Professional Documents
Culture Documents
VMD-512
ECO-SYSTEM
This is a mosaic of habitat patches. There is a special relationship between the different ecosystems existing
in the wildlife regions. There are movements of organisms between different patches in the revolving world.
It is to be understood that the movements in general occur among the wildlife species or organisms due to
many reasons.
o Movements for establishment of territories
o Search for feed resources
o Movement due to water scarcity
o Movements due to the extreme climatic variations
o Search for proper shelter
o Dispersal from areas with high population concentrations to less densely populated regions
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 2
o Pressure from hunting or frequent predator attack
o Movements due to hazards (acoustic injuries to dolphins, whales and dugongs)
o Other reasons that are still to be clarified.
THREATS TO ECO-SYSTEMS
These have to be identified and sorted out with a proper understanding of multiple factors involved for this.
Followings are the examples for the identified threats in a wildlife region:
o Alteration of major mineral or organic constituents of a system
o Removal of plantations or vegetations
o Prevention of naturally occurring events that disturb the cycles
o Introduction of pest species like goats
o Application of hazardous chemicals like pesticides or herbicides
o Changes in the major mineral or organic components of a system
o Elimination of key-wild animal species like top predator (tiger)
ECO DEVELOPMENT
This may be defined as the set of conservation oriented development measures to make protected areas and
the human neighbours compatible with each other.
This is a process of developing the conservation of natural resources that are sustainable by associating
local persons in the development and implementation of rural development programmes.
AIMS OF ECO-DEVELOPMENT MEASURES
To reduce the dependency of people (or neighbours of forests in particular) for the resources from the
forests.
People use the resources of forests for the following purposes in general:
o Fuel.
o Grazing of livestock.
o Fodder.
o Building of houses.
o Agricultural practices and implements.
o Forest products.
o Food purposes.
NATURAL RESERVES
Various natural reserves existing in the wildlife regions provide the complete protection for the wild
animals belonging to the different species.
Many times, human interventions are made for positive purposes in order to give more protection to the
wild fauna and flora. It is to be understood that various natural reserves hardly comprise one percent of the
earth‟s land areas.
Most of the other areas are used for production of food, timber, pulpwood or other raw materials. Hence, in
all these areas, wildlife conservation related measures need to be strengthened and if necessary, human
intervention (Broader land use strategy) may be made in order to enrich the protective measures for the
welfare of wild fauna and flora.
BIOMES AND ECOLOGICAL EQUIVALENTS
Major global units of flora and fauna are termed as biomes.
With regard to the ecological equivalents, the wild animals in one region may differ from their taxonomic
classification but taps particular environmental resources within the ecosystem.
SANCTUARY
An area can be declared as a sanctuary through notification under the section 18 of the Wildlife (Protection)
Act of 1972 and the process of determination of peoples rights and their acquisition / elimination under
sections 19-25 follows such a declaration.
Sanctuary can be defined in nut shell as a larger area meant for the protection of wild fauna and flora.
Sanctuaries have sound legal status with a strong but not exclusive wildlife oriented management.
The grazing activities are restricted and subordinated to the needs of wildlife conservation. Moderate
amounts of fund provision and staff facilities are given when compared to the national park.
Tourism may exist to some extent but it is a restricted area. The status of a wildlife sanctuary can always be
elevated to that of a national park.
NATIONAL PARK
National park is an area that has more legal status in general. A wildlife sanctuary may be elevated to the
status of national park in the course of time, depending on the extent of additional protection, the value of
the concerned wild animal species etc.
National park has a sound legal status. They are developed exclusively for the purpose of conservation of
wildlife in their natural environment. Drastic manipulation of the wildlife habitat is not favored in general.
Examples
Hyaenas have scent glands in anal region
Felids have scent glands and their markings leave a musky odor that can be perceived by human nose for
almost three weeks and the marking is done mainly along with the urination.
Wild sheep or goat species may have such type of glands in between the two main toes of the feet.
In cervids and antelopes in general, scent glands are present below the eye.
ANIMAL INDICATORS
Animals are being used to indicate the health status of themselves, the environment etc. The complexity of
factors like nutritional, ethological, environmental, genetic etc. act in general upon a population of wild
animals.
These factors are assessed by secondary indicators like habitat, feeding habits, population characteristics.
Assessment of primary indicators that are obtained directly from wild animals representing a population
may help in minimizing many sources of variations and provide greater precision, in general.
During the planning of wildlife management, more significance is generally given to the various types of
wildlife values.
ZOOLOGICAL MEDICINE
In general, medicine is defined as any means to cure disease or improve health and health is broadly
defined as the general condition of body and mind. Zoological Medicine is a wide spectrum of disciplines
associated with the medical problems of all species of wild animals in a captive wild animal place.
Types of Medicine in wildlife fields
o Zoo medicine - It is associated with captive wild animals.
o Wildlife medicine - It is the one that is associated with free living wild animals.
o Population medicine - It is the one that is associated with large number of wild animals.
MODULE-2: TAXONOMY-I
This chapter is mainly related to the various taxonomical classification of wild animals. So, you can finally
know the various species of different taxonomical divisions in this unit.
Example
Panthera tigris altaica (it denotes the Siberian tiger which is much larger, heavier and with a thicker.
Panthera tigris corbetti (it indicates the tiger that is smaller in size than the Royal Bengal tiger.
BROADER CLASSIFICATION
VERTEBRATES AND NON-VERTEBRATES
In this vertebrates earlier had dorsal vertebral column that arises as a rigid rod called notochord and was
later replaced by a segmented and cartilaginous rod called as the vertebral column.
Note
In chordates, the notochord or vertebral column is present in all but the other two features may completely
disappear at maturity stage in most cases.
CHARECTERISTICS OF HIGHER CHORDATES
Presence of a ventrally located heart
Presence of a hepatic portal system
RBCs are present in most of the chordates
Post anal tail is present that may get modified or reduced in adult stages.
CLASSIFICATION OF PHYLUM CHORDATA
Phylum Chordata has two significant groups as follows
Group: Acraniata (Protochordata): This contains the chordates that are lacking the brain box or cranium,
jaws and brain. Eg. Primitive fish like mammals
Group: Craniata (Vertebrates): This contains ten classes. Mammalia is one of the ten classes in this group.
FEATURES OF CLASS MAMMALIA
The class mammalia has three basic features
Skin has hair materials except cetacea
These are warm blooded animals
They suckle their young ones
Other features
o Females have mammary glands
o External ear lobes are present
o No. of teeth are fixed in mammals and species specific
o Diphyodont dentition is present in mammals
o Muscular diaphragm separating the thoracic and abdominal cavities is present
o Mammals are viviparous except the monotremes
o Heart has four chambers
o Males have penis
o Locomotion is of three types (Plantigrade locomotion, digitigrades locomotion and unguligrade
locomotion) due to variable limb structures
o Skull is provided with two occipital condyles ((dicondylic)
Examples
Spiny anteater/Echidna and Duck billed platypus
THERIA
Marsupials and placental mammals fall in this category.
Major 4 characteristics of this sub-class are:
o Presence of external pinna
o Absence of cloaca
o Presence of nipples in the mammary glands
o Females are viviparous in nature.
INFRACLASSES OF THERIA - ASSOCIATED FACTORS
Infraclass I
Metatheria
o This group consists of a single order Marsupilia .
o Marsupials are the animals with a brood pouch or marsupium in the females in which the new
born is taken care of well. Examples: Kangaroo, tiger cat, opossum and the like.
Infraclass II
Eutheria
o These animals lack marsupium and cloaca. This group comprises all other mammals that are again
divided into many orders. (Edentata, Pholidota, Primates, Proboscidea, Lagomorpha, Dermoptera,
Chiroptera, Insectivora, Rodentia, Hyracoidea, Tubelidentata, Artiodactyla, Perissodactyla,
Carnivora, Cetacea and Sirenia)
EDENTATA
This group comprises three families:
o Dasypodidae (eg. Armadillos)
o Bradypodidae (eg. Sloths)
o Myrmecophagidae (eg. Anteaters like Giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla).
Common features
o Long snout is present
o Teeth may be lacking in some and if at all present, incisors and canines may be invariably absent.
o Well developed claws are present in the feet.
o Testicles are abdominal in nature.
Among these animals, it is the sloth that is strictly arboreal and moves by a slow hand-over-hand-motion as
they hang upside down below the tree branches and can climb or descend a vertical pole with ease but are
unable to move with ease on the ground.
Armadillos are the powerful diggers and live in the underground burrows when they are not active. These
animals also roll like balls when any attempts to kill or catch.
Long teeth with long tongue that is sticky with saliva are the features in the anteater and there are no teeth
in this species.
PHOLIDOTA
This order comprises nocturnal animals and Pangolins or Scaly anteaters of the old world belong to this
order with only one genus, Manis.
Common features
Body is covered with large overlapping plates (hence, the name Scaly anteater)
Long snout
Examples
Indian Pangolin (Manis crassicaudata)
Chinese Pangolin (Manis pentadactyla)
PRIMATES
Primates are generally arboreal in nature with plantigrade movements. Both the hands and foot are
prehensile.
There are approximately 191 species of primates.
Classification of primates
There are two sub-orders:
o Prosimii (prosimians)
Animals like lemurs, lorises, bush babies, tree shrews and tarsiers belong to this suborder.
o Anthropoidea (monkeys and apes)
Families of primates
Cebidae (new world monkeys)
Callithricidae (marmosets and tamarins)
Cercopithecidae (old world monkeys)
Hylobatidae (gibbons)
Family Pongidae (apes)
Hominidae(man)
APES
Both in apes and monkeys, the cerebral hemisphere is well developed. These animals are diurnal in nature.
Gorilla is the largest primate and grows to a height of up to 1.8 meters and has a body weight of about 200
kg. In India, there are no greater apes.
They differ from monkeys in following features:
o Absence of tail
o Usage of their arms to swing through the trees
GREAT APES
This group comprises chimpanzee, gorilla and orang-utan.
Animal Location
Orang-utan Forests of Sumatra and Borneo
Chimpanzee This is a native to equatorial Africa
Gorilla Low land areas of West Africa and Cameroon and the mountain variety is in Eastern
Congo basin
LESSER APES
The Gibbon present in India is the example for this animal group. The only gibbon present in India is
Hoolock gibbon (Hylobates hoolock). These are found in forests of Assam state and Chittagong.
They stand erect like man and walks erect many times, with stretched hands as balancing organs. These are
also called as the white browed gibbons.
LORISES
There are two types of lorises in India
o Slender loris (Loris tardigradus)
These animals are present in south India.
o Slow loris ( Nycticebus coucang )
These animals are present in northeastern parts of India.
These lorises in general have large sized eyes. Hence, they are some times hunted and products from them
are associated with the belief on improvement of eyesight.
LANGURS
Common langur (Semnopithecus entellus; old name Present in whole India except the western deserts
Presbytis entellus)
Nilgiri langur (Trachypithecus johni) Present in Western ghats regions
Golden langur (Trachipithecus geei; old name Present in Assam
is Presbytis geei)
Leaf monkey or capped langur (Trachypithecus
pileatus; old name is Presbytis pileatus)
PROBOSCIDEA
There are two genera in the single living family elephantidae of order Proboscidea:
o African elephant (Loxodonta Africana)
There are two sub-species in the African elephants :
Smaller forest elephant and the larger bush or savannah elephant
o Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus)
There are four sub-species in the Asiatic elephants:
Indian, Ceylon, Sumatran and Malaysian.
LAGOMORPHA
This group comprises small to moderate sized animals like rabbit, hare and pikas.
Long soft fur, long ears, short tails, fully furred feet, slit like nostrils are the characteristic features in these
species.
Mongooses, jackals, foxes, wild dogs and wild cats are the enemies for this species.
The lagomorphs have long hind limbs used for jumping.
FAMILIES
Leporidae consists of rabbit and hare
Ochotonide consists of mouse-hare
The significant animals in this group are given below
o Indian hare (Lepus nigricollis) is present in most parts of India.
o Blacknaped hare (sighted in areas from south India to the Godavari on the east and west as well as
MP)
o Rufoustailed hare (seen in Himalayas southwards to Godavari)
o Desert hare (seen in Rajasthan, Cutch, Kathiawar, Sind, south-west Punjab)
o Cape hare (sighted in Kashmir)
o Woolly hare (seen in Sikkim and Ladak)
o Himalayan mouse hare (Ochotona royle)
DERMOPTERA
They are commonly called as the flying or gliding lemur which is also called as the Colugo. These animals
are restricted to south-east Asia and Philippines. This species is considered as a taxonomic puzzle because it
has the head that reveals the features of both the lemurs and insectivores.
Macrochiroptera
This order contains large sized bats like fruit bats or fruit eating bats that are commonly called as the flying
foxes. They don‟t have any tail but have an elongated snout. They also live in groups and are seen hanging
upside down in tall trees often. During the hanging, the wings are tucked up in the folded condition. They
are also nocturnal and gregarious in nature
INSECTIVORA
This has 8 families, 70 genera and approximately 400 species of small mammals.
The distribution of these insectivores including location and specialities is a wide one in general.
Family Species Location
Solenodons 2 Antilles
Tenrecs 20 Madagascar
African water shrews 3 Africa
Golden moles 20 Africa
Hedgehogs 15 Old world
Elephant shrews 18 Africa
True shrews 314 Worldwide
True moles 20 Northern hemisphere
CHARACTERISTICS
In the insectivores, the hedgehogs and tenrecs have more spines on skin and the spiny nature helps them to
roll like balls when the predators attempt to attack them. Such anatomical variants vary from species to
species.
For example, elephant shrews have extremely long mobile noses and long legs. Armored shrews have a
unique spinal column with extensive ramification of long processes that have multiple interlaces. Similarly,
the star-nosed mole (Condylura cristata) has 22 radiating fleshy thin appendages around the muzzle which
are the tactile organs.
Moles have paddle like forefeet with enhanced musculature for digging rapidly. Webbed feet with laterally
flattened tails are present in few aquatic forms of insectivores.
RODENTIA
This order is the largest order of mammals. Among the rodents, the largest living rodent is the capybara
(Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) and may have a body weight of even 50 kg. Rodents have no second incisors,
canines or front premolar teeth.
There is a distinct gap, the diastema between the incisor and the cheek teeth. By the incisor teeth, rodents
are able to gnaw the feed or other materials efficiently. The incisor teeth grow continuously during the
lifetime of the animals.
Special jaw movements are the characteristic features in the rodents (when chewing activity is carried out,
the lower jaw moves backwards, hence, the upper and lower cheek teeth gets opposed but its incisors that
are positioned one behind the other are not. Internal cheek pouches are present in few rodents (eg. Golden
hamster).
Classification should be known for a better understanding on these creatures.
Other species
Tuco-tucos, Nutria, Guinea pig, woodchuck, Pacas, Pacarana, Eastern fox squirrel, burrowing rodents like
woodchuck or groundhog (Marmota monax) etc.
HYRACOIDEA
This order contains small rabbit like mammals but have short ears and the tail is reduced.
The taxonomists have classified the hyraxes, proboscideans (elephants) and sirenians (sea cows) as
subungulates.
The hyraxes were earlier found to be close to the elephants due to following reasons:
o Large bulge of the anterior maxillary skull
o Character and position of teeth
o Close junction of the four toes
o Posterior position of the malar bones
TUBELIDENTATA
o These animals have stout, pig like body with thick skin.
o Long snout with round nostrils at the tip.
o The tongue is protrusible.
o Long ears are present.
Aardvark is the only representative of this order. The other common names include earth hog, ant bear and
many local African names. This is a nocturnal animal.
MODULE-3: TAXONOMY-II
This unit is dealing with major wild animal groups classified under artiodactylids, perissodactylids and
carnivores like feilds
Tayassuids
The tayassuidae (Tayassuids) consists of two native New world suids given below:
o Collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu)
o White lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari)
Suids
The suidae (suids) has two sub-genera in India. The Sus-the wild boar and Porcula-the Pigmy
hog. The old world wild swine includes the wild boar (Sus scrofa) which was native to Asia and
Europe.
Pigmy hog
These animals are seen in small herds of 5 to 20. It is the world‟s smallest pig. These animals live in
forested tracts of Sikkim and Assam. They are also present in Nepal and Bhutan.
These animals are thought to be extinct once. The habitat preference of this species is similar to wild
pigs and the two species are closely related to each other
CAMELIDS
The camelids belong to the sub-order called “Tylopoda” and family called “camelidae”. Camels have a
unique capacity to pass the desiccated fecal materials when water intake is restricted. In the Arabian desert
during the summer, freshly passed feces can be used for fuel. Camels are pseudoruminants.
In this family, followings are seen:
o Old world camelids and South American camelids.
Old world camelids
Dromedary camel that has a zoological name of “Camelus dromedarius”: Found
in hot and cold deserts of Asia, Africa and middle east.
Bacterian camel that has a zoological name of “Camelus bactrianus”: Found in
cold and arid deserts of Asia, Kazakhstan, Mangolia and China.
South American camelids
Llama (Llama glama)
Guanaco(Lama guanicoe)
Vicuna ( Llama vicugna)
Alpaca (Llamapacos)
GIRAFFE
Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) belongs to the family entitled “Giraffidae” which also comprises the okapi
(Okapia johnstoni). These animals are the ruminants.
Both species have the elongated neck but the neck of the Giraffe is longer than that of Okapi. Like other
mammals, they have seven cervical vertebrae.
HIPPOPOTAMUSES
Two types of hippos as quoted below are confined to Africa:
o Nile hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius)
The Nile hippos live in matriarchial units living on a central mud bank or sandbar called a
“crèche” in the middle of the established herd territory.
The territory marking is carried out by swishing of the soft fecal materials by tail
movements.
o Pigmy hippopotamus (Choeropsis liberiensis)
Pigmy hippos live in solitaries and these mini-hippos have large circular nostrils and eyes
set to the side of the head instead of raised up.
These animals mark their territory by feces.
They are unique in artiodactylids, in the way that they all walk on all four toes that are attached to one
another by a membrane. Among the artiodactls, uniquely, these animals walk on all four toes that are
attached to each by a membrane “web”.
WILD OXEN
The followings are the significant species in this group:
o Gaur or Indian bison (Bos gaurus)
In these wild animals, gaur are seen in Central India- MP and Chhatisgar, Western Ghats
southwards from south Maharashtra, Mudumalai Anaimalai, Dindigul region and Palani
regions.
HOG DEER
Hog deer (Axis porcinus) are small in size and are sighted in the low alluvial grass plains of north India
from Sind and Punjab to Assam.
These animals place the head in low condition and moves without the usual bouncing action that is
characteristic to a deer and hence, it has been given the name of hog deer.
These animals are hardly 60 cms at the shoulder.
MUSK DEER
Musk deer (Moschus moschiferus) are sighted in the central and north eastern Asia and Nepal. In India,
they are seen in Uttaranchal Kedarnath hill, Sikkim and Kashmir. There is no antler in these animals.
This is considered as an undeveloped form of deer. The animal is extremely mobile and the extra large
lateral hooves allow this animal to walk on snow.
They live singly or in pairs. The musk gland is located below the abdomen skin in male.
MOUSE DEER
Mouse deer (Tragulus meminna) are also called as the Indian chevrotain. They belong to the family
tragulidae. These resemble deer but are more closely related to the camelids and pigs.
These are the smallest deer in India and have the measurement of about 25 to 30 cms as height.
Asiatic species
Three are four Asiatic species of rhinoceroses
o Javan rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus)
o Sumatran rhinoceros (Didermocerus sumatrensis): These are called as Asiatic two horned
rhinoceroses.
o Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis)
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 15
Indian rhinoceroses
Among rhinoceroses, the Indian rhinoceroses are the ones that are most primitive in appearance with its
armor like hide and small head and are one horned.
The skin is having a rugged appearance with armor like plates on body.
The animal is well distributed in the Gangetic plain. The animals are present in Assam and in parts of West
Bengal.
These animals are highly suited to the swampy tarai habitat. These are territorial in nature.
African rhinos
There are two species of African rhinos, as quoted below:
o White rhinoceros (Didermocerus sinus)
o Black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis)
Details African rhinos Asiatic rhino
Presence of horns Two horns Single horn
Length of horn Lengthy Short, comparatively
Incisors Absent in both African species Present
CARNIVORA
The common characters of carnivores are given below:
o Meat eaters
o Presence of canine teeth
o Intestinal tract is short and is adapted to the rapid digestion as well as the assimilation of meat.
o All species have anal glands. (The species like the striped skunk with a zoological name of Mephitis
mephitis may eject the contents of anal gland as a defensive maneuver)
o Os penis is present in case of males.
o Lack of clavicle (this helps in the freedom for the movement of forelimb)
o Ulna is well developed.
o Toes end in claws
Sub-order of carnivores
Fissipedia is the sub-order that comprises most known terrestrial carnivorous wild animals like lion, tiger,
panther, wolf, hyaena, wild dog, jackals etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF CARNIVORES
Family Common names No. of species
Canidae Wild dogs, jackal, fox, wolf 37
Felidae Tiger, lion, panther, jungle cat etc. 36
Ursidae Bears 7
Mustelidae Skinks, otters, weasels 68
Viverridae Mongooses, Civets 82
Procyonidae Raccoons, kinkajou, pandas 18
Hyaenidae Hyaenas 4
FELIDS
Lion
o Lions (Panthera leo) are found only in Gir forests of Gujarat state, lying within the Jumnagadh
district covering about 1280 Kms. These are the majestic animals in Indian forests living in prides.
Tiger
o Tigers (Panthera tigris) are the endangered wild animals found all over India from Himalayas to
Cape Camorin except in the deserts of Rajasthan, Punjab, Cutch and Sind.
Panther
o Panthers (Panthera pardus) are highly adaptable in nature to the environment and are seen all
over India. There are three races present in India (Panthers from Sind and Baluchistan and
Kashmir are regarded as separate races)
OTHER FELIDS
Clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa)
o These animals are seen in Assam and Sikkim.
Cheetah or Hunting leopard (Acinonyx jubatus)
o Cheetah are extinct in India at present.
Caracal and Jaguars
o Caracals are seen in north and north-west hills of Cutch and Jaguars are considered to be the
sturdy animals.
Lynx (Felis lynx)
o Lynx are seen in upper Indus valley, Ladak, Gilgit and Tibet. These animals are called as
“isabellina”.
Indian desert cat
o Indian desert cats are seen in deserts of north–western India ex tending to the drier regions of
Central India.
Marbled cat (Felis marmorata)
o Marbled cats are sighted in Sikkim and Assam . Single race occurs in India
Leopard cat (Felis bengalensis)
o Leopard cats can be sighted in wider parts of India from Kashmir to Cape Camorin.
Golden cat (Felis temmincki)
o In Assam and Sikkim, Golden cats are present.
Pallas cat (Felis manul )
o Pallas cats are seen in Ladak
MODULE-4: TAXONOMY-III
This module relates to various types of canids, wolves, hyaenas etc.
Note
Striped hyaena is the only species available in India
VIVERRIDS
These are the diverse are the old world carnivores. Most viverrids have scent glands in the anal region that
can emit a strong smelling fluid and these scent materials secreted from the genera Civettictis, Vicerra, and
Viverricula are called “civet”.
These materials are having pheromone like effects. Location of these species should be well known in
general for the attending veterinarian.
LOCATION OF VIVERRIDS
Viverrids Place
Common palm civet (Toddy cat) (Paradoxurus Whole India except desert zones of Punjab and
hermaphroditus) Sind
Brown palm civet (Paradoxurus jardoni) North Kanara and hill ranges of South India
Himalayan palm civet (Peguma larvata) Kashmir, Himalayas and Assam
Spotted linsang or Tiger civet (Prionodon Assam and Sikkim
pardicolor)
Binturang or Bear cat (Arctictis binturong) Assam and Sikkim
Small Indian civet (Viverricula indica) Through out India
Large Indian civet (Viverra zibetha) Sikkim, Assam and upper Bengal
Common mongoose (Herpestes edwardsi) Whole India
Small Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) Northern India (Kashmir to Bengal, Orissa and
Assam)
Stripe necked mongoose Western ghats from north Kanara , southwards
to some of he adjoining south India hill range
Crab eating mongoose (Herpestes urva) Assam
Beas in india
Sloth bears are endemic to India. Found through out the country in the forested regions.
The outcrops of rocks or tumbled boulders offer them shelter during the hot season.
Sloth bears tolerates the presence of spotted deer in close proximity but the response may reveal variations
with other species.
Various types of vocalizations are reported in these animals. Big head and rounded ear lobes are present.
The paws are short and broad.
Brown bears are present in north-western and central Himalayas. Himalayan black bear are present in
Kashmir, Assam and Himalayas.
MUSTELIDS
This group comprises the following wild animals:
o Otters
o Martens
o Weasels
o Pole cats
o Badgers.
OTTERS
Species Locations
Common otter (Lutra lutra) Seen in river beds of South India and then only in Kashmir,
Himalayas and Assam.
Clawless otter (Aonyx cinerea) South India
Smooth Indian otter (Lutra From Himalayas and Sind to extreme South in India.
perspicillata)
MARTENS
Species Locations
Himalayan marten (Martes flavigula) Seen in Himalaya and Assam
Nilgiri martens (Martes gwatkinsi) Seen in Nilgiris, south Coorg and Travancore
WEASELS
Species Locations
Himalayan weasel (Mustela sibirica) Himalayas
Badgers
Species Locations
Indian ferret badgers Assam
Chinese ferret badger Assam ranging eastwards to upper Burma, South-China and
Indo-Chinese regions
Honey badgers or Ratels (Mellivora From Himalayas to Cape Camorin
capensis)
Hog badgers (Arctonyx collaris) Assam and eastern Himalayas
MARINE MAMMALS
Orders Marine mammals
Cetacea Whales, dolphins and porpoises
Note:These animals are spindle shaped and dolphins and whales use echolocation like
bats in locating the prey species.
Pinnipedia Seals, Walruses and Sea-lions (marine carnivores)
Sirenia Dugong or sea cows and manatees
REPTILES
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 20
The repilian class has about 6457 species and evolved from the primitive amphibians.
Birds and mammals have evolved from reptiles. Reptiles are the ectothermic animals and air breathing
vertebrates.
Turtles are the most ancient reptiles and the snakes the most recent. Since the reptiles share many
anatomical features with bird, both the reptile and birds are some times considered together in the single
group entitled as “Sauropsida”.
It consists of chelonians, crocodiles, lizards, snakes etc. Reptiles are seen in all continents except Antarctica
and on most islands.
COMMON FEATURES OF REPTILES
Reptiles have no gills and lungs are present.
Absence of no hair
Absence of feather
They either lay egg or give birth to young but in both instances the embryo, like that of a mammal is
enclosed in an amnion.
Whether hatched from an egg or born alive, the reptiles don‟t pass through a larval stage or undergo
metamorphosis as do amphibians.
Reptiles are capable of growth through out the life
Dry water-proof skin with horny scales are present
Scales are not separated as seen in fish but they are folds of skin.
Ecdysis is a common feature
Majority of the reptiles are carnivorous especially the snakes (Marine Green turtle and Green Iguana are
herbivores).
ORDERS AND SUB-ORDERS OF REPTILES
Orders
Sub-orders
Amphisbaenia (Eg. Worm lizards)
Sphenodontia (Eg. Tuatara in Newzealand)
Serpentes (Ophidia) (Eg. Snakes)
Lacertilia (Sauria) (Eg. Lizards)
REPTILES - DISTRIBUTION IN GENERAL
Reptiles World India
Crocodiles 22 3
Turtles 242 32
Lizards 2800 155
Snakes 2750 244
IMPORTANT SNAKES
Cobra (Naja naja naja)
King cobra (Ophiophagus hannah)
Krait (Bungarus caeruleus)
Russell‟s viper (Vipera russelli)
Saw scaled viper (Echis carinatus)
Indian Rock python (Python molurus)
Reticulated python (Python reticulatus)
Anaconda or South American Boa
Sea snakes (Eg. Hook-nosed sea snake= Enhydrina schistosa) etc.
IMPORTANT LIZARDS
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 21
Common Monitor (Varanus bengalensis)
Water Monitor (Varanus salvator)
Yellow Monitor (Varanus flavescens)
Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis)
Gila Monster (Heloderma suspectum)
Beaded Lizard (Heloderma horridum)
Worm Lizards (Bipes and Rhineura)
IMPORTANT CROCODILE, GHAVIAL, CAIMAN AND ALLIGATOR
Mugger or Marsh crocodile (Crocodylus palustris)
Salt water crocodile or Estuarine crocodile or Indo-Pacific crocodile (Crocodylus porosus)
Gharial or Ghavial (Gavialis gangeticus)
Cayman (Caiman crocodilus)
American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)
Chinese alligator (Alligator chinensis)
Macro Habitat
This comprises larger areas than the micro habitat. Control of the factors in macro habitats is more difficult
as the case with land-use patterns, velocity of wind, amount of rain in an area etc.
Micro Habitat
This is the one associating with a small area (few square centimeters as the case with the area under a fallen
tree trunk or a stone material found in the forest).
Micro habitats may be easily managed by forest managers, unlike the macro habitats.
SIZE BASED HABITAT TYPES
There are two types of habitat based on the size of the concerned area :
o Macro types.
o Micro types.
Macro Habitat
This comprises larger areas than the micro habitat. Control of the factors in macro habitats is more difficult
as the case with land-use patterns, velocity of wind, amount of rain in an area etc.
Micro Habitat
This is the one associating with a small area (few square centimeters as the case with the area under a fallen
tree trunk or a stone material found in the forest).
Micro habitats may be easily managed by forest managers, unlike the macro habitats.
BIOSPHERE BASED MAJOR HABITATS
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 22
Four types are seen as the major habitats in the biosphere in general
o Marin
o Estuarine
o Fresh water
o Terrestrial
Marin habitat
This habitat is being used widely by marine mammals, fish, coral reeves etc. inhabit these areas. This is the
largest in the biosphere.
There are two forms are there in the marine habitat:
o Benthic forms - These are the animals and plants that inhabit the bottom of the sea.
o Pelagic forms - These are the animals and plants that inhabit the open sea .
Marine mammals like dugong, whales, dolphins, sea otters etc. are given more significance in general in
case of the marine habitat.
Estuarine habitat
This habitat uniquely represents the confluence of fresh water with sea. Hence, as per the waves or tides,
the salinity in this habitat may reveal many variations. It is a commonly found observation that in case of
high tides, the salinity is maximum.
But at the low tides and at periods of high rain fall, there is often an increase in the fresh water level.
Terrestrial habitat
Terrestrial habitats are comparatively a larger type of habitat in general but at the same time lesser than the
marine habitat. This type of habitat is a complicated one in general. The biotic communities reveal so many
variations among themselves and finally they constitute the different biomes.
GLOBAL SOURCES BASED CLASSIFICATION OF HABITATS
Deserts
Grasslands
Deciduous forests
Coniferous forests
Evergreen forests
Tropical rain forests
Mediterranean scrub
Mountains
Polar regions
Oceans
BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONES AS HABITATS
Islands (0.3)
Coasts (2.5)
Western Ghats (4.0)
North-east (5.2)
Trans-Himalaya (5.6)
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 23
Himalaya (6.4)
Desert (6.6)
Gangetic plain (10.8)
Semi-Arid (16.6)
Deccan peninsula (42.0)
Note: Figures in parenthesis indicate per cent of total geographical area of India: 3287263 sq.km.
Desert Region
This habitat comprise trans-Indus districts of Punjab, Western Sind and Baluchistan valley and forms the
eastern limits of a great desert region extending through Iran, Iraq and Arabia to the desert parts of North
Africa.
Wild animals of desert are different from the ones that are seen in general at the other regions.
Desert regions are found in many parts of the world like Sahara of North Africa etc.
Examples
North-eastern regions.
Himalayan slopes consisting of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Tripura.
Western Ghats of the south India including the Malabar Coast (Dense forest gorges called as the Sholas are
seen in Nilgriis which is an off shoot of the Western Ghats).
Example
Tigers prefer gaur or sambar mostly rather than going for the prey species like mouse deer.
Herbivores generally select materials of lower energy when compared to the carnivores. Hence, these
species are prone to suffer from either qualitative food stress due to the lesser nutritional values of the feeds
under consumption or from quantitative food stress that occurs due to shortage.
COVER
Cover gives protection of the wild animals species from the followings:
o Weather
o Severe summer
o Winter
o Predators
o Enemies
Provides a better vantage point for the wild animal in a wide area Covers may be a natural one or an
artificial one.
TYPES OF COVER
There are many types of cover. Similarly, it may be a vegetal or non vegetal in nature. It is better to have
simulation of natural one or if possible a natural one.
However, it is to be remembered that escape-cover may not be an essential one for wild animal species like
the black buck.
Good grass growth by itself may have a better cover for them. Different types of vegetations make up these
covers.
Usually caves and overhands act as non-vegetal covres. Other structures that also bears the cover value are:
o Burrows
o Old buildings
o Holes
o Abandoned buildings
o Drystream beds etc.
Ambush cover
This is defined as the cover that is utilized by a predatory animal for ambushing its prey. This can be a
vegetal or non-vegetal. Covers are interchangeable.
The ambush cover of one species may serve as escape cover for another species.
Breeding cover
This is important to have a successful breeding potential of the concerned wild animal species.
o Tigers use caves nad overhands a cubbing places.
o Hard ground barasinha (deer) population of MP state needs tall grass as the breeding cover.
o Squirrels build nests to suit their arboreal life.
Loafing cover
Loafing cover is the one in which some wild animal species try to spend their time aimlessly and this may
be a secluded place in a habitat.
The place offering shade in summer and providing adequate protection from the wind in winter can serve
as a loafing cover.
Refuge cover
This essentially means vegetation from which the wild animals can not be sent out during hunting. This is a
sports related terminology.
For example, the jungle fowl can be hunted only in the open space.
WATER
Water is highly a required item in a habitat of the wild animal species. When the water resources are poor
in a habitat, then the quality of the concerned habitat is considered as a poor one from the conservation
point of view.
Riparian vegetation along the stream banks may be considered linking places or corridors for the animal
movement. Animals in desert regions generally depend on the succulent vegetation or metabolic water of
the body.
Water bodies play a greater role in the disease transmission esp. in cases of contamination by grazing
livestock that utilizes the water resources.
SPACE
Space is a must for any wild animal species. The availability of space is influenced by followings:
o Edges.
o Ecotones.
o Territory.
o Home ranges.
o Interspersion.
o Availability of mates.
Mongamous species suffer a lot in breeding as the case with rhinos or Sarus cranes. The mates may not be
adequate for these species in a given space some times.
The problem has happened with rhinos of Jaldapara in West Bengal. This problem is not an acute one in
nature in case of polygamous species like spotted deer because one male can mate with three to four
females.
The space should provide suitable niches for various wild animal species.
FACTORS PERTAINING TO WILDLIFE HABITAT
Welfare factors
o These are the factors that are related to the specific components of habitat like food, shelter and
water. These factors help to enhance the population structure.
Decimating factors
o These are the factors like starvation, fire, epidemics and unhealthy competition.
WETLAND HABITATS AND THE AVIARY SPECIES
Wetlands have the concerned wetland aviary species that have specialized legs and the legs are equipped
with webs that help or facilitating for the better movement on mud or water logged surfaces.
The beaks vary in size and shape, so as to catch the prey species (mostly the fish) from water.
Schedule II
Part I – Bonnet macaque, Common langur, Wild dog, Chameleon, Spiny tailed lizard or Sanda.
Part II – Beetles.
Schedule III
Chital, Barking deer or Muntjac, Gorals, Hog deer, Wild pig, Nilgai, Sponges.
Schedule IV
Indian Hedgehogs, Indian porcupine, Mongooses, Polecats.
Schedule V
Common crow, Fruit bats, Mice, Rats, Five striped palm squirrel, Black napped hare, Common Indian hare,
Desert hare, Himalayan mouse hare.
Schedule VI
Birds like Coots, Cranes, Cormorants, Flamingos, Ibises.
Ladies slipper orchids, Red Vanda, Blue Vanda.
This institution was established in Dehradun in 1982 with an objective of becoming a significant centre for wildlife
training, research, publication and extension in India. The functions and roles are related to the followings:
Training of personnel for protected area management and wildlife research
Training of education and extension specialists for protected area management and wildlife research
Offering of orientation courses for those who are involved in land use management
Provision of advisory and consultant service to central and state governmental agencies , universities,
colleges, institutions and other official and non-official agencies.
Creation of databases by employing modern computerized analytical techniques.
To conduct and co-ordinate applied wildlife research.
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 29
Indian Board For Wildlife (IBWL)
Prevents cruelty against birds and beasts caught alive.
Promotes public involvement in wildlife and its preservation in harmony with natural and human
environment.
1st phase of IBWL was confined to protection of wildlife from poachers and unscrupulous hunters.
2nd phase was associated with development and creation of National Parks and Sanctuaries where
threatened species are protected.
3rd phase was associated to the detailed study and improvement in the existing food and water reserves,
offering of effective protection to threatened species and fast development of wildlife sanctuaries
Department of Wildlife Science, Tamilnadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chennai and Centre for
Wildlife Forensic and Health, M.P. Veterinary University, Jabalpur and Indian Veterinary Research Insitute,
Bareilly, UP state and Karnataka Veterinary, Animal and Fisheries Sciences University, Karnataka state :
These insitutions are currenlty involving in teaching, research and extension activities pertaining to wildlife science.
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO):
These organizations are associated with all features of conservation, in general.
POSTMORTEM
When animals die due to diseases or other reasons, post-mortem has to be carried out in a systematic
manner. Post mortem is one of the important components that is to be taken with more care and cautions.
Veterinarians involving post mortem of wild animals should take care of the features related to the Zoonotic
diseases in particular like anthrax or salmonellosis.
Hence, wearing coveralls and gloves in addition to the spectacles to protect the ocular regions are most
significant features to be taken care of.
FEED AND MEAT INSPECTION
Spoiled feeds if found may be discarded. The meat received needs to be inspected in a systematic manner
and the diseased ones if any have to be discarded.
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 34
Any nodular growths or worms affected regions may be discarded. Fish also needs to be inspected for the
healthy status. Rotten fish if any has to be immediately discarded.
TRANSLOCATION AND TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE TO THE ZOO
PERSONNEL
If any animal is to be translocated, immobilization is to be carried out and safety of the wild animal under
immobilization has to be ensured always to the possible extent.
Whenever any technical assistance is required, it has to be offered in a systematic manner with regard to
the translocation.
Care has to be taken to avoid any type of wound or injury to the wild animal under transport during the
translocation and similarly safety measures have to be carried out with regard to the immobilization.
DISPLAY OF WILD ANIMALS IN ZOOS
Wild animals are displayed in an informative manner to the visiting persons or public and followings are
undertaken in general for the display of wild animals in zoo set up:
o Taxonomic arrangement (Non-human primates as first unit).
o Zoo geographical arrangement (wild animals of India and Australia or other country).
o Ethological arrangement (Common langurs and Chital in a group).
o Mixed species-exhibits (eg. Spotted deer and black bucks).
o Ecological arrangement (Common animals of desert system).
o Miscellaneous arrangement.
IMPORTANT CAPTIVE WILD ANIMAL PLACES IN INDIA
Location Name
Vandalur, Tamilnadu state Arignar Anna Zoological Park
Trvandrum, Kerala state Trivandrum zoo
Hyderabad , Andhra Pradesh state Nehru Zoological Park,
Mysore , Karnataka state Sri Chamarajendra Zoological Garden
New Delhi National Zoological Park
COMMON WILD ANIMALS IN INDIAN ZOOS
Commonly held carnivores
o Lion, tiger, panther, jungle cat, hyena, jackals, wild dog, otter, fox, wolf, jaguar etc.
Other wild animals
o Gaur, wild pig, nilgai, spotted deer, sambar deer, porcupine, sloth bear, giant squirrels, zebra,
Indian pangolin, hog badger, kangaroo, rhinoceros, giraffe etc.
Reptiles
o Cobra, king cobra, Russels wiper, rat snake, green snake, krait, reticulated python, rock python,
monitor lizard, Indian soft shelled turtle, mugger, gharial etc.
Aviary species
o Peacocks, cockatoo, cockatiel, African grey parrot, grey horn bills, rosy pelicans, painted storks,
budgerigars, love birds, swan, sarus crane, egrets, born owls, vultures, kites, shikara etc.
MODULE-7: ZOO-II
This Chapter is designed to know about recording systems in zoo, quarantine and isolation units
of zoo and enrichment measures.
The objectives are
To reveal stud book
To reveal about endangered wild animals
To detail on the environmental enrichment measures to be carried out in zoos
ZOO VETERINARY HOSPITAL
Central zoo authority of India has prescribed number of veterinarians required for various types of zoos and
the type of zoo helps to determine the number of veterinarians in this case.
However, it is understood that health and disease management in the zoological park is most significant
one to be maintained successfully for the welfare of the confined wild animals in the zoos.
Note
Modified feeding patterns or places may help the enrichment measures in case of wild mammals.
SPECIES-SPECIALITIES
Bears and otters
Bears (These species are more prone for exhibition of stereotypic behavior and abnormal behavioral
patterns like packing, weaving, head-swaying, repetitive self-sucking, stereotypic swimming and tongue
flicking due to frustration, stress and boredom causing environmental features).
Otters(these are social animals like elephant and chimpanzee and appears to be more inquisite in nature
when kept in the confined state)
Note
It is to worthy to mention that the young mammals are always more manipulative and playful than the
adults.
Project Lion
Lion is the top carnivore in the food chain of the ecosystem. In 1972, this project was initiated in India.
Accordingly, to facilitate successful breeding of lions, following were implemented in this project:-
Shifting of all maldharis from sanctuary and their resettlement outside it.
Construction of barricades along the water resources to prevent entry of cattle.
Fencing of periphery of the Gir sanctuary by dry rubble wall of 1 meter height as the protective measure.
Minimizing of human interferences within the ecosystem.
Securing of full co-operation of legistlators, public and maldharis.
Improving the habitat of lions in Gir region.
Project Tiger
On recommendations from the task force set up by the Indian board for wildlife, Project Tiger was initiated
as a Central Sector scheme in 1973. The breeding of tigers was facilitated by improvement of tiger habitat by
identifying and limiting of the limiting factors of the habitat for tiger population. Thorough emphasis was
given on protection of tigers, fire-protection, disease control, shifting of villages inside the tiger reserve
areas, grazing control, development of water resources, enhancement of research and population
estimation etc. Many tiger reserves were started and tiger conservation was aimed in these.
CONTROLLED BREEDING AND ASSISTED REPRODUCTION
This is gaining more significance now a days and is being considered as one of the significant factor linked
to effective conservation of different wild animal species belonging to various taxonomical classes.
ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION
This technique is used in multiple species of the animals ranging from the honey bee to elephant. This
significant reproductive technology is useful in captive breeding of wild animal species like the highly
valued and endangered wild animals . example : Tigers , Lions , Elephants , Chimpanzees , etc. Frozen
semen banks are highly required with history of the concerned wild animal species used for further
advancement of breeding. Electro-ejaculators are being used to collect semen from male genital organs ,
involving the application of varied and measured electric current over the selected sites of the body. Female
genitalia based diseases like pyometra , metritis , etc. may be fully avoided by using this assisted
reproductive technology.
EMBRYO TRANSFER
Many genetically superior wild animals germplasm may be used for breeding purpose and the associated
factors with embryo-transfer are:-
o Timely recovery of embryos.
o Timely deposition of embryos
o Superior germplasm of the bulls used for production of embryos.
Embryo-transfer techniques in wild animal species may help in minimizing the risk of disease-
transmission associated with the long-distance movement of breeding wild animals.
Embryo-tansfers were frequently carried out in deer and camelid species , in general. Studies have to be
undertaken with regard to super-ovulatory responses in multiple-species of wild animals reared under
captive conditions.
CLONING TECHNOLOGY
Though much progress has not been made in wild animal species with regard to cloning technology , it is to
be understood that the cloning of a targeted wild animal species from an adult somatic cell may be
considered as one of the technological advances with regard to assisted reproduction in wild animals.
It is significant that in many animals the great majority of cloned embryos may perish before reaching full
term. If the cloned embryos have more epigenetic errors , then there is likelihood of death among such
cloned embryos. It is a known fact that cloned embryos contain fewer cells than the case with normal
embryos.
Distance
Individual distance- it is the personal space or distance that an animal prefers between itself and other
members of its own species.
Social distance- it is the one which an animal maintains with other members of its social group. It provides
cohesiveness to the group.
Critical distance- if this is violated and if there is no place or route to escape, animal may threaten or attack
the opposing individual.
Flight distance- if it is violated bird or animal will run or move away.
Space
Territory – this is a fixed area from which intruders are excluded by some combination of advertisement,
threat or attack. Aggression may be revealed if territory is violated especially by the members of its own
species.
TYPES OF BEHAVIOR
Aggression
Reproductive behavior
Parental care
Developmental behavior
Vices
AGGRESSION
The major causes are given below:
Competition of males for successful selection of females.
Conflict over food resources.
Conflict over infants.
Disturbance of social organization (crowding, territorial disputes).
Temporal distortions (eg. Reduced time for feeding).
Incompatible artificial composition of groups.
Distortion of social role.
Reduction of ecological functions.
Birth
The hormones regulating pregnancy and parturition are same in most of the mammals like estrogen,
progesterone and prolactin. However, in animals like chimpanzees, progesterone does not reduce as it does
in other primates.
Post-partum
Vocalization, olfactory stimuli and infant activity regulate the interactions between the offspring and
mother. Though lactation is dependent on prolactin and milk let down is dependent of oxytocin, the
performance of nursing behavior does not depend on all these hormones.
Maternal attachment
Imprinting
It is the special form of filial attachment occurring during a precise and sensitive period. ( eg. For few hours
after hatching in some species of birds.)
Maternal aggression
Most common behavior observed.
Eg- Attack of gaur on carnivores attempting to predate on the young ones or calves.
The pregnant and lactating wild animals exhibit intense aggressive behavior.
Alloparenting
It means the care taking of an infant by individuals other than the mother. This means the aunting
behaviour. Mostly the close relatives are involved with this type of behavior.
Imprinting
This is a genetically programmed learning, observed in birds as well as in many mammals. Imprinting
occurs during a relatively short, well defined period of time usually early in the life of the individual.
BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS
Stereotyped behaviour
Repetition of motor acts is caused by a variety of reasons especially the boredom. Examples of stereotyped
motor acts are given below
rocking
repetitive somersaulting
repetitive head tossing or weaving
repetitive bouncing in place
repetitive pacing.
Displaced activities
This is the inappropriate activity due to strong activation of innate behaviour by stimulus. Eg. When
primate fails in attracting visitors during begging, it engages in grooming and scratching themselves.
Feeding disorders
Eg- Food wasting behaviour in captive raccoons
Plucking of entire feathers of chicken by ocelots.
VICES
Stereotyping, usage of stools, spitting on persons etc.
MODULE-10: HOUSING OF WILD ANIMALS
In this unit, different types of the housing related infrastructures have been discussed. The browsing
students should understand that there is a link between improper housing arrangements and health status.
FINANCIAL CONSIDERATION
It is equally true that consideration needs to be given to the cost factor while the housing designs or
facilities are made for the welfare of wild animals kept as exhibits for the public.
Timely constructions with facilities that are scientifically required for up keeping the health of the
concerned wild animal species are to be made and further, space has to be given to make expenditures
related to the annual repairs for the concerned structures used by the visitors, wild animal and zoo
personnel.
Size of the cubicle for the different species has to be meticulously worked out according to the actual size of
the concerned wild animal species.
INSIDE-OVERHANGS AS HOUSING FACILITY
Overhangs are required particularly in case of animals that are capable of jumping to a great height. This
helps to give protection to both visitors and wild animal species.
VACCINATION
Vaccination as the Preventive Measures in captive felids like tigers, lions and panthers are routinely
protected by preventive vaccination against calcivirus, feline pan leukopenia and feline rhino tracheitis.
Similarly, in endemic areas of specific disease like HS or FMD or Anthrax, the periodical vaccination needs
to be carried out against such diseases, in the susceptible hooved stock.
SANITATION WITH REGARD TO VECTORS
Stray dogs, cats, rodents, snails and insects transmit various diseases both in active and passive manners.
Hence, a strict control is to be made on the breeding and elimination of them within the zoo premises, to
the possible extent.
Moats wet or dry need to be cleaned in a periodical manner and the prompt cleaning measures need to be
undertaken with adequate drying of wet moat.
Algae development may be monitored on the wet moats in particular. Enteric infections may occur when
the confined wild animals develop the habit of drinking water.
Bush needs to be cleared with regard to minimizing of incidences with trypanosomes
Purposes
The wild animals need to be restrained for various purposes and one has to understand the multiple
reasons for the effective restraining of wild animals in a systematic manner.
GADGETS USED FOR THE PROPER PHYSICAL RESTRAINT
There are many types of physical restraint related gadgets for application in case of wild animals like drop
nets, net gun, squeeze cages , trap cages etc.
Bamboos are mainly used for the construction of this restraint gadget.
GLOVES, GUNNY BAGS AND BASKETS
Gloves with various thickness measurements are used for an efficient control of wild animals especially the
small sized mammals and the multiple aviary species.
However, when restraining the different sized birds by using gloves, one has to take more care in avoiding
exertion of maximum pressure in the name of control of the birds. This may cause problem like suffocation
in the concerned tiny sized aviary species.
Snake hooks for snakes and elephant hooks for elephants may be of more useful in physical restraint
procedures.
Nets are being used for various species of wild fauna esp. birds.
Vision
Vision related reflex can be used to control the wild animals and such types of restraints are often used to
control the vision based stress reactions also in case of wild animals.
It is to be remembered that the blind folded wild animals may not show much excitement unlike the wild
animal which has not been blind folded.
Complete coverage but with the proper ventilation using thick cloth like tarpaulin may be of useful in
quitening the concerned wild animal. This feature is to be taken care of during the calming down of the free
ranging wild animal like leopard etc.
It is to be remembered that the nocturnal wild animals may be less active in broad day light and similarly,
the diurnal wild animals may be less active in night time.
Psychological tool
Voice may be helpful to some extent for the proper restraint of the wild animal.
However, it may not be taken as a more reliable tool for the restraint of the wild animal.
Smell
Sometimes, the presence of excreta from same animal or the same species may have some degree of
calming effects.
STICK SYRINGES
Various stick syringes are available commercially. Silently, approach the animal cage where the non-human
primate or the carnivore has been contained.
These are the specialized syringes used for loading of the immobilizing drug like xylazine or ketamine or
both or etorphine.
Darts are operated by mechanical pressure or by using the gas and proper loading of dart into the blow pipe
is a must for a successful immobilization event.
These projectile syringes are generally propelled by blowing of air, pistol, long distance rifle. Cartridges may
be used for the pressure if the distant delivery systems like rifles are used in case of wild animals.
Radio darts are available currently to locate the wild animal precisely in the forest environment and a small
powerful impact resistant transmitter is attached behind the drug barrel with a projectile antenna.
Dart needles (collared or barbed or ordinary dart needles) are of more useful in delivery of drug materials
The blowgun is becoming more popular among zoo veterinarians and the major merit is the silent
projection. At the same time, this may cause lesser impact or trauma or injury to the targeted wild animal.
The average length of blow pipe is about 1 to 2 meters and the maximum range actually depends on the
stamina of the user. In general, the average range is about fifteen meters.
Wondering on how to practice darting? Yeah. Think about design of animal model like tiger model !!!!
XYLAZINE
This is one of the alpha two adrenoceptor agonist and is available both in powder and solution
forms.
Effects of xylazine based immobilization
Animals appear sleeping
Snoring sounds will be heard at a distance in species like elephants
Dullness
Reduced movements
Analgesia lasts for fifteen to thirty minutes and after this period, painful techniques should not be
undertaken, in general. However, it is to be noted that a sleep like state is maintained for almost about an
hour to two hours.
Caution
It is significant to note that the seemingly sedated animal may get up explosively causing concern
to the safety of the persons nearby.
If the dose rate is exceeded, death may occur and hence, correct judgment of the dose rate
depending on the species needs to be made if one wants to have a success in it‟s usage in various
species of wild animals. Atropine may be of useful to reduce the drug effects of xylazine.
Antidote for xylazine
Yohimbine at the dose rate of 0.125 mg per Kg body weight and Doxapram hydrochloride may be
used as a respiratory stimulant.
Antidote
Diprenorphine is the antidote to be used for etorphine. The standard dose is double the amount of
etorphine injected.
Cautions to be undertaken while using etorphine
o Should not be used with atropine, since the atropine may reduce the solubility of the drug.
o Animal may develop hyperthermia
o Passive regurgitation may occur in cases of prolonged immobilization with etorphine
o Injured wild animals may require slightly high dose rate of etorphine
o Human-health hazard related factors need to be taken care of like avoidance of accidental falling
on skin or eyes of the handling wildlife veterinarian and person who knows how to give I/V in
human being may accompany the operation and such action may be of useful in cases of accidental
emergencies. Equipment for artificial respiration should be available in the spot. Always wear
gloves and glasses during usage of etorphine. When morphine drugs are handled, a stock of Narcan
(human antidote) and diprenorphine (animal antidote) must always be available.
ACEPROMAZINE
Acepromazine is generally not used alone and often, a combination is used with ketamine or etorphine.
The muscle relaxant effects are unique ones when used in combination with ketamine.
FENTANYL AND CARFENTANYL
Fentanyl is a morphine derivative and is about one hundred and eighty times more potent than the
morphine as an analgesic. This drug is often combined with droperidol which is a tranquilizer.
Though the effects start in about ten minutes, the effects may persist for about forty minutes.
Antidote
Naloxone hydrochloride is an antidote to be used at the dose rate of 0.006 mg per Kg body weight.
Carfentanyl may be used in wild animals but is one of the costly drugs and is a narcotic one.
FENTANYL AND CARFENTANYL
Fentanyl is a morphine derivative and is about one hundred and eighty times more potent than the
morphine as an analgesic. This drug is often combined with droperidol which is a tranquilizer.
Though the effects start in about ten minutes, the effects may persist for about forty minutes.
Antidote
Naloxone hydrochloride is an antidote to be used at the dose rate of 0.006 mg per Kg body weight.
Carfentanyl may be used in wild animals but is one of the costly drugs and is a narcotic one.
ANAESTHETICS
Characteristics of Anaesthetics
Should be cheap
Should be easily available
Needs to be fast in induction of Anaesthesia.
There should be minimal side effects
Complications should not be there in general
Should have more merits technically
ANAESTHETICS COMMONLY USED
Gaseous anesthetics
Halothane
o It is a halogenated hydrocarbon
o It‟s usage is on decrease due to increased popularity of isoflurane and sevoflurane.
Side effects
o Development of arrhythmia.
Demerits
o Limited availability.
Nitrous oxide
This is not used as a solo anaesthetic due to its low potency. It is commonly used as 50% mixture with
balance of the mix being oxygen.
Contraindications
o This is contraindicated in animals with pneumothorax, gastric dilatation, gas embolism, etc.
Isoflurane
This is the most widely used veterinary inhalant anaesthetic.
This is stable and potent.
This has a high saturated vapour pressure.
Merits
o Metabolism of isoflurane is minimal and fluoride induced nephrotoxicity is uncommon.
Desflurane
Limited use in veterinary medicine.
Injectable anaesthetics
o Barbiturates
This causes anasethesia through depression of CNS activity. Eg. Thiopental, pentobarbital
etc.
o Demerits
Perivascular injection can lead to tissue necrosis.
Their use in non domestic species due to practical “inability” to obtain reliable intravenous
access prior to anaesthetic induction.
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 63
ATTENDING WOUNDS
Wound Treatment
This is more common among wild mammals, in particular. Followings are basically required in wound
therapy.
o Provision of suitable drainage if abscess is encountered.
o Irrigation of wound cavity with suitable antibiotic solution.
o Debridging of wound.
o Suturing of wound due to injury if it is a fresh one.
o Usage of BIPP, triple sulphide ointment etc. in case of long standing abscesses.
Note
Foreign bodies have to be given emphasis in case of long standing abscess or wounds especially in animals
like elephants.
PROLAPSE OF GENITAL TRACT
The prolapsed mass is to be reduced by using sterile saline and antiseptic solution and suture may be placed
accordingly. Prolapse of cloaca and related organs is commonly seen in crocodiles, snakes etc.
CAESARIAN
In prolonged parturition or dystokia, caesarian may be required in any wild animal species but care is to be
taken to full extent during administration of any anaesthetic or any immobilizing agent in such clinical
cases.
FRACTURES
Appropriate surgical intervention are required in case of fracture related incidences.
However, limitations are three due to excitability of wild animal species in general when compared to
domestic animals.
DEFORMED HOOVES
These are common among antelopes, bovids and deers. To facilitate gait, surgical methods of trimming of
the excessively grown hoof structures are highly required.
However, by using immobilizing agents, wild animals need to be sedated first prior to surgical intervention.
ABSCESS
This may occur in any region including velvet region of species like deer.
This may be commonly seen among deers with velvet. Drainage with irrigation of abscess cavities
with antiseptic solutions is a must along with protection of treated regions from any other
contamination.
Cutaneous abscesses / lumps are commonly noticed especially in pythons. Depending on the
symptoms, surgical intervention may be undertaken.
MISCELLANEOUS CONDITIONS
Tumorous growths in body regions
Amputation of horns
Trimming of tusk
Rasping of tooth
Birth related operations like vasectomy or removal of ovaries or uterus or any part of genital organs
Amputation of any gangrenous extremities
Removal of eyeball due to irreparable injuries or tissues that are highly damaged.
Temperature
Non contact thermometer may be used to measure the body temperature of the wild animal during
handling.
If the wild animal has extreme high temperature, first take the concerned wild animal with hyperthermia to
a place with shades and start application of other therapeutic procedures.
Respiratory rate
The respiratory rate may be estimated by mere observation without any excitement to the concerned wild
animal species and observe the pattern of respiration also.
Heart rate
If the wild animal is well controlled, heart rate may be estimated by using stethoscope.
MODULE-15: FEEDING OF WILD ANIMALS - I
This module mainly deals with feeding-significances and components of general nutrients and merits of
balanced nutrition.
Species like red vented bulbul, frugivours bats, guinea pigs, non-human primates etc. are in need of direct
supply of vitamin C because they lack the enzyme L-gluconolactone oxidase required for the synthesis of
vitamin C.
WATER
Watering in case of wild animals has to be given more significance. Generally wild animals prefer water
content and even in the wild, wild animals move to the water holes frequently in every day.
However, it is to be understood that certain species may not take water much like blackbucks. The water
requirement may be met by water content of food itself or through the oxidation of organic constituents
that produces metabolic water.
High moisture diets are generally preferred by the wild animals like non-human primates. It is also equally
true that high moisture food items are often subjected to the fungal as well as the microbial proliferation.
Jungle cat
Chopped beef 250 gms
Bread slice 2 no
Milk 100 ml
Jackal
Beef without bone 500 gms
Liver 100 gms
Chicken 250 gms weekly once.
Hyena
Beef 3 kg/day
Liver 100 gms
Chicken 500 gms weekly once.
Sloth bear
Ragi (cooked) 250 gms
Rice gruel + black gram 150 + 50gms
Orange / Mango 2 nos
Guava 4 nos
Tapioca 100 gms
Jaggery 200 gms
Groundnut (WOS) 100 gms
Honey bi-weekly
Milk ½ litre
Otter
Fish 1.5 kg
Crab (weekly twice) 300 gms
Sardine 1.5 kg
Indian Elephant
Ragi 7 kg
Horse gram 2 kg
Salt 200 gms
Jaggery 250 gms
Grass 200 kgs
Sugarcane 4 nos
Green tree leaves –
Bamboo / stylo 250 kg
Coconut 500 gms (1 no)
Porcupine
Rice 100 gms
Carrot 100 gms
Cabbage 100 gms
Tapioca or sweet potato 100 gms
Soya bean 20 gms
Groundnut (WOS) 150 gms
Zebra (adult)
Wheat bran 2 kgs
White Bengal gram 100 gms
Grass and leaves 30 kgs
Mineral mixture 10 days in a month at regular intervals.
Lucerne 5 kgs
Panther
Beef (with bone) 3 kg
Liver 250 gms
Chicken 1 kg (weekly once)
Camel
Wheat bran 2 kg
White Bengal gram 500gm
Grass 30 kg
Leaves (neem, bamboo,
Subabul, bauhina) 20 kg
Salt 50 gm
Cabbage 2 kg
Banana 6 no
Leaves of acacia 5 kg
Peach faced love bird, Fisher’s love bird, Sky blue mask love bird, Love bird (Split)
Apple (to all) 1 no
Banana (to all) 1 no
Thinai 10 gm
Paddy 5 gm
Mixed grain 10 gm
White Bengal gram 5 gm
Onion 10 gm
Greens 10 gm
Shell grit Q.S
Parakeet
Bread slice 1 no
Apple (L.S) 3 no
Sathukudi/Mango/Orange ¼ no
Guava 1 no
Groundnut (WOS) 20 gm
Chilly fruit 10 gm
Garlic 2 gm
Paddy 10 gm
Mixed grains 20 gm
Bengal gram 10 gm
Sunflower seed 10 gm
Green gram 10 gm
Indian Peafowl
Cabbage 25 gm
Mixed grains 25 gm
Paddy 25 gm
White Bengal gram 50 gm
Greens 100gm
Garlic 10 gm
Groundnut (WOS) 50 gm
Shell grit 25 gm
Green gram 25 gm
Owl
Chopped beef or rat 150 gm/2no/day
(each 100-150 gm size)
Chicks 10 gm (once in a week)
Budgerigar
Thinai 10 gm
Greens 10 gm
Shell grit 20 gm
Bengal gram 5 gm
Green gram 5 gm
Emu
Green gram 250 gm
Wheat 250 gm (soaked)
Broiler finisher grumble diet 250 gm
Rice 250 gm (cooked)
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 73
Milk 100 ml (boiled)
Tomato 100 gm
Green banana 2 no
Gharial (adult)
Fish (twice a week) 1 kg
Bone (vertebral) 100 gm
Python
Chicken 1 kg (twice a month)
Rat 8 no (twice a month) each 150 gm size.
Viper
Chicken 3 no
Rat 4 no (weekly once) 100-150 gm size.
Cobra
Chicken 3 no
Rat 4 no (weekly once) 100-150 gm size.
Iguana
Carrot 50 gm (daily)
Cabbage 50 gm (daily)
Tomato 50 gm (daily)
Greens 100 gm (daily)
Star tortoise
Carrot 30 gm (daily)
Cabbage 30 gm (daily)
Tomato 30 gm (daily)
Greens (L.S) 500 gm (daily)
Feeding habits
The feeding habit varies from species to species.
Chewing bones is a preferred activity among lions, tigers and jaguars and the activity is less in panthers.
These carnivores prefer larger pieces of meat to alleviate hunger more readily than the smaller meat pieces.
Lions and tigers carry the beef pieces to one side of the cage before it sits for feeding.
In lion, tiger and jaguar the posture of consumption was of extending the fore legs and holding the meat
while the hind legs are tucked up within the body, where as in panthers all the four legs tucked up within
the body.
Wild dogs eat while they were in standing position in a hurried gulping manner.
Among the large felines like tiger, lion, panther and jaguar the time taken to consume the meat was from
16.5 minutes to 39 minutes in a very slow manner.
Tigers soon after feeding they lick the cage wall few times and then drink water, where as in lions they drink
water soon after feeding.
After the weekly starvation in lions and tigers a characteristic restlessness was evinced by the sound and
arrival of the food delivery vehicle.
During the act of drinking the large cats curl tongue backward and then flick it forward, rolling it up slightly
into a spoon shape, as they do so and they swallow after every 4 or 5 laps.
Tigers, Jaguars and Panthers show a preference for chicken meat when offered than beef.
Almost all species of the carnivores like panther, lion, wild dog and tiger eat quickly in winter than in
summer.
In panther, lion and tiger, smelling and licking of the meat were noticed. Tigers and lions show a greater
degree of smelling the licking than the other species.
Elephants use trunk as prehensile organ and may even pick up grass by using strikes with legs on ground
and later, the grass materials may be striked on its own legs to wither away the dirt or sand and then by
using the trunk, they may place the feed materials into the mouth. The trunk will not be protruded during
eating activities of the elephant.
Sick diets
Most seriously ill-wild animals refuse to eat or just pick at the food. Force feeding often may not be practicable
especially in carnivores or herbivores.
Soft diet like chicken preferably in cooked form may be attempted as one of the significant diets in wild
animal species.
Intra-venous fluids like dextrose saline, Ringers lactate etc, may be chosen in wild animals that have totally
ceased eating activities.
Attempts may be done to provide the most palatable food for the targeted wild animal species.
In wild animals especially carnivores with severe gastritis whatever food is offered or ingested, it may be
vomited often. In such cases, blend diet may be offered. Egg white may be offered to carnivores with severe
vomiting, in addition to administration of 5 % dextrose saline solution, in these gastritis affected wild
animals.
Provide drinking water ad-libitum to all the sick wild animals in general.
Provision of bland diet in small quantities spaced in several daily doses may help to minimize the
incidences of vomiting or rejection by the concerned wild animal species.
Species affected
Almost all species are affected in general. The disease is somewhat widely prevalent in a captive wild animal
atmosphere.
Commonly affected species are given below:
o Mammals (Non-human primates, deer, antelopes, felids, ursids, canids, elephants etc)
o Aves (Raptors, Psittacine birds, Passerine birds, Anseriform birds etc.)
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 75
Mode of spread and significance
Discharges from the body like vaginal discharge, exudates from the fistulous tracks, milk, sputum and
excreta like feces and urine get contaminated with these microbes.
The bacterial organisms are also shed in exhaled air also.
This disease is zoonotic in nature.
Symptoms
Emaciation despite moderate to good nutrition
Anorexia
Weakness
Mild pyrexia
Low pitched cough may be seen
Species affected
Mostly bovids, wild sheep, wild goat, antelopes, cervids etc. may get affected.
It was even reported in equines and swines have been reported as the carriers.
Symptoms
Profuse diarrhea that is more often odorless, and there is no accompanying tetanus. There appears to be no
correlation between the severity of the clinical syndrome and the severity of the lesions.
Emaciation and intermandibular-oedema.
Species affected
This disease is documented in various species of animals including elephants, cervids, antelopes, ursids,
felids, elephants etc.
Even marsupials like kangaroo get affected by this infection.
Symptoms
In elephants, the symptoms may be similar to those of anthrax. The death occurs within 12 hours in case of
acute cases.
The clinical symptoms are often related to the pleuropneumonia, dyspnoea, gastroenteritis in addition to
the pyrexia, anorexia and depression.
Species affected
Most of the wild animal species get affected like ruminants, ursids, proboscids, felids,canids, marsupials
and monotremes, peccaries and suids, procyonids, rodents and lagomorphs, rodents, viverrids,
insectivores, pinnipeds etc.
Outbreaks have been documented in case of non-human primates esp. the baboons and macaques. Rodents
including mongooses act as carriers for this disease.
VIRAL DISEASES
Viral diseases causing problems to the routine performance of the wild animals are caused substantially by
many viral agents also.
In both the captive and free ranging wildlife regions, the diseases caused by different viral agents are being
documented through out the world.
However, the research findings are still to be improved in this regard due to various reasons.
FMD
This disease occurs in case of wild ruminants and other artiodactylids, in general. Affected wild animal
species may have lesions in the foot and mouth.
This disease may lead to severe morbidity among the hooved stock.
This disease has been documented in herbivores like gaurs, cervids, suids etc. and is common among wild
fauna but needs documentation in most of the cases.
Elephants are also affected.
RABIES
Rabies has been documented in chital, rhino, elephants etc. Even oral infection has been documented in
foxes and skunks by experimental means, following the ingestion of mouse carcasses infected by rabies
virus.
It is noteworthy to mention that the exposure to rabies virus in peripheral nerves could potentially occur
when a person with wounds on the hands does not wear any protective covering or gloves while skinning
rabies suspected captive wild animal.
MEASLES (RUBEOLA), VIRAL HEPATITIS, KYASANUR FOREST
DISEASE (KFD) AND OTHERS
Measles is one of the most frequently reported viral diseases of non human primates and upon infection,
the virus is shed and can re-infect man.
This is a highly infectious exanthematous viral disease of children. This has been documented in
marmosets, tamarins, owl monkeys etc. and is fatal to them.
Several outbreaks of viral hepatitis have been documented in primate handlers and primate practitioners.
Etiology
Feeding diet with less calcium (provision of mince with liver and heart without bone or with less bones)
Failure in proper absorption of calcium (diseases of GI tract / excessive phosphorus in diet)
Insufficient calcium supplement and hormonal imbalances due to multiple causes
Lack of vitamin D esp. in indoor-kept wild animals.
Prolonged storage of ration leads to less vitamin D3
Clinical signs
Crocodiles get often affected by the metabolic bone diseases. The signs are :
o Persisting of kyphokoliosis ( hunch backed appearance) esp. in subadults and adult crocodiles
o Weakness of hatchling to walk on land while they still can move freely if in water or can swim
freely in water.
o Falling of teeth and poor calcification of teeth
o Jaw bones become more pliable as evidenced in case of hatchlings(rubber jaws)
o Weakness in hatchlings along with sluggish movements
o Teeth becomes diaphanous like shards of glass (glassy teeth)
o In chelonians, lump like appearance of carapace(compare with normal nearby chelonian)
Diagnosis
Serum estimation of calcium and phosphorus in addition to the radiographical examination and clinical
signs and history of feeding and management
Note
In this context, it is to be remembered that especially in the periods of production of egg shells, the calcium
mobilization from bones is at peak and hence, the reptiles when hypocalcemic during these periods will
have difficulties in maintaining muscular tonicity and as a result, prolapse of uterus may occur in
crocodiles.
Clinical signs
Weakness, anorexia, polydipsia, intermittent loose droppings
Poor feather growth and chewing at plumage
Hunch backed appearance if thoracic cage reveals collapse.
Upper and lower beaks may not oppose each other properly and prehension of food is faulty.
Hyperaesthetic and reveal muscle spasms
Improper calcification of eggs (eggs become more soft)
Retention of eggs without laying due to lack of calcium
GOUT
This condition is more common in captive birds and reptiles in particular.
Among the aviary species, especially raptors like hawks, eagles, kites, vultures, falcons are highly
susceptible in addition to ostrich, cassowary, peafowls, budgerigars, love birds, parakeets, cormorant,
goose, duck etc.
Broader classification and the specific classification of gout should be known for a good understanding
about this disorder.
BROADER CLASSIFICATION
True gout
o Deposition of monosodium urate crystals
Pseudo gout
o This is formed by deposition of any crystal other than sodium urate.
SPECIFIC CLASSIFICATION
Visceral gout Deposition of whitish urate or uric acid crystals (end products of
(usually occurs nitrogenous metabolism or protein metabolism) in case of reptiles and
as acute form) birds (urate crystals are deposited as white coloured powder or foci often on
epicardium and liver mainly and also on kidney and some times on
peritoneum)
Note
o Localization of urate crystals may vary from individual to
individual
Articular Urate deposition in and around the joints.
gout or Deposition of urate crystals form in joints form small white nodules called
synovial as tophi or tophus which are clearly visible to the unaided eyes.
gout
(usually occurs
as chronic
form)
ETIOLOGY
Renal problems (infection/inflammation/renal lesions due to nephrotoxic substances like gentamicin and
anti-inflammatory drugs like salicylates, probenecids, phenylbutazone etc.) are the basic cause because
liver and esp.the renal tissues are involved in production of urate crystals.
Nutrition (increased protein intake with provision of water, increased protein intake without provision of
water or incorrect balance of aminoacids in the feed).
Stress leading to dehydration or dehydration due to diseases all lead ultimately reduced renal blood flow
and thereby renal efficiency is lots and ultimately gout occurs.
Congenital causes might be the causal factors as documented in case of nile crocodile hatchlings.
CLINICAL SIGNS AND DIAGNOSIS
Elevated serum uric acid helps the diagnosis in general, in addition to the specific examination for urate
crystals in joints.
In crocodiles or lizards or chelonians affected by gout, general depression is there but antemortem-
diagnosis is difficult in visceral gout.
In articular gout, the affected leg joints become painful and the animal is reluctant to move.
Note
The signs of articular gout often are confused with bumble foot (Muroxide test helps to confirm uric acid
crystals and in this test, take one drop of nitric acid on a clean slide and mix it with the crystals aspirated
from a urate typhus and slowly flame it till this becomes dry and cool. Now, add one drop of ammonia and
presence of a reddish-purple color will indicate the presence of uric acid.
In raptors or other aviary species, when you ventral surface of digits, uniform swelling may be seen in entire
digits of both the limbs and of course and experienced zoo veterinarians will naturally try to differentiate
the perch based problems or lesions, in these aviary species reared under captive conditions.
HYPOTHYROIDISM
Hypothyroidism in captive wild mammals
This may occur in any species of wild mammals.
Clinical signs
o Obesity, alopecia, dullness with lethargic movements and lowered serum cholesterol are the major
features in this hypothyroidism.
Diagnosis
Serum estimation of calcium helps to diagnose the condition.
CALCIUM RELATED METABOLIC DERANGEMENTS IN WILD
BIRDS
Other than bone related disease, some abnormalities are encountered in captive birds due to deranged
calcium metabolism and are furnished below:
o Egg binding is commonly encountered in many aviary species and along with other causes,
calcium deficiency due to multiple metabolic derangements play a significant role. Hence, in egg
bound aviary species, calcium borogluconate is given by I/V or S/C route and this helps in the
improvement of the tonicity of the musculatures and helps in the rapid expulsion of egg
o Malformed egg esp. shell less egg or partially shelled egg or soft shelled egg may be laid by
multiple aviary species reared under captive conditions. In addition to the salpingitis, the
etiological factor for this might be the existence of imbalance in calcium and phosphorus levels.
o An imbalance in calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D is commonly encountered in parrots and the
problem arises as a result of their customary diet of high oil-bearing foods such as sunflower and
peanuts. This in addition to the metabolic derangements produce a variety of clinical expressions
in the affected wild birds reared in captivity.
COLIC AS A RESULT OF METABOLIC DERANGMENT
Colic is more commonly encountered in case of elephants in severe metabolic derangements like acidosis.
Feeding of unaccustomed food material, excess feeding of the routine food materials, obstruction anywhere
in the gastro-intestinal tract and lesser exercise with non-provision of adequate amounts of water for the
drinking purposes- all may precipitate the colic condition, in general.
Signs of colic
o restlessness
o constipation
o depression
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 84
o disobedience / aggression
o absence of signs of health, in general.
Acute abdomen is a non-infectious disease condition that can affect any wild animal species, in general.
However, this problem is more encountered in case of llamas. Camelids often experience this problem.
Clinical signs
Dullness
Temperature may be normal to sub-normal
Anorexia
Increased pulse and pain due to colic
Normal to cyanotic mucosa
Decreased defecation
Decreased motility of stomach
Increased respiration
WOUNDS, ABSCESSES AND INJURIES
These are very common among wild animal species esp. the captive ones. In-fighting is the common cause
often.
Abscesses may occur if immediate treatment is not done due to multifaceted causes.
Long time persisting wounds are common among elephants in particular and routine treatment protocol
needs to be adapted in all these cases.
In many captive animals, wounds may get further complicated by affections with maggots.
A
Animal Indicator: Animals are being used to indicate the health status of themselves, the
environment etc.
Biosphere: Biosphere is the thin covering of our planet that contains and sustains life.
Capture Stress: Capture stress is defined as the “cumulative response” and may be
considered as the end result of the wild animal‟s interaction with it‟s environment through
receptors
Carrying capacity: Carrying capacity of a habitat for a particular species may be defined as
the number of individuals of that population (species) which the concerned area/habitat can
carry or support during the pinch period
Colic: Colic is a condition that is more commonly encountered in case of elephants during
occurrence of severe metabolic derangements like acidosis
Critical distance: If this is violated and if there is no place or route to escape, animal may
threaten or attack the opposing individual.
D
Dart: Specialized syringes used for loading of the immobilizing drug and act by mechanical
pressure or by using the gas
Dholes: Indian wild dogs (Cuon alpinus) are also called as Dholes
E
Ecdysis: This means the periodical shedding of entire skin
Eco Development: This may be defined as the set of conservation oriented development
measures to make protected areas and the human neighbours compatible with each other.
Ectothermic animals: These are the cold-blooded animals and it means that they are unable
to raise their body temperature by means of internal heat unlike the case with mammals and
birds.
Enclosure barriers: Enclosure barriers are the must and more cautions need to be
exercised in order to design these types of barriers especially for the hazardous type of
wild animal species like tiger, panther, lion, jaguar etc
Endangered wild animals: Endangered wild animals are those whose numbers are at a
critically low level and whose habitats are so drastically reduced or damaged that they are
in imminent danger of extinction.
Estuarine habitat: This habitat uniquely represents the confluence of fresh water with sea.
But at the low tides and at periods of high rain fall, there is often an increase in the fresh
water level.
EX-SITU population of wild animals: Population of wild animals in captive wild animal
places like a zoo
F
FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization
Fresh water habitat: Fresh water habitats are small and are some what easily accessible
and comprises plankton and nekton inhabiting them.
G
Gout: This condition is more common in captive birds and reptiles.
I
IBWL: Indian Board for Wildlife
Individual distance: It is the personal space or distance that an animal prefers between
itself and other members of its own species.
IN-SITU population of wild animals: Population of wild animals in free ranging areas or
forests
Isolation Unit: This unit is meant for the confinement of wild animals that are found to be
affected by any infectious diseases that may affect other co-exhibits or nearby wild animals of
the same group or the wild animals of another species in a zoological park-environment.
L
Loafing cover: Loafing cover is the one in which some wild animal species try to spend
their time aimlessly and this may be a secluded place in a habitat.
M
Macro Habitat: This comprises larger areas than the micro habitat. Control of the
factors in macro habitats is more difficult as the case with land-use patterns, velocity of
wind, amount of rain in an area etc
Marin habitat: This habitat is being used widely by marine mammals, fish, coral reeves etc.
inhabit these areas. This is the largest in the biosphere.
N
National park: National park is an area that has more legal status in general.
A wildlife sanctuary may be elevated to the status of national park in the course of
time, depending on the extent of additional protection, the value of the concerned wild
animal species etc.
Notochord: This is the elsastic skeletal rod below the nerve cord and above the alimentary
canal and may be replaced partially or completely by vertebral column.
P
Perissodactylids: Odd-toed unglulates
Pheromones: Pheromones are the scent materials by which the wild animals of different
species in the forest communicate with each other and are often used to attract the opposite
sex. Pheromones are also used to indicate the occupation of a territory to the
conspecifics (animals of the same species).
Puppets: The puppets are mainly used to capture the freely swimming birds in a lake etc
Q
Quarantine: This is a procedure in which the newly arrived animals into the zoo are kept
in confinement in a separate place for a specified length of time.
R
Restraint: Restraint means the control of wild animal which may be in trapped or freely
moving status.
S
Sanctuary: Sanctuary can be defined in nut shell as a larger area meant for the protection of
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 88
wild fauna and flora. Sanctuaries have sound legal status with a strong but not exclusive
wildlife oriented management.
Snake hooks: Snakes are restrained well by using hooks with adequate lengthy handle
Social distance: It is the one which an animal maintains with other members of its social
group. It provides cohesiveness to the group.
STUD BOOK: Name of the enclosure, House name and number, National Stud book
number International Stud book number, Sex, Sire (National Stud book number),
Dam (National Stud book number),Date of birth, Since when Date of death, Any other
mode of disposal etc.
T
Taxonomy: This is the science of nomenclature is called as the taxonomy.
Terrestrial habitat: Terrestrial habitats are comparatively a larger type of habitat in general
but at the same time lesser than the marine habitat.
Territory: This is a fixed area from which intruders are excluded by some combination of
advertisement, threat or attack. Aggression may be revealed if territory is violated especially
by the members of its own species
U
UNDP: United Nations Development Programme
W
WII: Wildlife Institute of India
Wildlife: Wildlife” is defined as „any animal, bee, butterflies, crustaceae, fish and moths
and aquatic or land vegetation‟. Thus it is to be understood that Wildlife is the term that
embraces all life forms that are wild or care themselves.
Wildlife As Per Wildlife Protection Act: “Wildlife” is defined as „any animal, bee, butterflies,
crustaceae, fish and moths and aquatic or land vegetation‟.
Wildlife management: This is the art and science of changing the characteristics and
interactions of habitats, wild animal populations and homosapiens
Wildlife Management Triad: This is the one that is associated with population of wild
animals, interaction with human beings and habitat.
Z
Zoo: Zoo is the collection of number of wild animals in captivity