Mobile Ad-hoc Network (MANETs) is an infrastructure less network in which nodes are

mobile. In another words, MANET is an autonomous collection of mobile devices (laptops,

smart phones, tablets, sensors, etc.) that communicate with each other over wireless links.
The entire MANETs network may be mobile, and mobility may be very high so MANETs
have varying topology. With the advent of laptops and 802.11/Wi-Fi wireless networking,
MANET is getting popular. Integration of Wi-Fi and Bluetooth like technologies in almost all
mobile devices such as Mobile phones, PDAs, notebook, etc. is also aiding in the popularity
of MANETs. Because of these features, MANET is regarded as a future of ubiquitous
networking and computing.

Localization is defined as the phenomenon of obtaining location information of nodes whose

positions are not known. Thus, in the context of MANETs, localization means finding
location of mobile nodes (MNs). Location awareness is an essential feature to gain full
benefits of ubiquitous computing. Thus, several localization algorithms are introduced to
estimate location of MNs. Location information obtained from localization algorithms can be
useful for accessing various location-based services such as inventory tracking, habitat
monitoring, rescue operations, museum tour guide, etc.

Positioning system is a system employed to estimate the location of a mobile node (MN).
Positioning system can be both indoor and outdoor. Indoor environments have problems such
as multipath effects and reflections of signals due to obstacles such as wall, furniture, people,
etc., so accurate location estimation is a challenge. Therefore, localization techniques with
good accuracy outdoors may not perform well indoors. The Global Positioning System (GPS)
is the basic way of getting location information. However, GPS performs poorly in indoor
environments due to its weak signal reception inside the buildings. MANETs are low cost
networks which are composed of small, low-power and inexpensive mobile devices so having
GPS installed on them are not feasible. Alternate means to GPS are thus introduced in order
to detect MN’s location in MANETs. Thus, several positioning techniques have been
introduced to make nodes capable of estimating their positions without using GPS.

The localization algorithms are broadly categorized based on some features as mentioned
below:

1. Centralized versus Distributed algorithms:- This classification is based upon either

the location server is used or not. Centralized algorithms use a central powerful node called
location server [1] . The location server is responsible of computing position of all unknown
nodes. On the other hand, in distributed schemes centralized computation is not required.
Each node in Distributed algorithms are able to compute its own position if assistance is
provided by the network.
2. Active versus Passive algorithms:- Active algorithms require a certain amount of
location traffic to estimate position. Unlike to that passive scheme is a new technique for
positioning devices without injecting location traffic.
3. Range-based versus Range-free algorithms:- Range-based scheme uses point-to-
point distance or angle measurements between two nodes by Received Signal Strength
Indicator (RSSI), Time of Arrival (TOA), Time Difference of Arrival (TDOA) and Angle of
Arrival (AOA) [2]. After obtaining distance or angle measurements, they are used to calculate
locations of unknown nodes. Nodes are equipped with radios for capturing the signal
strength. TOA and TDOA are based on time where distance can be directly calculated from
relation between propagation time and propagation speed. In the case of AOA, node measures
the angle of incoming signal by using antenna or compass. Thus, range-based method
requires extra hardware, causing rise in cost of the positioning system. High cost and
restrictions of hardware discourage use of range-based scheme. In contrast to this in range-
free techniques, unknown nodes collect anchor nodes’ or access points’ (nodes whose
location is known in advance) location information and estimate their own locations based on
these information.
4. Anchor-based versus Anchor-free algorithms:- MANETs and sensor networks,
where few nodes (anchors) know their positions either using GPS or by other means
implement Anchor based algorithms. Anchor nodes provide their location information to their
neighbors, and then anchor based algorithms use that location information to compute
location of unknown nodes. Anchor-free algorithms do not assume availability of prior
location information. The algorithm gives relative positioning with the help of coordinate
system established by a reference group of nodes.
5. Fine grained versus Coarse grained algorithms:- This classification is based on
precision of the computed location. Fine grained algorithms give more accurate and precise
location estimate, whereas, coarse grained localization schemes try to measure a node’s
closeness to a reference point of known position. Triangulation is one of the examples of fine
grained algorithm. Centroid [3] localization is a proximity based, coarse grained algorithm.
Depending upon precision requirement of the system fine grained or coarse grained
algorithms can be chosen.
6. Location fingerprinting:- To mitigate challenges in indoor environments, location
fingerprinting technique was proposed. The location fingerprint scheme [4] assumes that each
point inside a building has a unique Radio Frequency (RF) signature. Generally, a
fingerprint F is labeled with a location information L [5]. The location fingerprints and their
labels are maintained in location database and used during on-line phase. The label and
fingerprint are generally denoted as a tuple of (L, F).

At present, focus is on developing cost efficient, range-free and passive localization

algorithms. However, an inevitable trade-off between cost and precision exists in the location
sensing system. Fine-grained algorithms give more accurate location estimation compared
with coarse-grained but those systems are more costly. Thus, emphasis is on coarse-grained
algorithms as an alternative to expensive algorithms depending upon the precision
requirement of the system.