Professional Documents
Culture Documents
No. 30.5
DET NORSKE VERITAS AS (DNV AS), a fully owned subsidiary Society of the Foundation, undertakes classification and
certification and ensures the quality of ships, mobile offshore units, fixed offshore structures, facilities and systems, and carries
out research in connection with these functions. The Society operates a world-wide network of survey stations and is
authorised by more than 120 national administrations to carry out surveys and, in most cases, issue certificates on their behalf.
Classification Notes
Classification Notes are publications which give practical information on classification of ships and other objects. Examples of
design solutions, calculation methods, specifications of test procedures, as well as acceptable repair methods for some
components are given as interpretations of the more general rule requirements.
An updated list of Classification Notes is available on request. The list is also given in the latest edition of the Introduction-
booklets to the "Rules for Classification of Ships", the "Rules for Classification of Mobile Offshore Units" and the "Rules for
Classification of High Speed and Light Craft".
In "Rules for Classification of Fixed Offshore Installations", only those Classification Notes which are relevant for this type of
structure have been listed.
In this provision “Det Norske Veritas” shall mean the Foundation Det Norske Veritas as well as all its subsidiaries, directors, officers, employees, agents and
any other acting on behalf of Det Norske Veritas.
CONTENTS
1. Introduction........................................................4 5.4 Wind effects on helidecks ....................................20
1.1 General .................................................................4 5.5 Dynamic analysis of wind sensitive structures.....20
1.2 Environmental conditions ....................................4 5.6 Model tests ...........................................................21
1.3 Environmental loads.............................................4 6. Wave and current loads.....................................21
2. Wind conditions..................................................4 6.1 Wave and current loads on slender members .......21
2.1 Average wind .......................................................4 6.2 Wave loads on large volume structures................28
2.2 Gust wind .............................................................5 6.3 Second order wave loads on large volume
3. Wave conditions .................................................6 structures ..............................................................28
3.1 Wave theories.......................................................6 6.4 Slamming loads from waves ................................29
3.2 Short term wave conditions..................................7 6.5 Shock pressure from breaking waves...................30
3.3 Long-term wave statistics.....................................10 7. Vortex induced oscillations................................30
4. Current and tide.................................................15 7.1 General .................................................................30
4.1 Current .................................................................15 7.2 Wind induced vortex shedding.............................34
4.2 Tide ......................................................................15 7.3 Current induced vortex shedding .........................34
5. Wind loads ..........................................................16 7.4 Wave induced vortex shedding ............................36
5.1 Wind pressure ......................................................16 7.5 Methods for reducing vortex-induced
5.2 Wind forces ..........................................................16 oscillations ...........................................................38
5.3 The shape coefficient ...........................................17 8. References ...........................................................40
March 2000
1. Introduction 1.2.4
Empirical, statistical data used as a basis for evaluation of
1.1 General operation and design must cover a sufficiently long time
period. For operations of a limited duration, seasonal
1.1.1 variations must be taken into account. For meteorological
This Classification Note gives guidance for description of and oceanographical data 20 years of recordings should be
important environmental conditions as well as giving available. If the data record is shorter the climatic uncertainty
guidance for arriving at environmental loads. should be included in the analysis. Earthquakes must be
based on long-term historical data.
Environmental conditions are described in clauses 2-4 while
environmental loads are described in clauses 5-7.
1.3 Environmental loads
1.2 Environmental conditions 1.3.1
Environmental loads are loads caused by environmental
1.2.1
phenomena.
Environmental conditions cover natural phenomena which
may contribute to structural damages, operation disturbances Environmental loads to be used for design are to be based on
or navigation failures. Phenomena of general importance are: environmental data for the specific location and operation in
question, and are to be determined by use of relevant
· Wind methods applicable for the location/operation taking into
· Waves account type of structure, size, shape and response
· Current. characteristics.
March 2000
2.1.3
2.2 Gust wind
The statistical behavior of the average wind speed U (z, t)
referred to a fixed height and averaging time may be 2.2.1
described by the Weibull distribution given as:
In the short time range the wind may be considered as a
random gust wind component with zero mean value,
é æ cù
U ö÷ ú superposed upon the constant, average wind component.
Pr ( U) = 1 - exp ê- çç
ê è U o ÷ø ú
ë û
2.2.2
where Gust wind cycles with a period shorter than about 1 minute,
may be described by the Harris gust spectrum:
Pr (U) = cumulative probability of U
~
U = U (z, t) = wind speed f
f × S(f ) = 4 kU 2 (z, t )
Uo = Weibull scale parameter ( ~2
2+f )
5/ 6
f = frequency (Hz)
2.1.4 ~ = non-dimensional frequency,
f
The most probable largest wind speed for an exposure time, ~
f = f × L / U ( z, t )
T, may be obtained by:
L = length scale dimension (m); may be
1/ c
æ Tö chosen equal to 1800 m
U max (z, t ) = U o çç ln ÷
÷
è Ta ø = surface drag coefficient; may be chosen
k
equal to 0.0020 for rough sea and 0.0015
where
for moderate sea.
Ta = average time period of constant wind speed,
U ( z, t ) = average wind velocity.
usually 3 hours.
This gust spectrum should not be applied for f < 10 -2 Hz .
2.2.3
Gust wind velocity, defined for instance as the average wind
velocity during an interval of 3 seconds, may normally be
assumed to follow the Weibull distribution, see 2.1.3 - 2.1.4.
March 2000
where:
3.1.3
For most practical purposes an appropriate order of Dean’s Zs = The modified coordinate to be used in particle
Stream Function or Stokes’ 5th is applicable for regular wave velocity formulation
analysis. The wave height specified for such analysis may be
taken as the peak-to-trough height according to 3.2.9, when z = The elevation at which the kinematics are
using hydrodynamic coefficients according to 6.1.9. required (coordinate measured vertically upward
from the still water surface)
March 2000
H2 æ f ö æ N öæç f ö÷ ú ê ç 2s 2 ÷ú
SG ( f ) = S G 0 A g ç ÷ ê
exp - ç ÷ g ë è øû
height limitation of crest to trough wave height Hmax as a 16f p ç fp ÷ ê è M øç f ÷ ú
function of still water depth is given in Figure 3.3. è ø ëê è p ø ûú
-1
é ( N -1) ù
3.2 Short term wave conditions ê 1 æ N ö - M æ ( N -1) öú
G0 = ê ç ÷ Gç ÷ú
3.2.1 êM è M ø è M øú
Short term stationary irregular sea states may be described by ë û
a wave spectrum; that is, the power spectral density function
of the vertical sea surface displacement. Regression analysis shows that Ag can be approximated as:
3.2.2
The Jonswap spectrum and the Pierson-Moskowitz
spectrum are most frequently applied. Both spectra are
( )
f 2 = 2.2M -3.3 + 0.57 N 0.53- 0.58M
0.37
+ 0.94 - 1.04M -1.9
TPw = TP
March 2000
0.857 1/ 2
é 2p HSw ù æ 5+ g ö
g = 35(1 + 3.5 exp(- HS ))ê 2 ú
TZ = Tp çç ÷÷
ëê g TP ûú è 11 + g ø
Tp
TPsw = Tf + 2 g = exp 5.75 - 1.15Tp / H s for 3.6 £ £5
Hs
g =1
TP
g =1 for 5£
M=4 Hs
March 2000
æM ö
1/ 2 3.2.8
TZ = 2p çç 0 ÷÷ The statistical distribution of individual wave crests Z in an
è M2 ø irregular short-term stationary seastate may usually be
described by the Rayleigh distribution. The cummulative
· Significant wave slope: probability function P(Z), that is the probability that a crest
2 M2 g shall be equal or lower than a value Z, is
S= »
pg M 0 p
é æ Z ö 2
ù
· Spectral width: P(Z) = 1 - exp ê- çç ÷÷ ú
êë è A Z ø úû
1/ 2
æ M M - M12 ö
h = ç 0 22 ÷
ç M ÷ where
è 1 ø
3.2.6
AZ = HS / 8
If the power spectral density S(f) is given as a function of the
frequency f rather than as the function S (ω) of ω, the The highest wavecrest Zmax within a time t is
relationship is
1
S(f ) = 2p S (w) Z max = HS ln N
8
Similarly, if the moments of the circular frequency spectrum
where
S(f) are denoted Mn (f), the relationship to Mn in 3.2.5 is
¥
N = t/TZ.
ò
n -n
M n (f ) = f S(f ) df = (2p) Mn
0
To the first approximation one may put
3.2.7 Z max » H S
Directional short-crested wave spectra may be derived from
the uni-directional wave spectra above as follows:
3.2.9
S(w, a ) = S(w)f (a ) The peak-to-trough wave height H of a wave cycle is the
difference between the highest crest and the deepest trough
where between two successive zero-upcrossings.
a = angle between direction of elementary wave The wave heights are Rayleigh distributed with cumulative
trains and the main direction of the short- probability function
crested wave system.
é æ H ö
2
ù
S(w, a ) = directional short-crested wave power P( H ) = 1 - exp ê- çç ÷÷ ú
êë è A H ø úû
density spectrum.
HS
AH = 2 (1 - c 2 h 2 )1 / 2
Energy conservation requires that the directionality function 8
fulfils the requirement c = a constant » 1.0
a max
ò f (a)da = 1
a min
The highest crest-to-trough wave height Hmax within a time t
is
March 2000
To the first approximation one may put For a waterdepth less than 30m the regular wave analysis
techniques according to 3.1.3 are normally preferred. For
h = 0.43 structures where drag forces are not dominating the above
correction should not be applied.
c = 1.0
3.2.12
H max » 1.8 Z max
Based on experience from Jack-Up structures, the following
guidance can be given for checking the generation of
3.2.10 irregular time traces:
In evaluation of the foundation's resistance against cyclic
wave loading, the temporal evolution of the storm should be The duration of the simulation should normally not be less
taken into account. This should cover a sufficient part of the than 60 minutes and not less than 300 response cycles. The
growth and decay phases of the storm. time step should normally be in the range of the smallest of
Tn/20 and TZ/20. (Tn is the natural period of a significant
If data for the particular site is not available, the storm resonance).
profile in Fig. 3.1 may be applied.
Check validity of wave simulation by:
March 2000
3.3.4 Parameters for H1 and j are given in Table 3.2 for the ocean
If the time t covers a total of N wave cycles, long-term areas defined in Figure 3.2.
marginal distribution of the individual wave crests z may be
The wave crest elevation should be calculated from H max, c by
obtained in terms of a general gamma distribution. The
probability density is a wave theory as described in 3.1.2, e.g. Stokes’ fifth order
theory. As a first estimate the wave crest may be taken as
k æZö
k -1
æ Zö
k Zmax = H max,c / 1.8
f ( Z) = ç ÷ exp ç - ÷
G )D
(d èDø è Dø
The period for the largest wave may be taken as 1.16TZ,
A two parameter Weibull distribution is obtained for d=1. K where TZ is determined from 3.3.7.
and D are Weibull parameters.
3.3.6 Wave data for the North Atlantic for use in calculation
of ship responses and world wide trade for use in fatigue
3.3.5
calculations are given in Tables 3.3 and 3.4.
For areas where sufficient data are not available, the
characteristic significant wave height for the exposure period
may be taken as defined in 3.3.3. 3.3.7 Equivalent to the scatter diagram given in Tables 3.3
and 3.4, a combined Weibull/Log-Normal distribution is
Maximum characteristic wave height, Hmax,c, for a defined described by the density function (H0 =0)
exposure period may in load calculations using regular
waves as described in 3.1.2, be taken as (Longuet-Higgins): j æH ö
j-1
æ æH jö
ö
f HS ( H S ) = H1
ç S
çH
÷
÷ exp çç - çç S ÷÷ ÷
÷
è 1 ø è è H1 ø ø
H max, c = D (f1 ) 1/ k
æ 1ö
Gç d - ÷ = Gamma function The parameters for North Atlantic and World wide operation
è 2ø
of ships are given in Tables 3.5 and 3.6. For other areas the
H1 and j = Weibull parameters for the probability parameters are given in Table 3.2 using H0=0 and
function of the observed significant wave a
m = 0.70 + a1H s 2
heights.
s = 0.07 + b1 exp(b 2 H s )
N = 14400 dn where dn is the number of days
within the design operation period.
March 2000
Figure 3.2 Nautic zones for estimation of long-term wave distribution parameters
March 2000
Table 3.2 Weibull parameters and Log-Normal distribtion parameters for HS and TZ
Area H1 j a1 a2 b1 b2 Area H1 j a1 a2 b1 b2
1 2.33 1.33 0.974 0.205 0.1263 -0.0201 53 2.56 1.93 1.188 0.129 0.1041 -0.0091
2 1.96 1.34 0.994 0.175 0.1414 -0.0238 54 2.45 2.19 1.176 0.168 0.1097 -0.0091
3 2.74 1.35 1.127 0.160 0.1255 -0.0912 55 1.83 1.96 1.046 0.143 0.1542 -0.0191
4 2.84 1.53 1.125 0.150 0.0978 -0.0074 56 2.40 2.18 1.157 0.157 0.1067 -0.0169
5 1.76 1.59 0.828 0.167 0.3449 -0.2073 57 2.17 2.19 1.083 0.214 0.1202 -0.0173
6 2.76 1.45 1.128 0.154 0.0964 -0.0066 58 1.85 2.08 1.013 0.165 0.1578 -0.0248
7 3.39 1.75 1.256 0.118 0.0809 -0.0069 59 2.02 1.76 1.025 0.159 0.1432 -0.0254
8 3.47 1.57 1.272 0.114 0.0728 -0.0015 60 1.93 1.39 1.057 0.145 0.1349 -0.0215
9 3.56 1.61 1.260 0.119 0.0755 -0.0054 61 2.10 1.82 1.080 0.132 0.1300 -0.0261
10 2.45 1.37 1.036 0.181 0.1166 -0.0137 62 1.73 1.39 0.871 0.214 0.1941 -0.0266
11 2.19 1.26 0.935 0.222 0.1386 -0.0208 63 1.88 1.70 1.026 0.155 0.1477 -0.0224
12 3.31 1.56 1.150 0.150 0.0934 -0.0409 64 2.34 2.16 1.138 0.186 0.1134 -0.0062
13 3.18 1.64 1.257 0.111 0.0850 -0.0032 65 2.02 1.90 1.132 0.169 0.1187 -0.0125
14 2.62 1.46 1.215 0.115 0.0976 -0.0111 66 2.33 2.15 1.115 0.183 0.1192 -0.0203
15 3.09 1.50 1.207 0.134 0.0855 -0.0124 67 2.43 2.21 1.159 0.155 0.1056 -0.0194
16 3.42 1.56 1.243 0.126 0.0898 -0.0528 68 2.42 2.16 1.121 0.155 0.1243 -0.0151
17 2.77 1.41 1.197 0.135 0.0954 -0.0083 69 2.23 1.89 1.177 0.124 0.1176 -0.0101
18 1.66 1.14 1.310 0.121 0.4006 -0.2123 70 2.32 1.84 1.170 0.167 0.1659 -0.2086
19 2.48 1.35 1.085 0.166 0.1071 -0.0096 71 1.79 1.69 1.005 0.147 0.1602 -0.0309
20 3.15 1.48 1.196 0.139 0.0914 -0.0248 72 2.44 1.93 1.158 0.187 0.1068 -0.011
21 2.97 1.69 1.249 0.111 0.1044 -0.0452 73 2.80 2.26 1.174 0.182 0.1050 -0.0493
22 2.29 1.72 1.139 0.117 0.1160 -0.0177 74 2.23 1.69 1.143 0.148 0.1148 -0.0087
23 2.23 1.39 1.039 0.167 0.1248 -0.0131 75 2.69 1.67 1.216 0.118 0.0991 -0.0103
24 2.95 1.48 1.211 0.131 0.0859 -0.0059 76 2.86 1.77 1.218 0.143 0.1016 -0.0251
25 2.90 1.61 1.268 0.096 0.1055 -0.0521 77 3.04 1.83 1.213 0.152 0.0844 0
26 1.81 1.30 0.858 0.232 0.1955 -0.0497 78 2.60 1.70 1.244 0.073 0.1060 -0.0059
27 1.76 1.30 0.880 0.218 0.1879 -0.0419 79 2.18 1.53 1.069 0.131 0.1286 -0.0173
28 1.81 1.28 0.841 0.241 0.1977 -0.0498 80 2.54 1.70 1.201 0.131 0.1019 -0.0101
29 2.31 1.38 0.976 0.197 0.1288 -0.0184 81 2.83 1.71 1.218 0.144 0.1017 -0.0258
30 3.14 1.56 1.243 0.118 0.0861 -0.0122 82 2.84 1.94 1.209 0.146 0.0911 0
31 2.62 1.79 1.219 0.126 0.1022 -0.0116 83 2.60 1.83 1.214 0.132 0.1076 -0.008
32 1.81 1.47 0.950 0.158 0.1685 -0.0312 84 2.92 2.10 1.190 0.170 0.1018 -0.0972
33 2.17 1.66 1.111 0.135 0.1191 -0.0147 85 3.32 1.94 1.226 0.145 0.0947 -0.0505
34 2.46 1.70 1.189 0.141 0.1059 -0.0055 86 2.91 1.54 1.261 0.111 0.0865 -0.0031
35 2.74 2.05 1.219 0.128 0.1097 -0.0101 87 2.43 1.40 1.203 0.129 0.1009 -0.0072
36 2.32 1.82 1.111 0.143 0.1165 -0.0189 88 3.35 1.75 1.248 0.128 0.0842 -0.0194
37 1.66 1.53 0.815 0.199 0.2754 -0.1051 89 3.02 1.45 1.249 0.124 0.0938 -0.0444
38 1.23 1.24 0.616 0.332 0.3204 -0.0054 90 3.35 1.59 1.266 0.116 0.0766 -0.0051
39 1.74 1.37 0.798 0.239 0.2571 -0.0908 91 3.54 1.68 1.281 0.110 0.0829 -0.04
40 2.36 1.42 0.975 0.195 0.1288 -0.0214 92 3.42 1.71 1.283 0.105 0.0831 -0.023
41 2.47 1.50 1.044 0.161 0.1166 -0.0158 93 2.66 1.45 1.233 0.119 0.1011 -0.0198
42 2.32 1.41 1.121 0.128 0.1159 -0.0118 94 3.89 1.69 1.296 0.112 0.0632 0
43 2.78 1.78 1.222 0.124 0.1029 -0.0078 95 3.71 1.93 1.256 0.131 0.0726 -0.0022
44 2.83 2.17 1.181 0.149 0.1005 -0.0124 96 2.65 1.47 1.200 0.110 0.0986 -0.0103
45 2.60 2.07 1.177 0.173 0.1017 -0.0258 97 3.61 1.63 1.279 0.114 0.0733 -0.0029
46 1.76 1.44 1.070 0.139 0.1365 -0.0306 98 3.53 1.70 1.248 0.135 0.0744 -0.0025
47 2.30 1.78 1.058 0.149 0.1301 -0.025 99 4.07 1.77 1.305 0.106 0.0614 -0.0011
48 2.55 2.20 1.160 0.172 0.1048 -0.0233 100 3.76 1.54 1.279 0.120 0.0636 -0.0006
49 2.50 2.13 1.141 0.149 0.1223 -0.0123 101 3.21 1.57 1.261 0.116 0.0934 -0.0049
50 2.05 1.28 0.879 0.237 0.1651 -0.0344 102 3.08 1.60 1.243 0.130 0.0833 -0.0046
51 1.78 1.44 0.952 0.159 0.1763 -0.0544 103 3.52 1.58 1.253 0.122 0.0758 -0.0056
52 2.14 1.50 1.072 0.133 0.1271 -0.0245 104 2.97 1.57 1.267 0.108 0.0847 -0.0049
March 2000
Sum 0 77 1849 9419 20363 25170 20720 12596 6087 2465 872 275 81 20 6 100000
Sum 331 3559 11937 20795 23321 18763 11611 5827 2489 926 313 99 29 9 0 100000
Table 3.5 North Atlantic Table 3.6 Average World Wide operation of ships
H1 j H0 H1 j H0
2.721 1.401 0.866 1.798 1.214 0.856
a0 a1 a2 a0 a1 a2
0.623 1.356 0.123 -1.010 2.847 0.075
b0 b1 b3 b0 b1 b3
0.146 0.044 -1.711 0.161 0.146 -0.683
March 2000
remain constant.
Figure 4.2 Definition of water levels
March 2000
5. Wind loads The most unfavourable wind direction in the horizontal plane
should be used when calculating the stresses in a member
5.1 Wind pressure due to wind. The spatial correlation of the wind may be taken
into consideration for large surfaces.
5.1.1
The basic wind pressure (q) may be calculated from the 5.2.2
following equation: If several members are located in a plane normal to the wind
direction, as in the case of a plane truss or a serie of columns,
1
q= r v 2tz the solidification effect f must be taken into account. The
2
wind force is
FWSOL = C e q A f sin a
where
where 5.2.3
If two or more parallel frames are located behind each other
p = wind pressure or suction in the wind direction, the shielding effect may be taken into
q = basic wind pressure or suction, as defined in 5.1.1 account. The wind force on the shielded frame FWSHI may be
calculated as
Cp = pressure coefficient.
FWSHI = FW h (a)
March 2000
5.3.2 where
The shape coefficients for smooth members with rectangular k = the reduction factor as a function of the ratio l/d
cross-section ( b1 ³ b 2 , ref. Figure 5.1) may be taken as: (may be taken from Table 5.3, where d = the
cross-sectional dimension of a member normal
CS1 = 2 K R sin a to the wind direction and l = the length of the
member).
March 2000
Table 5.2 Shape coefficient C ¥ for irregular cross Table 5.3 Values of reduction factor k for member of
sections finite length and slenderness. (Ref. Figure 7.1)
l/d 2 5 10 20 40 50 100 ¥
Profile a (deg.) CS1 CS2
Circular 0.58 0.62 0.68 0.74 0.82 0.87 0.98 1.0
0 1.9 1.0 cylinder,
45 1.8 0.8 sub-
critical
90 2.0 1.7 flow
135 -1.8 -0.1 Circular 0.80 0.80 0.82 0.90 0.98 0.99 1.0 1.0
180 -2.0 0.1 cylinder,
super-
critical
0 1.8 1.8 flow
45 2.1 1.8 Flat 0.62 0.66 0.69 0.81 0.87 0.90 0.95 1.0
plate
90 -1.9 -1.0 perpen-
135 -2.0 0.3 dicular
180 -1.4 -1.4 to wind
5.3.4
0 1.7 0
45 0.8 0.8 For members with one end abuting on to another member or
a wall in such a way that free flow around that end of the
90 0 1.7
member is prevented, the ratio l/d should be doubled for the
135 -0.8 0.8
purpose of determining κ. When both ends are abuted as
180 -1.7 0 mentioned, the shape coefficient C should be taken equal to
that for an infinite long member.
0 2.0 0
45 1.2 0.9 5.3.5
90 -1.6 2.2 For spherical and parabolical structures like radar domes and
135 -1.1 -2.4 antennas, the shape coefficient C may be taken from Table
180 -1.7 0 5.4.
0 2.1 0
45 1.9 0.6 Table 5.4 Shape coefficients C for sphere-shaped structures
90 0 0.6 Structures Shape
135 -1.6 0.4 coefficient
180 -1.8 0 Hollow hemisphere, concavity to wind 1.4
March 2000
Table 5.5 Shape coefficient C for three-dimensional bodies placed on a horizontal surface
Plan shape l b h
C for height / breadth ratio
w d b
Up to 1 1 2 4 6
³4 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
³4
£ 1/ 4 0.7 0.7 0.75 0.75 0.75
3
1/3 0.7 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.8
1.5
2/3 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1.0
Plan shape
l b h
C for height / breadth ratio
w d b
Up to 0.5 1 2 4 6 10 20
March 2000
5.3.7 5.5.4
The effective shape coefficient Ce for single frames is given The instantaneous wind force on a wind exposed structure
in Table 5.6. can be calculated by summation of the instantaneous force on
each wind exposed member. The instantaneous wind
Table 5.6 Effective shape coefficient Ce for single frames pressure q can be calculated by utilizing:
March 2000
Fe = Fs + g s(f ) Fm = r V a + r Cm VR a r
where where
Fs = the static response due to the design average Fm = inertia force acting normal to the axis of the
wind speed member. If sectional hydrodynamic added mass
coefficient and volume per unit length are used
s (f ) = the standard deviation of the dynamic structural
Fm is a force per unit length. If three-dimensional
responses
hydrodynamic added mass coefficient and
g = wind response peak factor. complete volume of member are used Fm is the
total force on the member
r = mass density of fluid
5.6 Model tests Cm = two- or three-dimensional added mass
coefficient. In general Cm is a function of cross-
5.6.1
sectional shape and orientation of body,
Data obtained from reliable and adequate model tests are Reynold's number, Keulegan-Carpenter number
recommended for the determination of pressures and and roughness. Cm values as function of the
resulting loads on structures of complex shape. former two factors are usually accepted
a = particle acceleration normal to member axis
6. Wave and current loads ar = relative acceleration between liquid particle and
member normal to the member axis
6.1 Wave and current loads on slender members
V = volume or sectional volume (volume per unit
6.1.1 length) of the liquid displaced by the member
Wave loads on slender members having cross-sectional VR = a reference volume (total or sectional) to which
dimensions sufficiently small to allow the gradients of liquid the hydrodynamic added mass coefficient may
particle accelerations and velocities in the direction normal be related.
to the member to be neglected, may be calculated using
Morison's equation. Normally, Morison's equation is
applicable when the following condition is satisfied: 6.1.3
Recommended values of Cm for different smooth cross-
l>5D sectional shapes are given in Tables 6.1 and 6.2 for two- and
three-dimensional bodies respectively. Values of added mass
where coefficients for a smooth circular cylinder close to a wall are
given Table 6.1. and Figure 6.1. These values are based on
l = the wave length
potential theory and are thus only accounting for cross-
D = diameter or other projected cross-sectional sectional shapes and orientation. Other values for Cm may be
dimension of a structural member. used provided that the chosen values can be justified.
March 2000
Table 6.1 Added mass coefficients for two-dimensional bodies, i.e. infinitely long cylinders
Vertical 1.0 p a2
Vertical 1.0 p a2
Vertical 1.0 p a2
Vertical 1.0 p a2
a/b=∞ 1.0
a / b = 10 1.14
a/b=5 1.21
a/b=2 Vertical 1.36 p a2
a/b=1 1.51
a / b = 0.5 1.70
a / b = 0.2 1.98
a / b = 0.1 2.23
d / a = 0.05 1.61
d / a = 0.10 Vertical 1.72 p a2
d / a = 0.25 2.19
a/b=2 0.85
a/b=1 Vertical 0.76 p a2
a / b = 0.5 0.67
a / b = 0.2 0.61
Horizontal 2.29 p a2
2
æ h 2a ö
Horizontal 1+ ç - ÷ p a2
è 2a h ø
March 2000
Direction of
Body shape Cm VR
motion
Circular disc
4
Vertical 0,64 p a3
3
b/a Cm
∞ 1.0
Elliptical disc
12.75 0.99
p 2
Vertical 7.0 0.97 a b
6
3.0 0.90
1.5 0.76
Flat plates 1.0 0.64
b/a Cm
Rectangular plates 1.0 0.58
1.5 0.69 p 2
Vertical a b
2.0 0.76 4
3.0 0.83
∞ 1.00
Triangular plates
1 a3
Vertical (tan q)3 / 2
p 3
Spheres
4
Any direction 0.5 p a3
3
Ellipsoids a/b Cm
Bodies of 1.5 Axial Lateral
revolution 2.0 0.30 0.62
2.51 0.21 0.70 4
Lateral or axial p a2 b
3.99 0.16 0.76 3
6.97 0.08 0.86
9.97 0.04 0.93
0.02 0.96
b/a Cm
1 0.68
2 0.36
3 0.24
Square prisms Vertical 4 0.19 a2 b
5 0.15
6 0.13
7 0.11
10 0.08
March 2000
1 6.1.5
FD = r C D v r |v r | A
2 The current induced drag forces are to be determined in
combination with the wave forces. This may be done by
where vector addition of wave and current induced particle
velocities. If available, computations of the total particle
FD = drag force normal to the axis of the member velocities and accelerations based on more exact theories of
wave/current will be preferred.
CD = drag coefficient for the flow normal to the
member axis For frame structures, the current may be reduced due to
interference from the structure on the flow field of the
r = mass density of liquid
current (Taylor 1991). The current may be reduced as
follows
vr = liquid particle velocity relative to the
member normal to the member axis -1
D = diameter
H = clearance between the cylinder and a fixed
boundary
March 2000
T = wave period
k = roughness height
U = flow velocity
Um = maximum orbital particle velocity
n = kinematic viscosity of the water.
k (metres)
Steel, new uncoated 5 × 10-5
Figure 6.2 Drag coefficient for circular cylinders for
Steel, painted 5 × 10-6 steady flow
Steel, highly rusted 3 × 10-3
Concrete 3 × 10-3
Marine growth 5 × 10-3 - 5 × 10-2
Cm 2.0
1.9 -1
æ H ö
Cm = 1 + ç 10 + 1÷
1.8 è D ø
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.1
1.0
March 2000
6.1.9
Hydrodynamic coefficients for circular cylinder in
oscillatory flow with in-service marine roughness, and for
high KC values, may normally be taken as:
Surface condition CD Cm
Multiyear roughness k/D > 1/100 1.05 0.8
Mobile unit (cleaned) k/D < 1/100 1.0 0.8
Smooth member k/D < 1/10000 0.65 1.0
Figure 6.5 Parameters of typical composite cylindrical
shapes The smooth values will normally apply above MWL+2m
and the rough values below MWL+2m, where MWL is as
defined in Figure 4.2. The roughness for a “mobile unit”
applies when marine growth roughness is removed between
submersion of members.
6.1.10
Tentative values of the drag coefficient as a function of
Kulegan-Carpenter number for smooth and marine growth
covered circular cylinders for supercritical Reynolds
numbers are given in Figure 6.3, expressed as:
The figure is valid for free flow field without any influence
of a fixed boundary. For KC<10 the formula is expected to
be conservative.
6.1.11
The drag coefficient for steady current is equal to the
asymptotic value for KC equal to infinity. For combined
wave and current action, the increase of KC due to the current
Figure 6.8 Area to be considered in evaluating the loads may be taken into account.
due to shock pressure on circular cylinders
6.1.12
6.1.8
To determine the drag coefficients for circular cylinders
Values for the hydrodynamic drag coefficient CD for other
close to a fixed boundary, the drag coefficients given in
smooth cross-sectional shapes in steady flow may be chosen
6.1.10 may be multiplied by a correction factor obtained
equal to the corresponding wind shape coefficients given in
from Figure 6.4.
Tables 5.2-5.6.
March 2000
6.1.13
For several cylinders close together, group effects may be
taken into account. If no adequate documentation of group 3
effects for the specific case is available, the drag coefficients
for the individual cylinder may be used. 2.5
C W/D=1.4
D 2
6.1.14
An increase in the drag coefficient due to cross flow vortex 1.5
6.1.15 0.5
i î è ø
where where:
Di = diameter of individual cylinder, see Figure 6.5 q = angle in degrees, see Figure 6.9
Dp = pitch diameter, see Figure 6.5 C D0 = the drag coefficient for tubular with appropriate
roughness as defined in 6.1.9
C(Di ) = drag coefficients for the individual cylinders
without any interaction C D1 = the drag coefficient for flow normal to the rack
( q =90o), related to the projected diameter, W.
SL = length solidity ratio
C D1 is given by
ID = interference drag coefficient.
6.1.16 ì W
ï1.8 : < 1 .2
For split tube chords (Jack-up leg chords) the hydrodynamic D
ï
coefficients may, in lieu of more detailed information be ï W W
C D1 = í1.4 + : 1.2 < < 1 .8
taken in accordance with Figure 6.9 and corresponding ï 3D D
formulae, as appropriate. ï W
ï2 : 1.8 <
D
î
6.1.17
For a triangular chord (Jack-up leg chords) the
hydrodynamic coefficients may, in lieu of more detailed
information be taken in accordance with Figure 6.10
corresponding formulae, as appropriate.
March 2000
March 2000
6.3.3 6.4.3
Irregular waves are assumed to be composed of an infinite Space average slamming pressure over a broader area
number of fundamental frequencies and amplitudes (a wave (several plate fields) can be calculated from:
spectrum). In irregular sea the resulting second order exciting
forces contain three components. These are the mean forces 1
ps = r Cp a v 2
(drift forces), forces varying in time with the difference 2
frequencies (often called slow drift forces) and with the sum
frequencies of the wave spectrum (high frequency forces). where
6.4 Slamming loads from waves For flat bottom slamming taking account cushioning and
three dimensional effects, the slamming pressure coefficient
6.4.1 should not be taken less than Cpa =2p.
Structural members near the water surface (splash zone) are
susceptible to forces caused by wave slamming when the For a wedge shaped body with deadrise angle b above 15
member is being submerged. An important example is a degrees (see Figure 6.11), taking account of three
horizontal member where dynamic response of the member dimensional effects the slamming pressure coefficient should
should be accounted for. not be taken less than:
6.4.2 2.5
Cpa =
For a cylindrical shaped structural member the slamming (tan b)1.1
force per unit length may be calculated as:
where
1
Fs = r Cs D v 2
2 b =wedge angle at the intersection between body and water
surface (see Fig. 6.11 for definition).
where
For a wedged shaped body with 0<b<15 degrees, taking
FS = slamming force per unit length in the direction of account of cushioning and three dimensional effects, a linear
the velocity interpolation between results for flat bottom ( Cpa =2p for
r = mass density of the fluid
b=0 degrees) and b=15 degrees can be applied.
CS = slamming coefficient
D = member diameter
March 2000
water surface
6.4.6
The calculated contribution to fatigue due to slamming has to
be added to the fatigue contribution from other variable
Figure 6.11 Description of symbol
loads.
6.4.5
The fatigue damage due to wave slamming may be 6.5 Shock pressure from breaking waves
determined according to the following procedure:
6.5.1
· Determine minimum wave height, Hmin, which can cause Breaking waves causing shock pressures on vertical surfaces
slamming should be considered.
· Divide the long term distribution of wave heights, in
excess of Hmin, into a reasonable number of blocks 6.5.2
· For each block the stress range may be taken as:
In absence of more reliable methods the procedure described
D s j = 2 [a sslam - (s b + s w )] in 6.4.2 may be used to calculate the shock pressure.
where 6.5.3
The coefficient Cs depends on the configuration of the area
sslam = stress in the element due to the slam load given exposed to shock pressure. A lower limit of Cs for circular
in 6.4.2 cylinders is 3.0.
sb = stress due to the net buoyancy force on the
element 6.5.4
sw = stress due to vertical wave forces on the element The area exposed to shock pressure may be taken as a sector
of 45 degrees with a height of 0.25 Hb , where Hb is the most
a = factor accounting for dynamic amplification. probable largest breaking wave heigh in n years, Figure 3.3.
The region from SWL (see 4.2.4) to the top of the wave crest
should be investigated for the effects of shock pressure.
· Each slam is associated with 20 approximate linear
decaying stress ranges. 6.5.5
· The contribution to fatigue from each wave block is The impact velocity (v) should be taken as that
given as: corresponding to the most probable largest breaking wave
height in n years. The most probable largest breaking wave
i = 20 k height may be taken as 1.4 times the most probable largest
nj
yj = R
Nj å
i = 20 - n i
æ i ö
ç ÷
è 20 ø
significant wave height in n years.
March 2000
7.1.3
In the following the necessary criterion for presence of vortex
shedding is listed. The vortex shedding frequency in steady
current or flow with KC numbers greater than 40 may be
calculated as follows:
v
f = St
D
St = Strouhal's number
March 2000
0.120
0.147
0.137
0.120 0.150
0.145
0.142
0.144
0.147
0.131
0.134
0.145
0.137
0.140 0.121
0.153 0.143
0.145
0.135
0.168
0.156
0.180
0.145
0.114
0.200
0.145
March 2000
2 d
K s = m e2
rD
where
D = member diameter
March 2000
7.2.7
l1 +
For strongly turbulent wind flow, the given figures for
v(x)
amplitudes are conservative. A more accurate calculation
may be performed in accordance with the principles outlined
Locking-on in 7.4.
region
l
7.3.1
1
Vortex shedding resonance or locking-on may occur as
D(x) Diameter follows:
1.4
1.2
Figure 7.2 Definition of parameters
1
Ampl
7.2 Wind induced vortex shedding 0.8
gD Ampl 0.31
=
gD 0.062 + 0.077 K S2
0.6
7.2.1
Wind induced cyclic excitations of pipes may occur in two 0.4
planes, in-line with or perpendicular to the wind direction. 0.2
7.2.5 The onset criteria is only valid when the reduced velocity vr is
increasing. In non-steady flow where vr may go from high
The upper limit of the stability parameter KS for cross-flow
values to low values lock-in vibrations will exist for all vr ³ 1.0.
excitations may be taken as 25 unless more accurate data
exist.
March 2000
For vr > 2.2 the shedding will be unsymmetric, the motion will The maximum amplitude of the cross-flow oscillations relative
take place in the second instability region (2.2 < vr < 3.5) for KS to the diameter D may be determined from Figure 7.3. In case
< 1.8. The maximum amplitude of the oscillation as function of of varying diameter, use the average diameter of the locking
KS is given in Figure 7.4. region. The mode shape parameter, g (see Table 7.2 for typical
values), used in this figure is defined as:
1/2
0.20 é ò L [ y 2 (x)]dx ù
g = y max ê 0L 4 ú
êë ò 0 [ y (x)]dx úû
0.16
where
Ampl
D y(x) = normalized mode shape
0.12
ymax = maximum value of the mode shape or the
max (Z/D) response
(1st inst region)
normalization value for the mode
0.08 L = length of the pipe.
0.04
max (Z/D) response
(2nd inst. region)
Table 7.2 The mode shape parameter of some typical
structural elements.
0.00
Structural element g
0.00 0.40 0.80 1.20 1.60 2.00
Stability Parameter K S Rigid cylinder 1.00
Pivoted rod 1.29
String and cable 1.16
Figure 7.4 Amplitude of in-line motion as a function of Ks
Simply supported beam 1.16
5.00
Cantilever, 1st mode 1.31
Cantilever, 2nd mode 1.50
Reduced
velocity Cantilever, 3rd mode 1.56
end value
vr (2nd inst. region) Clamped-clamped, 1st mode 1.17
4.00
No Motion
Motion
Clamped-clamped, 2nd mode 1.16
Clamped-pinned, 1st mode 1.16
3.00 Clamped-pinned, 2nd mode 1.19
onset value
(1st inst. region) Motion
If the current is fluctuating due to turbulence moving in and out
2.00
No Motion
of the vortex shedding region the phenomenon will behave as
in waves.
1.00 7.3.2
For cables or for very long pipes the lock-in may also take
place with "travelling" waves in the cable or pipe. Both the
0.00
response in the stationary mode shape and in the travelling
0.00 0.40 0.80 1.20 1.60 2.00
wave may be investigated by methods given in the literature,
Stability Parameter K S for instance Vandiver, 1991.
Figure 7.5 Criteria for onset of the motion in the first in- The result of the two analyses which gives the largest response
line instability region (1.0 < vr < 2.2) and end of second shall be used for design.
instability region
7.3.3
Cross-flow (flow perpendicular) excitations may occur when: In situations where the member is placed in shear flow and has
overlapping lock-in regions one vortex frequency will dominate
3 £ vr £ 16 for all Reynolds numbers, but the maximum and the other frequencies will be suppressed in the overlapping
response is found in the range 4.8 £ vr £ 8. region.
March 2000
In general the frequency associated with the highest local for lc > D, l c /D » 1 (as approximation).
response will dominate. The investigation shall be made for all
the lock-in modes. The modes giving the largest response shall The above expressions are the forces on a fixed cylinder.
be used as the final result.
7.3.6
7.3.4
Vortex shedding in combination with composite pipe bundles.
In connection with strong transverse locking-on, an increase in
the (in-line) drag coefficient of the member takes place Vortex shedding takes place on combination of pipes or on pipe
bundles as global vortex shedding (on the total enclosed
é Y[y(x)] ù volume) or as local vortex shedding on individual members.
C D = C D 0 ê1 + ú
ë D(x) û
When the pipes are widely spaced the vortex shedding will be
where local on each member. However when pipes spaced so densely
that the drag coefficient for the total enclosed volume exceeds
Y = amplitude of cross-flow vibration 0.7 the total bundle can be exposed to global vortex shedding.
y(x) = normalized mode shape The vortex shedding excitation will grow with the total drag
coefficient on the bundle. For a circular pipe bundle the vortex
CD0 = the drag coefficient for the stationary cylinder shedding excitation will be the same as for a solid circular
cylinder when the total bundle drag coefficient rises above 1.2.
D(x) = member diameter. In this case a Cf = Cf0 defined in section 7.3.5 can be used
acting on the pitch diameter of the bundle. For total bundle drag
coefficients, CD, smaller than 1.2, as determined in 6.1.3, the
7.3.5
transverse lift coefficient, Cf, will depend on the total drag
The vortex shedding is shed in cells. A statistical measure for coefficient roughly as
the length of the cells is the correlation between forces for
sections at different length apart. This is formulated by the C - 0.7
C f @ Cf 0 D (C D > 0.7)
correlation length, lc. 1.2 - 0.7
Y(y(x)) D in which Cf0 is the transverse flow coefficient for the enclosed
l c = l c0 + l c1 for Y (y(x)) <
0.5D - Y(y(x)) 2 body if it is solid. In addition there may be local vortex
shedding on individual members.
D
lc = ¥ for Y(y(x)) ³ Pipes spaced so that the drag coefficient for the total enclosed
2
volume is below 0.7 will only be exposed to local vortex
The lack of correlation over the length of the cylinder shedding on members.
influences the transverse forces. The lengths lc0 and lc1 can be
taken as lc0 » 3D and lc1 » 35D. 7.4 Wave induced vortex shedding
In a vortex cell the transverse force, Fcell can be determined by 7.4.1
The orbital motions in waves may generate vortex shedding
1
Fcell = r C f v 2 D sin (2p f i t)sign(y(x)) on structural members. For certain critical velocities this may
2 lead to resonant vibrations normal to the member axis or to
vibrations parallel with the flow.
where
The alternating type of vortex shedding takes place in that part
Cf @ 0.9. of the wave motion where the acceleration is small.
Cf shall always be assigned this value irrespective of Reynolds
number, because even small vibrations will tune the vortex 7.4.2
shedding and separation points. The force will always work The vortex shedding in waves falls into two categories
together with the motion in the higher modes. This is the reason depending on the Keulegan-Carpenter number, KC, defined
for the sign(y(x)). by
For a long pipe where the correlation length is small compared 2
Tæ u c ö÷
with the length, D, over which the locking-on conditions are K C @ v m çç1 +
D è v m ÷ø
satisfied, i.e. (lc << D) the lack of correlation modifies the
average force per unit length, F, to be
where
1 2
F » lc /D Cf r v D sin (2p f i t) sign(y(x))
2
March 2000
T = wave period
uc = steady state current perpendicular to member axis Figure 7.6 Criterion for presence of vortex shedding in
waves (the time window for vortex shedding)
For narrow band spectra the vortex shedding frequencies will 4 < vr < 8
be a combination of the two limiting cases.
vr = vr(x,t) and KS = KS(x,t) so the parameters will change in
the wave period. In wave motion these conditions will only be
7.4.3 present temporarily in a time slot.
Vortex shedding for KC > 40 only exists when the orbital
velocity component perpendicular changes less than 110% in 7.4.5
a vortex shedding cycle. When the velocity changes quickly
in a typical vortex period it can be difficult to distinguish any The maximum possible response which can exist in the time
alternating vortex shedding. A practical criterion for when slot where the locking-on criteria are present can be found from
alternating vortex shedding can be considered present and Figures 7.3 and 7.4. The time slot with lock-in conditions may,
when it can be considered not present is given below. In however, be too short for the development to this final value so
mathematical terms it will only develop partially, Figures 7.7.
·
u D < 1.1 K > 40
C
u 2 St
where
Y = Y max exp(-d n d )
March 2000
In-line:
3.5
vr > 1 Cf 3
2.5
Cross-flow (with associated in-line motion): 2
1.
3 < vr < 9
1
7-15 2 7.5.3
15-24 3 An increase in natural frequency will cause an increase in the
critical flow speed
24-32 4
ni D
v=
32-40 5 St
March 2000
7.5.5 7.5.6
Spoiling devices are often used to suppress vortex shedding For pipes closely spaced to a wall or to a greater pipe bumpers
locking-on. The principle in the spoiling is either a drag may be used to limit the maximum response. Besides reducing
reduction by streamlined fins and splitter plates (which break the amplitude it will break up the harmonic vibrations.
the oscillating pattern) or by making the member irregular
such that vortices over different length becomes uneven and 7.5.7
irregular. Examples of this may be ropes wrapped around the
Use of pretension guy wires has proven effective to eliminate
member, perforated cans, twisted fins, or helical strakes,
resonant vortex shedding.
Figure 7.9.
The guy wires should be attached close to the midpoint of the
Strakes member and pretensioned perpendicularly to prevent cross-
d flow oscillations. The effect can then be summarized as
follows:
Pitch D
- Increase member stiffness and hence natural frequency
(small effect)
- Hysteresis damping of wires (large effect)
- Geometrical stiffness and damping of wires (large
Wire effect) (due to transverse vibrations of wire)
d - Nonlinear stiffness is introduced which again restrains
resonance conditions to occur.
D
The wires have to be strapped and pretensioned in such a way
as to fully benefit from both hysteresis and geometrical
Figure 7.9 Helical strakes and wires damping as well as the non-linear stiffness. The pretension for
each guy wire should be chosen within the area indicated on
In order for the spoiling devices to work they shall be placed Figure 7.10.
closer than the correlation length for the vortex shedding. Total pretension and number of wires has to be chosen with due
The efficiency of the spoiling device should be determined consideration to member strength.
by testing. The graphs for in-line and cross-flow motion can An example is shown in Figure 7.10 where a 3/4 inch wire is
be directly applied for the spoiling system by multiplying used to pretension a member with 30 m between the member
with the efficiency factor. and the support point. A tension (force) of 2.5 kN will in this
Typical examples of the efficiency of helical strakes are case give maximum non-linear stiffness.
given in Table 7.3. Instead of monitoring the tension, the wire sagging may be
used to visually estimate the tension. In the example shown, a
Table 7.3 Efficiency of helical strakes and helical wires. sag of around 0.45 m corresponds to the wanted tension of 2.5
Jones & Lamb 1992. W. Weaver 1961, Chung et al. 1994 kN.
No. of Height Pitch Lift Drag
windings of Coeffi- Coeffi-
Strakes cient cient
CL CD
Helical 3 0.11 D 4.5 D 0.238 1.6
Strakes 3 0.11 D 15 D 0.124 1.7
Helical 3-4 0.118 D 5D 0.2 1.17
Wires 3-4 0.118 D 10 D 0.2 1.38
3-4 0.238 D 5D 0.2 -
3-4 0.238 D 10 D 0.2 -
No 0.9 0.7
spoilers
Using spoilers the marine growth may blur the shape and
may make them less effective. The changed shape shall be
taken into account in the analysis.
March 2000