Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 100 (2000) 193–214

www.elsevier.nl/locate/jvolgeores

An overview of the seismicity of Merapi volcano (Java, Indonesia),

1983–1994
A. Ratdomopurbo a,*, G. Poupinet b
a
Volcanological Survey of Indonesia, Jogyakarta, Indonesia
b
LGIT-CNRS, Observatoire, 38041 Grenoble, France

Abstract
From 1982 to 1995, Merapi volcano (Java, Indonesia) experienced two main eruptive cycles, from 1984 to 1986 and from
1992 to 1994. Each cycle had a duration slightly larger than 2 years. Four major eruptive events occurred in 1984, 1986, 1992
and 1994. These eruptions were monitored by a telemetered seismic network.
We present an overview of the seismicity observed between 1983 and 1995. From seismological observations, several types
of characteristic events are recognised. Volcanotectonic earthquakes are standard microearthquakes, either shallow (⬍1.5 km
below the summit) or deep (between 2.5 and 5 km). Volcanotectonic earthquakes seem to correspond to an injection of magma
into the upper part of the volcano and to a high gas pressure regime. The explosive eruptions in 1984 and 1992 were both
preceded by deep and shallow volcanotectonic earthquakes but the 1986 and 1994 eruptions were not. Multiphase events are
associated with the formation of the dome and with the supply of magma and of volatiles to the dome. Their hypocentres are
near the crater, beneath the dome. Multiphase events occur when the magma flow in the chimney is large; sometimes the dome
grows without multiphase activity. Low-frequency events and tremor are associated with fluid resonance. Rock falls (guguran
in Indonesian) dominate the seismic records by their large number. The number of multiphase events is correlated to the number
of rock falls. Both are related to dome growth.
An aseismic zone is situated between two seismic zones, at a depth between 1.5 and 2.5 km below the summit: we postulate
that it is a small shallow magma reservoir where magma injected from below can be stored temporarily.
We try to relate seismic observations during both eruptive cycles to the initial injection of deep magma to the superficial
magma system. The first eruption in each case seems to involve magma enriched in gas that extrudes the content of the conduit
and explodes the old dome. A regular outflow of magma follows the initial explosion and gradually a dome is building up. Then
it stops and a period of repose is observed. Later a second episode of dome growth occurs. The height of the dome reaches a
maximum corresponding to a state of lithostatic equilibrium. The time delay of more than 2 years between the beginning and
the end of a cycle may result from crystallisation in a volatile rich magma and from the building up of pressure in the superficial
magma pocket.
Some important events, like the collapse of the dome on 22 November 1994, are not preceded by any seismic precursor.
When it reaches a large volume, the dome is not stable and is likely to collapse by gravity, for instance after the sudden influx of
matter or gas or after a heavy rain. On Merapi, tremors are observed but do not always precede a dangerous event. 䉷 2000
Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Merapi volcano; seismicity; earthquake; dome growth

* Corresponding author.

0377-0273/00/$ - see front matter 䉷 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S0377-027 3(00)00137-2
194 A. Ratdomopurbo, G. Poupinet / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 100 (2000) 193–214

1. Introduction 9 km from the summit; it started the instrumental moni-

Merapi is a basaltic andesitic volcano with a crater
that contains a lava dome (see Van Bemmelen, 1949;
Berthommier et al., 1992). The activity of Merapi is
nearly continuous when compared to the other Indo-
nesian volcanoes. The main hazard for the population
living on the slopes of Merapi comes from pyroclastic
flows or nuées ardentes that tumble down the slopes of
the volcano and move forward along the river beds at
a high speed. Pyroclastic flows originate from the
partial collapse of the dome of Merapi. They are
made of a large volume of gas and of solid debris at
high temperature and high pressure. The dome has an
elongated shape because the crater opens on the south-
west flank and the crater floor is steeply inclined in
this direction. Dome growth and collapse occur inter-
mittently, thus producing cyclic activity (Van
Bemmelen, 1949). These cycles are reflected by
persistent seismicity, dominated by shallow events.
This paper presents a summary of seismological
observations at Merapi between 1983 and 1994, reviews
the results of seismic analysis and explores the relation-
ship between seismicity and volcanic process. Emphasis
is placed on the last two decades reflecting the improve-
ment in the seismic data acquisition system after the
installation of a telemetered network. The Volcanologi-
cal Survey of Indonesia (VSI) uses Merapi as a pilot site
for improving the forecast of eruptions and the mitiga-
tion of volcanic hazards.
toring of seismicity and was used by Van Padang (1933)
to notice the increase of activity preceding the eruption
of November 1930. This mechanical seismograph is still
operating. Later a Japanese system, the Hosaka seismo-
graph using cables was installed in complement to the
Wiechert seismograph (Shimozuru et al., 1969).
A seismic network (Fig. 1 and Table 1) was installed
on Merapi in 1982, in the framework of a collaboration
between VSI and the US Geological Survey. It is
presently composed of seven short-period seismo-
graphs. The seismometers are Mark Product L4C
sensors with a damping factor of 0.8 and a transduction
constant of 50 mV/mm/s. The field units are powered by
batteries recharged by solar panels. Signals are trans-
mitted by VHF directly to Merapi Volcano Observatory
(MVO) in Jogyakarta, 25 km from the volcano. At
MVO, the signals are recorded continuously on paper
drums using an amplification of 800 mm/mm/s. Since
January 1991, a PCEQ digital recording system (Lee,
1989) has been implemented, using a DT-2821-12 bits
to digitise analogue signals with a sampling frequency
of 100 Hz. Paper seismograms are examined everyday
to record the number and the magnitude of various seis-
mic events. Earthquakes are systematically classified
according to a scheme presented later. Digital records
are later processed for detailed analysis and for hypo-
centre location. In addition an RSAM and an SSAM
system (Endo and Murray, 1991) provides a real-time
quantification of seismic activity.

2. Seismic network
3. Characteristics of Merapi earthquakes
Around 1924, a Wiechert mechanical seismograph
was installed on the western flank of Merapi, at about The first classification of Merapi earthquakes was

Table 1
Coordinates of seismological stations installed on Merapi volcano. Coordinates are given as geographical coordinates and as cartesian
coordinates in kilometres in a frame centred on the crater at 7 S 32.43 and 110 E 26.81

Station Latitude Longitude Altitude X Y Z

(⬚ South) (⬚ East) (m) (km) (km) (km)

PUS 7 32.30 0 110 27.24 0 2625 ⫹0.850 ⫹0.225 0.30

POG 7 31.80 0 110 27.33 0 2415 ⫹1.102 1.150 0.51
KLA 7 32.08 0 110 25.68 0 1918 ⫺2.036 ⫹0.628 1.01
DEL 7 33.61 0 110 27.68 0 1487 ⫹1.291 ⫺2.117 1.44
GEM 7 32.65 0 110 24.85 0 1318 ⫺3.538 ⫺0.446 1.63
PLA 7 35.14 0 110 25.89 0 1276 ⫺1.648 ⫺4.762 1.63
CEM 7 34.08 0 110 26.47 0 1479 ⫺0.562 ⫺3.533 1.45
 A. Ratdomopurbo, G. Poupinet / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 100 (2000) 193–214
Fig. 1. Map of seismic stations installed on Merapi volcano. All stations were installed in 1982–1984, except CEM which was installed in 1994.
Station PUS is a 3-component station.
proposed by Shimozuru et al. (1969), based on seis-
mological observations done in September 1968. Seis-
mographs were operated in two sites on the south and
on the north flanks, during the period of dome growth
that followed the dome collapse in November 1967.
At that time the volume of the dome was about 5.9
million m 3. Shimozuru et al. (1969) proposed a clas-
sification based on five types of events: type 1, double
spindle, high frequency; type 2, double spindle, high
frequency, low frequency; type 3, B-type proposed by
Minakami (1960); type 4, many phases; and type 5,
spindle, lava avalanche. After the installation of the
telemetered network and following the explosion of
June 1984, a new classification of events was
proposed and is still in use: (1) volcanotectonic A or
VTA; (2) volcanotectonic B or VTB; (3) multiphase
or MP; (4) low frequency or LF; (5) tremor; and (6)
rock falls (guguran in Indonesian). Fig. 2 presents
examples of the five most common types of seismic
195
events: MP, LF, VTB, VTA and tremor. Rock falls are
characterised by the fact that for a given amplitude of
the signal, they have a duration 2–4 times longer than
VTA or MP. In Fig. 2, both volcanotectonic earth-
quakes VT are similar to type A events defined by
Minakami (1960): they contain high frequencies up
to 8 Hz and their P-onsets can be easily picked (Fig.
3a). The amplitudes of their records in most stations
are similar, independent of altitude and distance from
the summit. For VTA, the separation between S and P
waves can be read easily on all stations: S–P time is
larger than 0.5 s. VTA have a depth of the order of
2.5–5 km below the summit. VTB events have
waveforms and frequencies somewhat similar to
VTA (Fig. 3b) but S waves are more difficult to
pick, probably because of the smaller distance
between source and receiver. VTB depth is smaller
than 1.5 km below the summit. Hypocentres of VT
events will be discussed later.
196 A. Ratdomopurbo, G. Poupinet / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 100 (2000) 193–214

Fig. 2. Typical waveforms of the characteristic events originating at Merapi volcano. Records in station PUS are shown in the upper part and
records in station DEL in the lower part.

MP and LF events are shallow events. A low
frequency LF event has a dominant frequency of
about 1.5 Hz (Fig. 3c) which is constant at all stations.
Near the summit, station PUS records it with much
larger amplitude than the other stations, indicating
that a LF earthquake originates from a very shallow
zone near the summit. LF events are somewhat similar
to long period events, suggesting an origin from pres-
surized fluids (cf. Chouet, 1992). A relatively unusual
event involves a combination of LF and VTB signals
together and is called LHF; the LF earthquake
happens first and is immediately followed by a
VTB. A multiphase or MP event is related to the
formation of the dome. For a given amplitude, the
duration of a MP is about twice that of a VT event.
The dominant frequency is between 3 and 4 Hz (Fig.
3d) and its amplitude is strongly attenuated as a func-
tion of distance from the summit. The onsets of MP
events are emergent so it is difficult to read their arri-
val times and to locate their hypocentres.
 A. Ratdomopurbo, G. Poupinet / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 100 (2000) 193–214 197

Fig. 3. Spectrograms and seismograms for various types of events recorded on Merapi. Time is in seconds and frequency is in hertz: (a) a deep
volcanotectonic event, VTA; (b) a shallow volcanotectonic event, VTB; (c) a low frequency event, LF; (d) a multiphase event, MP; (e) a tremor.
198 A. Ratdomopurbo, G. Poupinet / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 100 (2000) 193–214

Fig. 3. (continued)
 A. Ratdomopurbo, G. Poupinet / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 100 (2000) 193–214
Fig. 3. (continued)
A tremor has a similar frequency content as a LF
event (Fig. 3e). Its duration is much longer than the
other types of Merapi events: it can last from several
minutes to several hours.
On Merapi, rock falls are the most frequent events:
typically they are seismic signals generated by the
avalanches of rock falling from the dome. These
avalanches usually last several minutes, much longer
than earthquakes with the same amplitude. A rock fall
event is emergent and comes with a spindle shape. Its
frequency is much higher than that of a tremor and it
looks like a high-frequency noise. Rock falls are
caused by gravity and occur when a part of the
dome is unstable. If the collapsed volume is high, an
avalanche may be largely composed of hot blocks
from the interior of the dome. Incandescent spots on
the dome surface appear when the hot inner parts of
the dome are exposed. The phenomenon of incandes-
cence indicates that the dome is still hot. Another type
of rock fall is formed by the break ups of lava flowing
on the slope of the volcano. At night, it appears as a
glowing avalanche. From the seismograms, it is
nearly impossible to distinguish a dome collapse
199
from an outflow of lava, both being avalanches of
the same material at different temperatures and
viscosity.
4. Overview of seismicity, 1983–1994
Seismicity may be quantified by the rate of seis-
mic events expressed as a number of events per
day or per month. Fig. 4 presents an overview of
the seismicity of Merapi since 1983, showing the
monthly variation in MP, rock falls and VT. Rock
falls and MP are numerous compared to the relatively
small number of VT. Rock falls and MP are an indi-
cator of the activity inside or just beneath the dome.
VT are an indicator of the activity deeper inside the
volcano.
Rock falls and MP events are numerous during an
eruption: rates can exceed 12,000 events per month,
i.e. 400 per day. Rock falls are generally more abun-
dant than MP events. The temporal variation of the
number of MP and of rock falls dominates the seismic
records. In Table 2, the rates of seismicity are listed
200 A. Ratdomopurbo, G. Poupinet / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 100 (2000) 193–214

Fig. 4. Monthly number of seismic events recorded on Merapi between 1983 and 1995. Monthly variation of the number of multiphase (MP) and
rock falls (Guguran) are shown above with a logarithmic scale. The volcanotectonic events of type A (deep) or type B (shallow depth), VTA and
VTB, are given in a linear scale.

for different periods for each type of event. A clear
correlation is observed between MP and rock falls: it
results from the fact that they are both related to dome
growth. MP events are associated with lava effusion
and to the increase in dome volume, whereas rock
falls are associated with instabilities and to the
decrease in dome volume. The correlation coefficient
on the long term is 0.87. This correlation is not as
obvious on the short term: for instance between Janu-
ary 1994 and March 1994, rock falls were abundant
without any MP events. This seems to imply that the
dome can also grow up in an aseismic mode when
the rate of the outflow of lava decreases. More
detailed observations are needed to understand
these relationships.
Apart from two episodes, the background activity
in VT is less than eight events per month. VTB (shal-
low events) are about five times more numerous than
VTA (deeper events). Two periods of VT activity
were observed before an eruption: the first lasted
more than 2 weeks before the 1984 eruption and the
second lasted about 2 years before the 1992 eruption.
The data available suggest that a rate of VT larger
than one event per day may be significant as a precur-
sor to an increase in volcanic activity. If this rate of
VT is exceeded during several days or weeks, atten-
tion should be given to the possibility of an increase in
volcanic hazard. However, major events like in 1986
and 1994 were not preceded by any increase in VT.
Moreover, the fact that the duration of the precursory
activity in VT is so different—2 weeks for 1984
compared to 2 years for the 1992 eruption—limits
 A. Ratdomopurbo, G. Poupinet / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 100 (2000) 193–214 201

Table 2
Average rate of seismic events on Merapi volcano for selected time intervals

Period VT MP Rock falls

(events/month) (events/month) (events/month)
From To

Jan 83 May 84 1 740 2140

Jun 84 Jul 84 49 3284 9752
Aug 84 Dec 84 6 12673 17665
Jan 85 Sep 86 1 51 324
Oct 86 Mar 87 3 1287 4353
Apr 87 Nov 89 2 26 555
Dec 89 Aug 90 36 29 87
Sep 90 Jan 92 34 34 142
Feb 92 Jan 93 1 252 9089
Jan 93 Feb 94 0.5 37 1490
Mar 94 Nov 94 3 838 2630
Dec 94 18 3757

the efficiency of VT as a medium range precursor of
eruptions. There is no short-term relationship between
the time when the magma rises up inside the volcano
and the time when the volcano erupts. The occurrence
of an eruption depends on the increase of pressure in
the upper magmatic system and VT activity does not
give quantitative information on this parameter.
Two repose periods in VT followed the explosions
and subsequent episodes of dome growth of June 1984
and February 1992; they lasted, respectively, from
January 1985 to September 1986 and from January
1993 to February 1994. During these repose periods,
the rate of VT decreased to less than one event per
month and MP to only a few per day. However, during
these repose periods, rock falls continued, leaving
open the question of the absence or continuation
of growth of the dome during a period without VT
and MP.
5. Earthquake locations
On Merapi, MP and LF events are difficult to locate
but are clearly in the near vicinity of the summit, just
beneath the dome. The fast decrease of the amplitude
of MP as a function of distance to the summit attests
of a location near the crater (see Hidayat et al., 2000 –
this volume).
VTA and VTB are standard microearthquakes and
are located from the picking of P and S arrival-times
on digital seismograms. Locations are computed with
a method of simplex optimisation (Nelder and Mead,
1965; Prugger and Gendzwill, 1988). We assume a
homogeneous medium with a velocity of 3 km/s and
a VP/VS ratio of 1.86. As shown in Fig. 5b, there are
two clearly separated groups of events corresponding
to VTA and to VTB. VTB events occur in a depth
range from 0 to 1.5 km below the summit whereas
VTA events originate in a range between 2.5 and
5 km. There seems to be an aseismic zone centred at
1.5–2.5 km below the summit of Merapi as already
proposed by Ratdomopurbo (1991). The separation in
two depths is not dependent on the exact velocity used
in the hypocentre determination. Actually, this
separation results from the distribution of the raw,
non-interpreted, arrival times: in a plot of the differ-
ences of P-arrival times between stations PLA, PUS
and DEL …tPLA ⫺ tPUS versus tDEL ⫺ tPUS †; the points
are not distributed randomly (Fig. 6); we get two
different groups of points: for VTA, tPLA ⫺ tPUS ˆ
0:5 ⫺ 0:6 s and tDEL ⫺ tPUS ˆ 0:1 ⫺ 0:2 s, and for
VTB, tPLA ⫺ tPUS ˆ 1:4 ⫺ 1:6 s, and tDEL ⫺ tPUS ˆ
0:5 ⫺ 0:6 s: This allows a fast distinction between
the two types of events, the shallow and the deep
ones. The separation of the hypocentres reflects this
distribution of the original arrival times in two
groups. A change in the average velocity of the
medium or in the velocity distribution would
slightly move the depth of the gap but would not
suppress it. This feature in the spatial distribution of
seismicity is robust. On a high volcano, the fact that
stations are in different altitude ranges improves depth
202 A. Ratdomopurbo, G. Poupinet / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 100 (2000) 193–214

Fig. 5. (a) Map of seismic epicentres recorded on Merapi volcano during 1991. Open circles are VTB and solid circles are VTA. VTA are shifted
to the north-east compared to VTB. (b) Cross-section of the seismicity on Merapi showing VTA and VTB events. VTA are separated from VTB
by a zone where seismicity is quasi-absent. This zone is interpreted as the site of a small shallow magma pocket.
 A. Ratdomopurbo, G. Poupinet / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 100 (2000) 193–214
Fig. 6. Plot of the differences in P-arrival times between stations PLA and PUS as a function of DEL–PUS. The separation between deeper
events and shallower events on Merapi, and therefore the ‘aseismic’ gap near 1.5–2.5 km below the summit, is caused by this separation of
points in the raw data.
determination: for shallow events, there are stations
above and below the hypocentre. Our main reserva-
tion is that our data set is limited. Ryan et al. (1981)
observed such an aseismic zone at a depth of 6 km
beneath Kilauea and interpreted it as a zone with high
magma to rock ratio. The aseismic zone of Merapi is
positioned in between two seismic zones. The absence
of seismicity attests to the presence of a more ductile
zone in between more brittle layers at a depth of 2 km.
For a similar material, a more ductile material implies
a higher temperature. The fact that the fumaroles in
the Gendol solfatara, near the summit, reach tempera-
tures of about 830⬚ Celsius supports the hypothesis of
high temperatures at a shallow depth. Van Bemmelen
(1949) has shown that the Kukusan fault is a key
tectonic fault inside the Merapi: it is the basal fault
guiding the collapse of the edifice. The position of the
aseismic zone is near the intersection of the Kukusan
fault and of a vertical line passing through the summit.
Magma can accumulate near the intersection of the
main conduit and of the Kukusan fault. We speculate
that this pocket may play the role of a valve slowing
the upward migration of magma rising up from the
main deep magma chamber, thus attenuating the
strength of explosive eruptions. From a precise
modelling of tilt and GPS measurements, Beauducel
203
(1998) infers a deep magma chamber at a depth of
8 km. The lack of VTA events at depths greater than
5 km is not contradictory with the existence of a deep
magma chamber. In our interpretation, VTA events
are indirectly related to the upward migration of
magma from a depth larger than 5 km to a shallow
magma pocket. This suggestion is in agreement with
the fact that explosive eruptions are preceded by VTA
events. With increasing pressure in the shallow
pocket, VTB events may occur. Consequently, VTA
and VTB events can occur over the same time inter-
val. Another difference between VTA and VTB is that
the rate of VTB is always greater than the rate of
VTA; this may be due to a greater fragmentation of
the upper part of the volcano.
6. The eruption of 1984
An explosion occurred on Merapi in June 1984
(Sudrajat and Siswowidjojo, 1987). A first VTA earth-
quake was recorded on 27 May 1984, less than
3 weeks before the explosion, and can be considered
as a precursory event. It was not followed immedi-
ately by other VTA or VTB. The next VT events
started on 4 June with a rate of 1–2 events per day,
204 A. Ratdomopurbo, G. Poupinet / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 100 (2000) 193–214

until 10 June, when the rate of VTA and VTB

increased regularly until 2 days before the first explo-
sion. The quiet period in VT activity lasted less than
2 days and preceded the eruption. The magnitudes of
these events is comprised between 1 and 2. (see Fig. 7)
The number of rock falls increased slightly after the
beginning of June, with a doubling coincident with the
large VT activity on 11 June. A small pyroclastic flow
and a lava outflow were noticed at 3:30 (local time) on
13 June 1984. During 3 h, from 10:00 to 13:00 on the
same day, the seismographs recorded a continuous
pyroclastic flow and after that, until the next morning,
the activity was dominated by lava avalanches. After
about noon on 14 June, VT activity ceased. This short
‘quietness’ in VT activity was then followed by an
explosion at 02:15 in the morning of 15 June 1984.
After the explosion, lava flowed from the conduit and
fell directly on the volcano slope, producing glowing
avalanches. Two additional explosions followed at
03:47 and 06:00 on the same day.
The explosion at 02:15 on 15 June produced an
eruption column rising at an altitude of about 6 km
which sent ashes on the cities of Weleri, Kendal and
Semarang at a distance of about 80 km from the
volcano. It also induced a pyroclastic flow along the
rivers Blongkeng, Putih, Batang and Krasak. The flow
reached a distance of 7 km along the Putih river. A
second flow reached a distance of 6 km along the
Putih river at noon on 15 June. The 1979 dome
comprised a volume of about 3.6 million m 3 and
was destroyed; most of its material was deposited in
the Putih river bed. The following week was domi-
nated by semi-continuous lava avalanches but the
number of events declined and the time interval
between them increased. A ‘quiescent’ VT period
following a sharp period of activity has been observed
elsewhere, as at Asama volcano in Japan (Minakami
et al., 1970; Shimozuru and Kagiyama, 1989) and
could be an important observation concerning the
imminence of an explosion.
The post-eruptive period is dominated by MP
events and by avalanches. A sudden increase in MP
was observed 10 days after the explosion, on 24 June.
Hundreds of MP events marked a surge in dome
growth. The new dome grew up in the place formerly
occupied by the dome of 1979. Avalanches and MP
events ceased in March 1985 and the dome remained
stable until the eruption of 1986.
Fig. 7. Seismicity before the1984 eruption as a function of time. The
continuous line is the daily number of rock falls and the dotted line
is the daily number of MP events (scale on the left). VT events are
plotted as a function of the time difference between stations PLA
and PUS (scale on the right) in order to give an estimate of their
depth. VTA and VTB events occurred in a precursory period only
several weeks in duration.
Thus in June 1984, we observe a relatively
complete sequence of Merapi type of volcanic activity
as described by Berthommier et al. (1992). A 2-week-
long swarm of VTA and VTB signalled an injection of
magma into the summital zone from deep inside the
volcano. MP events and rock falls indicated that mate-
rial was injected beneath and inside the dome. The old
dome was ejected. The explosion generated a rising
column vertically and was followed by numerous
pyroclastic flows. The formation of a new dome
started a few days after the explosion and was accom-
panied by MP events and rock falls.
7. The eruption of 1986
After a rest of more than 1 year since March 1985,
the volcano activity resumed by 16 small pyroclastic
flows on 10 October 1986. Seismograms exhibited a
continuous high frequency signal for several hours.
According to our experience, such a signal is asso-
ciated with rain on the summit. This seismic event
was followed by a pyroclastic flow that moved on
the south-west slope of the volcano. Three rain gauges
installed around the volcano show that rainfall was 3–
10 times larger during the second week of October
 A. Ratdomopurbo, G. Poupinet / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 100 (2000) 193–214 205

Fig. 8. Eruption of 1986: (a) sketch of the dome growth based on repetitive photographs taken from the south crater rim; (b) variation of the daily
number of multiphase events—MP; (c) zoom on the temporal evolution of seismicity close to the onset of the 1986 eruption; the continuous line
is the daily number of rock falls and the vertical bars are MP number per day.
206 A. Ratdomopurbo, G. Poupinet / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 100 (2000) 193–214
than during the first week. Since 15 October 1986, the
number of MP events increased from three events per
day, their normal flux, to hundreds of events per day
(Fig. 8c): on 22 October, 272 MP were recorded.
The rock falls occurred more than 500 times per
day during mid-October 1984. Visual observations
showed that lava spines, that had marked the surface
of the dome, had disappeared. The entire dome chan-
ged its morphology completely, its surface becoming
smoother than previously. There is a gap of 5 days
between the first pyroclastic flow and the start of the
swarm of MP. During this short episode, lava extru-
sion was important. In both 1984 and 1986, even in
the case of a strong debit of lava, MP events are not
always present. Their appearance seems to be caused
by the fact that the lava flow finds some restraint
during its progress towards the surface.
The dome growth episode in 1986 occurred without
a VT precursor. We suspect that the lack of VT is
typical of non-explosive activity. No tremor or LF
earthquakes were observed. The growth of the dome
was accompanied by MP and rock falls. From October
1986 to January 1987, the extrusion rate culminated at
about 15,000 m 3 per day compared to a short-term
average extrusion rate of 3300 m 3 per day (Siswowid-
jojo et al., 1995). The entire dome expanded. After
February 1987, the inspection of photographs
suggests that only the uppermost part of the dome
evolved (Fig. 8a). By this time the MP events were
less numerous than during the period of rapid growth
(Fig. 8b). This partial growth indicates that the lower
part of the dome had stabilised. The activity ceased
after April 1987 and MP activity returned to a normal
rate. The volcano remained at rest until mid-1989.
The volume of the dome after this eruptive crisis
was 2.5 millions m 3.
8. The eruption of 1992–1993
After a 4-year absence of VT events since June
1984, two VTA earthquakes were recorded: a M ˆ
1:8 at 08:41 on 20 June 1988 and a M ˆ 1:3 on 27
August at 02:47 (Fig. 9b). These were the only VTA
events observed in 1988. Their depth was close to
4 km. In 1989, the seismicity of the volcano increased
slightly. Then tremor and VTB appeared; a tremor at
1.6 Hz was recorded for 2 days on 4–5 September
1989 and was followed by a high-frequency tremor
(4–6 Hz) until 10 September 1989. No such tremor
had been observed in 1984. A VTB swarm on 7
December 1989 produced about 45 events during
5 h, i.e. nine events per hour. The swarm with the
largest number of VTB occurred on 23–24 December;
about 150 VTB were recorded with magnitudes
ranging from ⫺0.6 to 2.5 and activity came to an
end the next day at 22:00. After March 1990, the
number of VTA and VTB increased sharply and
culminated in a swarm of 200 VTB on 20 August
1990, accompanied by a gas plume of 1 km height.
Just after this eruptive event, VTA events disappeared
for the next 2 months. VTB events decreased also
during the next 3 weeks. This decrease in VT activity
after the opening of the conduit raises the question of
the role of gas pressure for the generation of VT
events. Then VTB events continued throughout most
of 1991 with a steady rate. On the contrary, the VTA
monthly rate increased. In addition, the LF events and
tremor reappeared. All types of events, VTA, VTB, LF
and tremor reached their maximum rate simultaneously
in September. Then seismicity decreased during the
4 months that preceded the eruption on 2 February
1992.
The 1992 eruption was initiated by the formation of
a new dome in January 1992, without destruction of
the 1986 dome. The growth of the dome provoked
intensive avalanches. The new dome grew up from a
point in the northeast sector of the crater, between the
old dome and the crater rim of older lava (1940,
1957). On 20 January 1992, the first incandescent
avalanches were observed down the western flank.
The first pyroclastic flow was observed on 31 January
1992 with a length of 800 m. On 2 February, a
pyroclastic flow of 4.5 km length fell down
towards the west and a column reached a height
of 2.6 km. For several days, the activity was
dominated by rock avalanches and by pyroclastic
flows, most of small size. A flow on 7 February at
09:23 produced a plume that reached a height of
2.5 km above the summit. A new active phase in
1992–1993 built up a dome with an elevation of
2925 m, rising about 100 m higher than the dome of
1984.
Many of the VTB earthquakes occurring during
swarms have similar waveforms: they are multiplets.
Ratdomopurbo and Poupinet (1995) used these
 A. Ratdomopurbo, G. Poupinet / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 100 (2000) 193–214 207

Fig. 9. Seismicity preceding the 1992 eruption. (a) Tremors are quantified by their total duration in minutes per month. Volcanic earthquakes are
presented as a function of their energy (the unit is 10 15 ergs) and rock falls (guguran) are plotted as a number divided by 10 per day. (b) Temporal
evolution of VTA and VTB events since the first VT events precursors of the 1992 crisis in June 1988. The axis are the date in days with an
origin on 1 January 1989 and the depth of the VT events. A vertical alignment indicates a swarm of VT events.
208 A. Ratdomopurbo, G. Poupinet / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 100 (2000) 193–214
multiplets to detect a temporal increase in velocity
of more than 1.2% close to the summit of the
volcano before the 1992 explosion. This result
will need confirmation from data recorded during
future eruptions on Merapi or elsewhere. This
technique supposes that multiplets are available
and is not applicable without them, except with arti-
ficial sources. It could complement the standard moni-
toring of a volcano to infer a pressure increase around
a magma chamber.
9. The eruption of 1994
In order to follow the morphological evolution of
the dome in 1993–1994, a photographic camera
equipped with a small telescope was installed in the
Ngepos observatory at 12 km from the summit
(Ratdomopurbo, 1995). Photographs were taken
every day when the summit was not covered by
clouds. A new dome formed in 1994 and collapsed
on 22 November 1994 producing pyroclastic clouds
that swept the village of Turgo and killed more than
60 persons (Sukhyar, 1995).
9.1. Creeping block
The formation of the 1992–1993 dome ceased in
mid-1993. The volcano then began a new phase of
activity in December 1993. The upper south-west
part of the 1992–1993 dome started to deform. A
fracture oriented east–west at the top of the dome
started to separate an active block from the stable
part of the 1992–1993 dome (Fig. 10a). The active
block had a volume of about 100,000 m 3 and moved
to the south-west with a velocity of about 0.2 m/day.
The active block continued to creep through January.
By the third week of January 1994, it achieved its
maximum velocity of 0.6 m/day. Then the block
started to crack. In February 1994, the front of the
block moved from the crater down the steep upper
part of the slope; we observed several new cracks
perpendicular to the direction of creep motion. The
frontal part of the cracked block collapsed, producing
rock falls. When the volume of the falling material
was sufficiently high, small pyroclastic flows were
formed.
9.2. Birth of the 1994 dome
Two main features are clear when we compare
views of the dome. In the third week of February,
new lava started to flow out through the east–west
fracture at the top edge of the dome. It pushed against
the dome and accelerated the motion and the progres-
sive collapse of the active block. Rock falls and pyro-
clastic flows occurred intermittently during March
1994 until the entire old block had totally disappeared.
At the end of March 1994, a small new growing lava
dome had taken the position of the block (Fig. 10b).
During this period, many rock falls were recorded on
seismograms. From late February to mid-May 1994, the
lava flow rate was about 6500 m 3 per day. Beneath the
dome, on the steep slope of the summit, a narrow and
8 m deep groove formed. Its surface was covered with
debris and ash. This corridor guided the avalanches in
their first hundred metres. After multiple avalanches
originating from the active block, it started to widen
from 20 m on 12 March to 50 m on 3 April.
9.3. Rapid dome growth
In May 1994, the dome started to grow up rapidly,
expanding laterally and vertically (Fig. 10c). The
vertical growth rate was about 0.17 m per day. Its
length down the slope changed from 265 m in April
1994 to about 470 m in August 1994. The flow rate
between April and August averaged about 17,000 m 3
per day. By the early September 1994, the new dome
rose 47 m above its base and had an estimated volume
of about 2.6 million m 3. Thus, the height exceeded by
about 20 m that of the 1992–1993 dome or the new
dome in March 1994. During this phase many MP
events occurred with a maximum rate of 80 events
per day in May 1994, decreasing to 20 events per
day in August 1994.
9.4. Stable dome and eruption of 22 November 1994
In Late August 1994, the rate of rock falls
decreased suddenly, suggesting that the growth
of the dome had ceased (Fig. 4). Two photographs
taken in August and September 1994 showed no
significant morphological changes. The maximum
height of the dome (47 m) (see Fig. 11) corre-
sponds to the lithostatic equilibrium of a column
of magma with a 1 MPa pressure at its base.
 A. Ratdomopurbo, G. Poupinet / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 100 (2000) 193–214 209

Fig. 10. (a), (b) and (c): Sketches describing the main episodes of the dome growth in 1994. Each plot is drawn from repeated photographs taken
at a distance of 12 km with a small telescope.

During the autumn of 1994, the summit was
covered by clouds and few photographs were
taken. The number of rock falls was very small.
The dome interior was not solidified and the dome
was quasi-stable.
The pyroclastic flows of 22 November 1994 were
not preceded by any significant seismic precursor
(Fig. 12). Sukhyar (1995) describes the exact chron-
ology of this dramatic event: the first flows occurred
at 10:14 and 10:20. The longest nuée ardente took
place at 11:00 and killed more than 60 persons.
More than 60 nuées ardentes were observed on 22
November. A volume of about 2.3 million m 3 of
material was deposited in the rivers Boyong and
Krasak (Abdurachman et al., 2000 – this volume).
10. Discussion and conclusion
During the operation of the seismic network at
210 A. Ratdomopurbo, G. Poupinet / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 100 (2000) 193–214

Fig. 10. (continued)

Merapi between 1982 and 1995, the volcano exhibited
different behaviours. We know that our observations
do not cover the entire spectrum of events that can
occur on Merapi. Present seismological observations
on Merapi provide two key types of information. The
VT activity is an indicator on the magma and fluid
transfer deep inside the volcano. We do not observe
earthquakes deeper than 5 km and there is an aseismic
gap near 1.5–2.5 km. MP events and rock falls are an
indicator on the growth and on the activity inside or
 A. Ratdomopurbo, G. Poupinet / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 100 (2000) 193–214 211

Fig. 10. (continued)

below the dome. However, there may be aseismic
growth of the dome. There may also be aseismic
fluid transfer inside the volcano. It is therefore essen-
tial to monitor other parameters than seismology. For
instance, the visual observations are essential to
appreciate the complexity of the dome evolution.
For VT activity, we can distinguish eruptive activ-
ity with VT events or without VT events. The 1984
and 1992 eruptions were preceded by swarms of VT
events whereas the 1986 and 1994 eruptive episodes
were not preceded by VT events. The main character-
istics of 1984 and 1992 is that they are explosive

Fig. 11. Variation of the height of the dome in 1994. Height in meters is plotted as a function of date. Height is referenced to the height of the
dome on 3 December 1993.
212 A. Ratdomopurbo, G. Poupinet / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 100 (2000) 193–214
Fig. 12. Seismic activity before the 22 November 1994 collapse of
the dome. The continuous line is the daily number of rock falls and
the dotted line is the daily number of MP events. The diamonds are
low frequency events.
events: material was ejected from the crater vertically
as well as horizontally. The strength of the 1984
explosion plume was such that ash was carried to a
distance of 80 km. The 1992 explosion was less
powerful because it was preceded by gas release and
small lava flows. The driving mechanism for an
explosion is gas pressure. The appearance of VTA
and VTB before an explosion is a strong argument
to relate the generation of these events to injection
of magma and to a regime of high pressure inside
the volcano. On the contrary the 1986 and 1994 erup-
tions were related to dome instability. Lava outflow is
aseismic when the pressure of magma remains low.
The 22 November 1994 event corresponds to a grav-
itational collapse of the dome: there was no precursor
that could explain what triggered the destabilisation of
the dome. Sometimes the dome is destabilised by an
internal cause like a small flow of magma or by an
increase of gas pressure. The monitoring of the dome
is of an extreme importance from the point of view of
hazard mitigation. However, the dome can collapse on
its own weight, for instance after rain infiltrates it, and
there is no straightforward technique to forecast its fate.
Hartmann (1935) proposed a classification of
Merapi eruptions; the 1984 eruption would be classi-
fied as a Type-B eruption but it is difficult to bring the
1986, 1992 and 1994 eruptions into Hartmann’s
scheme. The dome behaviour always plays an essen-
tial role in the eruptive activity of the volcano. Each
eruption from the limited period we observe can be
divided into different stages (see Fig. 13). The first
stage is dominated by the presence of an existing
lava dome that has been nearly stable for several
years. The morphology, position and stability of this
dome are important parameters for forthcoming activ-
ity. Explosive eruptions are preceded by VT earth-
quakes. This suggests injection of new magma, from
a depth larger than 5 km, to the superficial pocket and
to the summit of the volcano. VTB activity supports
the transfer of magma pressure and of hot volatiles to
shallow levels beneath the summit. The second stage
is an explosive eruption which may be preceded by
small pyroclastic flows and gas release. Then regular
effusions of lava are accompanied by minor explo-
sions during a period that can last between one and
a few weeks. The construction of a first dome can end
this phase. Then the volcano has a relatively long
period of repose of the order of several months or
1 year. After this quiet period, activity resumes; new
lava pours from the conduit and builds up a new lava
dome. The height of this dome may reach a maximum
that corresponds to hydrostatic equilibrium. Depend-
ing on its volume and position, this new dome may or
may not collapse, generating large pyroclastic flows.
From the limited observations available, we notice
that the time interval between the beginning and the
end of each crisis was of the order of 27–28 months. It
is tempting to relate such a duration to the dimension
of the upper magmatic system and to a cycle. The first
step transfers magma from depth, maybe from the
deep magma chamber to the upper part of the volcano,
and increases pressure in the fractures near the
summit. The excess of pressure provokes the opening
of the conduit and the ejection of old dome material. A
vertical plume is associated with this phase and ash
may be spread over large distances. The conduit being
open, fluid magma flows freely outside the conduit
and falls down over the slope of the volcano. Soon
after, lava viscosity increases and a new dome builds
up. This doming episode stops after a short time inter-
val. A period of repose of about 1 year follows. The
superficial magmatic system is progressively experi-
encing some physical transformation; pressure is
building up slowly inside, maybe because of a process
of crystallisation of volatile rich magma (see Tait et
al., 1989). Other observations, like the change in
 A. Ratdomopurbo, G. Poupinet / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 100 (2000) 193–214
Fig. 13. Sketch summarising the different episodes during the eruption cycle that produced the dome explosion on 2 February 1992 and the dome
collapse on 22 November 1994.
microgravity observed by Jousset et al. (2000 – this
volume) also imply a local change in physical proper-
ties inside the volcano. Then, new magma is rising in
the conduit. A new dome growth episode takes place
and the dome reaches a height corresponding to near-
hydrostatic equilibrium. The dome solidifies gradu-
ally but is not very stable because it stands on a
steep slope. It can be destabilised by gravity when
an internal force creates an imbalance or when modi-
fications of its physical properties are induced by an
external factor like rain. This phase is dangerous and
difficult to monitor because the collapse of the dome is
not necessarily preceded by any seismological or
geophysical precursor.
The two eruptive crises we have presented here were
moderate in size. The crater rim of Merapi is fragile and
the dome push can damage it. The summit of Merapi is
criss-crossed by fractures and the injection of magma
may ruin it and may provoke slope instability. Rare
cataclysmic events may result from the failure of
large blocks of the edifice. A multidisciplinary
approach to Merapi monitoring is a necessity; seismol-
ogy only “sees” a small fraction of the events that take
place inside the volcano and it can be blind to an excep-
tional event. Long term precise deformation measure-
ments, near the summit and also on the flanks are
extremely important to understand the physics of the
volcano (Young et al. 2000 – this volume).
213
Acknowledgements
This work would not have been possible without
the support of the Volcanological Survey of Indonesia
and of its Directors, Dr W. Tjetjep and Dr R. Sukhyar.
We are grateful to the Directors of Merapi Volcano
Observatory, Dr Sutikno Bronto and Dr Mas Atje
Purbawinata and to the staff of the Merapi Volcano
Observatory. We acknowledge Mr Suharna for his
dedication to seismic observation. The French Minis-
try of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Environ-
ment funded the fellowship of A. Ratdomopurbo
during his PhD in Grenoble and the field expenses.
We are particularly thankful to Mrs R.-M. Chevrier
and to Mr Tonnon from the French Ministère de l’En-
vironnement. Two anonymous reviewers and
specially the editor of this special issue, Pr Barry
Voight, improved considerably our first manuscript
so that he should be considered as a co-author of
this paper.
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