation is

simultaneously the exact position and exact 𝜕2 Ψ 𝜕2 Ψ 𝜕2 Ψ 8𝜋2 𝑚
+ + + (𝐸 − 𝑉)Ψ = 0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 ℎ2
momentum of a body as small as an electron.
C. Mathematically, Where 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = three space co-ordinates
𝒉 𝒉 m = mass of electron
∆𝒙 × ∆𝒑 ≥ , ∆𝒙 × 𝒎∆𝒗 ≥
𝟒𝝅 𝟒𝝅 E = total energy
Where ∆𝑥 = uncertainty in position V = potential energy of electron
∆𝑝 = Uncertainty in momentum. Ψ = wave function.
ℎ
D. In terms of energy and time, ∆𝐸 × ∆ 𝑡 ≥ Another form of Schrodinger wave equation is
4𝜋
EXAMPLE:3 The uncertainty in the position of 𝐻̂Ψ = 𝐸Ψ
an electron (mass=9.1× 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟖 ) moving with a ̂
Where 𝐻 = Hamiltonian operator
velocity of 𝟑. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 cm 𝒔−𝟏 accurate up to D. The wave function of an electron in the field of
0.011% will be nucleus of atom is called atomic orbital.
A. 1.92 cm B. 7.68 cm E. The particular value of Ψ are called eigen functions
C. 0.175 cm D. 3.84 cm and values of energies which corresponds to these are
𝒉 called eigen values.
SOLUTION: ∆𝒙. 𝒎∆𝒗 =
𝟒𝝅 F. The eigen function for an electron is called atomic
0.011
Here ∆𝑣 = × 3 × 104 𝑚𝑠 −1 = 3.3 𝑐𝑚 𝑠 −1 orbital.
100
ℎ 6.6 × 10−27 G. Wave equation is applicable to both atoms and
∆𝑣 = =
4𝜋𝑚∆𝑣 4 × 3.143 × 9.1 × 10−28 × 3.3 molecules, but the treatment is complicated for
= 0.175 cm molecules.
Check Your Grasp H. Significance of 𝚿
15. If uncertainty in the position of electron is zero, i. It is a wave function which is a solution to the
the uncertainty in its momentum would be Schrodinger equation.
ℎ
A. Zero B. ≥ ii. It represents the amplitude of wave and describes
4𝜋
ℎ how this amplitude varies with distance and direction.
C. < D. Infinite
4𝜋 Significance of 𝚿 𝟐
Schrodinger wave equation i. For electron waves, it represents intensity of electrons
A. Wave mechanical model of atom was proposed at any point 𝑖. 𝑒., it represents the probability of finding
on the basis of dual nature of electron by Erwin the electron (of specific energy) at different regions in
Schrodinger in 1926. space.
B. In this model, electron is considered as three ii. It leads to the idea of orbital.
dimensional wave.

Difference between an orbit an orbital

Sr.No. Orbit
1. It is a well defined circular path around the
nucleus in which the electron revolves.
2. It is circular in shape.
3. It represents that an electron moves around
The nucleus in one plane.
4. It represents that position as well as
Momentum of an electron can be known
Simultaneously with certainty. It is against
Heisenberg’s uncertainity principle.
5. The maximum number of electrons in an orbit
Is 2𝑛2 where ′𝑛′ is the number of the orbit
21. SHAPES OF ORBITALS
The wave function I a function of
i. distance from the nucleus (radial part)
ii. angle 𝜃 and Φ (angular part).
Sr.No. Orbital
1. It is a region of space around the nucleus
Where the probability of finding the electron
is maximum.
2. S,p,d- orbitals are spherical dump bell and
double dump bell in shape respectively.
3. It represents the three dimensional motion of
electron.
4. It represents that position as well as momentum of
an electron cannot be known simultaneously
with certainty. It is in accordance with
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
5. The maximum number of electrons in an
orbital is two.
The radial part gives the size of an orbital. The angular
part gives the shape of orientation of orbitals.
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Note spinning electron can have two values of spin

A. The s-orbitals are spherical in shape and have quantum number which are +1/2 (clockwise spin)
symmetrical orientation. For all 𝑠-orbitals, there are (𝑛 − and −1/2(anticlockwise spin).
1) spherical nodes. The total spin quantum angular momentum is given by
B. The p- orbitals are dump-bell in shape with two ℎ
the relation 𝑆 = √𝑠(𝑠 + 1)
2𝜋
lobes of same size on each side of nucleus. The two
Check Your Grasp
lobes are separated by a plane in which probability
16. Which of the following orbitals have a dumb bell
of finding the electron is zero. This is called the
shape?
nodal plane.
A. s B. p
C. The d- orbitals are five in number. Four of these
C. d D. f
have a double dump bell shape. These are 𝑑𝑥 2−𝑦2 , 𝑑𝑥𝑦 ,
17. The total number of orbitals possible fo the quantum
𝑑𝑦𝑧 and 𝑑𝑧𝑥 . However, 𝑑𝑧 2 orbital is dump-bell in number n is
shape with a collar of high electron density along xy A. n B. 𝑛2
plane. It is also said to have doughnut shape. C. 2π D. 2𝜋 3
iii. The f-orbitals are seven in number. These are 18. The four quantum numbers of the valence electron of
𝑓𝑥 3 , 𝑓𝑦3 , 𝑓𝑧 3 , 𝑓𝑥 2−𝑦2, 𝑓𝑦2−𝑧 2 𝑓𝑧 2−𝑥 2 , 𝑓𝑥𝑦𝑧 potassium are
There shapes are quite complicated. A. 4, 1, 1,1/2 B. 4, 0, 0, 1/2
22. QUANTUM NUMBERS C. 4, 1, 0, 1/2 D. 4, 4, 0, ½
Quantum numbers are set of four numbers which are 19. A zimuthal quantum number determines the
required to specify the position and energy of an A. Size B. Spin
electron in the atoms. C. Orientation D. Angular momentum of
A. Principal quantum number orbital.
It was proposed by Bohr. It is denoted by n. It 20. An electron has principal quantum number 3. The
determines the main energy level, average distance number of its (i) shells and (ii) orbitals would be
of the electron from the nucleus and magnitude of respectively
energy of the electron. The value of 𝑛 = A. 3 and 5 B. 3 and 7
1,2,3, … … … … …etc. also denoted by K, L, M etc. C. 3 and 9 D. 2 and 5
The maximum number of electrons in principal shell 21. Which quantum number determines the shape of the
is 2𝑛2 . sub shell?
The maximum number of orbital for quantum number A. Magnetic quantum number
𝑛 = 𝑛2 B. Azimuthal quantum number
B. Azimuthal quantum number C. Principal quantum number
It was proposed by Sommerfeld. It is denoted by l. It D. Spin quantum number
is also known as angular momentum is given by the 22. The correct set of quantum numbers for a 4d
ℎ
relation, 𝑚𝑣𝑟 = √𝑙(𝑙 + 1) electron is
2𝜋 1
The values of l depends upon the value of n. For a A. 4.3.2, + B. 4.2,1,0
2
1 1
given value of n, the l can have values stating from C. 4,3,∸ 2, + D. 4,2,1, −
2 2
0 to (𝑛 − 1). For 𝑙 = 0,1,2,3, … … … … ..etc. the sub-
23. ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
shell notation is s, p, d, f……respectively. It also Electronic configuration means arrangement or
indicates about the shape of orbital. The maximum distribution of electrons in the orbitals of atoms. The
number of electron in a sub-shell is (2(2𝑙 + 1). filling of orbitals takes place according to three rules:
C. Magnetic quantum number These are
It was proposed by Lande. It is denoted by m. It A. Aufbau principle
explain the splitting of lines of atomic spectrum in Orbitals of lower energy are filled first and then filling
magnetic field or electric field. The value of ‘m’ of higher energy orbitals take place. The increasing
depends upon value of l. For a given value of l, there order of orbitals is
are (2l+1) value of m, 1𝑠, 2𝑠, 2𝑝, 3𝑠, 3𝑝, 4𝑠, 3𝑑, 4𝑝, 5𝑠, 4𝑑, 5𝑝 etc. The energy
ranging from – 𝑙 through to +𝑙 including zero. of orbitals is determined by (𝑛 + 𝑙) rule or Bohr-Bury
D. Spin quantum number rule.
It was proposed by Uhlenbeck and Goundschmidt. It
Note
indicates about spinning of electron its axis. Each
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i. The orbital with smaller (𝑛 + 𝑙) value has lower energy

value. For example: 4s -orbital has lower energy than 3d.
For 4s ,n=4, l=0,n+l = 4 Check Your Grasp
For 3d, n=3, l=2, n+l=5 23. No two electrons in an atom will have all the four
ii. If (n+l) value I same for two different orbitals, then quantum numbers same. This statement is known as
orbital with greater n value has higher energy. A. Exclusion principle
For example: 4s orbital has higher energy than 3𝑝− B. uncertainty principle
orbital. C. Hund’s rule
For 4s, n=4, l=0, n+l=4 D. Aufbau principle
For 3p, n=3, l=1, n+l=4 24. The correct order of increasing energy of atomic
iii. The misconcept is that in a multielectron atom, orbital is
the energy of 4s subshell is always less than 3d A. 5𝑝 < 4𝑓 < 6𝑠 < 5𝑑
subshell but it is not correct to say that in a B. 5𝑝 < 6𝑠 < 4𝑓 < 5𝑑
multielectron atom, the energy of 4s subshell is C. 4𝑓 < 5𝑝 < 5𝑑 < 6𝑠
always less than the energy of 3d subshell. e.g for D. 5𝑝 < 5𝑑 < 4𝑓 < 6𝑠
20Ca, energy of 4s subshell is always less than the 25. The configuration of X is
energy of 3d subshell, whereas for 30Zn, reverse is 1𝑠 𝟐 , 2𝑠 𝟐 , 2p𝟔 , 3𝑠 2 , 3𝑝6 , 3𝑑10 , 4𝑠 2 , 4𝑝3 , its properties
true. are similar to
B. Pauli’s exclusion principle A. Boron B. Oxygen
No two electrons in an atom can have the same C. Nitrogen D. Chlorine
value of four quantum numbers. For two electrons, 26. The ground state electronic configuration of
the value of n, l, m can be same but value of spin is chromium is
different. This can also be stated as follows. An A. [𝐴𝑟]3𝑑 5 4𝑠1 B. [𝐴𝑟]3𝑑 4 4𝑠 2
6 0
orbital can accommodate maximum of two C. [𝐴𝑟]3𝑑 4𝑠 D. [𝐴𝑟]4𝑑 5 4𝑠1
electrons with opposite spin. 27. Electronic configuration of most electronegative
C. Hund’s rule of multiplicity element is
The paring of electrons in the degenerate orbitals A. 1𝑠 2 2𝑠 2 2𝑝4 3𝑠1 B. 1𝑠 2 2𝑠 2 2𝑝4 3𝑠 2 3𝑝5
do not take place until each orbital is singly filled. C. 1𝑠 2 2𝑠 2 2𝑝5 D. 1𝑠 2 2𝑠 2 2𝑝6 3𝑠1 3𝑝8
Degenerate orbitals are those which have same 28. Which of the following has maximum number of
energy. For example: unpaired electron?
There are five d- orbitals. Since they have same A. Mg 2+ B. Ti2+
energy, therefore they are degenerate. C. V 3+
D. Fe2+
29. Which of the following is ground state electronic
configuration of 𝑪𝒖𝟐+ (𝒁 = 𝟐𝟗)?
A. [𝐴𝑟]4𝑠1 3𝑑 8 B. [𝐴𝑟]4𝑠 2 3𝑑10 4𝑝1
Note C. [𝐴𝑟]4𝑠1 3𝑑10 D. [𝐴𝑟]3𝑑 9
Some other important points to be remembered 24. RADIAL PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION
i. Ground state of an atom means the state of lowest
CURVES AND SHAPES OF ORBITALS
energy. In ground state of atom, an electron must We know that in thee dimensional space the wave
occupy a subshell of lowest energy available to it.
function Ψcan be represented as ψ(r,θ,Φ) =
ii. Spherical node: The spherical surface where the
R(r). θ(θ). Φ(Φ)
probability of finding the electrons is most zero is
To study the variation of 𝜓 and 𝜓 2 at different
called spherical node. The number of spherical
distances and different directions from the nucleus, we
nodes = 𝑛 − 𝑙 − 1.
first study separately the variation of radial function an
For example: For 3s orbital, 𝑛 = 3, 𝑙 = 0,
then angular function and then we combine them to
∴ spherical nodes = 3 − 0 − 1 = 2.
study the variation of the complete wave function.
iii. Nodal plane: The plane in which the probability of
finding the electron is zero is called nodal plane. The
number of nodal planes=l.
For example:
A. For all s-orbitals, there is no nodal plane.
B. for all p-orbitals, there is one nodal plane.
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