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ZOO/WILD ANIMAL BREEDING, NUTRITION,

MANAGEMENT AND HEALTH CARE

VMD-512

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 1


MODULE-1: INTRODUCTION TO WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT
Learning objective
 This unit is mainly to mean the veterinary students on the wildlife management and the concepts.
 The objectives of this module are
o To understand wildlife management
o To know about the protected regions like wildlife sanctuary, national park etc
o To come across the terms like eco system, eco development etc.
o To reveal information on pheromone, animal indicator and biomes
WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT
 This is the art and science of changing the characteristics and interactions of habitats, wild animal
populations and homosapiens.
 Wildlife management is oriented to achieve the specific human goals by means of wildlife resource.
BASICS OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT
 Observation
 Hypothesis
 Texts of hypothesis
 Interpretation of results
 Conclusion
 Reporting of results
WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT TRAID
 This is the one that is associated with population of wild animals, interaction with human beings and
habitat.
 This triad often involves complex factors that need scientific type of intervention in a sustainable manner.
 Human interests are safe guarded but without affecting the eco-systems and wildlife in reality.
ASSOCIATED FACTORS WITH WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT
 Ecological perspectives.
 Execution of programmes to maintain previous successes.
 Ability to prevent repetition of past failures.
 Knowledge on scientific research and applications.
 Successful articulations with different research agencies.
 Scholarly application of scientific information and methods.
CONSERVATION
 This is the management of human use of biosphere with an ultimate aim of yielding the greatest sustainable
benefits to the present generation, while maintaining the potential to encounter the requirements and
expectations of the future generation.
 In nutshell, it can be said as the one that ensures continued survival by saving the wild animals from
extinction and thereby protecting the habitats.
 Conservation is different from preservation because it always aims the sustainable usage of the available
resources in the environment.
INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS
 United Nations Conference on the human environment in 1972
 World Heritage Convention in 1972
 Ramsar Convention in 1971
 Migratory species Convention in 1979
 World Conservation Strategy in 1980
 United Nations Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in the Transboundary Context in 1991.

ECO-SYSTEM
 This is a mosaic of habitat patches. There is a special relationship between the different ecosystems existing
in the wildlife regions. There are movements of organisms between different patches in the revolving world.
 It is to be understood that the movements in general occur among the wildlife species or organisms due to
many reasons.
o Movements for establishment of territories
o Search for feed resources
o Movement due to water scarcity
o Movements due to the extreme climatic variations
o Search for proper shelter
o Dispersal from areas with high population concentrations to less densely populated regions
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 2
o Pressure from hunting or frequent predator attack
o Movements due to hazards (acoustic injuries to dolphins, whales and dugongs)
o Other reasons that are still to be clarified.
THREATS TO ECO-SYSTEMS
 These have to be identified and sorted out with a proper understanding of multiple factors involved for this.
 Followings are the examples for the identified threats in a wildlife region:
o Alteration of major mineral or organic constituents of a system
o Removal of plantations or vegetations
o Prevention of naturally occurring events that disturb the cycles
o Introduction of pest species like goats
o Application of hazardous chemicals like pesticides or herbicides
o Changes in the major mineral or organic components of a system
o Elimination of key-wild animal species like top predator (tiger)
ECO DEVELOPMENT
 This may be defined as the set of conservation oriented development measures to make protected areas and
the human neighbours compatible with each other.
 This is a process of developing the conservation of natural resources that are sustainable by associating
local persons in the development and implementation of rural development programmes.
AIMS OF ECO-DEVELOPMENT MEASURES
 To reduce the dependency of people (or neighbours of forests in particular) for the resources from the
forests.
 People use the resources of forests for the following purposes in general:
o Fuel.
o Grazing of livestock.
o Fodder.
o Building of houses.
o Agricultural practices and implements.
o Forest products.
o Food purposes.
NATURAL RESERVES
 Various natural reserves existing in the wildlife regions provide the complete protection for the wild
animals belonging to the different species.
 Many times, human interventions are made for positive purposes in order to give more protection to the
wild fauna and flora. It is to be understood that various natural reserves hardly comprise one percent of the
earth‟s land areas.
 Most of the other areas are used for production of food, timber, pulpwood or other raw materials. Hence, in
all these areas, wildlife conservation related measures need to be strengthened and if necessary, human
intervention (Broader land use strategy) may be made in order to enrich the protective measures for the
welfare of wild fauna and flora.
BIOMES AND ECOLOGICAL EQUIVALENTS
 Major global units of flora and fauna are termed as biomes.
 With regard to the ecological equivalents, the wild animals in one region may differ from their taxonomic
classification but taps particular environmental resources within the ecosystem.
SANCTUARY
 An area can be declared as a sanctuary through notification under the section 18 of the Wildlife (Protection)
Act of 1972 and the process of determination of peoples rights and their acquisition / elimination under
sections 19-25 follows such a declaration.
 Sanctuary can be defined in nut shell as a larger area meant for the protection of wild fauna and flora.
Sanctuaries have sound legal status with a strong but not exclusive wildlife oriented management.
 The grazing activities are restricted and subordinated to the needs of wildlife conservation. Moderate
amounts of fund provision and staff facilities are given when compared to the national park.
 Tourism may exist to some extent but it is a restricted area. The status of a wildlife sanctuary can always be
elevated to that of a national park.

NATIONAL PARK
 National park is an area that has more legal status in general. A wildlife sanctuary may be elevated to the
status of national park in the course of time, depending on the extent of additional protection, the value of
the concerned wild animal species etc.
 National park has a sound legal status. They are developed exclusively for the purpose of conservation of
wildlife in their natural environment. Drastic manipulation of the wildlife habitat is not favored in general.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 3


 The approach towards the management related to the national park is basically of compensatory and
reamelioratory nature.
FACTORS CAUSING IMPACT ON PROTECTED REGIONS
 Wildlife regions get affected due to multiple factors that are made for various reasons.
 In this regard, it is to be noted that planning and management of various wildlife sanctuaries and national
parks together with other conservation units get affected by various developmental activities like building of
roads, dams, transportation of minerals or mining related works, transportation of natural gas or oil and
other exploitation related measures made for various purposes.
PHEROMONES
 Pheromones are the scent materials by which the wild animals of different species in the forest
communicate with each other and are often used to attract the opposite sex. Pheromones are also used to
indicate the occupation of a territory to the conspecifics (animals of the same species).

Examples
 Hyaenas have scent glands in anal region
 Felids have scent glands and their markings leave a musky odor that can be perceived by human nose for
almost three weeks and the marking is done mainly along with the urination.
 Wild sheep or goat species may have such type of glands in between the two main toes of the feet.
 In cervids and antelopes in general, scent glands are present below the eye.
ANIMAL INDICATORS
 Animals are being used to indicate the health status of themselves, the environment etc. The complexity of
factors like nutritional, ethological, environmental, genetic etc. act in general upon a population of wild
animals.
 These factors are assessed by secondary indicators like habitat, feeding habits, population characteristics.
Assessment of primary indicators that are obtained directly from wild animals representing a population
may help in minimizing many sources of variations and provide greater precision, in general.
 During the planning of wildlife management, more significance is generally given to the various types of
wildlife values.
ZOOLOGICAL MEDICINE
 In general, medicine is defined as any means to cure disease or improve health and health is broadly
defined as the general condition of body and mind. Zoological Medicine is a wide spectrum of disciplines
associated with the medical problems of all species of wild animals in a captive wild animal place.
 Types of Medicine in wildlife fields
o Zoo medicine - It is associated with captive wild animals.
o Wildlife medicine - It is the one that is associated with free living wild animals.
o Population medicine - It is the one that is associated with large number of wild animals.

MODULE-2: TAXONOMY-I
 This chapter is mainly related to the various taxonomical classification of wild animals. So, you can finally
know the various species of different taxonomical divisions in this unit.

The objectives are


 To come across the baseline classification of wild animals
 To know taxonomical units like pholidota, primates, proboscidea, lagomorpha, dermoptera, chiroptera,
insectivore, hyracoidean and tubelidentata
TAXONOMY
 The taxonomy in wild mammals consists of many orders and families. The binomial nomenclature of the
Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus is followed in the animal kingdom. Genus name is followed by species
name in general. Ecological isolation is given significance when it becomes necessary.

Example
 Panthera tigris altaica (it denotes the Siberian tiger which is much larger, heavier and with a thicker.
 Panthera tigris corbetti (it indicates the tiger that is smaller in size than the Royal Bengal tiger.

BROADER CLASSIFICATION
VERTEBRATES AND NON-VERTEBRATES
 In this vertebrates earlier had dorsal vertebral column that arises as a rigid rod called notochord and was
later replaced by a segmented and cartilaginous rod called as the vertebral column.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 4


ANOTHER CLASSIFICATION
Protozoa and Metazoa
 Protozoa
o These animals are unicellular ones (body is not sub-divided into cells). Example: Ameba and
Euglena.
 Metazoa
o This comprises the cellular animals.
PHYLA IN MAMMALIAN TAXONOMY
 In general, there are many phyla available in the taxonomical classification of animals. Example: Phylum
Annelida contains the animals like leeches and tape worm that have a segmented body and Phylum
Arthropoda comprises the animals like crab, lobster, spider, scorpion and insects. These are the bilaterally
symmetrical ones with segmented body that is coverd by a chtinous exoskeleton .
 Among the different phyla, it is the phylum chordata that is considered as more significant one.
TYPICAL ATTRIBUTES OF CHORDATES
Basic features of chordates
 Notochord (this is the elsastic skeletal rod below the nerve cord and above the alimentary canal and may be
replaced partially or completely by vertebral column.
 Dorsal tubular nerve cord (this is a hollow tubular nerve cord that is filled with fluid above the notochord
and is present in most of the vertebrates but in a few it degenerates before the maturity)
 Gill clefts (these are the paired openings communicating to the exterior from the pharynx. In higher
chordates, they usually form the endocrine glands.

Note
 In chordates, the notochord or vertebral column is present in all but the other two features may completely
disappear at maturity stage in most cases.
CHARECTERISTICS OF HIGHER CHORDATES
 Presence of a ventrally located heart
 Presence of a hepatic portal system
 RBCs are present in most of the chordates
 Post anal tail is present that may get modified or reduced in adult stages.
CLASSIFICATION OF PHYLUM CHORDATA
Phylum Chordata has two significant groups as follows
 Group: Acraniata (Protochordata): This contains the chordates that are lacking the brain box or cranium,
jaws and brain. Eg. Primitive fish like mammals
 Group: Craniata (Vertebrates): This contains ten classes. Mammalia is one of the ten classes in this group.
FEATURES OF CLASS MAMMALIA
The class mammalia has three basic features
 Skin has hair materials except cetacea
 These are warm blooded animals
 They suckle their young ones

Other features
o Females have mammary glands
o External ear lobes are present
o No. of teeth are fixed in mammals and species specific
o Diphyodont dentition is present in mammals
o Muscular diaphragm separating the thoracic and abdominal cavities is present
o Mammals are viviparous except the monotremes
o Heart has four chambers
o Males have penis
o Locomotion is of three types (Plantigrade locomotion, digitigrades locomotion and unguligrade
locomotion) due to variable limb structures
o Skull is provided with two occipital condyles ((dicondylic)

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 5


CLASSIFICATION OF MAMMALIA
 There are two sub-classes under the class Mammalia
o Prototheria
o Theria
PROTOTHERIA
This comprises the single order called Monotremata that has following features:
 Testes are abdominal and cloaca is present.
 Mammary glands are present without nipples.
 They lack external ear.

Examples
 Spiny anteater/Echidna and Duck billed platypus
THERIA
 Marsupials and placental mammals fall in this category.
 Major 4 characteristics of this sub-class are:
o Presence of external pinna
o Absence of cloaca
o Presence of nipples in the mammary glands
o Females are viviparous in nature.
INFRACLASSES OF THERIA - ASSOCIATED FACTORS
Infraclass I
 Metatheria
o This group consists of a single order Marsupilia .
o Marsupials are the animals with a brood pouch or marsupium in the females in which the new
born is taken care of well. Examples: Kangaroo, tiger cat, opossum and the like.

Infraclass II
 Eutheria
o These animals lack marsupium and cloaca. This group comprises all other mammals that are again
divided into many orders. (Edentata, Pholidota, Primates, Proboscidea, Lagomorpha, Dermoptera,
Chiroptera, Insectivora, Rodentia, Hyracoidea, Tubelidentata, Artiodactyla, Perissodactyla,
Carnivora, Cetacea and Sirenia)

EDENTATA
 This group comprises three families:
o Dasypodidae (eg. Armadillos)
o Bradypodidae (eg. Sloths)
o Myrmecophagidae (eg. Anteaters like Giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla).

Common features
o Long snout is present
o Teeth may be lacking in some and if at all present, incisors and canines may be invariably absent.
o Well developed claws are present in the feet.
o Testicles are abdominal in nature.
 Among these animals, it is the sloth that is strictly arboreal and moves by a slow hand-over-hand-motion as
they hang upside down below the tree branches and can climb or descend a vertical pole with ease but are
unable to move with ease on the ground.
 Armadillos are the powerful diggers and live in the underground burrows when they are not active. These
animals also roll like balls when any attempts to kill or catch.
 Long teeth with long tongue that is sticky with saliva are the features in the anteater and there are no teeth
in this species.

PHOLIDOTA
This order comprises nocturnal animals and Pangolins or Scaly anteaters of the old world belong to this
order with only one genus, Manis.
Common features
 Body is covered with large overlapping plates (hence, the name Scaly anteater)
 Long snout

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 6


 Long tongue
 Absence of teeth

Examples
 Indian Pangolin (Manis crassicaudata)
 Chinese Pangolin (Manis pentadactyla)
PRIMATES
 Primates are generally arboreal in nature with plantigrade movements. Both the hands and foot are
prehensile.
 There are approximately 191 species of primates.

Classification of primates
 There are two sub-orders:
o Prosimii (prosimians)
 Animals like lemurs, lorises, bush babies, tree shrews and tarsiers belong to this suborder.
o Anthropoidea (monkeys and apes)

Families of primates
 Cebidae (new world monkeys)
 Callithricidae (marmosets and tamarins)
 Cercopithecidae (old world monkeys)
 Hylobatidae (gibbons)
 Family Pongidae (apes)
 Hominidae(man)

APES
 Both in apes and monkeys, the cerebral hemisphere is well developed. These animals are diurnal in nature.
 Gorilla is the largest primate and grows to a height of up to 1.8 meters and has a body weight of about 200
kg. In India, there are no greater apes.
 They differ from monkeys in following features:
o Absence of tail
o Usage of their arms to swing through the trees
GREAT APES
 This group comprises chimpanzee, gorilla and orang-utan.

Animal Location
Orang-utan Forests of Sumatra and Borneo
Chimpanzee This is a native to equatorial Africa
Gorilla Low land areas of West Africa and Cameroon and the mountain variety is in Eastern
Congo basin

LESSER APES
 The Gibbon present in India is the example for this animal group. The only gibbon present in India is
Hoolock gibbon (Hylobates hoolock). These are found in forests of Assam state and Chittagong.
 They stand erect like man and walks erect many times, with stretched hands as balancing organs. These are
also called as the white browed gibbons.

LORISES
 There are two types of lorises in India
o Slender loris (Loris tardigradus)
 These animals are present in south India.
o Slow loris ( Nycticebus coucang )
 These animals are present in northeastern parts of India.
 These lorises in general have large sized eyes. Hence, they are some times hunted and products from them
are associated with the belief on improvement of eyesight.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 7


MACAQUES
 Bonnet macaque (Macaca radiate): Present in south India
 Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta): Present in north India
 Lion tailed macaque (Macaca silenus): Present in Tamilnadu, Kerala and Karnataka.
 Assamese macaque (Macaca assamensis)
 Pig tailed macaque (Macaca nemestrina)
 Stump tailed macaque (Macaca speciosa)

LANGURS
Common langur (Semnopithecus entellus; old name Present in whole India except the western deserts
Presbytis entellus)
Nilgiri langur (Trachypithecus johni) Present in Western ghats regions
Golden langur (Trachipithecus geei; old name Present in Assam
is Presbytis geei)
Leaf monkey or capped langur (Trachypithecus
pileatus; old name is Presbytis pileatus)

PROBOSCIDEA
 There are two genera in the single living family elephantidae of order Proboscidea:
o African elephant (Loxodonta Africana)
 There are two sub-species in the African elephants :
 Smaller forest elephant and the larger bush or savannah elephant
o Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus)
 There are four sub-species in the Asiatic elephants:
 Indian, Ceylon, Sumatran and Malaysian.

AFRICAN AND ASIATIC ELEPHANTS


 In terms of weight, height, trunk-structures, nail-numbers, occurrence of musth related
features, differences are seen in general between the African and Asiatic elephants.
 In India, the elephants are seen in western ghat regions that includes Tamilnadu, Kerala and Karnataka in
addition to Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal and Assam. Makhnas are also seen in elephant herds
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ASIATIC AND AFRICAN ELEPHANTS
Details African elephants Asiatic elephants
Size Larger Smaller
Bull-weight in 4100-5000 3700-4500
Kg
Cow-weight in 2300-4000 2300-3700
Kg
Height at 2.7-3.2 2.4-2.9
shoulder in mt
(Bull)
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 8
Height at 2.3-2.7 2.1-2.4
shoulder in mt
(Cow)
Ears Larger Comparatively smaller
Highest point At the shoulder At the middle of the back
Trunk Small Large
Surface of trunk Transverse ridges and grooves on the More or less uniform
trunk
Tip of trunk Two finger like processes at the tip of Only one finger like process
the trunk
Tusks Present in both sexes and are larger Present in males only and are smaller
comparatively. Some times, smaller ones called
tushes may be present.
Dip Marked dip is present on the back Back has unbroken convex curve
between fore and hind quarters
Face Elongated and narrow face with flat Face is with twin domed fore head
fore head
Nails in fore Four nails in each fore feet Five nails each on fore feet and some times, four
limb each.
Nails in hind Four nails in each hind feet Four nails each on hind feet; sometimes five each
limb
Skin Coarser and lacks the Smooth with white or pinkish depigmented areas
depigmentation areas
Temporal gland Present in both males and females Present in males only.
secretion
Intelligence Less intelligent and is difficult to More intelligent and is easy to domesticate
domesticate

LAGOMORPHA
 This group comprises small to moderate sized animals like rabbit, hare and pikas.
 Long soft fur, long ears, short tails, fully furred feet, slit like nostrils are the characteristic features in these
species.
 Mongooses, jackals, foxes, wild dogs and wild cats are the enemies for this species.
 The lagomorphs have long hind limbs used for jumping.
FAMILIES
 Leporidae consists of rabbit and hare
 Ochotonide consists of mouse-hare
 The significant animals in this group are given below
o Indian hare (Lepus nigricollis) is present in most parts of India.
o Blacknaped hare (sighted in areas from south India to the Godavari on the east and west as well as
MP)
o Rufoustailed hare (seen in Himalayas southwards to Godavari)
o Desert hare (seen in Rajasthan, Cutch, Kathiawar, Sind, south-west Punjab)
o Cape hare (sighted in Kashmir)
o Woolly hare (seen in Sikkim and Ladak)
o Himalayan mouse hare (Ochotona royle)

DERMOPTERA
 They are commonly called as the flying or gliding lemur which is also called as the Colugo. These animals
are restricted to south-east Asia and Philippines. This species is considered as a taxonomic puzzle because it
has the head that reveals the features of both the lemurs and insectivores.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 9


CHIROPTERA
 Nearly a quarter of the living mammals belong to the group of bats. This order has about 951 species of
bats.
 They are mostly nocturnal in habits with very small eyes coupled with poor vision.
 These are the only mammals that are capable of maintaining a sustained flight. Echolocation is the
technique being used by bats to locate the prey species.
 However, the fruit bats may have a well developed eyes and echolocation is poor in them.
SUB ORDERS
Microchiroptera
 Small insectivorous bats are grouped in this category. These mammals are the gregarious in nature. In day
time, they are seen hanging in tree branches or crevices with their head down. They live on night-flying
insects.
 Example : Desmodus and Rhindophus

Macrochiroptera
 This order contains large sized bats like fruit bats or fruit eating bats that are commonly called as the flying
foxes. They don‟t have any tail but have an elongated snout. They also live in groups and are seen hanging
upside down in tall trees often. During the hanging, the wings are tucked up in the folded condition. They
are also nocturnal and gregarious in nature
INSECTIVORA
 This has 8 families, 70 genera and approximately 400 species of small mammals.
 The distribution of these insectivores including location and specialities is a wide one in general.
Family Species Location
Solenodons 2 Antilles
Tenrecs 20 Madagascar
African water shrews 3 Africa
Golden moles 20 Africa
Hedgehogs 15 Old world
Elephant shrews 18 Africa
True shrews 314 Worldwide
True moles 20 Northern hemisphere
CHARACTERISTICS
 In the insectivores, the hedgehogs and tenrecs have more spines on skin and the spiny nature helps them to
roll like balls when the predators attempt to attack them. Such anatomical variants vary from species to
species.
 For example, elephant shrews have extremely long mobile noses and long legs. Armored shrews have a
unique spinal column with extensive ramification of long processes that have multiple interlaces. Similarly,
the star-nosed mole (Condylura cristata) has 22 radiating fleshy thin appendages around the muzzle which
are the tactile organs.
 Moles have paddle like forefeet with enhanced musculature for digging rapidly. Webbed feet with laterally
flattened tails are present in few aquatic forms of insectivores.
RODENTIA
 This order is the largest order of mammals. Among the rodents, the largest living rodent is the capybara
(Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) and may have a body weight of even 50 kg. Rodents have no second incisors,
canines or front premolar teeth.
 There is a distinct gap, the diastema between the incisor and the cheek teeth. By the incisor teeth, rodents
are able to gnaw the feed or other materials efficiently. The incisor teeth grow continuously during the
lifetime of the animals.
 Special jaw movements are the characteristic features in the rodents (when chewing activity is carried out,
the lower jaw moves backwards, hence, the upper and lower cheek teeth gets opposed but its incisors that
are positioned one behind the other are not. Internal cheek pouches are present in few rodents (eg. Golden
hamster).
 Classification should be known for a better understanding on these creatures.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 10


Classification
Sub-order No. of
species
Sciuromorpha (“Squirrellike”) Eg. Squirrels, marmots, 366
chipmunks, gophers, beavers, kangaroo rats, springhaas etc.
Myomorpha (“ratlike”) Eg. Rat, mice, voles, hamsters, 1183
lemmings etc.
Hystricomorpha (“porcupinelike”) Eg. Porcupines, cavies, 180
capybaras, chinchillas, agoutis etc.

Other species
 Tuco-tucos, Nutria, Guinea pig, woodchuck, Pacas, Pacarana, Eastern fox squirrel, burrowing rodents like
woodchuck or groundhog (Marmota monax) etc.
HYRACOIDEA
 This order contains small rabbit like mammals but have short ears and the tail is reduced.
 The taxonomists have classified the hyraxes, proboscideans (elephants) and sirenians (sea cows) as
subungulates.
 The hyraxes were earlier found to be close to the elephants due to following reasons:
o Large bulge of the anterior maxillary skull
o Character and position of teeth
o Close junction of the four toes
o Posterior position of the malar bones
TUBELIDENTATA
o These animals have stout, pig like body with thick skin.
o Long snout with round nostrils at the tip.
o The tongue is protrusible.
o Long ears are present.
 Aardvark is the only representative of this order. The other common names include earth hog, ant bear and
many local African names. This is a nocturnal animal.

MODULE-3: TAXONOMY-II
 This unit is dealing with major wild animal groups classified under artiodactylids, perissodactylids and
carnivores like feilds

The objectives are


 To know about the animals classified under odd and even toed animal groups
 To know about different species of felids among the carnivores
ARTIODACTYLIDS
 Artiodactylids mean the even-toed large mammals.
 This order consists of different families like cervidae, bovidae, suidae, tayassuidae, camelidae etc.
 Various wild animals that are present in this category are often encountering the livestock as the
competitors for feed in some vulnerable areas of this country.
SWINE GROUP
 The superfamily “suidoidae” comprises two families called as suidae and tayassuidae.
 Although the animals under these families are similar in shape, they differ in terms of anatomy as well
as in the disease-susceptibility.

Tayassuids
 The tayassuidae (Tayassuids) consists of two native New world suids given below:
o Collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu)
o White lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari)

Suids
 The suidae (suids) has two sub-genera in India. The Sus-the wild boar and Porcula-the Pigmy
hog. The old world wild swine includes the wild boar (Sus scrofa) which was native to Asia and
Europe.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 11


 In India, wild pigs are seen through out the country in the forests.
 These are the prolific breeders. The body is stocky and barrel like with the motile snout that is
truncated terminally and has a disk like cartilage in the tips.
 For rooting and turning the soil of surface, the snout is useful and the animals are having a thick layer
of subcutaneous adipose tissues which is a characteristic feature of these animals.
o Wild swine of North America:
 Feral pigs
 European wild swine
 Native populations of collared peccaries .
o Wild swine of Africa:
o Giant forest pig (Hylochoerus meinertzhageni)
o Bush pig (Potamochoerus porcus)
o Wart hog (Phacochoerus aethiopicus)

Note: In Java and Borneo, babirusa (Babyrousa babyrussa) are seen.

Pigmy hog
 These animals are seen in small herds of 5 to 20. It is the world‟s smallest pig. These animals live in
forested tracts of Sikkim and Assam. They are also present in Nepal and Bhutan.
 These animals are thought to be extinct once. The habitat preference of this species is similar to wild
pigs and the two species are closely related to each other
CAMELIDS
 The camelids belong to the sub-order called “Tylopoda” and family called “camelidae”. Camels have a
unique capacity to pass the desiccated fecal materials when water intake is restricted. In the Arabian desert
during the summer, freshly passed feces can be used for fuel. Camels are pseudoruminants.
 In this family, followings are seen:
o Old world camelids and South American camelids.
 Old world camelids
 Dromedary camel that has a zoological name of “Camelus dromedarius”: Found
in hot and cold deserts of Asia, Africa and middle east.
 Bacterian camel that has a zoological name of “Camelus bactrianus”: Found in
cold and arid deserts of Asia, Kazakhstan, Mangolia and China.
 South American camelids
 Llama (Llama glama)
 Guanaco(Lama guanicoe)
 Vicuna ( Llama vicugna)
 Alpaca (Llamapacos)
GIRAFFE
 Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) belongs to the family entitled “Giraffidae” which also comprises the okapi
(Okapia johnstoni). These animals are the ruminants.
 Both species have the elongated neck but the neck of the Giraffe is longer than that of Okapi. Like other
mammals, they have seven cervical vertebrae.
HIPPOPOTAMUSES
 Two types of hippos as quoted below are confined to Africa:
o Nile hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius)
 The Nile hippos live in matriarchial units living on a central mud bank or sandbar called a
“crèche” in the middle of the established herd territory.
 The territory marking is carried out by swishing of the soft fecal materials by tail
movements.
o Pigmy hippopotamus (Choeropsis liberiensis)
 Pigmy hippos live in solitaries and these mini-hippos have large circular nostrils and eyes
set to the side of the head instead of raised up.
 These animals mark their territory by feces.
 They are unique in artiodactylids, in the way that they all walk on all four toes that are attached to one
another by a membrane. Among the artiodactls, uniquely, these animals walk on all four toes that are
attached to each by a membrane “web”.
WILD OXEN
 The followings are the significant species in this group:
o Gaur or Indian bison (Bos gaurus)
 In these wild animals, gaur are seen in Central India- MP and Chhatisgar, Western Ghats
southwards from south Maharashtra, Mudumalai Anaimalai, Dindigul region and Palani
regions.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 12


o Wild buffalo (Bubalus bubalis)
 Wild buffaloes are seen in the plains of Brahmaputra in Assam, and Orissa. Yak are seen
in Ladak. Banteng are seen in Manipur and areas near Burma.
o Yak (Bos grunniens)
 Yaks are seen in the cold mountainous regions. A fully mature gaur may be having a body
weight of about one tone.
o Banteng or Tsaine
ANTELOPES
 Bovidae also comprises the antelopes and gazelles. The antelopes and gazelles are called as the earliest
ruminants.
 They possess characters common to oxen as well as sheep and goats.
 Antelopes have a gland below the eyes that is more prominent in antelopes like blackbucks.
 The horns have a considerable length with a bony core.
BLACKBUCK (ANTILOPE CERVIPARA)
Blackbuck (Antilope cervipara)
 Blackbucks are seen in Point Calimere wildlife regions, Guindy national park and
Velavadar wildlife sanctuary in Gujarat state, particularly. However, they are present through out India, in
general. The horns are spiral in nature. The Indian races are attractive to look at.
 The horns may be about 20 to 25 cms long and the animal may have body weight of about 40 kg in case of
males in particular. The „Vishnoi‟ people of northern India venerate and protect these animals.
INDIAN RACES OF BLACKBUCK
 Four races of Blackbuck in India
o Cervicapra
o Rupicapra
o Rajputanae
o Centralis
NILGAI
 In case of Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus), the male animals are also called as Blue bull. They are seen in
Himalayas to Mysore (Not seen in Bengal, Assam, Malabar Coast and Tamilnadu).
 These are generally seen in dry deciduous and thorn forests of Indian peninsula and are large horse like
animals.
FOUR HORNED ANTELOPE
 Four horned antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis) are also called as Chowsingha, seen in south of Himalayas
in both the wooded and hilly areas.
 These animals have two pairs of horns and are exclusively seen in India. The front pair of horn is shorter
and often, the first pair is no more than a horny covered stud or a mere knob as if a bony projection covered
with the skin.
 Another well developed feature is the presence of a pair of well developed glands between the false hooves
of the hind limbs.
CHIRU OR TIBETAN ANTELOPE
 Chiru are present in northern Ladak and also in Tibet.
 These animals are related to the Saiga antelopes of the Russian steppes.
EXOTIC BOVIDS
American bison African buffalo
Addax Bongo
Buffon‟s kob Bushbuck
Steinbok Greater kudu
Klipspringer Lesser kudu
Topi Blesbok
Nyala Hartebeest (Kongonil)
Eland Dik-dik
Anoa Roan antelope

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 13


East African Oryx Waterbuck
Kouprey Sable antelope

CHINKARA OR INDIAN GAZELLE


 These animals are present in the plains and low hills of north western and central India.
 These animals are seen commonly in desert zones and don‟t frequent cultivated lands.
 These are the slender and gracious animals.
 The Horns of the males are ringed, while the females are smooth and at times, the females are hornless too.
CERVIDS
 More deer are poached or hunted in many parts of the world than any other species. These animals are kept
as most popular exhibits and are often kept as mixed exhibits also in zoological garden or zoo or zoological
park or in deer parks.
 Various species of deer are also farmed in many countries and the antlers are harvested in a systematic
manner, for medicinal purposes. Antler is the anatomical specialty of these animals, in general.
SPOTTED DEER
 Spotted deer (Axis axis) are also called as chital. Seen through out India except in arid plains of Punjab,
Sind and in a large area of Rajputana. The antlers are much attractive in nature.
 These are the animals that are more prolific in breeding. These are the most sociable animal of all the deer.
They are frequently seen in association with many other animal species like langurs. They are extremely
gregarious in nature.
SAMBAR DEER
 Sambar deer (Cervus unicolor) are seen in the wooded regions of whole India. This is the largest deer in
India and has the grandest antler. These animals are nocturnal or crepuscular in habit.
 In addition to the spotted deer, the tiger attacks the sambar deer also as their main prey.
 The tail is thick and small. The hair materials are coarse and wiry. Sambar and swamp deer have large ears
unlike the spotted deer and hence, able to hear sounds well.
BARKING DEER
 Barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak) are also called as Muntjac or Rib faced deer.
 The name of barking deer is here because it makes a sound that resembles the barking sound of dog.
 Face has „V‟ shaped ridges. They are seen through out India.
 The Muntjac of north India is Muntiacus muntjak vaginalis and the Muntjac of south India is Muntiacus
muntjak aureus.
SWAMP DEER
 Swamp deer (Cervus duvaceli) are also called as “Barasingha”.
 These deer have the body weight of about 225 to 320 Kg and the height may be around 150 cms. This is
rarely seen in large herds.
 Swamp deer are found in three states of India, as follows:
o Kanha Tiger Reserve (MP state) and is called as "Hard ground Swamp Deer"
o Dudhwa Tiger Reserve ( Uttaranchal state)
o Kaziranga Tiger Reserve (Assam state)

HOG DEER
 Hog deer (Axis porcinus) are small in size and are sighted in the low alluvial grass plains of north India
from Sind and Punjab to Assam.
 These animals place the head in low condition and moves without the usual bouncing action that is
characteristic to a deer and hence, it has been given the name of hog deer.
 These animals are hardly 60 cms at the shoulder.
MUSK DEER
 Musk deer (Moschus moschiferus) are sighted in the central and north eastern Asia and Nepal. In India,
they are seen in Uttaranchal Kedarnath hill, Sikkim and Kashmir. There is no antler in these animals.
 This is considered as an undeveloped form of deer. The animal is extremely mobile and the extra large
lateral hooves allow this animal to walk on snow.
 They live singly or in pairs. The musk gland is located below the abdomen skin in male.
MOUSE DEER
 Mouse deer (Tragulus meminna) are also called as the Indian chevrotain. They belong to the family
tragulidae. These resemble deer but are more closely related to the camelids and pigs.
 These are the smallest deer in India and have the measurement of about 25 to 30 cms as height.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 14


 These animals are seen mostly in south India and also found in Sri Lanka as well as in Myammar.
 This is a timid animal with a narrow head and pointed muzzle.
KASHMIRI DEER
 These animals are also called as Hangul. These animals are related to the European deer.
 This deer inhabits the coniferous forests and the grassy meadows in Kashmir himalayas notably in the
Dachigam sanctuary between 1700 and 3000 metres-elevation.
 The females remain in slopes for fawning.
MANIPURI DEER
 Manipuri deer (Cervus eldi) are also called as “Thamin”. Locally it is called as “Sanghai”. These are more in
numbers in Keibul Lanjao sanctuary. These deer are present in Myammar and Thailand.
 These deer move around on vast areas of floating organic matter called as the Phum or Phumdi.
 The movement over the phumdi forces the deer to have a constant shuffling of its feet to maintain the
balance. Hence these deer are also called as the “dancing deer”.
WILD SHEEP
 Bharal or Blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur): Seen in Ladak, Sikkim and Himalayas.
 Marco Polo‟s sheep (Ovis ammon polii): Seen in Hunza of India. (They are seen in large numbers in
Russian pamirs)
 Nayan or Great Tibetan sheep (Ovis ammon hodgsoni): Seen in Sikkim.
 Shapu or Urial (Ovis orientalis): Seen in Ladak, Punjab, Sind and Baluchistan
WILD GOAT
 Nilgiri tahr (Hemitragus hylocrius): Seen in Nilgiris to Anaimalais and southwards along the Western
ghats from 4000-6000 feet.
 Wild goat (Capra hircus): Sighted in Baluchistan and Western Sind.
 Ibex (Capra ibex): Seen in Himalayas & Pin valley of Himachal Pradesh state.
 Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus).
PERISSODACTYLIDS
 This group of wild animals consists of families- Equidae (equids) and Tapiridae (tapirs) and
Rhinocerotidae (rhinoceroses).
 The middle digit of the fore and hind limbs is present in a prominent manner, carrying much of the body
weight .
EQUIDS
 The following members belong to equidae:
o Wild horse (Przewalski‟s wild horse)
o Wild asses (Number of Asian and African wild asses): Seen in Gujarat state
o Zebras
 All members of equidae family are solipeds and like the domestic horse they are descendants of the early
„dawn horse‟ (Eohippus) of some million years ago.
TAPIRS
 These animals fall in the family tapiridae. The tapirs resemble the short-tailed donkey in case of general
form and size. The nose and upper lip are extended to form a short but highly mobile trunk.
 These animals are represented by four species in a single genus, as quoted below:
o Brazilian tapirs (Tapirus terestrus)
o Mountain or woolly tapirs (Tapirus pinchaque)
o Saddleback or Malayan tapirs (Tapirus indicus): Restricted to south east Asia.
o Baird‟s tapirs (Tapirus bairdii)
RHINOCEROSES
 These wild animals belong to the Rhinocerotidae family. The rhinoceroses have following common features
in general:
o Massive body
o Short leg that end on broad, three-toed feet.
o Horny pads of the feet are delicate when compared to the size of the animal.
 Asiatic and African species of rhinoceroses are available in general.

Asiatic species
 Three are four Asiatic species of rhinoceroses
o Javan rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus)
o Sumatran rhinoceros (Didermocerus sumatrensis): These are called as Asiatic two horned
rhinoceroses.
o Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis)
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 15
Indian rhinoceroses
 Among rhinoceroses, the Indian rhinoceroses are the ones that are most primitive in appearance with its
armor like hide and small head and are one horned.
 The skin is having a rugged appearance with armor like plates on body.
 The animal is well distributed in the Gangetic plain. The animals are present in Assam and in parts of West
Bengal.
 These animals are highly suited to the swampy tarai habitat. These are territorial in nature.

African rhinos
 There are two species of African rhinos, as quoted below:
o White rhinoceros (Didermocerus sinus)
o Black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis)
Details African rhinos Asiatic rhino
Presence of horns Two horns Single horn
Length of horn Lengthy Short, comparatively
Incisors Absent in both African species Present

CARNIVORA
 The common characters of carnivores are given below:
o Meat eaters
o Presence of canine teeth
o Intestinal tract is short and is adapted to the rapid digestion as well as the assimilation of meat.
o All species have anal glands. (The species like the striped skunk with a zoological name of Mephitis
mephitis may eject the contents of anal gland as a defensive maneuver)
o Os penis is present in case of males.
o Lack of clavicle (this helps in the freedom for the movement of forelimb)
o Ulna is well developed.
o Toes end in claws

Sub-order of carnivores
 Fissipedia is the sub-order that comprises most known terrestrial carnivorous wild animals like lion, tiger,
panther, wolf, hyaena, wild dog, jackals etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF CARNIVORES
Family Common names No. of species
Canidae Wild dogs, jackal, fox, wolf 37
Felidae Tiger, lion, panther, jungle cat etc. 36
Ursidae Bears 7
Mustelidae Skinks, otters, weasels 68
Viverridae Mongooses, Civets 82
Procyonidae Raccoons, kinkajou, pandas 18
Hyaenidae Hyaenas 4

FELIDS
 Lion
o Lions (Panthera leo) are found only in Gir forests of Gujarat state, lying within the Jumnagadh
district covering about 1280 Kms. These are the majestic animals in Indian forests living in prides.
 Tiger
o Tigers (Panthera tigris) are the endangered wild animals found all over India from Himalayas to
Cape Camorin except in the deserts of Rajasthan, Punjab, Cutch and Sind.
 Panther
o Panthers (Panthera pardus) are highly adaptable in nature to the environment and are seen all
over India. There are three races present in India (Panthers from Sind and Baluchistan and
Kashmir are regarded as separate races)

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 16


Other felids have also to be understood in terms of conservation of wild fauna.

OTHER FELIDS
 Clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa)
o These animals are seen in Assam and Sikkim.
 Cheetah or Hunting leopard (Acinonyx jubatus)
o Cheetah are extinct in India at present.
 Caracal and Jaguars
o Caracals are seen in north and north-west hills of Cutch and Jaguars are considered to be the
sturdy animals.
 Lynx (Felis lynx)
o Lynx are seen in upper Indus valley, Ladak, Gilgit and Tibet. These animals are called as
“isabellina”.
 Indian desert cat
o Indian desert cats are seen in deserts of north–western India ex tending to the drier regions of
Central India.
 Marbled cat (Felis marmorata)
o Marbled cats are sighted in Sikkim and Assam . Single race occurs in India
 Leopard cat (Felis bengalensis)
o Leopard cats can be sighted in wider parts of India from Kashmir to Cape Camorin.
 Golden cat (Felis temmincki)
o In Assam and Sikkim, Golden cats are present.
 Pallas cat (Felis manul )
o Pallas cats are seen in Ladak
MODULE-4: TAXONOMY-III
 This module relates to various types of canids, wolves, hyaenas etc.

The objectives are


 To reveal different species of canids, viverrids, ursids and mustelids.
 To know about species of marine mammals
 To understand about various species of reptiles like crocodiles, serpentines, chelonians and lizards
CANIDS
 The canids are the commonly sighted wild animals in general. The offspring are born relatively
underdeveloped and are very dependent on their parents for their survival.
 Many times, some species of canids travel a long distance as the case with the wild dogs or jackals in search
of food resources.
COMMON FEATURES OF CANIDS
 Erect ears
 Strong and non-retractile claws
 Long muzzle
 Males have a baculum in the penis.
 Perfect digitigrade feet
 Multiparous in nature
 All the canids almost resemble the domestic canids in terms of anatomical features.
INDIAN WILD DOG
 Indian wild dogs (Cuon alpinus) are also called as Dholes. These animals are having a hunting habit in
packs only. They prey on a number of animals like deer, sheep, gaur, pigs etc.
 A large pack may attach bigger animals like buffalo and gaur. They help to improve the prey population by
eliminating the old and diseased individuals.
 These are found in Andhra Pradesh and in Mudumalai and Anaimalai regions.
EXOTIC WILD DOGS
 Exotic wild dogs are given below:
o Dingo or Wild dogs of Australia
o Cape hunting dogs of south of Sahara
JACKAL
 Jackal (Canis aureus) are present through out India in small number on any kind of habitat ranging from
humid dense forests to dry open plains. This animal comes out during the dusk and retires by dawn.
 This can make a typical howl that is long drawn and high pitched one. Dead carcasses are eaten by them
and jackals also feed on weak livestock and poultry.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 17


INDIAN FOX
 Indian foxes (Vulpes bengalensis) are the small slim animals with slender limbs.
 This are seen in agricultural fields and are solitary hunters but appears to tolerate the presence of common
mongoose near its den.
RED FOXES
 These animals are seen in Sikkim to western Himalayas including the arid zone of the north-west.
 In the cooler Himalayan region, the animals prefer to live amidst small cultivated lands and the animal is
mainly nocturnal in nature.
 These animals pair for life, occupying the same den year after year.
WOLF
 Wolf (Canis lupus) are seen in several parts of India.
 These animals assume a height of about 65-75 cm and the weight of these carnivores may be about 18-
28Kg.
HYAENA
 Hyaena belongs to the family “Hyaenidae”. These are the animals with powerful jaws. Striped hyaena
(Hyaena hyaena) is the species present in India. Hyaenas have large anal glands and are scavengers.
 They are nocturnal in nature and are stocky dog like animals inhabiting the plains of southwest Asia and
Africa. Walks on toes, four on each foot.
 There species of hyaena are:
o Striped hyaena, Brown hyaena and Spotted hyaena.

Note
 Striped hyaena is the only species available in India
VIVERRIDS
 These are the diverse are the old world carnivores. Most viverrids have scent glands in the anal region that
can emit a strong smelling fluid and these scent materials secreted from the genera Civettictis, Vicerra, and
Viverricula are called “civet”.
 These materials are having pheromone like effects. Location of these species should be well known in
general for the attending veterinarian.

LOCATION OF VIVERRIDS
Viverrids Place
Common palm civet (Toddy cat) (Paradoxurus Whole India except desert zones of Punjab and
hermaphroditus) Sind
Brown palm civet (Paradoxurus jardoni) North Kanara and hill ranges of South India
Himalayan palm civet (Peguma larvata) Kashmir, Himalayas and Assam
Spotted linsang or Tiger civet (Prionodon Assam and Sikkim
pardicolor)
Binturang or Bear cat (Arctictis binturong) Assam and Sikkim
Small Indian civet (Viverricula indica) Through out India
Large Indian civet (Viverra zibetha) Sikkim, Assam and upper Bengal
Common mongoose (Herpestes edwardsi) Whole India
Small Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) Northern India (Kashmir to Bengal, Orissa and
Assam)
Stripe necked mongoose Western ghats from north Kanara , southwards
to some of he adjoining south India hill range
Crab eating mongoose (Herpestes urva) Assam

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 18


OTHER VIVERRID
 African civets (Civettictis civetta)
 Blotched genet (Genetta tigrina)
 Fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox)
 Malagasy fossa (Fossa fossa)
 Yellow mongoose (Cynictis penicilata)
 Banded mongoose (Mungos mungo)
 Slender-tailed meercat (Suricata suricatta)
URSIDS
 The bears have a compact body with a short neck and quadrupedal gait. However, they are capable of
standing like human and are prone for stereotypical behavior if left uncared or bored.
 These animals are exploited in circuses, wristle events etc. Bears are exceedingly dangerous in nature. Bears
are usually solitary in nature.

Important species of bears


 Sloth bear (Melursus ursinus)
 Asiatic bear (Selenarctos thibetanus)
 Spectacled bear (Tremarctos arnatus)
 Malayan sun bear (Helarctos malayanus)
 Polar bear (Thalarctos maritimus)
 Alaskan brown bear (Ursus arctos)
 American black bear (Ursus americanus)

Beas in india
 Sloth bears are endemic to India. Found through out the country in the forested regions.
 The outcrops of rocks or tumbled boulders offer them shelter during the hot season.
 Sloth bears tolerates the presence of spotted deer in close proximity but the response may reveal variations
with other species.
 Various types of vocalizations are reported in these animals. Big head and rounded ear lobes are present.
The paws are short and broad.
 Brown bears are present in north-western and central Himalayas. Himalayan black bear are present in
Kashmir, Assam and Himalayas.
MUSTELIDS
 This group comprises the following wild animals:
o Otters
o Martens
o Weasels
o Pole cats
o Badgers.
OTTERS
Species Locations
Common otter (Lutra lutra) Seen in river beds of South India and then only in Kashmir,
Himalayas and Assam.
Clawless otter (Aonyx cinerea) South India
Smooth Indian otter (Lutra From Himalayas and Sind to extreme South in India.
perspicillata)
MARTENS
Species Locations
Himalayan marten (Martes flavigula) Seen in Himalaya and Assam
Nilgiri martens (Martes gwatkinsi) Seen in Nilgiris, south Coorg and Travancore
WEASELS
Species Locations
Himalayan weasel (Mustela sibirica) Himalayas

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 19


Ermine or Stoat (Mustela ermine) Kashmir
Yellow bellied weasel (Mustela kathiah) Western Himalayas eastwards to Assam
Striped backed weasel (Mustela strigidorsa) Himalayas (it is a rare animal)

MARBLED POLE CATS AND BADGERS


Marbled pole cats
 Marbled pole cats (Vormela peregusna) are seen in Baluchistan only.

Badgers
Species Locations
Indian ferret badgers Assam
Chinese ferret badger Assam ranging eastwards to upper Burma, South-China and
Indo-Chinese regions
Honey badgers or Ratels (Mellivora From Himalayas to Cape Camorin
capensis)
Hog badgers (Arctonyx collaris) Assam and eastern Himalayas

MARINE MAMMALS
Orders Marine mammals
Cetacea  Whales, dolphins and porpoises
 Note:These animals are spindle shaped and dolphins and whales use echolocation like
bats in locating the prey species.
Pinnipedia Seals, Walruses and Sea-lions (marine carnivores)
Sirenia Dugong or sea cows and manatees

OTHER MARINE MAMMALS


 Harbor seal
 California sea lion
 Northern elephant seal
 Northern fur seal
 Gray seal
 Bottle-nosed dolphin
 Killer whale
 Pilot whale
 Beluga whale

Marine mammals that spend large time in marine environment


 Polar bears which are the carnivores falling in Ursidae family
 Sea otters belonging to the family Mustelidae.
LOCATION OF MARINE MAMMALS
Species Locations
Sperm whale (Physeter catodan), Pygmy sperm whale (Kogia Tropical, temperate and arctic waters of het oceans of
breviceps) and Blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) the world
Common Dolphin (Delphinus delphis) Tropical and temperate seas of the world
Gangetic dolphin (Platanista gangetica) Ganges, Brahmaputra and Indus; they are also seen in
the tidal limits but do not enter sea
Dugong or sea cow (Dugong dugon) Shores of Indian ocean, Cast of Malabar, Gulf of Kutch,
Gulf of Mannar and around Andaman islands

REPTILES
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 20
 The repilian class has about 6457 species and evolved from the primitive amphibians.
 Birds and mammals have evolved from reptiles. Reptiles are the ectothermic animals and air breathing
vertebrates.
 Turtles are the most ancient reptiles and the snakes the most recent. Since the reptiles share many
anatomical features with bird, both the reptile and birds are some times considered together in the single
group entitled as “Sauropsida”.
 It consists of chelonians, crocodiles, lizards, snakes etc. Reptiles are seen in all continents except Antarctica
and on most islands.
COMMON FEATURES OF REPTILES
 Reptiles have no gills and lungs are present.
 Absence of no hair
 Absence of feather
 They either lay egg or give birth to young but in both instances the embryo, like that of a mammal is
enclosed in an amnion.
 Whether hatched from an egg or born alive, the reptiles don‟t pass through a larval stage or undergo
metamorphosis as do amphibians.
 Reptiles are capable of growth through out the life
 Dry water-proof skin with horny scales are present
 Scales are not separated as seen in fish but they are folds of skin.
 Ecdysis is a common feature
 Majority of the reptiles are carnivorous especially the snakes (Marine Green turtle and Green Iguana are
herbivores).
ORDERS AND SUB-ORDERS OF REPTILES
Orders

There are three orders in reptilian group:


 Testudinata (Chelonia)
o This group comprises turtles, tortoises, terrapins and sea-turtles
 Crocodilia
o This group comprises crocodiles, caimans, alligators and gavials.
 Squamata
o This group comprises lizards and snakes

Sub-orders
 Amphisbaenia (Eg. Worm lizards)
 Sphenodontia (Eg. Tuatara in Newzealand)
 Serpentes (Ophidia) (Eg. Snakes)
 Lacertilia (Sauria) (Eg. Lizards)
REPTILES - DISTRIBUTION IN GENERAL
Reptiles World India
Crocodiles 22 3
Turtles 242 32
Lizards 2800 155
Snakes 2750 244

IMPORTANT SNAKES
 Cobra (Naja naja naja)
 King cobra (Ophiophagus hannah)
 Krait (Bungarus caeruleus)
 Russell‟s viper (Vipera russelli)
 Saw scaled viper (Echis carinatus)
 Indian Rock python (Python molurus)
 Reticulated python (Python reticulatus)
 Anaconda or South American Boa
 Sea snakes (Eg. Hook-nosed sea snake= Enhydrina schistosa) etc.
IMPORTANT LIZARDS
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 21
 Common Monitor (Varanus bengalensis)
 Water Monitor (Varanus salvator)
 Yellow Monitor (Varanus flavescens)
 Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis)
 Gila Monster (Heloderma suspectum)
 Beaded Lizard (Heloderma horridum)
 Worm Lizards (Bipes and Rhineura)
IMPORTANT CROCODILE, GHAVIAL, CAIMAN AND ALLIGATOR
 Mugger or Marsh crocodile (Crocodylus palustris)
 Salt water crocodile or Estuarine crocodile or Indo-Pacific crocodile (Crocodylus porosus)
 Gharial or Ghavial (Gavialis gangeticus)
 Cayman (Caiman crocodilus)
 American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)
 Chinese alligator (Alligator chinensis)

MODULE-5: HABITAT OF WILD ANIMALS


 This module is dealing with various habitats occupied by various wild fauna. Further, you are able to know
basic information on biogeographic zones, food, cover, space, wet lands, sanctuary and national park.

The objectives are


 To enrich understanding on various habitats of wild animals.
 To know about specific habitats occupied by selected species of wild animals
 To understand about wet lands, sanctuary and national parks
HABITAT
 This is a place in which a particular organism or species lives.
 Factors influencing the habitat of the wild animals are variable in nature and act on different intensities, in
general.
HABITAT CLASSIFICATIONS
 It is to be noted that the habitats vary from each other. For example, the habitat comprising the thick leaf
canopy at the top of the tree is more different from the habitat that can be noticed at the ground level.
 Classifications of different habitats are made on the basis of multiple factors like size, biosphere,
biogeographic zones and ecological sub-units etc.
SIZE BASED HABITAT TYPES
 There are two types of habitat based on the size of the concerned area :
o Macro types.
o Micro types.

Macro Habitat
 This comprises larger areas than the micro habitat. Control of the factors in macro habitats is more difficult
as the case with land-use patterns, velocity of wind, amount of rain in an area etc.

Micro Habitat
 This is the one associating with a small area (few square centimeters as the case with the area under a fallen
tree trunk or a stone material found in the forest).
 Micro habitats may be easily managed by forest managers, unlike the macro habitats.
SIZE BASED HABITAT TYPES
 There are two types of habitat based on the size of the concerned area :
o Macro types.
o Micro types.

Macro Habitat
 This comprises larger areas than the micro habitat. Control of the factors in macro habitats is more difficult
as the case with land-use patterns, velocity of wind, amount of rain in an area etc.

Micro Habitat
 This is the one associating with a small area (few square centimeters as the case with the area under a fallen
tree trunk or a stone material found in the forest).
 Micro habitats may be easily managed by forest managers, unlike the macro habitats.
BIOSPHERE BASED MAJOR HABITATS
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 22
 Four types are seen as the major habitats in the biosphere in general
o Marin
o Estuarine
o Fresh water
o Terrestrial

Marin habitat
 This habitat is being used widely by marine mammals, fish, coral reeves etc. inhabit these areas. This is the
largest in the biosphere.
 There are two forms are there in the marine habitat:
o Benthic forms - These are the animals and plants that inhabit the bottom of the sea.
o Pelagic forms - These are the animals and plants that inhabit the open sea .
 Marine mammals like dugong, whales, dolphins, sea otters etc. are given more significance in general in
case of the marine habitat.

Estuarine habitat
 This habitat uniquely represents the confluence of fresh water with sea. Hence, as per the waves or tides,
the salinity in this habitat may reveal many variations. It is a commonly found observation that in case of
high tides, the salinity is maximum.
 But at the low tides and at periods of high rain fall, there is often an increase in the fresh water level.

Fresh water habitat


 Fresh water habitats are small and are some what easily accessible and comprises plankton and nekton
inhabiting them.

Terrestrial habitat
 Terrestrial habitats are comparatively a larger type of habitat in general but at the same time lesser than the
marine habitat. This type of habitat is a complicated one in general. The biotic communities reveal so many
variations among themselves and finally they constitute the different biomes.
GLOBAL SOURCES BASED CLASSIFICATION OF HABITATS
 Deserts
 Grasslands
 Deciduous forests
 Coniferous forests
 Evergreen forests
 Tropical rain forests
 Mediterranean scrub
 Mountains
 Polar regions
 Oceans
BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONES AS HABITATS
 Islands (0.3)
 Coasts (2.5)
 Western Ghats (4.0)
 North-east (5.2)
 Trans-Himalaya (5.6)
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 23
 Himalaya (6.4)
 Desert (6.6)
 Gangetic plain (10.8)
 Semi-Arid (16.6)
 Deccan peninsula (42.0)

Note: Figures in parenthesis indicate per cent of total geographical area of India: 3287263 sq.km.

HABITATS BASED ON ECOLOGICAL SUB-UNITS


 This type of classification helps to understand the wild fauna available in different eco systems prevailing in
our country.
 Wide variety of habitats are available in India and hence the biodiversity of this country is a unique one.
India is considered as one of the mega biodiversity nations in the world.

Desert Region
 This habitat comprise trans-Indus districts of Punjab, Western Sind and Baluchistan valley and forms the
eastern limits of a great desert region extending through Iran, Iraq and Arabia to the desert parts of North
Africa.
 Wild animals of desert are different from the ones that are seen in general at the other regions.
 Desert regions are found in many parts of the world like Sahara of North Africa etc.

Tropical rain forest region


 Heavy rain fall areas are contained in this division.

Examples
 North-eastern regions.
 Himalayan slopes consisting of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Tripura.
 Western Ghats of the south India including the Malabar Coast (Dense forest gorges called as the Sholas are
seen in Nilgriis which is an off shoot of the Western Ghats).

Tropical evergreen forests or Indo-Malayan sub-region


 The fauna of this region has similarities between both Indian as well as Malayan and Indo-Chinese fauna.

Himalayan mountain region


 Animals of this region are mostly the Palaearctic type. Variations are seen even within the Himalayan
mountain regions, as the case with eastern parts, higher altitudes in the western Himalayas from Kashmir
including Ladakh and Kumaon and Himalayan foothills covering the eastern frontiers of Kashmir and
Assam.

Peninsular Indian sub-region


 Animals of this region are mostly the Palaearctic type. Variations are seen even within the Himalayan
mountain regions, as the case with eastern parts, higher altitudes in the western Himalayas from Kashmir
including Ladakh and Kumaon and Himalayan foothills covering the eastern frontiers of Kashmir and
Assam.

SPECIFIC WILD ANIMALS AND HABITATS


Specific wild animals Location
Slender loris Tamilnadu
Slow loris North-eastern India
Red Panda and Binturong Eastern regions
Hyalobates hoolock Arunachal Pradesh and Assam
Pig tailed macaque and Assam Assam
macaque and Leaf monkey or capped
langur

COMPONENTS OF WILDLIFE HABITAT


VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 24
 The components of wildlife habitat may be multiple. However, for the purpose of understanding, major
ones are given below:
o Food
o Cover
o Water
o Space
FOOD
 Feed resources vary from habitat to habitat. Accordingly, the selection of feed items whether it is a
herbivore or a carnivore or omnivore also varies. Majority of he animals go for food items that have an easy
access.
FOOD SPECTRUM
 This is the range of food materials that are taken by the concerned wild animal species. Food spectrum
varies from species to species. The different components in this food spectrum are available in large
numbers in particular seasons or periods of the year. In a palatability gradient, the relished food materials
rank high always.
 Prey species needs to be abundant for the survival of the concerned wild animal species in a wildlife area.
Similarly, the biodiversity of the concerned prey animal species needs to be more and hence, the predators
may have the choice in selecting the type of wild animal species as the prey for it.
 Carnivores mostly go for the „economic prey‟.

Example
 Tigers prefer gaur or sambar mostly rather than going for the prey species like mouse deer.
 Herbivores generally select materials of lower energy when compared to the carnivores. Hence, these
species are prone to suffer from either qualitative food stress due to the lesser nutritional values of the feeds
under consumption or from quantitative food stress that occurs due to shortage.
COVER
 Cover gives protection of the wild animals species from the followings:
o Weather
o Severe summer
o Winter
o Predators
o Enemies
 Provides a better vantage point for the wild animal in a wide area Covers may be a natural one or an
artificial one.
TYPES OF COVER
 There are many types of cover. Similarly, it may be a vegetal or non vegetal in nature. It is better to have
simulation of natural one or if possible a natural one.
 However, it is to be remembered that escape-cover may not be an essential one for wild animal species like
the black buck.
 Good grass growth by itself may have a better cover for them. Different types of vegetations make up these
covers.
 Usually caves and overhands act as non-vegetal covres. Other structures that also bears the cover value are:
o Burrows
o Old buildings
o Holes
o Abandoned buildings
o Drystream beds etc.

Ambush cover
 This is defined as the cover that is utilized by a predatory animal for ambushing its prey. This can be a
vegetal or non-vegetal. Covers are interchangeable.
 The ambush cover of one species may serve as escape cover for another species.

Breeding cover
 This is important to have a successful breeding potential of the concerned wild animal species.
o Tigers use caves nad overhands a cubbing places.
o Hard ground barasinha (deer) population of MP state needs tall grass as the breeding cover.
o Squirrels build nests to suit their arboreal life.

Roosting cover for birds

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 25


 Birds need a safe area for the purpose of resting and the cover that provides facility for this purpose is
called as the roosting cover.
o Acacia nilotica trees planted in the marshy regions of Bharatpur helps to provide a better roosting
cover for birds.
o Large birds like vultures need tree cover that is well convenient for them to spread their wings and
have a take-off in the air. It is to be understood that the raising directly to soaring height in one
stroke is not possible from the ground level.

Loafing cover
 Loafing cover is the one in which some wild animal species try to spend their time aimlessly and this may
be a secluded place in a habitat.
 The place offering shade in summer and providing adequate protection from the wind in winter can serve
as a loafing cover.

Refuge cover
 This essentially means vegetation from which the wild animals can not be sent out during hunting. This is a
sports related terminology.
 For example, the jungle fowl can be hunted only in the open space.
WATER
 Water is highly a required item in a habitat of the wild animal species. When the water resources are poor
in a habitat, then the quality of the concerned habitat is considered as a poor one from the conservation
point of view.
 Riparian vegetation along the stream banks may be considered linking places or corridors for the animal
movement. Animals in desert regions generally depend on the succulent vegetation or metabolic water of
the body.
 Water bodies play a greater role in the disease transmission esp. in cases of contamination by grazing
livestock that utilizes the water resources.
SPACE
 Space is a must for any wild animal species. The availability of space is influenced by followings:
o Edges.
o Ecotones.
o Territory.
o Home ranges.
o Interspersion.
o Availability of mates.
 Mongamous species suffer a lot in breeding as the case with rhinos or Sarus cranes. The mates may not be
adequate for these species in a given space some times.
 The problem has happened with rhinos of Jaldapara in West Bengal. This problem is not an acute one in
nature in case of polygamous species like spotted deer because one male can mate with three to four
females.
 The space should provide suitable niches for various wild animal species.
FACTORS PERTAINING TO WILDLIFE HABITAT
 Welfare factors
o These are the factors that are related to the specific components of habitat like food, shelter and
water. These factors help to enhance the population structure.
 Decimating factors
o These are the factors like starvation, fire, epidemics and unhealthy competition.
WETLAND HABITATS AND THE AVIARY SPECIES
 Wetlands have the concerned wetland aviary species that have specialized legs and the legs are equipped
with webs that help or facilitating for the better movement on mud or water logged surfaces.
 The beaks vary in size and shape, so as to catch the prey species (mostly the fish) from water.

WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS IN INDIA


Wildlife Sanctuaries and National parks existing in this country
 Wildlife Sanctuaries and National parks existing in this country (Andaman & Nicobar Islands,
Andhra pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chandigarh, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana,
Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharastra,
Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil nadu,
Tripura, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal) should be known with regard to the understanding in a
thorough manner about the various wild animal species belonging to multiple species.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 26


MODULE-6: WILDLIFE RULES, ACT AND ORGANIZATION
 This module is designed for students to know about various important acts and rules including different
types of organizations pertaining to wildlife conservation and zoo set up.

The objectives are


 To reveal about wildlife protection act and different organizations both at national and at international
level.
 To know about Zoo – set up
 To understand about various roles played by various units in zoo
WILDLIFE
Wildlife (according to Wildlife Protection Act)
 According to this act, “Wildlife” is defined as „any animal, bee, butterflies, crustaceae, fish and moths and
aquatic or land vegetation‟. Thus it is to be understood that Wildlife is the term that embraces all life forms
that are wild or care themselves.
 Important sections are to be understood accordingly by the attending veterinarian also.
ACTS AND RULES RELATED TO ZOO AND WILD ANIMALS
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972
 This was amended in the year 1991 and 2002.
 According to this act, “Wildlife” is defined as „any animal, bee, butterflies, crustaceae, fish and moths and
aquatic or land vegetation‟. Thus it is to be understood that Wildlife is the term that embraces all life forms
that are wild or care themselves. There are many important sections of this act which are to be understood.
ACTS AND RULES RELATED TO ZOO AND WILD ANIMALS
SECTION-18
Declaration of Sanctuary
 The State Government may by notification declare its intention to constitute any area or area comprised
with any reserve forest or territorial waters as Sanctuary if it considers that such area is of adequate
ecological faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural or zoological significance for the purpose of protecting,
propagating or developing wildlife or its environment.
ACTS AND RULES RELATED TO ZOO AND WILD ANIMALS
SECTION -27
Restriction of entry in Sanctuary
 No person other than
1. a public servant on duty
2. a person who has been permitted by the Chief Warden or the authorized officer to reside within
limits of the sanctuary.
3. a person who has any right over immovable property within limits of the sanctuary.
4. a person passing through the sanctuary along a public highway and
5. the dependents of the person classified in class (1), (2), (3)
 shall enter and reside in the sanctuary, except under and in accordance with the conditions of a permit
granted under section 28.
ACTS AND RULES RELATED TO ZOO AND WILD ANIMALS
SECTION-28
Grant of permit
 The Chief Wildlife Warden may on application grant to any person a permit to enter or reside in a sanctuary
for all (or) any of the following purpose:
o Investigation or study of Wildlife and purposes of ancillary or incidental threats.
o Photography
o Scientific research
o Tourism
o Transaction of any lawful business with any person residing in the sanctuary.
 A permit to enter or reside in a sanctuary shall be issued subject to such conditions and on payment of such
fee as may be prescribed.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 27


ACTS AND RULES RELATED TO ZOO AND WILD ANIMALS
SECTION:33-A
Immunization of Livestock
 The Chief Wildlife Warden shall take such measures in such manner as may be prescribed, for
immunization against communicable diseases of livestock kept in or within 5 kms of the sanctuary.
 No person shall take or cause to be taken or grazed any livestock in a sanctuary without getting it
immunized.

ACTS AND RULES RELATED TO ZOO AND WILD ANIMALS


SCHEDULES
Schedule I to VI are dealt by Wildlife Protection Act 1972 with amendments during 1986 and 1991. Important
animals in each schedule are given below:
Schedule I
 Part I – Mammals
o Indian chinkara, Indian lion, Indian wild ass, Indian wolf, leopard, leopard cat, Lion-tailed
macaque, Loris, Gaur or Indian Bison, Cheetah, Indian gazelle, Dugong, Nilgiri Tahr, Niligiri
langur, Musk deer, Sloth bear, Tiger, Wild Buffalo, Mouse deer, Hog badger, Hispid Hare, Chinese
pangoling, Crab-eating macaque, Desert fox, Fishing cat, Four-horned antelope, Indian one-
horned Rhinoceros, Rusty spotted cat, Serow, Swamp deer etc.
 Part II – Amphibians and Reptiles
o Pythons, Water lizard, Gharial, Estuarine (or) Salt water crocodile, Golden Gecko, Green sea turtle,
Leathery turtle, Logger head turtle, Hawksbill turtle, Indian egg-eating snake.
 Part II A – Fishes
o Whale shark, Shark, Ray, Sea horse, Giant grouper.
 Part III – Birds
o Hornbills, Mountain quail, Peafowl, Andaman teal, Nicobar megapods, Nicobar pigeon, Bengal
florican, Black-necked crane etc.
 Part IV – Insects
o Butterflies and Moths.
 Part IV A – Coelentrates
o Fire coral, Sea fan, Roof building coral.
 Part IV B – Mollusca
 Part IV C – Echinodermata

Sea cucumber (all Holothurians)

Schedule II
 Part I – Bonnet macaque, Common langur, Wild dog, Chameleon, Spiny tailed lizard or Sanda.
 Part II – Beetles.

Schedule III
 Chital, Barking deer or Muntjac, Gorals, Hog deer, Wild pig, Nilgai, Sponges.

Schedule IV
 Indian Hedgehogs, Indian porcupine, Mongooses, Polecats.

Schedule V
 Common crow, Fruit bats, Mice, Rats, Five striped palm squirrel, Black napped hare, Common Indian hare,
Desert hare, Himalayan mouse hare.

Schedule VI
 Birds like Coots, Cranes, Cormorants, Flamingos, Ibises.
 Ladies slipper orchids, Red Vanda, Blue Vanda.

Indian Biological diversity Act, 2002


 This is act to provide for constitution of biological diversity, sustainable use of its components and fair and
equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the use of biological resources, knowledge and for matters
connected there with or incidental threats.

Following are the important definitions in this:


 „Chairperson‟ means the chairperson of the National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) or as to case may be of
the State Biodiversity Board.
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 28
 „Member‟ means a member of the National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) or a State Biodiversity Board and
includes the Chairperson.
 Bio-survey and Bio-utilization means survey or collection of species, sub species, genus, components and
extracts of biological resource for any purpose and includes characterization, inventorisation and bioassay.
 “Value added products” means products containing potions or extracts of animals as well as the plants in
unrecognizable and physically inseparable form
OTHER ACTS RELATED TO ZOO AND WILD ANIMALS
Other acts
 The Forest (conservation) Act, 1982.
 The Indian Forest Act, 1927.
 The Indian Fisheries Act, 1897.
 Elephant preservation Act, 1879.
 Bengal Rhinoceros Act, 1932.
 Bombay Wild animal and wild birds Protection Act, 1951.
 The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act,1960
NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS AND
INSTITUTIONS LINKED TO WILD AND ZOO ANIMALS – ROLE AND
FUNCTIONS
 National
o Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS)
o Wildlife Institute of India (WII)
o Indian Board For Wildlife (IBWL)
o Botanical Survey of India(BSI)
o Zoological Survey of India (ZSI)
o Indian Institute of Sciences(IIS)
o Wildlife Protection Society of India (WPSI)
o Central Zoo Authority(CZA)
o National Board for Wildlife(NBWL)
o Wildlife Trust of India(WTI)
 International
o International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (ICUN)
o Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
o United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
o Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
o Trade Records Analysis of Flora and Fauna in Commerce (TRAFFIC)
o United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organizations (UNESCO)
o World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)
 Others
o International Commision on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN)
o International Commision on Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN)
o Global Tiger Forum (GTF)
o Tiger Conservation Society (TCS)
NATIONAL INSTITUTIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS
Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS)
 It is the largest Non-government organization engaged in nature conservation research. The role and
functions were mainly related to the fact that conservation must be based on scientific view. Dr.Salim Ali
was the first Indian Honorary Secretary in this organization.

Wildlife Institute of India (WII)

This institution was established in Dehradun in 1982 with an objective of becoming a significant centre for wildlife

training, research, publication and extension in India. The functions and roles are related to the followings:
 Training of personnel for protected area management and wildlife research
 Training of education and extension specialists for protected area management and wildlife research
 Offering of orientation courses for those who are involved in land use management
 Provision of advisory and consultant service to central and state governmental agencies , universities,
colleges, institutions and other official and non-official agencies.
 Creation of databases by employing modern computerized analytical techniques.
 To conduct and co-ordinate applied wildlife research.
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 29
Indian Board For Wildlife (IBWL)
 Prevents cruelty against birds and beasts caught alive.
 Promotes public involvement in wildlife and its preservation in harmony with natural and human
environment.
 1st phase of IBWL was confined to protection of wildlife from poachers and unscrupulous hunters.
 2nd phase was associated with development and creation of National Parks and Sanctuaries where
threatened species are protected.
 3rd phase was associated to the detailed study and improvement in the existing food and water reserves,
offering of effective protection to threatened species and fast development of wildlife sanctuaries

Botanical Survey of India (BSI)


 Carries out surveys on faunal resources of India.

Zoological Survey of India (ZSI)


 Carries out surveys on the faunal resources of India.
 ZSI has published the Red Data Book on Indian animals.

Indian Institute of Sciences (IIS)


 This is located at Bangalore and is involved in studies on ecology and wildlife of Western Ghats.

Wildlife Protection Society of India (WPSI)


 It is a NGO founded in 1958 at Dehradun. Promotes interest and knowledge among people in the field of
preservation and conservation of all kinds of fauna and flora and management.
 Supports in enforcement of wildlife protection act.
 Promotes wildlife tourism.
 Co-operates with state Government of India as well as other societies and institutions for the interest of
wildlife protection.
 Protects, propagates and conserves the wildlife.

Central Zoo Authority (CZA)


 This is the highly empowered statutory body established in 1992.

Main functions are:


 To specify the minimum standards for housing and veterinary care of the zoo animals.
 To provide technical and other assistance to zoos for their proper management.
 To identify endangered species of wild animals for the purpose of captive breeding.
 To recognize or derecognize zoos
 To evaluate the functioning of a zoo.
 To co-ordinate research in captive breeding and educational programmes
 To ensure maintenance of stud book of endangered species of wild animals bred in captivity.
 To restrict the power of a zoo regarding acquisition or transfer of any wild animal specified in schedule I
and II.

National Board for Wildlife (NBWL)


 Started in 1952. This is the highest advisory body of the Government of India regarding wildlife.
 It is instrumental for legislation of wildlife protection act and guides central and state government on
matters pertaining to wildlife through legislative and practical measures.
 Helps to solve the policy matters.

Wildlife Trust of India (WTI)


 It is a non-profit conservation organization located in Delhi.
 It works on conservation related programmes in India through a team of professionals comprising of
biologists, veterinarians, communication specialists , lawyers , etc.
 This organization has special programmes pertaining to sloth bear. Elephant, tiger, rhinoceros , etc.

Department of Wildlife Science, Tamilnadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chennai and Centre for

Wildlife Forensic and Health, M.P. Veterinary University, Jabalpur and Indian Veterinary Research Insitute,

Bareilly, UP state and Karnataka Veterinary, Animal and Fisheries Sciences University, Karnataka state :

These insitutions are currenlty involving in teaching, research and extension activities pertaining to wildlife science.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 30


INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS
International Union For Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)
 Now called as World Conservation Union. It is the world‟s largest and most important conservation
network. It is a multi-lingual, multi-cultural organization.

Role and Functions


 It links both research and results to local, national, regional and global policy by convening dialogues
between Governments, civil society and private sector.
 It supports and develops cutting-edge conservation science and implements this research in field projects
around the world.
 It facilitates paths for peace between countries in areas of conflict and works with the corporate sector on
energy and bio-diversity.
 Species Survival Commission (SSC) is one of the Commissions of IUCN which has aim of conservation of
bio-diversity.

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species(CITES)


 This organization helps to prevent the over-exploitation of wild fauna and flora. Government of India
signed this convention in July 1974 and became a party to it from 18 th oct, 1976.

Role and Functions


 People and states are linked for best protection of their own wild fauna and flora.
 Stresses on need of International collaboration.
 Stresses on need of undergoing the ever-growing value of wild fauna and flora from aesthetic, scientific,
cultural , recreational and economic point of view.
 Emphasizes that the wild fauna and flora in their many beautiful varied forms are on irreplaceable part of
the natural systems of the earth.

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO):
 These organizations are associated with all features of conservation, in general.

Trade Records Analysis of Flora and Fauna in Commerce (TRAFFIC)


 It is a wildlife trade watch group of IUCN and WWF for nature.
 Started in 1975 with the aim of monitoring wildlife trade worldwide.
 It collects and analyses the data on wildlife trade.
 TRAFFIC – India was established on 1/01/1992 as a division of WWF – India and a part of global TRAFFIC
network.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)


 It launched man and bio-diversity programme

World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)


 It was set up in 1961 and giant panda is the official symbol of WWF .
 It was earlier called as world wildlife fund but in 1990 it was renamed as world wide fund for nature.

Role and Functions


 It helps to raise funds for urgent conservation requirements and promoting conservation through the world
wide education campaign and public consciousness. Grants are raised by donations from public, heritable
foundations, regular members, etc.

OTHER INSTITUTIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS


International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN)

International Commission on Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN)

Global Tiger Forum (GTF)


 It is an International platform to discuss features pertaining to the protection of tiger population in the
world.

Role and Functions


 Establishment of wildlife sanctuaries and national parks
 Establishment of special squad to discover poaching etc.
 Focuses on welfare of tiger-populations.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 31


Tiger Conservation Society (TCS)
 Voluntary participation and raising of funds for conservation of tigers.
 Obtaining of international co-operation from countries known for existence of tigers.
 Improvement of tiger habitat and to promote conservation of tigers, ultimately.
ZOO
 Zoo is the collection of number of wild animals in captivity and is an organized non-profit and stationary
institution set by state governments in majority, local administrations, trustee bodies and registered
scientific societies that own and maintain captive wild animals under the direction of professional staff and
provide appropriate care for the purpose of conservation and breeding of different wild animal species
especially in endangered wild animals.
HISTORY OF ZOOS
 The earliest recorded zoological collections associate with cheetah that are currently extinct in India.
Emperor Ashoka in third century B.C. respected the ashrams of saints that always had deer and birds.
Manageries were the places meant for the collection of animals in earlier periods.
 Documentations are available about the fight between the lions or tiger and man in a captive state. Even
mythical five headed cobra was mentioned in earlier records. Hunting of lions and cheetah and tigers was
carried out in large numbers once upon a time.
Place Year of starting of Zoo
Vienna zoo 1752
Paris zoo 1793
London zoo 1826
Philadelphia zoo 1874
Calcutta zoo 1854
Trivandrum zoo 1857

CENTRAL ZOO AUTHORITY OF INDIA


 Seeing the mushroom growth of many unplanned zoos in India, in order to have a better control and
assessment of the conditions suitable for the living of the confined wild animals, all the zoos were brought
accordingly under the purview of the WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT 1972, the Central Zoo Authority of
India was set up, later and it helps in overseeing the management of zoos in India. Central Zoo Authority of
India came into existence in February, 1992.
 This organization grants recognition to various zoos maintained in the country, keeping due regards to the
norms and standards codified time to time and it often associated with the setting up 0f minimum standard
for the upkeep and the management of zoos.
ZOO AND IT'S FUNCTION
 Zoo is a place where the collection and breeding of wild animals including birds are carried out in a
systematic manner under captivity with the permission of appropriate authorities with the functions that
are associated with education, captive breeding, basic and applied research, conservation, protection,
health care, management and displaying in addition to the recreation.
OBJECTIVES OF MODERN ZOOS
 Zoo has got multiple functions that basically associate with the health care and management of the captive
wild animals. Significant ones are given below:
o Education
o Captive breeding
o Research
o Recreation
EDUCATION
 The purposes of education are linked to the followings
o Interpretation of wild animals and their conservation to persons visiting the zoos or zoological
parks or zoological gardens.
o Acting as a central area for the purpose of dissemination of the biological information and
evolving of educational programme for visitors, school/biology teachers and students in order
to create awareness for the wildlife conservation. The common persons who visit the zoos
start asking many questions subsequent to the sighting of the concerned wild animal species.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 32


INTERPRETATION
 More emphasis is being provided for “interpretation” which is defined as the educational activity
that aims to reveal meaning and relationships through the use of the original objects, by first
hand experience and by illustrative media, rather than simply to communicate the factual
information.
 Flat work or double dimensional exhibits, objects or three dimensional exhibits, dioramas media,
signages, models, publications etc. are being used for the interpretation activities.
CAPTIVE BREEDING
 Imbalance in eco-system occurs due to the following reasons:
o Poaching and hunting.
o Death due to diseases.
o Death due to poisoning.
o Death due to natural hazards like earth quakes.
o Habitat destruction due to multiple reasons (natural and man-made)
 Hence, the wild animal species may become extinct in the course of time and it is a fact that many species of
wild animals are in the stage of extinction if the management does not have a scientific type of management
features. Hence, captive breeding becomes one of the important objectives in case of zoos.
 It is often becoming a mandatory one for the captive wild animal places like zoos to have both male and
female wild animals of the particular wild animal species under threat.
 Such a type of management under ex-situ conditions helps for the prevention of number of wild animals of
particular species in an area.
 Conservation efforts are directed mostly in that direction to protect the wild animals that belong to various
species. Hence, zoos, zoological parks and zoological gardens become the better places for the captive
breeding of the selected species of wild animals for which the available infrastructures are being utilized.
RESEARCH
 Both the basic and applied research features are required for an effective conservation of wild animals.
Research areas comprise microbiology, pathology, physiology, clinical sectors, nutrition, ethology, genetics,
biotechnology, reproduction, meat hygiene, anatomy etc.
 Such research features may be of more helpful in the health and disease management of wild animals in
both captive and free ranging regions. Awareness is being created among the common public about the
conservation and the value of wildlife protection and value of individual wild animal species.
RECREATION
 Aged persons, children, common man, disabled persons and others visiting the zoos get attracted to the
sighting of various species of wild fauna in one place.
 Wild animals in the zoos often comprise both the exotic and natural wild animal species. Particularly
visiting the zoo is a full day recreational activity to the younger group of people and children in particular.
CLASSIFICATION OF ZOOS IN GENERAL
Zoos are classified according to different factors associating the area, no.of species etc.
Category Large zoo Medium zoo Small zoo Mini zoo
Area in Hectares >75 50-75 20-50 <20
No.of animals exhibited >750 500-750 200-499 200
No. of species exhibited >75 50-75 20-49 20
No.of endangered species exhibited >15 10-15 5-9 >5

STAFF PATTERN IN A ZOO-SETUP


 Large zoos have in general more departments and more employees in addition to more number of wild
animals and wild animal species, unlike the small or min zoos.
DIRECTOR
 Director of the zoo is the executive and a chief person in any zoo. Min job is to expose the activity to every
one, the public, the zoo society and to the government level.
 Management plan is prepared actively by the zoo director about various issues prevailing in the zoos.
Master plan is also prepared in a detailed manner.
 Various group of personnel like range officer, forester, animal keepers, veterinarians, administrative staff
etc. are closely associated with the provision of required inputs for the up keeping of zoo and it becomes a
team work with a director as a chief person.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 33


DEPUTY DIRECTOR AND ASSISTANT DIRECTOR
 Deputy director helps directly the Director of the zoo in the routine management of zoo and Assistant
Director assists the Deputy director in this regard.
 Generally both the Deputy Director and Assistant Director are responsible for the public affair and
maintenance of the zoo in particular. They assume much of the burden for the day –to-day function of the
Director.
RANGE OFFICER
 Range officer looks after the wild animals in their range under control. They actively associate with any
activities pertaining to the care of wild animals falling in their range.
 They apprise to the higher officials about the welfare measures required for the up keeping of the health
status in the wild animals. Administrative activities are being assisted in a systematic manner.
ANIMAL KEEPER
 The animal keepers are entrusted with the cleanliness of cages, enclosures, animal houses, moats, their
surroundings including removal of excreta, removing of weeds and bushes. They are involved with
discouraging of teasing activities by the visiting persons or public. Tigers, lion tailed macaques, hippos,
crocodiles, chimpanzees etc. are the frequently teased wild animal species.
 Reports on any damage to the structure of enclosure or cage are immediately made by these persons to the
concerned range officers or other officials when they are visiting the enclosures, cages etc.
 Reports about anorectic wild animals or finding of wound on the wild animal‟s body or any kind of visible
sickness condition is immediately reported to the veterinarian in particular.
 They generally ensure that no materials remain in the animals vicinity that are likely to hurt the wild animal
maintained under captive conditions like wire bits, mesh, ropes, plastic materials, sharp pieces, nails etc.
 Security of the cages or enclosures are given more priority by these group of personnel and they need to
offer assistance during the treatment of wild animals by the zoo veterinarian and it is an accepted one that
animal keepers are familiar with the habits and vices of the wild animals that are under direct care in the
cages or enclosures.
 They offer information associated with birth, death, abnormality if any like intensive vomiting, diarrhoea
etc.
ROLE OF VETERINARIAN IN THE ZOO SET UP
 Health and Disease management are given utmost priorities by the zoo veterinarian in general. Technical
suggestions need to be offered with regard to the management of health and diseases in case of the captive
wild animals belonging to various species.
 Veterinarians in the zoos have multitasks in general. Director will be assisted in the fields of health and
disease management effectively.
HEALTHCARE OF NEWLY ARRIVED WILD ANIMALS
 The newly arrived wild animals whether it is a herbivore or carnivore or omnivore has to be
properly taken care of by taking the wild animal in a safe manner to the quarantine unit and the
related health care measures may be carried out in a planned manner.
 Clinical observation, sampling etc. may be carried out depending on the wild animal species
under investigation.
PROPHYLAXIS AND THERAPY
 Prevention is given much emphasis in addition to the treatment of the sick wild animals. Due vaccination
has to be carried out in order to prevent the occurrence of diseases in case of wild animals.
 Periodical examination of wild animals has to be carried out in a systematic manner in order to find out any
disease in the beginning stage itself. Surgeries have to be performed whenever required as the case with
infighting incidences or breeding programmes.
 Whenever wild animal becomes sick, he needs to give the right kind of therapy subsequent to the diagnosis
of the case. Parasitic conditions need a special monitoring and therapy in all species of wild animals.

POSTMORTEM
 When animals die due to diseases or other reasons, post-mortem has to be carried out in a systematic
manner. Post mortem is one of the important components that is to be taken with more care and cautions.
 Veterinarians involving post mortem of wild animals should take care of the features related to the Zoonotic
diseases in particular like anthrax or salmonellosis.
 Hence, wearing coveralls and gloves in addition to the spectacles to protect the ocular regions are most
significant features to be taken care of.
FEED AND MEAT INSPECTION
 Spoiled feeds if found may be discarded. The meat received needs to be inspected in a systematic manner
and the diseased ones if any have to be discarded.
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 34
 Any nodular growths or worms affected regions may be discarded. Fish also needs to be inspected for the
healthy status. Rotten fish if any has to be immediately discarded.
TRANSLOCATION AND TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE TO THE ZOO
PERSONNEL
 If any animal is to be translocated, immobilization is to be carried out and safety of the wild animal under
immobilization has to be ensured always to the possible extent.
 Whenever any technical assistance is required, it has to be offered in a systematic manner with regard to
the translocation.
 Care has to be taken to avoid any type of wound or injury to the wild animal under transport during the
translocation and similarly safety measures have to be carried out with regard to the immobilization.
DISPLAY OF WILD ANIMALS IN ZOOS
 Wild animals are displayed in an informative manner to the visiting persons or public and followings are
undertaken in general for the display of wild animals in zoo set up:
o Taxonomic arrangement (Non-human primates as first unit).
o Zoo geographical arrangement (wild animals of India and Australia or other country).
o Ethological arrangement (Common langurs and Chital in a group).
o Mixed species-exhibits (eg. Spotted deer and black bucks).
o Ecological arrangement (Common animals of desert system).
o Miscellaneous arrangement.
IMPORTANT CAPTIVE WILD ANIMAL PLACES IN INDIA
Location Name
Vandalur, Tamilnadu state Arignar Anna Zoological Park
Trvandrum, Kerala state Trivandrum zoo
Hyderabad , Andhra Pradesh state Nehru Zoological Park,
Mysore , Karnataka state Sri Chamarajendra Zoological Garden
New Delhi National Zoological Park
COMMON WILD ANIMALS IN INDIAN ZOOS
 Commonly held carnivores
o Lion, tiger, panther, jungle cat, hyena, jackals, wild dog, otter, fox, wolf, jaguar etc.
 Other wild animals
o Gaur, wild pig, nilgai, spotted deer, sambar deer, porcupine, sloth bear, giant squirrels, zebra,
Indian pangolin, hog badger, kangaroo, rhinoceros, giraffe etc.
 Reptiles
o Cobra, king cobra, Russels wiper, rat snake, green snake, krait, reticulated python, rock python,
monitor lizard, Indian soft shelled turtle, mugger, gharial etc.
 Aviary species
o Peacocks, cockatoo, cockatiel, African grey parrot, grey horn bills, rosy pelicans, painted storks,
budgerigars, love birds, swan, sarus crane, egrets, born owls, vultures, kites, shikara etc.
MODULE-7: ZOO-II
 This Chapter is designed to know about recording systems in zoo, quarantine and isolation units
of zoo and enrichment measures.
The objectives are
 To reveal stud book
 To reveal about endangered wild animals
 To detail on the environmental enrichment measures to be carried out in zoos
ZOO VETERINARY HOSPITAL
 Central zoo authority of India has prescribed number of veterinarians required for various types of zoos and
the type of zoo helps to determine the number of veterinarians in this case.
 However, it is understood that health and disease management in the zoological park is most significant
one to be maintained successfully for the welfare of the confined wild animals in the zoos.

Basic requisites of zoo veterinary hospital


 Squeeze cages
 Trap cages

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 35


 Immobilization related gadgets
 Drugs(All types including immobilization and treatment related ones including the prophylactic ones)
 Clinical laboratory
 Post-mortem room
 X-ray unit
 Modern Diagnostic equipments
 Antivenin
 Antiseptics and disinfectants
 Coveralls, gloves, specimen-containers, sample-containers etc.
VETERINARY MEDICAL RECORD SYSTEM IN ZOOS
 The different diseases occurring in various wild animals belonging to multiple species are to be documented
in a proper form.
 Post mortem records should be maintained in a proper manner. Similar is the case with treatment register.
 Reference books that are required in the routine day to day therapy of wild animals should be available in
the zoo.
 Differnt trems for males, females and young ones of various wild fauna need to be well known to
veterinarians working in various zoological parks, zoos and zoological gardens.
STUD BOOK IN ZOO
 The stud book for the significant species needs to be maintained. For example, the stud book for Asiatic lion
should contain the following details:
o Name of the enclosure
o House name and number
o National Stud book number
o International Stud book number
o Sex
o Sire (National Stud book number)
o Dam (National Stud book number)
o Date of birth
o Since when Date of death
o Any other mode of disposal
o Remarks if any (Details as if rescued or transferred) .
STOCK SELECTION BY THE ZOO VETERINARIAN
 Stock with a sound genetic pattern has to be selected for keeping in the zoo as exhibits to prevent the
intervention pertaining to the health and disease management.
 Captive propagation is a must for ht exhibition of many wild animals in the zoo in an economical manner.
 The care is to be taken in order to avoid the selection of wild animals that are quoted below:
o Sick animals
o Emaciated animals
o Stunted animals
o Poorly formed animals
o Animals with disease or injurie
o Gross view on the effects of inbreeding by analyzing the history etc.
o Animal with genetic defects if any .
POPULATION CONTROL AND ZOO
 Generally the zoos comprise rare wild animals in its collection and assist the successful breeding of these
animals for subsequent to release in the wild or to transfer to other zoos. However, it is also equally true
that many wild animal species breed to a larger extent causing problem in the management.
 Hence, effective measures are to be undertaken in order to have a better control over the population of the
concerned wild animal species.
REASONS FOR THE INCREASE OF POPULATION IN A ZOO
 Adaptation of good treatment of diseases / disorders if any found in a systematic manner.
 Adaptation of due prophylactic measures against the probable diseases .
 Enrichment of feeding is always done regularly in zoos .
 Absence of predators in a zoo atmosphere, unlike the conditions prevailing in the wild.
 Lesser mortality due to the enhancement in health care measures .
EXCESSIVE POPULATION IN ZOO
 In general, there are wide variations in the existence of excessive population of wild animals in a zoological
park or zoo or zoological garden. The list of wild animals in excess may vary from zoo to zoo or country to
country
 In general, following wild animals may be found in excess numbers in many zoos:
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 36
o Spotted deer
o Bonnet macaques
o Rhesus macaques
o Mugger crocodiles
o Black buck
o Lions
POPULATION CONTROL STRATEGIES
 Separation of sexes
o This helps in the prevention of the fight between the male-members of same wild animal species.
o Separating the sexes is one of the easiest method to be adapted in various zoos and is a widely
practiced method of population control strategy in many zoos at present.
 Surgical intervention wherever possible (eg. Vasectomy which is ideal than the castration. This is because
of the fact that castration is being associated with the loss of secondary sexual characters like mane in lions.
 Hormonal intervention and others.
QUARANTINE UNIT
 This is a procedure in which the newly arrived animals into the zoo are kept in confinement in a separate
place for a specified length of time.
 Each zoo should have the housing and isolation capabilities separately in order to truly quarantine the
animals. It is better that the place of quarantine should be away from the zoological park or zoological
garden or the zoo.
 The quarantine period may be extended depending on the clinical assessment by the attending veterinarian
if there is a requirement for that, technically.
REASONS FOR THE QUARANTINE PROCEDURES
 Prevention of the entry of the disease-causing pathogens into the zoo. It is to be remembered that the zoo is
having more species as exhibits.
 Detection of disease causing pathogens may become possible by the examination of wild animals during the
quarantine procedures.
 Introduction of Zoonotic diseases in particular is highly avoided or minimized.
QUARANTINE PERIOD
 The quarantine period may be a varying one depending on the concerned wild animal species. In general a
minimum of thirty days period is required for the quarantine of various species of mammals.
 However, if any new member of same species is added in this period, from that day of addition, again a
period of 30 days may be counted. Similar protocols may be adapted for reptiles, amphibians and fish also.
ACCESS TO QUARANTINE UNIT
 Following persons are the only personnel to enter the quarantine unit:
o Veterinarians of the zoo.
o Staff members responsible for the animals in the quarantine unit.
o Other persons who are specified to enter the quarantine unit by the authorities.
REQUISITES FOR A QUARANTINE UNIT NEAR THE ZERO
 Separate tools should be assigned for use only with the newly arriving wild animals.
 Treat the new arrival mainly for the parasitic problems-both the external and internal parasitic problems.
 Fecal examination has to be carried out and three consecutive fecal examinations should be negative for any
evidences of parasitism.
 Foot-bath with disinfectant solution needs to be provided at the entrance of the quarantine unit.
STRESS AND THE QUARANTINE ACTIVITIES
 Stress is a major factor in case of wild animals in general. It is to be understood that isolation of a social
animal from all conspecifics for the purpose of quarantine may be a psychologically stressful event.
 Hence, the stress causing factors need to be minimized to a greater extent. Vaccination may be considered
whenever required.
ISOLATION UNIT
 This unit is meant for the confinement of wild animals that are found to be affected by any infectious
diseases that may affect other co-exhibits or nearby wild animals of the same group or the wild animals of
another species in a zoological park-environment.
 This actually helps to contain the disease and hence, the possible spread of the disease is highly prevented
to a greater extent. Subsequent to the isolation, the wild animals kept in the isolation unit have to be treated
appropriately and the health condition has to be ensured.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 37


ENVIRONMENTAL ENRICHMENT MEASURES IN ZOO SETUP
 During the meeting out of the physical requirements of various species of wild animals, one has to find ways
to stimulate the concerned wild animal species for the purpose of exhibition of more activities in an
environment.
 Furnishings of the enclosures in an intellectual manner helps to enhance the activities of the targeted wild
animal kept in the confined status.
 Environmental enrichment enhanced the quality of captive animal care by identification and provision of
environmental stimuli necessary for the optimal psychological and physiological well-being of the
concerned wild animal species in a captive condition.
GOALS OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENRICHMENT
 Followings may be said as the goals of environmental enrichment:
o Enhancement of positive utilization of the environment.
o Finding an increase in range or number of normal behavioral patterns.
o Encountering reduction in the frequencies of abnormal behavior.
o Finding an increase in the behavioural diversity.
o Experiencing an increase in an animal‟s ability to cope with the challenges in a more natural
manner.
ENRICHMENT STRATEGIES
 Provision of due enrichment measures varies from species to species. This is because of the variations in the
requirements by the concerned wild animal species.
REQUIRED INFRASTRUCTURES
 These items may change the stimulus in a favorable manner:
o Toys
o Objects
o Usable surfaces
o Manipulable and movable materials
o Increased usable materials
o Facilities that requires probing or analysis by the concerned wild animal species to some extent
Note
 Modified feeding patterns or places may help the enrichment measures in case of wild mammals.
REQUIRED INFRASTRUCTURES
 These items may change the stimulus in a favorable manner:
o Toys
o Objects
o Usable surfaces
o Manipulable and movable materials
o Increased usable materials
o Facilities that requires probing or analysis by the concerned wild animal species to some extent

Note
 Modified feeding patterns or places may help the enrichment measures in case of wild mammals.
SPECIES-SPECIALITIES
Bears and otters
 Bears (These species are more prone for exhibition of stereotypic behavior and abnormal behavioral
patterns like packing, weaving, head-swaying, repetitive self-sucking, stereotypic swimming and tongue
flicking due to frustration, stress and boredom causing environmental features).
 Otters(these are social animals like elephant and chimpanzee and appears to be more inquisite in nature
when kept in the confined state)

Mongoose and otheres


 Mongooses (Among the smaller sized wild mammals, it is the mongoose that appears to suffer from
boredom and are the highly intelligent and intensely curious mongooses. Due to boredom, the mongooses
often sit in the nest box or pace up and down, oblivious to all around them which is a classic case of motor
stereotypism.
 Non-human primates and carnivores which are more likely to investigate novel objects than other wild
animal species.

Note
 It is to worthy to mention that the young mammals are always more manipulative and playful than the
adults.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 38


 Herbivores appear to have inclination to probe or manipulate materials unlike the carnivores or the
omnivores.
ENDANGERED WILD ANIMAL SPECIES IN INDIA
 Endangered wild animals are those whose numbers are at a critically low level and whose habitats are so
drastically reduced or damaged that they are in imminent danger of extinction.
 The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) maintains a Red Data
Book providing a record of animals that are known to be in danger.
 In India, it is the Wildlife Protection Act 1972 that provides four schedules categorizing the fauna of India
based on their conservation status. Schedule I list out the rare and endangered wild animal species that are
governed by significant legal status.
ZOO ANIMALS AND FOREIGN BODIES
 In a zoo atmosphere, more care is being taken to avoid the throwing of any type of foreign body into the
animal enclosure. This is because of the fact that many wild animal species especially the herbivores have
indiscriminate type of feeding.
 Hence, foreign body related problems or disorders are frequently encountered in many zoos through out
the world. The hippos, llamas, deer, otter etc. are more vulnerable to this kind of problems in a zoo
atmosphere.
 Empty packs of cans of fruit juice or soft drinks with aluminium foils coated inside may be left over and
thrown into the animal enclosures and they may cause the obstructive type of clinical problems to the
multiple wild animal species kept under confinement in a zoo.
 Periodical inspection of the zoo is highly necessary, in order to avoid such incidences. Further, ban for the
carrying of polythene bags, plastic items etc. may be adapted in a captive animal atmosphere. Even tourists
based problems are common among various wild animals found in the free ranging areas also.
MODULE-8: POPULATION, BREEDING FOR CONSERVATION AND
ASSISTED REPRODUCTION
 This module is meant to develop awareness on various breeding related strategies and captive breeding as
well as assisted breeding aspects in wild animals.

The objectives are


 To reveal information on captive breeding
 To reveal about assisted reproduction
 To detail on population control measures
POPULATION, BREEDING FOR CONSERVATION AND ASSISTED
REPRODUCTION
Effective population size of Wild Animals in captivity/zoo/natural habitats
 The effective population size may be easily estimated in captivity or in zoo due to the provision of resources
in a controlled manner. Economy, availability in the concerned season or period or locality etc will assist a
lot in deciding about the effective population size of the targeted wild animal species.
 However in natural habitats the effective population size is to be associated with the carrying capacity of the
habitat.
 Carrying capacity of a habitat for a particular species may be defined as the number of individuals of that
population (species) which the concerned area/habitat can carry or support during the pinch period.
 Population size may be adjusted in nature by several decimating factors that are existing in the
environment. Whenever species abundance is present (species exceeding the optimum numbers and
density) through breeding-potential and productivity of the species, wildlife disease becomes one of the
significant decimating factor in nature. Example are the occurrence of FMD, anthrax, botulism, brucellosis,
rabies, distemper, haemorrhagic septicemia, black quarter etc. Similarly, predation as well as the adverse
climate may lead to casualty of the species, in addition to human interference as the case with strayed wild
animals, stress, starvation, movement related activities etc.
PLANNED BREEDING OF WILD ANIMALS
 This is an important feature to be taken care of during the mating of wild animals. To have a planned
breeding of wild animals, one should understand the reproductive biology of the concerned wild animal
species.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 39


Animal Age of puberty Estrus related feature Gestation period
Elephant 16 weeks estrus cycle 22 months
Tiger 3.5 – 5 years Polyestrus 98 – 114 days
Leopard Polyestrus 98 – 105 days
Lion 3-6 years Polyestrus 98 – 114 days
Cheetah 14-16 months Seasonally Polyestrus 90 – 95 days
Jungle cat Probably Polyestrus 66 days
Spotted deer 16-18 months 210 – 225 days
Sambar deer 16 months 240 days

BREEDING FOR CONSERVATION OF WILD FAUNA


The wild animals that are found decreased in population need to be first identified and the breeding related
activities are to be strengthened accordingly.
CAPTIVE BREEDING
 Captive populations of animals can play a significant conservation role as demographic and genetic
reservoirs from which infusions of „new blood‟ may be obtained for wild populations, as source from which
new population can be found and at last redoubts for species which have no immediate chance of survival in
the wild.
 If the captive breeding community is to succeed in its stated education and conservation aims, it becomes
important that efforts should be directed on both geographic and taxonomic basis towards area of needs.
 Captive breeding institutions can play an important role in mobilizing public awareness of conservation
issues and the fact that so few are located in the developing world where major species losses are expected
is therefore of concern. Give adequate funding, local institutions may be better placed than overseas ones to
breed and maintain native species with particular ecological requirements and to provide environmentally
adapted specimens for eventual reintroduction projects.
 The maintenance of viable captive population of most, if not all, threatened species should therefore be an
important component of the strategy to preserve the worlds biodiversity.
 Ex-situ/In-situ conservation is just one of many options open to zoo managers / wildlife managers, but
often represents the only hope for species nearing extinction in the wild. However, zoos and aquaria
undoubtedly have considerable capacity to preserve threatened species.
 Zoo hold ex situ population assigned to highest risk categories like the endangered and the vulnerable
categories. IUCN has categorized 34% of threatened mammalian taxa as Endangered and 25 % as
Vulnerable. In situ conservation efforts must be increasingly focused on localities of high species diversity
and endemism, while captive breeding resources must be re-allocated to the ex situconservation of
threatened taxa. Captive breeding is widely regarded as less cost effective than in situ conservation.
 For captive breeding, genetic diversity is essential to know the number of animals that are necessary tot
start the breeding. The population must be sufficiently large, so that the chances of complete extinction due
to untimely death may be kept at the minimum. It should also be large as enough to maintain the maximum
possible genetic diversity. Genetic diversity cannot be achieved by increasing the numbers alone, because
many species vary in terms of sex ratio, breeding pattern, population fluctuations etc. These characteristics
affect the gene pool of a population.
PROJECTS RELATED TO BREEDING OF WILD ANIMALS
Various projects were established towards better breeding aspects of the selected wild animal species.

Crocodile Breeding Project


 Due to the large scale hunting for their skin, the 3 species of crocodiles – the Mugger or Fresh water or
Swamp crocodile, the Gharial and the Salt water or Estuarine crocodile got reduced in their numbers.
 From 1st April, 1975, the actual project was started with the following objectivities:
o To continue the task of locating best crocodile areas within the country.
o To collect eggs as soon as possible after laying and transport them to central protection area for
hatchery incubation and to rear the young one until it assumes size for release back into the wild.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 40


Elephant Project
The project was started officially in 1991-92 but launched in 1993 by the central Government to afford
protection to elephants and it had following objectives:-
 To identify the limiting factors of the habitat and to remove it by the management.
 To adapt systematic management plans.
 To eliminate human exploitation and disturbances.
 To build up the elephant habitat to reduce limiting factors.
 To develop the elephant by planning and propagating the favourite food plants of the elephant.

Project Lion
Lion is the top carnivore in the food chain of the ecosystem. In 1972, this project was initiated in India.
Accordingly, to facilitate successful breeding of lions, following were implemented in this project:-
 Shifting of all maldharis from sanctuary and their resettlement outside it.
 Construction of barricades along the water resources to prevent entry of cattle.
 Fencing of periphery of the Gir sanctuary by dry rubble wall of 1 meter height as the protective measure.
 Minimizing of human interferences within the ecosystem.
 Securing of full co-operation of legistlators, public and maldharis.
 Improving the habitat of lions in Gir region.

Project Tiger
 On recommendations from the task force set up by the Indian board for wildlife, Project Tiger was initiated
as a Central Sector scheme in 1973. The breeding of tigers was facilitated by improvement of tiger habitat by
identifying and limiting of the limiting factors of the habitat for tiger population. Thorough emphasis was
given on protection of tigers, fire-protection, disease control, shifting of villages inside the tiger reserve
areas, grazing control, development of water resources, enhancement of research and population
estimation etc. Many tiger reserves were started and tiger conservation was aimed in these.
CONTROLLED BREEDING AND ASSISTED REPRODUCTION
 This is gaining more significance now a days and is being considered as one of the significant factor linked
to effective conservation of different wild animal species belonging to various taxonomical classes.
ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION
 This technique is used in multiple species of the animals ranging from the honey bee to elephant. This
significant reproductive technology is useful in captive breeding of wild animal species like the highly
valued and endangered wild animals . example : Tigers , Lions , Elephants , Chimpanzees , etc. Frozen
semen banks are highly required with history of the concerned wild animal species used for further
advancement of breeding. Electro-ejaculators are being used to collect semen from male genital organs ,
involving the application of varied and measured electric current over the selected sites of the body. Female
genitalia based diseases like pyometra , metritis , etc. may be fully avoided by using this assisted
reproductive technology.
EMBRYO TRANSFER
 Many genetically superior wild animals germplasm may be used for breeding purpose and the associated
factors with embryo-transfer are:-
o Timely recovery of embryos.
o Timely deposition of embryos
o Superior germplasm of the bulls used for production of embryos.
 Embryo-transfer techniques in wild animal species may help in minimizing the risk of disease-
transmission associated with the long-distance movement of breeding wild animals.
 Embryo-tansfers were frequently carried out in deer and camelid species , in general. Studies have to be
undertaken with regard to super-ovulatory responses in multiple-species of wild animals reared under
captive conditions.
CLONING TECHNOLOGY
 Though much progress has not been made in wild animal species with regard to cloning technology , it is to
be understood that the cloning of a targeted wild animal species from an adult somatic cell may be
considered as one of the technological advances with regard to assisted reproduction in wild animals.
 It is significant that in many animals the great majority of cloned embryos may perish before reaching full
term. If the cloned embryos have more epigenetic errors , then there is likelihood of death among such
cloned embryos. It is a known fact that cloned embryos contain fewer cells than the case with normal
embryos.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 41


IN-VITRO EMBRYO PRODUCTION
 The embryos may be preserved even after the death of the concerned wild animal. However availability of
experiment-based informations are scarce in nature.
MODULE-9: ETHOLOGY
 This module is associated with different ethological aspects observed in wild animals

The objectives are


 To know the different ethological features in wild animals
 To reveal about aggression, parental care, reproductive behavior and developmental behaviour
ETHOLOGY
 It means the study of animal behaviour. Heini Hediger was the first scientist called as the “Father
of Zoo Biology”, who emphasized the need of application of ethology to captive wild animal
management.
CAUSATION OF BEHAVIOUR
There are two types of causations – Proximate causation and Ultimate causation.
 Proximate type: (eg. Singing of bird in spring) Hormonal, neural and stimulus specific factors act inside the
animal body.
 Ultimate type: (eg. Proximity of a prospective mate) It emphasizes the reasons that are responsible for the
occurrence of the earlier phase.
DISTANCE AND SPACE
Distances and spaces are more important in terms of ethology of wild animals.

Distance
 Individual distance- it is the personal space or distance that an animal prefers between itself and other
members of its own species.
 Social distance- it is the one which an animal maintains with other members of its social group. It provides
cohesiveness to the group.
 Critical distance- if this is violated and if there is no place or route to escape, animal may threaten or attack
the opposing individual.
 Flight distance- if it is violated bird or animal will run or move away.

Space
 Territory – this is a fixed area from which intruders are excluded by some combination of advertisement,
threat or attack. Aggression may be revealed if territory is violated especially by the members of its own
species.
TYPES OF BEHAVIOR
 Aggression
 Reproductive behavior
 Parental care
 Developmental behavior
 Vices
AGGRESSION
The major causes are given below:
 Competition of males for successful selection of females.
 Conflict over food resources.
 Conflict over infants.
 Disturbance of social organization (crowding, territorial disputes).
 Temporal distortions (eg. Reduced time for feeding).
 Incompatible artificial composition of groups.
 Distortion of social role.
 Reduction of ecological functions.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 42


Note: Aggression is often related with musth in an elephants (The musth related behaviour includes the
followings; Disobedience, Aggression, Tendency to attack, Frequent urination, Frequent trumpeting etc.,)
REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOR
Understanding of biology is a must to understand about the reproductive behaviour of the wild animals. The reasons
for abnormal reproductive behaviour:
 Improper social group composition.
 Improper space availability.
 Failure of niche based requirements.
Niche
 Eg. Need of two nest boxes is a must for reproductive success in case of female tree shrews.
 Eg. Provision of nest box newly at the start of the breeding season may enhance the courtship behavior of
some avian species.
Composition of social group
 To enhance the characteristic mating system of the particular wild animal species, there should be an
adequate composition of the concerned social group.
 Females have more parental investment than males. Examples for differences in parental investment
among sexes:
o In grizzly bears and tigers, males have home range which may overlap the territory of more
females. Hence more offspring can be produced.
o Most of the time birds may reveal monogamy unlike mammals.
PARENTAL CARE
Maternal care
Placenta is the major pathway for intersection of mother with the fetus. The behavioral development in fetus is
influenced my mother due to following:
 Neuro endocrine changes.
 Ingestion of chemicals / drugs affecting the developing brain.
 Altered circulation through the placenta.
 Altered maternal diet.

Birth
 The hormones regulating pregnancy and parturition are same in most of the mammals like estrogen,
progesterone and prolactin. However, in animals like chimpanzees, progesterone does not reduce as it does
in other primates.

Post-partum
 Vocalization, olfactory stimuli and infant activity regulate the interactions between the offspring and
mother. Though lactation is dependent on prolactin and milk let down is dependent of oxytocin, the
performance of nursing behavior does not depend on all these hormones.

Maternal attachment

This is being carried out by the following:


 licking
 nursing
 vision
 audition

Imprinting
 It is the special form of filial attachment occurring during a precise and sensitive period. ( eg. For few hours
after hatching in some species of birds.)

Maternal aggression
 Most common behavior observed.
 Eg- Attack of gaur on carnivores attempting to predate on the young ones or calves.
 The pregnant and lactating wild animals exhibit intense aggressive behavior.

Alloparenting
 It means the care taking of an infant by individuals other than the mother. This means the aunting
behaviour. Mostly the close relatives are involved with this type of behavior.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 43


DEVELOPMENTAL BEHAVIOR
Social deprivation
Altered behavior due to social deprivation is commonly observed in non-human primates like rhesus macaques.
The following behaviors get affected.
 eating behaviour
 drinking behaviour
 reaction to pain
 explorative behaviour
 maternal motivation and skill

Imprinting
 This is a genetically programmed learning, observed in birds as well as in many mammals. Imprinting
occurs during a relatively short, well defined period of time usually early in the life of the individual.
BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS
Stereotyped behaviour
Repetition of motor acts is caused by a variety of reasons especially the boredom. Examples of stereotyped
motor acts are given below
 rocking
 repetitive somersaulting
 repetitive head tossing or weaving
 repetitive bouncing in place
 repetitive pacing.

Displaced activities
 This is the inappropriate activity due to strong activation of innate behaviour by stimulus. Eg. When
primate fails in attracting visitors during begging, it engages in grooming and scratching themselves.

Feeding disorders
 Eg- Food wasting behaviour in captive raccoons
 Plucking of entire feathers of chicken by ocelots.
VICES
 Stereotyping, usage of stools, spitting on persons etc.
MODULE-10: HOUSING OF WILD ANIMALS
 In this unit, different types of the housing related infrastructures have been discussed. The browsing
students should understand that there is a link between improper housing arrangements and health status.

The objectives are


 To know much about various components of housing like common barriers, standoff barriers, fences, floor,
door etc.
 To reveal information on housing and time budget activity, holding yards and biological needs, feeding and
watering facilities, lighting facilities, including the cubicle size etc.
BASICS OF ANIMAL HOUSING
 The housing of wild animals is one of the important criteria to be observed in case of wild animals in
orderto have a successful breeding potential and to have a comfortable livingconditions under captive
conditions maintained in zoos, zoological parks,zoological gardens etc.
 Any wild animal reared undercaptive condition needs to be provided the housing arrangement that can
ensurea quality of life and longevity to enable the zoo population reared in captivestatus.
 The fundamental concept is that the wild animals need to get adequatespace for the free type of movements
that are generally carried out in the wildconditions to the possible extent.
COMPONENTS OF HOUSING ARRANGEMENTS IN WILD ANIMALS
 Each wild animal enclosure needs to be provided with appropriate shelter, perches, withdrawal regions,
drinking water facilities, pools or water holes of suitable areas, and other facilities that may facilitate the
concerned wild animal species.
 Such facilitiesfinally should help the targeted wild animal species to display they wide rangeof their natural
behavioral patterns and the housing facilities should alsoprovide adequate protection from the predators to
a great extent.
 Construction of the moat gains more significance in the housing arrangements.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 44


COMMON BARRIERS
Common six types of barriers that are generally used in case of captive wild animal places are given below:
 Glass panels
 Plastic panels
 Wire-mesh fencing or chain link fences
 Wet and dry moats of adequate dimension
 High tensile vertical wires
 Electrically charged wires
 Concrete barriers in selected sides
STAND-OFF BARRIERS
 The enclosure barriers are the must and more cautions need to be exercised in order to design
these types of barriers especially for the hazardous type of wild animal species like tiger, panther,
lion, jaguar etc.
SPREAD-OUT RAILING BEYOND THE BARRIER
 If there is a direct contact between the wild animal species and the visitor, then there are chances for the
visitors to get injured by the highly capable animals like lions, tiger etc.
 Hence, there is an immediate requirement to construct the stand-off barrier like the construction of
Spaced-Out railing beyond the barriers which help top revent any accidental contact with the concerned
wild animal species.
SECURITY OF FENCES
 More care has to be paid in the construction of the fences that has security related features.
 If not, the visitors as well as the wild animal species may get injured. Particular attention is to be given to
protect the children also during the visit to the captive wild animal places.
 The barriers should not injure the children or anybody.
NATURAL APPEARANCE
 The housing arrangements need to merge with the natural surroundings and this avoids the distraction
when visitors see the enclosure. Hence, the objectives of visiting of zoos may be achieved.
 For many wild animal species, housing arrangements should include naturally simulating infrastructures
and for example, trees may be placed / grown inside the arboreal species like nilgiri langur.
 The visible structural elements of the barriers that are in direct line of the vision of visitors and exhibit
species should be painted suitably , so as to render those structural elements to appear like those of local
soil.

FINANCIAL CONSIDERATION
 It is equally true that consideration needs to be given to the cost factor while the housing designs or
facilities are made for the welfare of wild animals kept as exhibits for the public.
 Timely constructions with facilities that are scientifically required for up keeping the health of the
concerned wild animal species are to be made and further, space has to be given to make expenditures
related to the annual repairs for the concerned structures used by the visitors, wild animal and zoo
personnel.
 Size of the cubicle for the different species has to be meticulously worked out according to the actual size of
the concerned wild animal species.
INSIDE-OVERHANGS AS HOUSING FACILITY
 Overhangs are required particularly in case of animals that are capable of jumping to a great height. This
helps to give protection to both visitors and wild animal species.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 45


 Following wild animal species need the inside-overhangs in general:
o Cheetah
o Zebra
o Wild ass
o Spotted deer
o Hog deer
o Sambar deer
o Mouse deer
o Musk deer
o Brow antlered deer
o Four horned antelope
o Impala
o Chinkara
o Nilgiri tahr
FLOOR OF MAMMALIAN ENCLOSURES
 In case of elephants, the floor arrangements should not be made only by concrete.
 Natural substrate has to be provided to avoid the foot rot. Similarly, for cervids and antelopes, natural floor
is a must.
 Avoid the presence of any pointed materials during the construction of the housing arrangements.
 Drainage facilities need to be provided while designing the floor arrangements inside the mammalian or
other enclosures.
 Flooring arrangement needs to be made in order to facilitate an easy cleaning of the premises.
Crevices need to be taken care of during the routine management.
FLOOR OF AVIARIES
 Care has to be taken to protect the aviary species from the predators that use the floor or sides, often.
Hence, the aviary enclosure or housing arrangement needs to be intelletually established, considering many
features required by avi-fauna of multiple species, in general.
 Rodent control is an important measure for the wild birds that are kept in the confined state.
 Floors of aviaries should have cement concrete floors in order to prevent the entry of rodents and have to be
topped by the layer of about 15 cms earth.
FLOOR OF REPTILIAN HOUSES
 The reptilian houses should have land as well as the water-designs that should allow the sufficient space for
both bathing and basking.
 The substrate for the reptile cages should be of pea-sized gravel or sand material depending upon the
species of the reptiles.
DOORS
The doors of any wild animal species should be constructed considering the following factors in mind:
 Safety (Secured locking systems must be provided in order to prevent the theft or vandalism and to prevent
the unauthorized opening of the cages in which the wild animals have been kept in confined status)
 Durability
 Easy handling nature
 Gilletin type of vertical doors are to be avoided and horizontally, sliding doors may be used with proper
lock-positions.
BREEDING DESIGN
 The housing arrangement should have facilities to facilitate the breeding related activities whenever
required for the concerned wild animal species. For example:
 You may be required to lower the water in hippo pools to thirty to forty cms when birth of the hippo calf is
expected.
 Hence, the housing arrangements have to be made with all such facilities that can enhance the breeding
potential of the wild animal species.
 Escape route is a must for the male felids during mating with female animal.
HOUSING FOR DIFFERENT SEXES
 Many times, if both sexes are kept in same place, fight may occur and in the process, animal may often gets
injured and this will create unwanted problems in the health related management of various wild animal
species.
 Hence, separate housing arrangements have to be constructed for the proper housing of different sexes.
 Species like tigers, lions etc need separate housing arrangements.
 Even giraffes may fight with each other many times when the same housing facility is used by both sexes of
this exotic-wild animal species.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 46


ANATOMY AND HOUSING ARRANGEMENTS
 The entry door of the enclosure has to be constructed in a careful manner in order to avoid the injuries to
the wild animal.
 The opening has to be an adequate one, so that the concerned wild animal species can make entry freely
into the enclosure.
 The entry door of the wild animal species like Giraffe has to be built so high enough to accommodate the
long neck of this animal.
 Elephant should enter into the enclosure freely without any struggles and the housing arrangement has to
be done in such a manner that entry related difficulties have to be avoided in genera
NATURE OF THE SPECIES AND HOUSING
The nature of the concerned wild animal species has to be given more significance when ever a proper housing
arrangement is made.
 Chimpanzees generally are reluctant to approach the water resources except for the drinking purposes.
Hence, wet moats are generally preferred ones whenever housing arrangements are made for them.
 Giraffe do not swim and hence will not have inclination to cross the water moat. Further, the Giraffe are
generally reluctant to step over the barriers and also have been very rarely observed to step over the shallow
ditch. Similarly, Giraffe can extend the neck to a great extent during the attempting of trying to receive food
material if any given by visitor. Hence, during the construction of housing facilities for species like this, all
considerations have to be given to such nature of this species.
 Wet moats with resting platforms appear to be the must in case of housing arrangements for felids
like tigers.
TIME-BUDGET ACTIVITY AND HOUSING
 Consideration needs to be given to the time budget activity of the wild animal species kept as exhibit in the
zoo.
 Nocturnal wild animal species like wolves may prefer to retire during the day time. Hence, the dens may be
provided for these species in their housing arrangements.
 Similarly, separate arrangements have to be made while building housing facilities for the nocturnal wild
animal species like owl, palm-civet etc.
VENTILATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
 Ventilation arrangements have to be made as fool-proof ones and this helps to avoid the occurrence of
respiratory infections like pneumonia to the new born wild animal species as in case with bear cubs etc.
 Arrangements have to be made for the provision of rooms or places, so that the concerned wild animal
species that is kept in confined status may get opportunity to escape from the extremes of climate etc. This
is one of the important feature especially for the new born wild animals or young ones or sick animals.
 Arrangements for heating or cooling in the indoor enclosure may be made to avoid the problems in health
of the wild animal species due to the extreme environmental temperature-variations.
HOLDING YARDS AND BIOLOGICAL NEEDS
 For wild animal species like Spotted deer, Sambar deer etc., small holding yards are often used to keep the
released cervids (from quarantine places) for some days. This facility in captive wild animal places often
helps to keep the wild animals acclimatized with the environment.
 Snakes need mud-pots for laying of eggs. Similarly, arboreal non-human species like Common langurs need
hanging types of wooden rods for climbing activities.
 Wallowing tank or water source to move freely is to be provided for Elephant, Rhino, Sambar deer etc.
 Among the felids, emphasis maybe given to provide water filled tank for submerging or sitting in summer
periods for tigers, in particular.
LIGHTING FACILITIES AND HOUSING
 There should be proper lighting facilities in all wild animal enclosures and this helps to inspect the wild
animal even in the night hours also.
 However, the nocturnal and diurnal activity pattern of the wild animal has to be taken care of while lighting
facilities are used in the enclosures.
 Reptiles like diamond pythons, lizards etc. may require Ultra Violet-B type that has non-visible wavelength
and the UV-bulb may be fixed in such a manner that the concerned reptile may get maximum light and it
appears better to have the bulb at about 12 inches away from the basking spot.
FEEDING PLACE AND HOUSING
 The place for feeding should be constructed in such a manner that the cleaning of the premises becomes an
easy one and the crevices in the feeding trough needs to be attended properly during the maintenance of the
feeding trough or place. This helps to avoid the deposition of feed particles in the structures and thereby the
chances for contamination of food particles get minimized.
 Multiple feeding places are the better ones especially for the animals that are exhibited in herds like Spotted
deer, Manipuri deer, black bucks etc.
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 47
WATERING AND FOOT BATH ARRANGEMENTS
 The watering facility should be thought of whenever a housing facility is constructed for the concerned wild
animal species.
 The capacity of wild animal species with regard to the watering habits needs to be paid more emphasis.
 For example, an elephant may require about two hundred and twenty litres of water in a day.
 Hence, the watering trough should be of adequate size and should have an easy access for the wild animal
species to have water whenever it desires.
 These need to be constructed outside the enclosure and by placing appropriate agents, it becomes possible
to prevent or minimize the entry of microbes through the visiting personnel.
 Place of foot bath should be inspected frequently to avoid the slippery nature of the floor.
SIZE OF THE CUBICLE
Name of the Species Size of the cubicle in meters
Length Breadth Height
Tiger and lions 2.75 1.80 3.00
Panther 2.00 1.50 2.00
Clouded leopard & snow leopard 2.00 1.50 2.00
Small cats 1.80 1.50 1.50
Elephant 8.00 6.00 5.50
One-horned Indian Rhinoceros 5.00 3.00 2.50
Brow antlered deer 3.00 2.00 2.50
Hangul 3.00 2.00 2.50
Swamp deer 3.00 2.00 2.50
Musk deer 2.50 1.50 2.00
Mouse deer 1.50 1.00 1.50
Nilgiri tahr 2.50 1.50 2.00
Chinkara 2.50 1.50 2.00
Four horned antelope 2.50 1.50 2.00
Wild Buffalo 3.00 1.50 2.00
Gaur 3.00 2.00 2.50

Name of the Species Size of the cubicle in meters


Length Breadth Height
Yak 4.00 2.00 2.50
Bharal, goral, Wild sheep and markhor 2.50 1.50 2.00
Wild Ass 4.00 2.00 2.00
All type of Indian bears 2.50 1.80 2.00
Jackal, wolf and Wild dog 2.00 1.50 1.50
Palm civet 2.00 1.00 1.00
Large Indian civet & binturong 2.00 1.50 1.00
Otters all types 2.50 1.50 1.00
Hogbadger 2.50 1.50 1.00
Martens 2.00 1.50 1.00
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 48
Red Panda 3.00 1.50 1.00
Slow loris and slender loris 1.00 1.00 1.50
Macaques and langurs 2.00 1.00 1.50

MODULE-11: PREVENTION OF DISEASES, HYGIENE AND PUBLIC


HEALTH IN ZOOS
 This unit throws light on different kinds of the prophylactic measures pertaining to the various diseases;
similarly hygienic measures and public health aspects were also dealt.

The objectives are


 To study on different types of tests to be carried out during the quarantine periods.
 To study on prophylactic measures against important diseases like anthrax, tuberculosis, pasteurellosis etc.
 To understand on public health problems arising from zoos.

TESTS IN QUARANTINE UNIT


Group of Wild Important criteria to be assessed during arrival of new wild animal
Animals species in a zoo as a preventive measure of diseases
Primates  Hematology and Serology
 Urine analysis
 Culture of feces for salmonella /Shigella /Camphylobacter
 Serology for Herpes virus simiae (Herpes B) in old world Monkeys.
 Chest radiograph
 PCR for Tuberculosis
 Coprological examination
Hoof stock  Hematology and Serology
 Coggins test for equid species
 Vaccination in endemic areas
 Coprological examination
Small mammals/  Vaccination applicable
carnivores  Hematology
 Bio chemistry
 Urine analysis
 Coprological examination
Birds  Direct and flotation test
 Evaluation for ectoparasites
 Fecal culture for salmonella sp
Reptiles and  Fecal examination
Amphibians  CBC and blood chemistry
 Fecal culture for salmonella sp.
PREVENTIVE MEDICINE AND SANITATION RELATED WITH
CARCASE DISPOSAL
 Glutaraldehyde shall be chosen for the disinfections processes after the disposal of the carcass, subsequent
to the post- mortem. Anthrax affected carcass or suspected carcass should not be opened and the burial
should be carried out atleast with two metre depth, with a sample spread-over of quicklime.
 It may be better to burry the carcass, together with the bedding and soil contaminated with discharge. If
spore formation occurs (within few hours of exposure to air), strong-disinfectants may be used like Lysol
(this should be in contact with spores for atleast 2days)or strong solution of formalin or sodium hydroxide
at the strength of 5-10%.
 Burning by using a incinerator will be a better practice of disposal of carcass, since it avoids feeding of
infected carcass by scavengers like hyena, jackals etc. and also helps to prevent the contamination of the
environment in which other wild animals are confined.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 49


CLINICAL AND NON-CLINICAL WASTE DISPOSAL PROCEDURES
 These procedures need to be maintained in a perfect condition in appropriate polythene bags without any
spillage in the environment.
SANITATION AND PARTURITION
 Documentations are available on the high incidence of enteric infections in cages with has not been cleaned
well after the cubbing/farrowing / calving / whelping etc.
 Unhygienic status maintained within the wild animal cages especially the ones with the new born wild
animals lead to infection in the young ones.
SANITATION WITHIN THE ANIMAL HOUSE
 Despite proper cleaning and one or two times of washing of floor, there are more chances for the
accumulation of feces and feces which often get mixed with urine and they get embedded in the crevices of
floor or wall. Hence there may be a possibility of a heavy “build-up-of-Potentially Pathogenic Bacteria ”.
 Often, due to the conditions like suitable climate that comprises the apt temperature, humidity and rain fall
changes, there is increase in the spread and survival of these bacterial organisms especially ,when cleaning
works are not done in a proper manner.
 Application of effective disinfectants like the glutaraldehyde will be of highly useful in destroying the
bacterial, viral, fungal and parasitic pathogens.
SANITATION WITH REGARD TO VESSELS
 Any stainless steel surfaces (feeding vessels if any) may be cleaned and disinfected with trisodium
phosphate.
 During adaptation of the sanitation measures in the animal room, it is to be noted that since the alkalis are
non-toxic, when adequately diluted they leave no residual odor and are even used in the treatment of floor
in food factories and hence can be safely used for floors.
 Particularly these materials will be of useful in places where layers of fatty materials may accumulate.
OTHER MEASURES
 Inside the animal cage / room, the debris need to be cleaned every day.
 The high pressure based hose pipe should not be used, because it will lead to the deposition of fomites,
aerosol and debris on walls etc.
 Always foot bath is to be provided before each wild animal enclosure and the animal keeper should develop
the routine habit of dipping his legs in this, before each time of entry in to the animal place.
IMMUNO-GLOBULINS AS PREVENTIVE MEDICINE
 Environmental pathogens do the considerable risk to the new born wild animals like wild felid species.
These wild animal species are generally at the greater risk due to the failure of passive transfer of these
antibodies, if the young ones are rejected before receiving the colostrums. This is especially true with the
underweight and weak neonates or the ones that are unable to compete with the others for feeding.
 Collection and long –term storage of serum and or plasma from all exotics that have breeding potential is
recommended as a source for supplemental IgG.
 Also, screen the potential donors against the commonly encountered diseases in the concerned species.
PREVENTIVE MEDICINE IN METABOLIC BONE DISEASE
 If wild animals are fed a diet with imbalanced calcium – phosphorous ratio or if they have chronic intestinal
malabsorption, metabolic bone disease may occur in them, especially in case of species that are bone eaters
like hyaena.
 To avoid this, access to sun light may be provided for the prevention of this disease. Provision of
supplemental drugs enriched with calcium and phosphorous may be carried out as one of the effective
preventive medicine, against the occurrence of metabolic bone disease.
PREVENTIVE MEASURES AGAINST IMPORTANT DISEASES
 There are many diseases that occur in a frequent manner in captive wild animal atmosphere and
vaccinations are being given for some.
 However, more research aspects have to be carried out in this regard to strengthen the protective measures
in captive wild animals.
ANTHRAX
 Anthrax bacilli sporulate only if exposed to oxygen.
 Vegetative forms present in tissues and body fluids die out, if the carcase is not opened.
TUBERCULOSIS
 Isolate the reactors or the tested ones that are suspected to be positive.
 Avoid congestion of number of animals in a single enclosure.
 Multiple drug combination with isoniazid may be given but the serological monitoring of biochemical
parameters should be carried out to assess the health status of the concerned wild animal species.
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 50
PASTEURELLOSIS IN MAMMALS
 Carry out the vaccination in the endemic areas against hemorrhagic septicemia.
 Oil adjuvant vaccine protects animals against the attack of the disease for a long time, than the case with
alum precipitated vaccine.
o Fowl cholera
 In aquatic and semi-aquatic birds, this disease may occur.
 Good management, sanitation and hygiene are the preventive steps to be taken with
regard to this disease condition.
o Leptospirosis
 Efficient control of wild rodents should be carried out.
 Maintenance of hygienic standards to prevent the contamination of food resources and in
particular the water resources with urine.
 Detection of the infected animals by serological and bacteriological tests and their
separation from healthy animals should be carried out.
 Immunization may be carried out in case of carnivores esp. in the endemic areas.
o Black quarter
 Hygienic maintenance is the specific preventive step against the occurrence of this disease.
 Destruction of carcases by burning and cleaning and effective treatment of wounds should
be carried out as preventive steps of minimizing the spread.
o Salmonellosis
 Culture of diarrhoeic animals will reveal the diseased ones and isolate the diseased animal
as one of the preventive step to minimize the spread of the problem.
 It is important to remove all the possible sources of infection, carrier animals, rodents,
contaminated.
o Coli bacillosis
 This is common in case of young ones.
 Provide hygienic management measures.
 Avoid overcrowding of animals of one species
o Dermatophytoses (Ringworm)
 Contaminated enclosures, equipment and bedding should be disinfected by spraying
copper sulphate solution or 5 % lime sulphur solution. This helps to diminish the reservoir
of infection.
 Fallen skin crusts have to be disposed off to check the spread of infection from diseased to
other.
PREVENTIVE MEDICINE
 Apply suitable antiseptic solution like povidone iodine solution to the severed spot of umbilical cord by
careful methods. This helps to avoid the development of umbilical infections especially in case of new born
elephants.
 The new born elephant has an open umbilical sheath that can be mistaken for an umbilical cord, often.
 The cord (umbilical artery and veins) actually gets retracted inside the sheath into the abdomen.
 When disinfecting the umbilical sheath, use a syringe to deliver disinfectant into the open umbilical sheath
and just dipping the umbilical structure as done by many persons will not be adequate as a preventive step
to minimize the occurrence of umbilical infections in wild animal species like elephants.

VACCINATION
 Vaccination as the Preventive Measures in captive felids like tigers, lions and panthers are routinely
protected by preventive vaccination against calcivirus, feline pan leukopenia and feline rhino tracheitis.
 Similarly, in endemic areas of specific disease like HS or FMD or Anthrax, the periodical vaccination needs
to be carried out against such diseases, in the susceptible hooved stock.
SANITATION WITH REGARD TO VECTORS
 Stray dogs, cats, rodents, snails and insects transmit various diseases both in active and passive manners.
Hence, a strict control is to be made on the breeding and elimination of them within the zoo premises, to
the possible extent.
 Moats wet or dry need to be cleaned in a periodical manner and the prompt cleaning measures need to be
undertaken with adequate drying of wet moat.
 Algae development may be monitored on the wet moats in particular. Enteric infections may occur when
the confined wild animals develop the habit of drinking water.
 Bush needs to be cleared with regard to minimizing of incidences with trypanosomes

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 51


Trypanosomes
CONDITION ON USING SPECIFIC SANITIZING AGENTS
 Precautions should be undertaken with each sanitizing agent that is used in the zoological park, as quoted
below:
o Smell of the concerned sanitizing agent is one of the important factors to be taken care of in the
wild animal enclosures.
o The approximate contact time should be maintained for each agent. For example, there is a need of
approximately two minutes contact time for the exertion of bactericidal, viricidal and
mycobacterial actions of the compounds like iodophors.
o It is worthy to mention the iodophors are not suitable as hard – surfaced disinfectant.
o It is better to use the Specific disinfectants for the concerned pathogen whether it is a viral or
bacterial agent.
SPECIFIC DISINFECTANTS
Diseases Specific disinfectant to be used
FMD  4% solution of sodium bi carbonate (washing soda)
 Formaldehyde fumigation of materials like straw, grain etc.
 Citric acid
Anthrax 2-5% HCl acid to disinfectant the hides and hides contaminated with Anthrax as in
taxidermy
Rabies Formaldehyde or Cresol may be of usef
Tuberculosis 70% Isopropyl alcohol in 5mtes time or 3% phenol in 2-3 hrs
Herpes virus Gluteraldehyde /Chlorine/Ethanol
Fowl pox virus Formaldehyde /Methyl bromide
New castle Formaldehyde /Chlorinated lime /Chloramine lime
diseases
EQUIPMENTS TO REDUCE THE CONTAMINATION
 Use of Class II Bio-safety cabinet may be of helpful to reduce the contamination of the environment in a
Zoo laboratory.
 Laminar flow may also be used for this purpose.
ZOO HYGIENE
 Usage of suitable disinfectant (natural or synthetic)
 Proper disposal of carcass
 Speedy disposal of feed wastes
 Supply of hygienic water
 Animal keepers and handlers‟ hygiene
 Bush clearance (vector control)
 Disposal of polythene bags
 White washing of water containers and walls and feeding tanks in a periodical manner.
 Adaptation of suitable fly control measures (fly catcher lights) esp. in fed –receiving spots or stores room.
 Speedy clearance of sheds / cages after the occurrence of diarrheic stools / after the conducting of
operation.
 Strengthening of rodent or pest proof barriers (Vermin control) or cages or fences esp. in aviaries or bird-
exhibit places to avoid diseases.
 Usage of aseptic infrastructures like sterilized needles, syringes, sample-collecting containers etc.
 Laboratory should be a clean one without giving chances for any types of infections.
WATER HYGIENE
 Periodical examination of water hygiene is to be taken care of well, in a zoological park
atmosphere.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 52


 Presence of algae, bacterial load esp. any contamination with E’coli, Salmonella sp., toxic
materials etc. have to be ruled out, always.
SAFE UPPER LIMIT OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES
Toxic item Safe upper limit (in ppm)
Arsenic 0.20
Cadmium 0.05
Chromium 1.00
Cobalt 1.00
Fluoride 2.00
Lead 0.10
Mercury 0.01
Nickel 1.00
Nitrate 100
Nitrite 10
Zinc 25
Vanadium 0.10

ASSESSMENT ON INDICATOR STATUS OF THE GROUP


 If many wild animals of a wild animal species are kept confined in a fenced area of the zoo complex,
randomly blood sample should be obtained after the chemical immobilization in a periodical manner and
the hematological and biochemical examination, together with the serological examination should be
carried out with such sample as a preventive measure of diseases in captive wild animals of the zoological
park.
 The qualitative and quantitative data to be obtained with these samples will be of more useful ones towards
the up-keeping of health status in wild fauna.
PUBLIC HEALTH PROBLEMS ARISING FROM ZOOS
 In general zoological gardens, Parks, Corporation zoos seem like natural places to encounter a wide variety
of zoonotic diseases. Wild animals can transmit disease to humans in the following ways;
 Certain procedures should be followed in order to decrease possible health hazards to human personnel‟s.
 New animals should be properly checked out, before they are added to the collection.
 Proper restraint technique, either physical or chemical should be employed to prevent animal bites.
 Protective clothing that can be cleaned or disposed of after use.
 Personnel hygiene, including washing hands before eating, should be strictly enforced.
 Good sanitation and ventilation greatly decrease the rate of disease transmission.
 Vaccinations of keepers for measles, polio, rabies, mumps, tetanus is beneficial.
 Zoos should not receive or transport any animals that are in bad condition.
 Proper quarantine measures should be carried out.
 Proper report of zoonotic disease is essential.
PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES FOR STAFF MEMBERS OF ZOO
 Hands should be washed frequently especially after handling the animal, its food, bedding, enclosure
materials, excrement and/or tissue and body fluids.
 Cages should be cleaned so as to minimize the risk of creating aerosols or droplets of potentially infectious
materials. Wearing protective clothing, especially masks, gloves and glasses or goggles.
 The staff should be instructed to engage in proper personnel hygiene procedures in and out of the
workplace.
 Staff members who are ill with a cold and or having a cold sore should avoid working around the animals.
 If staff members get sick they should seek medical attention.
 A baseline serum sample should be collected from all personnel working with animals for periodical
screening for infectious diseases.
 Staff members should take precautions to avoid any physical injury in handling them.
 An effective means for handling, reporting, evaluating and treating occupational exposures to possible
zoonotic infections should be developed for the institution.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 53


 Individuals with a known immunodeficiency diseases should be extremely cautious in working with
potentially infected animals or materials.
 An active insect and rodent control program should be instituted in the facility.
 Personnel who have open cuts or sores on their hands should wear gloves while working around animals
and their faeces.
PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES FOR VISITORS
 In addition to the precautions to be followed by the staff members visitors are at their own risk and also
acts as agents in spreading the diseases.
 Visitors should not spit inside the animal premises, which may lead to spread of infection.
 Avoid touching of animal cages as it may be contaminated.

PREVENTION OF IMPORTANT DISEASES


Disease Prevention and/or Treatment
Foot and Mouth  Antiseptic mouth wash and application of antiseptic solutions on foot lesions.
Disease  Proper immunization.
Anthrax  Administration on antibiotics and annual vaccination.
 Carcass should not be opened and is to be burnt or deeply buried.
 Restrict animal movement.
Hemorrhagic  Use fluroquinolone compounds like enrofloxacin for treatment.
Septicemia  Vaccination
 Isolate the affected ones
Black Quarter  Anitibiotics
 Vaccination
 Isolate the affected ones
Theileriosis  Treat with Buparvaquone @20mg/kg i/m
 Control of tick population.
 Vaccination of animals in enzootic areas.
 Isolate the affected ones
Anaplasmosis  Treat with tetracycline and supportive therapy with B-complex vitamins.
Babesiosis  Treat with Diaminazene aceturate @4mg/kg i/m or Imidocarb dipropionate
@ 1mg/kg i/m
 B-complex injection.
 Adoption of tick control measures.
Coccidiosis  Administration of sulphonamides, etc
 Strict sanitary measures
Trypanosomosis  Use quinapyramine sulphate and chloride for both curative and prophylactic
purpose.
 Use diaminazine aceturate for curative purpose
 Control of fly population.
Cestodiasis  Praziquantel may be used.
 Strict sanitary measures.
Helminthiasis  Use Albendazole or Pyrantel pamoate for deworming purpose.
 Strict sanitary measures
Malaria  Administration of quinine
 Control of mosquitoes
Amoebiasis  Metronidazole @30-60mg/kg b.wt daily for 5-10 days (orally)
Leptospirosis  Doxycycline, ceftriaxone,etc may be used
Tuberculosis  Administration of Isoniazid and related drugs(rifampicin and pyrazinamide)

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 54


MODULE-12: RESTRAINT OF WILD ANIMALS - I
Learning objective
This module has got specific goals that are oriented to impart information pertaining to the restraint and physical
restraint of wild animals belonging to various species. In nut shell, it provides answers to the following questions in
a simplified manner:
 What is Restraint?
 What are the gadgets that are more useful for an efffective restraint procedure in case of wild animals?
 Are there any factors that are to be taken care of before you start to exercise the restraint procedures?
ABOUT THE RESTRAINT
 Restraint means the control of wild animal which may be in trapped or freely moving status.
 It is to be significant to note that any the proposed physical restraint of the wild animal should not cost risk
to either handler or the wild animal.
TYPES AND PURPOSES OF RESTRAINT
Types
 Physical Restraint
 Chemical Restraint

Purposes
 The wild animals need to be restrained for various purposes and one has to understand the multiple
reasons for the effective restraining of wild animals in a systematic manner.
GADGETS USED FOR THE PROPER PHYSICAL RESTRAINT
 There are many types of physical restraint related gadgets for application in case of wild animals like drop
nets, net gun, squeeze cages , trap cages etc.

STRAW, BLANKETS AND BAFFLE BOARDS


 The bales of straw materials are more easy to use due to it‟s availability and cost. However, it can be used
mainly in case of deer related restraint strategies especially to restraint the deer inside the fenced area
 Blanket materials are particularly useful in controlling the semi-conscious cervids and more useful during
the control of primates falling from top.
 These are the large pieces of plywood with handles fixed in one side, so as to have a better grip of the board
whenever the captive wild animal is approached for various purposes.
TYPES AND PURPOSES OF RESTRAINT
 The net guns are always used for the physical restraint with capture of free ranging aviary species. However,
the cost factor of this has to be taken care of.
 Krall is used mainly to restrain the elephants in free ranging regions.

 Bamboos are mainly used for the construction of this restraint gadget.
GLOVES, GUNNY BAGS AND BASKETS
 Gloves with various thickness measurements are used for an efficient control of wild animals especially the
small sized mammals and the multiple aviary species.
 However, when restraining the different sized birds by using gloves, one has to take more care in avoiding
exertion of maximum pressure in the name of control of the birds. This may cause problem like suffocation
in the concerned tiny sized aviary species.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 55


 Longer gloves may be used to give more protection to the arm and wrist. However, one has to be cautious
that if the gloves used are more thicker, then this may interfere with the touch-reflex.
 Gunny bags are useful to control the non-human primates of smaller size like bonnet macaques and the
loris. The ropes need to be ready always whenever the attempts are made to control the non-human
primates or any other smaller sized animal.
 The baskets are of more useful to control the chelonians and the wire baskets are better ones to have
restraining activities for selected aviary species.
SQUEEZE CAGES AND CHAIN LINK FENCES
 The squeeze cages need to be adequate size for the concerned wild animal under target. The squeeze cages
are in-built ones in case of felid enclosures. These cages are mainly used for an efficient control of captive
felids like lion, tiger, panther, bears, hyena, jackals, wild dogs, fox etc.
 Hydraulic squeeze cages are available for an efficient control of even the large sized mega herbivores like
elephants.
 Well padded squeeze cages are available for the control of cervid species like spotted deer, sambar deer etc.
 Chain link fences are used to restrain many species of wild animals including non-human primates like
Bonnet macaques in an efficient manner.

KETCH-ALL-POLE, SNARES AND ELECTRIC RODS


 The ketch-all-Pole gadgets may be used for control the highly aggressive wild carnivores of smaller size.
Snares are used to control the species like wild boars, camels etc.
 Electric rods are currently used as a means of defensive action. In case of highly aggressive animal, this may
be used for an effective control whenever required.
GADGETS BASED ON SIGHT AND SOUND
 The puppets are mainly used to capture the freely swimming birds in a lake etc.
 Mist nets are of fine ones and can be spotted out only out of serious observations. These are used mainly for
the restraint of cervids like spotted deer, antelopes like blackbuck. However, they need to be placed with
suitable height.
 The visual barriers directing the wild animals in one direction with facilities for the placement of obstacles
may be used for the proper restraint of cervids.
 The spot lights are used with adequate illuminative power, in the night periods. The eyes of the wild
animals will glow often in this targeted spot light. The animals may be restrained subsequently.
 The carbondioxide fire extinguisher based gadgets are simply used to have control over the wild animal by
means of developing some foam or noise in front of the concerned wild animal especially in case of some
emergency conditions.
 The hoods made of clothes are used for the control of the big sized birds like ostriches, emus, cassowary etc.
FOOT HOLD TRAPS AND DROP NETS
 These foot hold traps are mainly useful to restrain the carnivores in the free ranging regions like the wolf,
hyena, jackals etc.
 Drop nets are used to capture the non-human primates, cervids, antelopes etc. but more caution is needed
to use these gadgets for the restraint purpose.
 Nets made of nylon or cotton with sufficient durability may be used for an efficient restraint of the wild
animal.
PRESSURE FORCE, CUSHION AND MATTRESSES
 The pressure force to be exerted by fingers help to exercise more control in the birds captured. However,
some experience is required for it‟s efficient usage.
 Mattresses can be used safely but with cautions in cervids, antelopes etc. and these gadgets are of useful as
barriers mainly.
 Cushion may be used to give specific support in selected spots during the restraining operations of cervids
in trucks or fenced chambers.
MISCELLANEOUS GADGETS
 Mouth gags may be useful for small sized wild mammals like jungle cats, foxes, jackals etc. However, needs
a clear assessment. Snares also may be used to restrian the wild animals at a distance.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 56


 Adjustable partitions are used in between the animals like carnivores. The enclosures for lions or panthers
often have the partitions that can be operated from outside in a more safe manner.
 The drop gates with pulley system can be used to capture and restraint of non-human primates, wild pigs
etc.

 Snake hooks for snakes and elephant hooks for elephants may be of more useful in physical restraint
procedures.

Snake hook Elephant hook


 Please note that the snake hook needs to have an adequately lengthy handle to provide safety to the
operator or restraining personnel associated. Transparent plastic tubes may be used for the proper restaint
of serpentinbes.

 Nets are being used for various species of wild fauna esp. birds.

TECHNIQUES USING SPECIFIC SENSE PERCEPTION


Cooling
 The cooling related reflex can be used to control the wild animals like serpentines.

Vision
 Vision related reflex can be used to control the wild animals and such types of restraints are often used to
control the vision based stress reactions also in case of wild animals.
 It is to be remembered that the blind folded wild animals may not show much excitement unlike the wild
animal which has not been blind folded.
 Complete coverage but with the proper ventilation using thick cloth like tarpaulin may be of useful in
quitening the concerned wild animal. This feature is to be taken care of during the calming down of the free
ranging wild animal like leopard etc.
 It is to be remembered that the nocturnal wild animals may be less active in broad day light and similarly,
the diurnal wild animals may be less active in night time.

Psychological tool
 Voice may be helpful to some extent for the proper restraint of the wild animal.
 However, it may not be taken as a more reliable tool for the restraint of the wild animal.

Smell
 Sometimes, the presence of excreta from same animal or the same species may have some degree of
calming effects.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 57


FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED BEFORE THE RESTRAINT
 One has to consider multiple factors before making an effective restraint procedures in case of
various species of wild animals.
 One may encounter failure if due considerations are not given in the different factors that are
required for a successful restraint in the field conditions .
MODULE-13: RESTRAINT OF WILD ANIMALS - II AND SURGICAL
INTERVENTIONS
 This branch reveals the purposes of chemical restraint, different gadgets associated, characteristic of
various drugs used for various restraint procedures and common surgical conditions in various wild
animals.

The objectives are


 To study the infra-structures used for chemical immobilization
 To know about activities of various restraining drugs and anesthetics
 To know about the commonly occurring surgical conditions in wild animals
PURPOSES OF CHEMICAL RESTRAINT
 Disease diagnostic purpose
 Therapeutic purpose
 Vaccination purpose
 Examination of highly excitable species
 Biological research purposes
 Veterinary research purposes
 Translocation
 Transfer
 Transport
 Wild animal conflicts related events (herbivore and carnivore and omnivore may get associated with these
conflicts)
 Random health assessment in free ranging areas
 Rescue purposes
 Management purposes
DRUG CHARACTERS
 The drug characteristics that are expected with use of any type of chemical agent needs to be well
understood before one resorts into chemical immobilization in any wild animal species.
 This helps many times to avoid the untoward incidences that are likely to arise due to the chemical
immobilization in case of wild fauna.
GADGETS USED FOR CHEMICAL IMMOBILIZATION
 There are different kinds of gadgets that are being used to immobilize the wild animal species and these
infrastructures are varying in terms of cost, procedure of usage, durability etc.
DIFFERENT GADGETS USEFUL FOR CHEMICAL RESTRAINT
 There are various gadgets available for chemically immobilizing of various species of wild animals.
 They need to be understood by any veterinarian who carries out the immobilization operation.
 Different sites in various wild animal species like elephants, cervids, felids etc. need to be known before
applying various gadgets for chemical restraint of wild animals

STICK SYRINGES
 Various stick syringes are available commercially. Silently, approach the animal cage where the non-human
primate or the carnivore has been contained.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 58


 The quickly carry out the injection after the exposure of the correct site like a suitable muscular area in the
abdomen.
 The thrust needs to be made in proper manner and in a fast manner. Such actions may help for a successful
delivery of the immobilizing agent or any other medicament.
DART SYRINGE OR DART

 These are the specialized syringes used for loading of the immobilizing drug like xylazine or ketamine or
both or etorphine.
 Darts are operated by mechanical pressure or by using the gas and proper loading of dart into the blow pipe
is a must for a successful immobilization event.
 These projectile syringes are generally propelled by blowing of air, pistol, long distance rifle. Cartridges may
be used for the pressure if the distant delivery systems like rifles are used in case of wild animals.

 Radio darts are available currently to locate the wild animal precisely in the forest environment and a small
powerful impact resistant transmitter is attached behind the drug barrel with a projectile antenna.
 Dart needles (collared or barbed or ordinary dart needles) are of more useful in delivery of drug materials

Collared needle Barbed needle


BLOW PIPE
 The rigid blow pipe has a tube and a mouth cuff. The mouth cuff needs to be compact and in size to
facilitate the adequate blowing of air.

 The blowgun is becoming more popular among zoo veterinarians and the major merit is the silent
projection. At the same time, this may cause lesser impact or trauma or injury to the targeted wild animal.
 The average length of blow pipe is about 1 to 2 meters and the maximum range actually depends on the
stamina of the user. In general, the average range is about fifteen meters.
 Wondering on how to practice darting? Yeah. Think about design of animal model like tiger model !!!!

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 59


BLOW PIPE APPLICATION
 Bonnet macaque being darted using blow pipe

AIR PRESSURE GUN


 These equipments mainly are similar to the blow pipe in structure but is bigger in size and has an added
advantage of silent projections and low maintenance cost.
 The gun stock may have inbuilt pressure gauge. Some times, the pressure gauge may be present at the foot
pump.
 It is to be remembered that the pressure requirement may have variations and this often depends on the
size of the dart as well as the distance between the wild animal and the gun.
 Air pressure of about four to eight bars is adequate to propel the dart upto a distance of about twenty to
thirty meters.
CROSS BOW
 The cross bow is not much used now a day. Further, it is to be taken note of that the cross bow is not
suitable for species under hundred Kg.
 This may be due to the high impact capacity that may be developed by the projected one.
TYPES AND PURPOSES OF RESTRAINT
o Palmer Cap-Chur equipments or Dist-inject equipments and Teleinject equipments are commonly
used to effect the immobilization of multiple species of wild animals, in general.
o The types of Palmer Cap-Chur equipment
o Pistol or short-range projector (Range is about fifteen meters)
o In this projector or the gun, the compressed carbon-di-oxide is used for the development of the
pressure.
o Rifle or long-range projector (Range is about 35 meters)
o This is also using the power provided by compressed carbon-di-oxide
o Exra-long range projector (Range is about 80 meters)
o These equipments are powered by percussion caps.
 A veterinarian associating with wild animal immobilization is supposed to understand well about the
various effects of the multiple kinds of chemical agents that are routinely used for knocking down of wild
animals of various species.
CHARACTERS OF DRUGS FOR RESTRAINT OF WILD ANIMALS
 The drug characteristics that are expected with use of any type of chemical agent needs to be well
understood before one resorts into chemical immobilization in any wild animal species.
 Ideal features if an immobilizing drug are given below:
o Low cost
o No side effects
o Rapid absorption and rapid action
o Need of concentrated form (small quantity for injection via dart syringe is convenient for field
usage)
o Permitted for use in animals for human consumption
o Effective immobilization - effects
o Reversible by the injection of an antidote

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 60


o Safe for the handler as well as to the targeted wild animal species
o Wide safety margin
o Should not irritate the muscle
o Capable of remaining stable in solution for long periods of time at room temperature
o Short induction period
 This helps many times to avoid the untoward incidences that are likely to arise due to the chemical
immobilization in case of wild fauna.
CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS
Class Group Agents
Opioids Morphine derivatives Etorphine
Opiate substitutes Carfentanil
Fentanyl
Neuromuscular blockers Competitive antagonists Gallamine
Non-competitive antagonists Suxamethonium
Ganglion blockers Hexamethonium
Tranquilizers Phenothiazine derivatives Acepromazine
(Neuroleptics) Chlorpromazine
Propionylpromazine
Hypnotics and sedatives Diazepinones Diazepam
Midazolam
Climazolam
Zolazepam
Butyrophenones Azaperone
Haloperidol
Anaesthetic drugs Barbiturates Thiopentone
Pentobarbitone
Inhalation anaesthetics Halothane
Dissociative anaesthetics Ketamine
Tiletamine

XYLAZINE
This is one of the alpha two adrenoceptor agonist and is available both in powder and solution
forms.
Effects of xylazine based immobilization
 Animals appear sleeping
 Snoring sounds will be heard at a distance in species like elephants
 Dullness
 Reduced movements
Analgesia lasts for fifteen to thirty minutes and after this period, painful techniques should not be
undertaken, in general. However, it is to be noted that a sleep like state is maintained for almost about an
hour to two hours.
Caution
 It is significant to note that the seemingly sedated animal may get up explosively causing concern
to the safety of the persons nearby.
 If the dose rate is exceeded, death may occur and hence, correct judgment of the dose rate
depending on the species needs to be made if one wants to have a success in it‟s usage in various
species of wild animals. Atropine may be of useful to reduce the drug effects of xylazine.
Antidote for xylazine
 Yohimbine at the dose rate of 0.125 mg per Kg body weight and Doxapram hydrochloride may be
used as a respiratory stimulant.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 61


KETAMINE
 Ketamine is the derivative of phencyclidine derivative and is a dissociative anaesthetic. Animal
administered with ketamine generally retains the reflexes which is considered as advantageous one with
regard to the minimizing of hazards of inhalation of food or ingesta. Eyelids remain open and eyes have a
fixed expression. However, it may not produce skeletal muscle relaxation.
 Ketamine crosses the placenta in case of pregnant wild animals and however, it is known to cause no
abortion in case of wild animals.

Use in wild animals


 Wide dose rate is noticed (2 to 50 mg per kg body weight). Effects of parenteral injection occur within three
to five minutes. Convulsions may occur in case of felids. This drug is not much suitable one in case of
herbivores in general. However this is much useful in case of carnivores, reptiles and avifauna.
 Cautions during the usage of ketamine
o This drug should not be mixed with barbiturates in the same range.
o Hyperthermia is a side effect of this drug.
TILETAMINE
 Tiletamine is one of the cyclohexanone dissociative agent related to ketamine.
 This is often combined with zolazepam hydrochloride which is a nonphenothiazine pyrazolodiazepinone
tranquilizer.
 This combination helps to reduce the occurrence of seizures which are likely to occur more if tiletamine
alone is used in the wild animals.
ETORPHINE
 Etorphine is a narcotic drug to be used with more clinical cautions. This is the synthetic derivative of
opium alkaloid and has about ten thousand times the analgesic properties of morphine sulphate.
 This drug has 10,000 times the analgesic properties of morphine. Anaesthesia occurs in ten to twenty
minutes.
 Recovery is slow without antidote and in such occasions, the recovery may take as much as seven hours.
However, when antidote is used, the wild animal may become mobile or ambulatory within a period of
about four to ten minutes.
 Legal formalities are to be taken care of while using etorphine like drugs.
 The animal may have tachycardia and may either get stimulated or depressed depending on the dose-
response and the species of the wild animal.

Use of etorphine in wild animal


 This drug is used in large sized herbivores like elephant, hippopotamus, giraffe, sambar deer etc. Large
animal formulation of Immobilon contains 2.45 mg/ml Etorphine mixed with 10mg/ml Acepromazine
maleate which is a phenothiazine derivative.

Antidote
 Diprenorphine is the antidote to be used for etorphine. The standard dose is double the amount of
etorphine injected.
 Cautions to be undertaken while using etorphine
o Should not be used with atropine, since the atropine may reduce the solubility of the drug.
o Animal may develop hyperthermia
o Passive regurgitation may occur in cases of prolonged immobilization with etorphine
o Injured wild animals may require slightly high dose rate of etorphine
o Human-health hazard related factors need to be taken care of like avoidance of accidental falling
on skin or eyes of the handling wildlife veterinarian and person who knows how to give I/V in
human being may accompany the operation and such action may be of useful in cases of accidental
emergencies. Equipment for artificial respiration should be available in the spot. Always wear
gloves and glasses during usage of etorphine. When morphine drugs are handled, a stock of Narcan
(human antidote) and diprenorphine (animal antidote) must always be available.
ACEPROMAZINE
 Acepromazine is generally not used alone and often, a combination is used with ketamine or etorphine.
 The muscle relaxant effects are unique ones when used in combination with ketamine.
FENTANYL AND CARFENTANYL
 Fentanyl is a morphine derivative and is about one hundred and eighty times more potent than the
morphine as an analgesic. This drug is often combined with droperidol which is a tranquilizer.
 Though the effects start in about ten minutes, the effects may persist for about forty minutes.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 62


Use in wild animals
 The combination of droperidol with Fentanyl may be used in various species of wild animals especially
carnivores, nonhuman primates and various small mammals among the wild animal species.

Antidote
 Naloxone hydrochloride is an antidote to be used at the dose rate of 0.006 mg per Kg body weight.
 Carfentanyl may be used in wild animals but is one of the costly drugs and is a narcotic one.
FENTANYL AND CARFENTANYL
 Fentanyl is a morphine derivative and is about one hundred and eighty times more potent than the
morphine as an analgesic. This drug is often combined with droperidol which is a tranquilizer.
 Though the effects start in about ten minutes, the effects may persist for about forty minutes.

Use in wild animals


 The combination of droperidol with Fentanyl may be used in various species of wild animals especially
carnivores, nonhuman primates and various small mammals among the wild animal species.

Antidote
 Naloxone hydrochloride is an antidote to be used at the dose rate of 0.006 mg per Kg body weight.
 Carfentanyl may be used in wild animals but is one of the costly drugs and is a narcotic one.
ANAESTHETICS
Characteristics of Anaesthetics
 Should be cheap
 Should be easily available
 Needs to be fast in induction of Anaesthesia.
 There should be minimal side effects
 Complications should not be there in general
 Should have more merits technically
ANAESTHETICS COMMONLY USED
Gaseous anesthetics
 Halothane
o It is a halogenated hydrocarbon
o It‟s usage is on decrease due to increased popularity of isoflurane and sevoflurane.
 Side effects
o Development of arrhythmia.
 Demerits
o Limited availability.

Nitrous oxide
 This is not used as a solo anaesthetic due to its low potency. It is commonly used as 50% mixture with
balance of the mix being oxygen.
 Contraindications
o This is contraindicated in animals with pneumothorax, gastric dilatation, gas embolism, etc.

Isoflurane
 This is the most widely used veterinary inhalant anaesthetic.
 This is stable and potent.
 This has a high saturated vapour pressure.
 Merits
o Metabolism of isoflurane is minimal and fluoride induced nephrotoxicity is uncommon.

Desflurane
 Limited use in veterinary medicine.
 Injectable anaesthetics
o Barbiturates
 This causes anasethesia through depression of CNS activity. Eg. Thiopental, pentobarbital
etc.
o Demerits
 Perivascular injection can lead to tissue necrosis.
 Their use in non domestic species due to practical “inability” to obtain reliable intravenous
access prior to anaesthetic induction.
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 63
ATTENDING WOUNDS
Wound Treatment
 This is more common among wild mammals, in particular. Followings are basically required in wound
therapy.
o Provision of suitable drainage if abscess is encountered.
o Irrigation of wound cavity with suitable antibiotic solution.
o Debridging of wound.
o Suturing of wound due to injury if it is a fresh one.
o Usage of BIPP, triple sulphide ointment etc. in case of long standing abscesses.

Note
 Foreign bodies have to be given emphasis in case of long standing abscess or wounds especially in animals
like elephants.
PROLAPSE OF GENITAL TRACT
 The prolapsed mass is to be reduced by using sterile saline and antiseptic solution and suture may be placed
accordingly. Prolapse of cloaca and related organs is commonly seen in crocodiles, snakes etc.
CAESARIAN
 In prolonged parturition or dystokia, caesarian may be required in any wild animal species but care is to be
taken to full extent during administration of any anaesthetic or any immobilizing agent in such clinical
cases.
FRACTURES
 Appropriate surgical intervention are required in case of fracture related incidences.
 However, limitations are three due to excitability of wild animal species in general when compared to
domestic animals.
DEFORMED HOOVES
 These are common among antelopes, bovids and deers. To facilitate gait, surgical methods of trimming of
the excessively grown hoof structures are highly required.
 However, by using immobilizing agents, wild animals need to be sedated first prior to surgical intervention.
ABSCESS
 This may occur in any region including velvet region of species like deer.
 This may be commonly seen among deers with velvet. Drainage with irrigation of abscess cavities
with antiseptic solutions is a must along with protection of treated regions from any other
contamination.
 Cutaneous abscesses / lumps are commonly noticed especially in pythons. Depending on the
symptoms, surgical intervention may be undertaken.
MISCELLANEOUS CONDITIONS
 Tumorous growths in body regions
 Amputation of horns
 Trimming of tusk
 Rasping of tooth
 Birth related operations like vasectomy or removal of ovaries or uterus or any part of genital organs
 Amputation of any gangrenous extremities
 Removal of eyeball due to irreparable injuries or tissues that are highly damaged.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 64


MODULE-14: CAPTURE STRESS, TRANSPORT AND HANDLING OF
WILD ANIMALS
 Stress effects and stressors need to be understood by you in case of wild animals. This module associates
with capture stress and handling of different species of wild animals

The objectives are


 To understand more on the capture stress, stressors and capture myopathy
 To reveal various procedures of handling of wild animals like elephant, bear, non-human primates, birds
and reptiles
CAPTURE STRESS
 Capture stress is defined as the “cumulative response” and may be considered as the end result of the wild
animal‟s interaction with it‟s environment through receptors.
 The quantum of reactions in thewild animal depends on the degree of stress perceived by the concerned
wild animal species.
CLASSIFICATION OF STRESSORS
The Stressors may be classified into following types
 Somatic Stressors
o Changes in theposition of body, unexpected touch reflexes, unusual sightings, extremes ofclimate
like severe hotness or severe coldness, pressure applications on thebody regions and running
impacts onwhole body as happens during the chasing activities in the concerned wildanimal
species can be had as examples.
 Psychological stressors
o Strangesituations, changes in the routine activities happening in or near theenclosures, fear senses,
placement of the wild animal in the unaccustomed placeor habitat can be had as examples.
 Behavioural stressors
o Over crowding,social deprivation, hierarchical upsets, lack of imprinting personnel oranimal, lack
of parents, lack of habitual food materials, unfamiliarenvironmental conditions etc. form the
associated factors of behaviouralstressors.
 Other types of stressors
o Poor bodyconditions like obesity, emaciation, hypoglycemia, pulmonary problems leadingto the
derangement in the respiratory functions, imbalanced nutrition,parasitic diseases, burns, types of
immobilizations adapted for the concernedwild animal species etc. form the factors in this grou
RESPONSES OF WILD ANIMALS TO DIFFERENT TYPES OF
STRESSORS
 The responses of various species of wild animals reared in captive condition or in free ranging conditions
may vary depending on many factors like place of capture, type of medical agents used in the concerned
wild animal species, type of stress factors, the degree of stress factors etc.
 Symptoms of capture stress need to be thoroughly understood by the attending veterinarian in zoological
park or zoo or zoological garden. This may help to attend the concerned wild animal species in a successful
manner without causing problem to the life of the targeted wild animal species.
 In short, it canbe said that there is an involvement of sympathetic nervous system-adrenal medullapathway
and hypothalamic, adenohypophyseal and adrenocortical pathway, in allthese stress related responses of
wild animals.
CAPURE MYOPATHY
 Capture Myopathy is one of the important pathological changes that occur in case of wild animals due to
the stress factors during the restraint operation.
 This condition may affect different species of wild animals that may endanger the life of the wild fauna and
hence, the attending veterinarian needs to understand base line information about the various features
pertaining to the capture myopathy.
CLINICAL SYMPTOMS
 Stiffness
 Torticollis
 Tremor
 Lameness
 Emaciation
 Hemoglobinuria
 Myoglobinuria etc.
 Cramping of muscles in strange or unnatural positions may be seen in the affected wild animals.
 Death may occur finally if not attended in a proper manner.
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 65
TREATMENT OF CAPTURE MYOPATHY
 Depending on the clinical status, corticosteroids may be given to combat the inflammatory responses.
 The animals have to be attended with vitamin E injection and Selenium-vitamin E combinations.
 Sodium bicarbonate may be given by means of intra-venous route at rate of four to six mEq per kg body
weight.
 Parenteral B complex vitamins may be provided along with balanced nutrition.
 Corrective measures against the hyperkalemia and the thermo-regulatory derangements.
 Respiratory problems need to be corrected if any.
 The affected wild animal needs to be kept in a place with cool environment.
PROPHYLAXIS OF CAPTURE MYOPATHY
 Keep the calm status in the environment prior to the immobilization
 Don‟t chase the animal to the possible extentprior to the chemical immobilization.
 Never excite the wild animal to be immobilized with medicaments
 Avoid making unnecessary sounds near the animal enclosure
 Avoid taking strangers nearer to the wild animal to be sedated
 Try to immobilize the wild animal after the confinement in a smaller space. This helps to avoid the
unnecessary stress by chasing during the targeting activities.
 Avoid placement of ruminants like blackbuck in lateral recumbency for prolonged periods, during therapy.

TRANSPORT OF WILD ANIMALS


The transport of wild animals is to be undertaken with great care and cautions. The following informations
may be of useful with regard to the transport of wild animals:
Reasons for transport of wild animals
 Animal exchange programmes
 Gift by government
 Research purposes
 To facilitate out breeding
 For therapeutic applications
 Confiscated wild animals may need transport
HANDLING AND PHYSICAL EXAMINATION OF WILD ANIMALS
 The wild animals may be handled mainly subsequent to the chemical immobilization, to the possible extent.
 Handling the live wild animal or the bird may per haps leads to stress conditions for thec oncerned wild
animal.
 During the handling of wild animals, one has bear it in mind that the wild animals shouldnot be stressed
too much because of the chances of stress based unfavorable responses in most of the multiple wild animal
species.
HANDLING OF VERY YOUNG WILD ANIMALS
 Infant wild animals are highly prone for the development of hypoglycemia. Further, once sedated among
the adult animals, the infant animal may be crushed or even bitten by the other cage mates. The excitement
caused during the capture operations might cause such type of unwanted reactions.
 Thermoregulatory derangements are to be taken care of immediately in any wild animal species and more
particularly in case of infant wild animals.
 If infections occur as found by severe dullness and sign of concerned disease, the animal has to be attended
immediately. If not immediate collapse occurs in case of wild animals in the neonatal state.
HANDLING OF ELEPHANTS
 Sternal recumbency has to be avoided in case of elephants because this may cause more interferences
during the respiratory activities of these mega herbivores which lack pleura in general.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 66


 Elephant hooks are used for the control of the elephants and however, its usage is banned in few places and
the legal issues related to it‟s usage are to be taken care of, promptly.
 Chaining of elephants with adequate pads to avoid the injuries may be carried out in one of the legs
especially the hind limb and the other end of the chain is often tied to the peg or iron bar.
 If mild is the painful operation, the animal maybe sedated by xylazine. However, major operations causing
severe pain are difficult to be carried out despite the usage of xylazine in the elephants, for a field related
immobilization purpose.
 Elephants should not be handled to the possible extent without the assistance of mahout or the care taker of
the elephant.
HANDLING OF URSIDS
 Only the immature ursids may be handled by usage of nets. Taking adventurous activities during handling
of ursids hast o be avoided since it may cost the life of the handler.
 Always it is to be borne in mind that the bears have good stamina and power. More care is to be taken
during the routine handling of these species.
HANDLING OF NON-HUMAN PRIMATES
 For rough individuals or for the adult non-human primates, the animals may be handled only after the
chemical immobilization procedures.
 For infant ones, with care a towel may be wrapped around it and the arms may be held back. More care is to
be taken to avoid the biting from the non-human primates.
 Rhesus macaques or langurs may cause severe injuries if one is careless in handling of these species.
 Gloves may be used in case of smaller non-human primates during the handling procedures. But, the gloves
reduce the sensations of feelings over the animal and further, it is true that the gloves used duringthe
handling procedures may not be able to prevent the biting activities of the non-human primate.
HANDLING OF PREGNANT WILD ANIMALS
 The pregnant wild animals should not be handled at all in order to avoid the excitement based unfavourable
events.
 Avoid transport of pregnant wild animal.
 Timely feeding and watering is a must while dealing with the pregnant wild animal whether it is a carnivore
or herbivore or omnivore.
WATERING AND FEEDING OF WILD ANIMALS DURING
TRANSPORT
 The wild animals should not be watered too much during the transport. However, some quantity of water
has to be provided and this is in order to avoid the development of dehydration status among the wild
animals being transported.
 Similarly, the wild animals under transport should not be given stomach full of feed materials. If given fully,
the feeds may cause some inconvenience to the animals during the transport of wild animal because of the
possibilities of frequent movements of the vehicle or the container.
 Avoid any excitement causing activity to the wild animals during transport.
 Avoid the unnecessary handling of the wild animal during transport.
 Maintain calmness during the transport of the wild animals.
HANDLING OF REPTILES
 Poisonous snakes need to be handled with great care to avoid being bitten. More care is taken to utilize the
suitable gadget for the handling of snakes. For example, the hooks with long handles are much used
throughout the world to control and handle the snakes.
 During handling, adequate pressure is to be exerted to control the snakes‟ head and however the pressure
should not be given too much causing crushing of jaws.
 Hence, more care and experience are highly required in order to handle the snakes especially the poisonous
snakes.
 Similarly, minimum three persons are required to handle the pythons. The python should never be handled
alone.
 Transparent tubes with adequate holes facilitating the ventilation aspects are good to have a better control
during the handling of snakes.
 Similarly, crocodiles may be handled with many persons. During the handling activities, the tail of the
crocodile has to be restrained, in addition to the head. Further, the hind limbs may be tied together, in
addition to the tying of fore limbs together.
 Lizard‟s head needs to be controlled in addition to the control of limbs and body support may be given
especially with the lengthy reptiles.
HANDLING OF BIRDS
 Support the body of the anseriformes like geese, duck under the arm and the head and neck of the bird
should be supported by another hand.
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 67
 Avoid the carrying of birds like water fowl by wings alone since brachial paralysis may occur in such cases.
 If the bird is allowed to flap the wing during handling, then stress reactions may be severe in such birds.
Hence, the wings and the legs have to be restrained first.
 During the handling of small birds, the sternum should not be covered because such activities may cause
interference with the respiratory activities of the tiny aviary species.
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
Eyes
 The eyes have to be examined for the presence of excessive dryness or bleeding. The eyes have to be blind
folded if sedated in order to avoid the excessive drying out of the ocular regions and stress.

External abnormality of body regions


 Skin status may provide some clues for the diagnosis of the clinical problem in case of wild animals.
 Check up for presence of any wound or bruises or injuries on the body.
 Rule out any foreign body in case of paw region if it is a carnivore or foot pad if it is an animal like elephant.
 Rule out any visible abnormal growths or swelling on the body regions.
 Any dragging of leg during the gait needs to betaken care of during the physical examination of the
concerned wild animal species.
 Check up for signs of diarrhea by observing the fecal remnants adhering the cutaneous regions.
 Observe the bleeding related appearance either from the mouth region or other body regions. Rule out the
heat related problems in case of herbivores like gaurs etc.
ACTIVITIES
Observation of gait
 The gait is to be observed to rule out signs of pain, sprain, fracture, dislocation, foreign body, dullness etc.

Movements of body regions, in general


 The movements of body regions maybe noticed during the resting activities of the wild animals.
 The movements may indicate some clues to the attending veterinarians in the zoo or zoological parks or
zoological gardens.

Observation of feeding activity


 Any change in the feeding activity may be noticed and may be linked with the possible clinical problem.

Observation of defecation and urination activities


 This may help to rule out abnormalities pertaining to the gastro intestinal as well as the urinary systems.
MISCELLANEOUS ONES
 Any abnormal activities if noticed should be brought to notice. If the wild animal is having an intense
degree of itching activities, one has to rule out the fungal or allergy causing factor.

Temperature
 Non contact thermometer may be used to measure the body temperature of the wild animal during
handling.
 If the wild animal has extreme high temperature, first take the concerned wild animal with hyperthermia to
a place with shades and start application of other therapeutic procedures.

Respiratory rate
 The respiratory rate may be estimated by mere observation without any excitement to the concerned wild
animal species and observe the pattern of respiration also.

Heart rate
 If the wild animal is well controlled, heart rate may be estimated by using stethoscope.
MODULE-15: FEEDING OF WILD ANIMALS - I
 This module mainly deals with feeding-significances and components of general nutrients and merits of
balanced nutrition.

The objectives are


 To study on the general components of nutrients
 To study on the feeding strategies used by various wild animals like felids
SIGNIFICANCE OF FEEDING
 Feeding in wild animals is different under captive conditions and in free ranging conditions.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 68


 Feeding is a controlled activity in case of captive wild animal species unlike in case of free ranging wild
animal species in which cases, the animal by itself attempt to have some control measures.
 Differing feed habits are there in case of captive wild animal places that are rich in multiple species of wild
animals.
 Hence, one should have a preliminary knowledge of the feeding related activities in the concerned wild
animal species and a basic knowledge of nutrition, proper diets etc. is an essential one.
 Scientific mode of feeding-strategies forms the basis for the scientific management of wild animal places.
CLASSIFICATION OF WILD ANIMALS BASED ON FEEDING
BEHAVIOR
Herbivores
 They constitute the wide spectrum of different species of wild animals with anatomical adaptations
comprising of symbiotic microbial population of bacteria, protozoa etc.
 The feed resources to these animals have in general low nutritional values but are bulky in nature.
 Among herbivores, the ones with complex stomach (ruminants) are the most efficient ones and the
roughages and forages are most efficiently utilized by the species. Microbial fermentation is the mode of
digestion in these species.
 Example: Gaur, deer, giraffe, antelopes like blackbuck, buffaloe etc.
 Pregastric fermenters are also available as wild fauna like kangaroo, wild pig, hippopotamus etc. Similarly,
hind gut fermenters like rabbits, guinea pigs, capybara (cecal fermentation) and zebra and wild asses (colon
fermentation) are also existing under captive conditions.
 Cecotrophs are the ones that are produced in the morning and are the soft materials that are often
consumed directly from the anal region. Animals like rabbit and hares produce these soft fecal pellets that
have high protein, fiber and water contents with increased amounts of vitamin B complex.
 It is noteworthy to note that the bulk eaters like elephants or rhinos have poor digestive efficiency but meet
their nutritional requirements by consumption of high levels of feed intake and fast rate of food transit
without digesting fiber.(as the case with giant panda)
CARNIVORES
 Carnivores are the meat eating animals and require a highly digestible and high quality food resources with
nearly all the types of nutrients.
 The various species of this group require most of the times unique type of nutrition. For example, felids
need a dietary requirement for amino acid ‘taurine’ and preformed vitamin A and essential fatty acid
‘arachidonic acid’.
OMNIVORES
 Large group of wild animals belong to this in general. Most of the rodents, flying fox, sloth , bears, non-
human primates, pigs many species of birds etc. belong to this group.
 Carbohydrates become the major nutrient received from the plants, while moderate amount of protein and
fat are received from meat sources.
SIGNIFICANCE OF BALANCED NUTRITION
 Longer life span of the animal
 Maximal reproduction
 Maximal infant survival rate
 Appreciable health status
 Acquiring of good immune mechanisms
GENERAL NUTRIENTS AND FEED STUFF
Carbohydrates
 This is the chief source of energy in case of wild animals.
 Ruminants like deer or giraffe or antelope make use of the complex carbohydrates subsequent to the
bacterial actions in the rumen and the rumen microflora help the proper digestion of nutrients.
 Cereals, grains, roots, tubers and fruits have high carbohydrates.
 Fruits are rich in pentoses and hexoses, whereas the tubers and seeds are rich in glucose.
PROTEINS
 More significance needs to be provided towards the provision of adequate amounts of protein to wild
animals especially the carnivores.
 The proteins comprise the ingredients of internal frame work of cells esp. the interstitial cells like dentine,
osteoid tissue, connective tissue etc.
 Essential amino acids like arginine, methionine, threonine, leucine, lysine etc. are to be given importance
during the provision of protein rich diets.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 69


 It is to be noted that protein deficiency may result in retardation of the growth rate, cessation of lactation in
case of nursing animals, impairment of reproduction, decreased body resistance level etc.
FATS
 Fats are the important nutrients in case of wild fauna like the domestic animals. They provide the
fat soluble vitamins like A, D, E and K.
 In addition, the fat materials provide some satiety value to the concerned wild animal species in
addition to the provisions of the palatability to the feed.
 Provision of optimal amounts of fat is a must for the wild animal species. Fat provides the most
concentrated forms of stored energy and fat reserves in fact help a lot for the provision of energy
during the adverse climatic extremes.
 For example phocine like elephant seal may spend a considerable time in land without any access
to food while suckling the pups. In such occasions, fat is the major nutrient factor that helps the
survival of the concerned species.
 Similarly, in case of hibernating animals like bears in cool regions it is the fat that gets
accumulated often and is useful as an energy resource in winter months.
ROUGHAGES
 Tree and shrub leaves, grass and legume silages, straw, fodder, hulls, shells, maize, hay etc. form the
roughages.
 They are bulky in nature but are poor in energy content and are rich in fiber.
CONCENTRATES
 These are low in fibre but are rich in protein or energy content.
 Cereal grains, non-cereal seeds like amaranthus green, grain milling by-products like wheat and rice bran,
beet pulp, citrus pulp, molasses etc. fall under this category.
 Fish meal, dried milk products like skin milk powder, sunflower meal, cotton seed meal etc. provide more
than twenty per cent crude protein.
MINERAL MIXTURES
 Mineral supplements need to be added along with the routine food materials to be offered to the dietary
items of captive wild animals. It to be borne in mind that minerals also are supplied by a balanced diets.
 However, these can be supplied as mixtures including lime stone, dicalcium sulphate, salt, trace mineral
mixtures etc.
 Among minerals, it is the zinc that has effect on the hair growth and calcium with phosphorous are also to
be given maximum significance in case of wild animals.
 Deficiency of minerals like calcium and phosphorus may lead to development of bone disorders like rickets,
osteodystrophy etc. Nursing animals need an additional allowance of calcium in their dietary items.
VITAMIN SUPPLEMENTS
 Vitamins like fat soluble ones and water soluble ones are of much helpful in various metabolic functions
occurring in the body.
 Care has to be paid in the provision of adequate amounts of vitamins to the diet of captive wild animals.
 The vitamins can be supplied along with the main diet as a special mixture to rectify feather loss like
conditions.

 Species like red vented bulbul, frugivours bats, guinea pigs, non-human primates etc. are in need of direct
supply of vitamin C because they lack the enzyme L-gluconolactone oxidase required for the synthesis of
vitamin C.
WATER
 Watering in case of wild animals has to be given more significance. Generally wild animals prefer water
content and even in the wild, wild animals move to the water holes frequently in every day.
 However, it is to be understood that certain species may not take water much like blackbucks. The water
requirement may be met by water content of food itself or through the oxidation of organic constituents
that produces metabolic water.
 High moisture diets are generally preferred by the wild animals like non-human primates. It is also equally
true that high moisture food items are often subjected to the fungal as well as the microbial proliferation.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 70


 Wild ruminants mostly drink water either in the late evening or early morning. Camels have capacity to
take more water at a time. Wild animals like felids require the provision of water ad libitum.
FEEDING STRATEGIES IN CASE OF WILD ANIMALS
 Otters, badgers, pelicans, penguins, gharials, dolphins, ferrets, pole cats, mink etc. are often fed with fishes.
 Hence, more care needs to be taken while feeding the fish to the wild animals.
 Rotten fish or fish with more pungent smell are to be avoided. Gill regions in the fishes need to be examined
for the freshness.
 Avoid the feeding of fishes like carps and herring that contain the enzyme termed thiamenase since this
may destroy the thiamine in the diet.
 Cooked fish or fishes like butter fish and mackerel may be used. Usage of oily fish like herring in fish meal
may lead to the oxidation of vitamin A and E in the diet.
 Wide trays may be used for feeding of species like star tortoises

MODULE-16: FEEDING OF WILD ANIMALS - II


 This course overall may lead to understanding the feed components of various wild fauna reared under
captive conditions.

The objectives are


 To understand about the components of feeds routinely offered to wild animals belonging to multiple
species
 To study on the different types of feeding habitats existing among the wild animals and sick diets.
FEEDING OF WILD ANIMALS
Bonnet macaque
 Rice 50 gms
 Banana 3 nos
 Orange/Mango ¼ no.(100-150gm size)
 Guava ¾ no
 Groundnut (WOS) 15 gms
 Bengal gram 15 gms

Jungle cat
 Chopped beef 250 gms
 Bread slice 2 no
 Milk 100 ml

Jackal
 Beef without bone 500 gms
 Liver 100 gms
 Chicken 250 gms weekly once.

Hyena
 Beef 3 kg/day
 Liver 100 gms
 Chicken 500 gms weekly once.

Sloth bear
 Ragi (cooked) 250 gms
 Rice gruel + black gram 150 + 50gms
 Orange / Mango 2 nos
 Guava 4 nos
 Tapioca 100 gms
 Jaggery 200 gms
 Groundnut (WOS) 100 gms
 Honey bi-weekly
 Milk ½ litre

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 71


 Radish 100 gms
 Bread slices 2 nos
 Carrot 200 gms

Otter
 Fish 1.5 kg
 Crab (weekly twice) 300 gms
 Sardine 1.5 kg

Indian Elephant
 Ragi 7 kg
 Horse gram 2 kg
 Salt 200 gms
 Jaggery 250 gms
 Grass 200 kgs
 Sugarcane 4 nos
 Green tree leaves –
 Bamboo / stylo 250 kg
 Coconut 500 gms (1 no)

Porcupine
 Rice 100 gms
 Carrot 100 gms
 Cabbage 100 gms
 Tapioca or sweet potato 100 gms
 Soya bean 20 gms
 Groundnut (WOS) 150 gms

Lion and Tiger


 Beef (with bone) 10 kg
 Liver 500 gms
 Chicken 1 kg (weekly once)

Zebra (adult)
 Wheat bran 2 kgs
 White Bengal gram 100 gms
 Grass and leaves 30 kgs
 Mineral mixture 10 days in a month at regular intervals.
 Lucerne 5 kgs

Panther
 Beef (with bone) 3 kg
 Liver 250 gms
 Chicken 1 kg (weekly once)

Camel
 Wheat bran 2 kg
 White Bengal gram 500gm
 Grass 30 kg
 Leaves (neem, bamboo,
 Subabul, bauhina) 20 kg
 Salt 50 gm
 Cabbage 2 kg
 Banana 6 no
 Leaves of acacia 5 kg

Indian bison (Gaur)


 Wheat bran 3 kg
 Bengal gram 0.5 kg
 Green leaves/ grass L.S

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 72


Barking deer/ Spotted deer/Sambar deer
 Wheat bran 1 kg
 White Bengal gram 25 gm
 Grass 7 kg
 Green leaves 3 kg
 Salt 10 gm
 Stylo/Lucerne 2 kg

Peach faced love bird, Fisher’s love bird, Sky blue mask love bird, Love bird (Split)
 Apple (to all) 1 no
 Banana (to all) 1 no
 Thinai 10 gm
 Paddy 5 gm
 Mixed grain 10 gm
 White Bengal gram 5 gm
 Onion 10 gm
 Greens 10 gm
 Shell grit Q.S

Parakeet
 Bread slice 1 no
 Apple (L.S) 3 no
 Sathukudi/Mango/Orange ¼ no
 Guava 1 no
 Groundnut (WOS) 20 gm
 Chilly fruit 10 gm
 Garlic 2 gm
 Paddy 10 gm
 Mixed grains 20 gm
 Bengal gram 10 gm
 Sunflower seed 10 gm
 Green gram 10 gm

Indian Peafowl
 Cabbage 25 gm
 Mixed grains 25 gm
 Paddy 25 gm
 White Bengal gram 50 gm
 Greens 100gm
 Garlic 10 gm
 Groundnut (WOS) 50 gm
 Shell grit 25 gm
 Green gram 25 gm

Owl
 Chopped beef or rat 150 gm/2no/day
 (each 100-150 gm size)
 Chicks 10 gm (once in a week)

Budgerigar
 Thinai 10 gm
 Greens 10 gm
 Shell grit 20 gm
 Bengal gram 5 gm
 Green gram 5 gm

Emu
 Green gram 250 gm
 Wheat 250 gm (soaked)
 Broiler finisher grumble diet 250 gm
 Rice 250 gm (cooked)
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 73
 Milk 100 ml (boiled)
 Tomato 100 gm
 Green banana 2 no

Marsh crocodile (adult)


 Fish (twice a week) 250 gm
 Bone (vertebral column) 100 gm
 Beef 250 gm

Gharial (adult)
 Fish (twice a week) 1 kg
 Bone (vertebral) 100 gm

Python
 Chicken 1 kg (twice a month)
 Rat 8 no (twice a month) each 150 gm size.

Viper
 Chicken 3 no
 Rat 4 no (weekly once) 100-150 gm size.

Cobra
 Chicken 3 no
 Rat 4 no (weekly once) 100-150 gm size.

Iguana
 Carrot 50 gm (daily)
 Cabbage 50 gm (daily)
 Tomato 50 gm (daily)
 Greens 100 gm (daily)

Star tortoise
 Carrot 30 gm (daily)
 Cabbage 30 gm (daily)
 Tomato 30 gm (daily)
 Greens (L.S) 500 gm (daily)

Feeding habits
 The feeding habit varies from species to species.
 Chewing bones is a preferred activity among lions, tigers and jaguars and the activity is less in panthers.
 These carnivores prefer larger pieces of meat to alleviate hunger more readily than the smaller meat pieces.
Lions and tigers carry the beef pieces to one side of the cage before it sits for feeding.
 In lion, tiger and jaguar the posture of consumption was of extending the fore legs and holding the meat
while the hind legs are tucked up within the body, where as in panthers all the four legs tucked up within
the body.
 Wild dogs eat while they were in standing position in a hurried gulping manner.
 Among the large felines like tiger, lion, panther and jaguar the time taken to consume the meat was from
16.5 minutes to 39 minutes in a very slow manner.
 Tigers soon after feeding they lick the cage wall few times and then drink water, where as in lions they drink
water soon after feeding.
 After the weekly starvation in lions and tigers a characteristic restlessness was evinced by the sound and
arrival of the food delivery vehicle.
 During the act of drinking the large cats curl tongue backward and then flick it forward, rolling it up slightly
into a spoon shape, as they do so and they swallow after every 4 or 5 laps.
 Tigers, Jaguars and Panthers show a preference for chicken meat when offered than beef.
 Almost all species of the carnivores like panther, lion, wild dog and tiger eat quickly in winter than in
summer.
 In panther, lion and tiger, smelling and licking of the meat were noticed. Tigers and lions show a greater
degree of smelling the licking than the other species.
 Elephants use trunk as prehensile organ and may even pick up grass by using strikes with legs on ground
and later, the grass materials may be striked on its own legs to wither away the dirt or sand and then by
using the trunk, they may place the feed materials into the mouth. The trunk will not be protruded during
eating activities of the elephant.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 74


 Bears have the habit of climbing the trees or rocks in order to remove the bee hives and by using forelimbs,
the hives are destroyed and use to suck honey in addition to lapping using tongue.
 Crocodile have the habit of gulping the feed materials.

Sick diets
Most seriously ill-wild animals refuse to eat or just pick at the food. Force feeding often may not be practicable
especially in carnivores or herbivores.
 Soft diet like chicken preferably in cooked form may be attempted as one of the significant diets in wild
animal species.
 Intra-venous fluids like dextrose saline, Ringers lactate etc, may be chosen in wild animals that have totally
ceased eating activities.
 Attempts may be done to provide the most palatable food for the targeted wild animal species.
 In wild animals especially carnivores with severe gastritis whatever food is offered or ingested, it may be
vomited often. In such cases, blend diet may be offered. Egg white may be offered to carnivores with severe
vomiting, in addition to administration of 5 % dextrose saline solution, in these gastritis affected wild
animals.
 Provide drinking water ad-libitum to all the sick wild animals in general.
 Provision of bland diet in small quantities spaced in several daily doses may help to minimize the
incidences of vomiting or rejection by the concerned wild animal species.

Geriatric animal feeding


 Avoid feeding with less-digestible feeds.
 Avoid full-stomach feeding.
 Provide adequate quantities of vitamins and minerals.
 Provide water ad-libitum.
MODULE-17: WILDLIFE DISEASES - I
 Overall this unit may lead you to understand about different kinds of diseases that are likely to affect
multiple species of wild animals.

The objectives are


 To reveal information about bacterial , viral, parasitic and non -infectious diseases.
BACTERIAL DISEASES
 Wild life diseases are given more priority in the recent days due to the fact that conservation of any wild
fauna can not be achieved fully, unless due efforts are equally given pertaining to the assessment of health
status and the disease management, in the concerned wild animal species.
 Bacterial diseases are in plenty in case of wild animals esp. the captive wild animals and they pose problems
in the diagnosis as well as the treatment.
 Hence, one should have a thorough understanding of various bacterial disease conditions that affect
commonly the wild animals belonging to multiple taxonomic classes or groups.
SIGNIFICANT BACTERIAL DISEASES
 Tuberculosis
 Haemorrhagic septicaemia
 Leptospirosis
 Anthrax
 Tetanus
 Enterotoxaemia
 Salmonellosis
 Escherichia coli infections
 Wound infections
TUBERCULOSIS
 The disease is chronic in nature and is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mycobacterium bovis and
Mycobacterium avium.
 This disease caused by Mycobacterium bovis is very common in general.
 These organisms are acid-fast in nature.

Species affected
 Almost all species are affected in general. The disease is somewhat widely prevalent in a captive wild animal
atmosphere.
 Commonly affected species are given below:
o Mammals (Non-human primates, deer, antelopes, felids, ursids, canids, elephants etc)
o Aves (Raptors, Psittacine birds, Passerine birds, Anseriform birds etc.)
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 75
Mode of spread and significance
 Discharges from the body like vaginal discharge, exudates from the fistulous tracks, milk, sputum and
excreta like feces and urine get contaminated with these microbes.
 The bacterial organisms are also shed in exhaled air also.
 This disease is zoonotic in nature.

Symptoms
 Emaciation despite moderate to good nutrition
 Anorexia
 Weakness
 Mild pyrexia
 Low pitched cough may be seen

Diagnosis and therapy


 By culture tests, ELISA tests, PCR tests etc. Tuberculin tests may have false positive results some times.
 In dead animals, the tubercles may be seen in various organs esp. the lungs. Smears from the lesions may
be subjected to the staining for the diagnostic purpose.
 The therapy consists of usage of combination of drugs like isoniazid, ethambutol, pyrizanamide and
rifampin. Enrofloxacin may also be used in the combination.
PARATUBERCULOSIS
 The disease is caused by Mycobacterium paratuberculosis and is a rod-shaped organism resembling the
tuberculosis bacillus.

Species affected
 Mostly bovids, wild sheep, wild goat, antelopes, cervids etc. may get affected.
 It was even reported in equines and swines have been reported as the carriers.

Mode of spread and significance


 Ingestion of food and water contaminated by the feces of infected animals.
 Intra-uterine transmission occurs at a fifty percent incidence from the infected mother.
 This disease is the one causing specific-infectious enteritis, in the affected wild animals.

Symptoms
 Profuse diarrhea that is more often odorless, and there is no accompanying tetanus. There appears to be no
correlation between the severity of the clinical syndrome and the severity of the lesions.
 Emaciation and intermandibular-oedema.

Diagnosis and therapy


 By culture, PCR tests and by staining with acid-fast preparations like Ziehl-Neelsen and Ponder-Kinyoun
stains. Also, biopsies of lymph nodes, FAT, fecal culture, complement fixation tests, stained fecal smears
also help the diagnosis.
 In dead animals, hypertrophied intestinal mucosa is seen and the primary site of infection is the lower
gastr-intestinal tract mainly the posterior jejunum and ileum. Most of the bacilli are seen in the
macrophages and giant cells.
 There is no true therapy for Johne‟s disease but general therapy may be carried out to ameliorate the
clinical signs.
 Fluids and vitamins may be given taking care of the animal‟s condition.
PASTEURELLOSIS
 Pasteurellosis is a bacterial infection that is commonly encountered in case of multiple species of wild
animals.
 Pasteurella multocida is the commonly encountered etiological agent in this and however, the
pasteurellosis in marsupial like species may also have affections by Pasteurella haemolytica organisms.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 76


 Avian cholera caused by pasteurella organisms is found commonly around the monsoon period in the
captive semi-aquatic and aquatic aviary species. The incidence of pasteurellosis is a world wide one.

Species affected
 This disease is documented in various species of animals including elephants, cervids, antelopes, ursids,
felids, elephants etc.
 Even marsupials like kangaroo get affected by this infection.

Mode of spread and significance


 Organisms get passed through contaminated food materials by infected rodents etc. Overcrowding and
strenuous events like a prolonged transport etc. lead to the precipitation of this disease condition in case of
wild animals. It is not uncommon to find the peracute occurrence of this disease condition.
 This is a highly infectious disease in general.

Symptoms
 In elephants, the symptoms may be similar to those of anthrax. The death occurs within 12 hours in case of
acute cases.
 The clinical symptoms are often related to the pleuropneumonia, dyspnoea, gastroenteritis in addition to
the pyrexia, anorexia and depression.

Diagnosis and theraphy


 By PCR, examination of the heart blood-smear, biological test and culture from oral or nasal mucus and
some times from feces help the diagnosis, in addition to the ELISA based tests etc.
 Post mortem reveals splenomegaly, petechial haemorrhage on lungs, epicardium, kidneys etc. Respiratory
tract (upper regions)infections including tracheitis and red hepatization of the lungs are the common
findings. are common and if aves are affected, it may be having necrotic foci on liver along with the
petechial hemorrhage on epicardium and lungs.
 Tetracyclines, sulphonamides and fluoroquinolone compounds may assist the treatment of this condition in
a successful manner.
LEPTOSPIROSIS
 This is a significant disease that is caused by multiple serovars of the leptospires. Affected animals whether
it is wild in free ranging or captive status become highly dull and lethargic.
 This disease has been documented in multiple species of wild animals, in general.

Species affected
 Most of the wild animal species get affected like ruminants, ursids, proboscids, felids,canids, marsupials
and monotremes, peccaries and suids, procyonids, rodents and lagomorphs, rodents, viverrids,
insectivores, pinnipeds etc.
 Outbreaks have been documented in case of non-human primates esp. the baboons and macaques. Rodents
including mongooses act as carriers for this disease.

Mode of spread and significance


 Spread is mainly by the contaminated urine sample by rodent-urine etc.
 This disease is of zoonotic significance and affected human may reveal symptoms like myalgia, head ache,
fever, sore throat, joint and neck pain, abdominal cramps etc.

Diagnosis and therapy


 Serolgoical examination, culture, MAT, PCR finding of the organisms in the tissues etc.
 Therapy consists of usage of compounds like streptomycin, penicillin, tetracyclines esp. doxycyclines etc.
ANTHRAX
 Anthrax itself is a well-known disease with a great degree of public significance.
 In case of elephants, sub-cutaneous oedema may be found, along with bursting of few swellings on body.
 However, bloody discharge from natural orifices is a commonly found symptom in case of wild bovids,
cervids, antelopes etc.
 This disease has been documented in felids, canids, perissodactylids, primates, wild suids etc.
BRUCELLOSIS
 This has marked public health significance and the reports on the documentation of this dangerous disease
among wild stock are many.
 This disease has been documented in case of chital, blackbuck etc. In general, it can be quoted that the
hooved mammals, lagomorphs, rodents and canids get affected by this disease condition.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 77


TETANUS
 Clostridial organisms cause this condition in which muscular rigidity is the prominent feature. This is
commonly noticed in captive elephants that met with injuries, non-human primates etc.
 In case of affected elephants, this caused death in large number of elephants.
 Clinical symptoms comprise diarrhea, loss of appetite, listlessness and death.
 The therapy consists of administration of antitoxins and high levels of antibiotics.
BOTULISM
 This is caused by Closridium botulinum that affects the anseriformes and mink.
 The ingestion and wound infections are the primary routes of this infection in case of wild animal species.
 Affected species may reveal the neurological symptoms that are often fatal.
KLEBSIELLA INFECTIONS
 Klebsiella and other vector borne gram negative bacteria (pseudomonas) are primary opportunists affecting
non-human primates.
 Klebsiella is present in stagnant water, dirty drinking receptacles and soil and as flora of alimentary tract.
COLIBACILLOSIS
 These infections are caused by Escherichia coli organisms affecting the wide variety of birds as well as the
mammals esp. the neonatal animals.
 Incidences have been found through out the world among the various wild animal species.
 Fecal-oral route is the mode of transmission of these organisms, in most of the conditions.
 Enteritis occur in the affected wild animal species. The culture tests may assist the confirmation of this
microbial infections.
CAMPYLOBACTERIOSIS
 This was earlier classified as a member of the family vibriacae but recently re-classified as a separate group.
 Campylobacter jejuni causes entero-colitis in a variety of mammals and birds including man. This is
frequently reported in non-human primates.
SALMONELLOSIS
This is more common in most of the animal species esp. in case of non-human primates and reptiles.
The affected animals may suffer from severe diarrhea and is of zoonotic significance.
In wild animals like felids, salmonella typhimurium and other species cause this disease condition the
gastro intestinal signs in addition to septicemia occurs.
 Documentations are available on isolation of the most serious human pathogens of the groups
namely Shigella dysenterriae type I and Salmonella typhi.
 Symptoms comprise weakness, edema of face and neck and diarrhea with mucus and /or blood.
OTHER BACTERIAL INFECTIONS
 Most of the carnivores get affected by the infections with Streptococcus sp. , staphylococcus sp. and
Corynebacterium sp. frequently.
 These organisms may be cultured from animals with neonatal polyarthritis, pneumonia, septicemia and
abscesses.
 Similarly, corynebacterium pyogenes is found with abscesses, arthritis, metritis and cystitis.
 Colic like disorders and corneal opacity like conditions may be encountered in animal like elephant.
INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN WILD ANIMALS
 Infectious diseases in wild animals have to be understood well by the veterinarians. These are the
significant causal agents for the ongoing morbidity and mortality among various captive and free ranging
wild animal species, in various regions of this world.
 Proper identification of various agents associated with this should be known and their pathogenic
potentials for other animals or for man have to be given significance always.
 PCR plays a major part in effecting the proper diagnosis of the various infectious agents in general.
However, conventional techniques also assume significance for the proper understanding of these diseases
affecting wild fauna.
 Significant infectious diseases affecting should be known.

SIGNIFICANT INFECTIOUS DISEASES


Disease Hosts affected
Trypanosomosis Boids, equids, canids, felids, equids, suids etc.
Glanders (Pseudomonas malle ) Equids like wild ass, zebra etc.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 78


FMD (Aptho virus) All artiodactylids
Hog cholera (Toga virus) Suids
Haemorrhagic septicemia Bovids in particular
Japanese B encephalitis (Flavivirus) Suids, equids and man.
Louping ill (Flavivirus) Bovids, shrew, wild sheep, wood mouse and man
Dourine (Trypanosoma equiperdum) Equids
African swine fever Suids
African horse sickness Equids and canids
Teschen disease (Enterovirus porcine 1) Suids
East coast fever (Therileriasis) Bovids
Rift Valley fever, Bunyavirus Wild sheep and wild goat
Peste des petits ruminants (Paramyxo viruses)

VIRAL DISEASES
 Viral diseases causing problems to the routine performance of the wild animals are caused substantially by
many viral agents also.
 In both the captive and free ranging wildlife regions, the diseases caused by different viral agents are being
documented through out the world.
 However, the research findings are still to be improved in this regard due to various reasons.
FMD
 This disease occurs in case of wild ruminants and other artiodactylids, in general. Affected wild animal
species may have lesions in the foot and mouth.
 This disease may lead to severe morbidity among the hooved stock.
 This disease has been documented in herbivores like gaurs, cervids, suids etc. and is common among wild
fauna but needs documentation in most of the cases.
 Elephants are also affected.

RABIES
 Rabies has been documented in chital, rhino, elephants etc. Even oral infection has been documented in
foxes and skunks by experimental means, following the ingestion of mouse carcasses infected by rabies
virus.
 It is noteworthy to mention that the exposure to rabies virus in peripheral nerves could potentially occur
when a person with wounds on the hands does not wear any protective covering or gloves while skinning
rabies suspected captive wild animal.
MEASLES (RUBEOLA), VIRAL HEPATITIS, KYASANUR FOREST
DISEASE (KFD) AND OTHERS
 Measles is one of the most frequently reported viral diseases of non human primates and upon infection,
the virus is shed and can re-infect man.
 This is a highly infectious exanthematous viral disease of children. This has been documented in
marmosets, tamarins, owl monkeys etc. and is fatal to them.
 Several outbreaks of viral hepatitis have been documented in primate handlers and primate practitioners.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 79


 The virus causing human infectious hepatitis (hepatitis A) can infect chimpanzees, patas, wooley monkey,
gorilla, tamarins, cebus etc.
 KFD has been reported in non human primates and is of zoonotic importance.
HERPES VIRUS AND POX VIRUS INFECTIONS
 Herpes virus infections are documented in non-human primates, elephant calves etc. In man, herpes B
virus can be fatal, causing an acute ascending myelitis.
 Rhesus macaques and cyanomolgus are considered as the primary natural hosts.
 Lesions in non-human primates are mostly confined to the mucosa of buccal cavity.
 Ulcers or vesicles do occur around the lips and external nares and the most common site is the tongue.
Monkey bites and laboratory accidents lead to the most human infections.
 Pox virus infections often are classified into four types in non-human primates, elephants etc. All these four
diseases are infectious to man but it is to be remembered that the monkey pox is the most frequent one.
 Pox virus was documented in chimpanzee under captive condition reared at zoological garden.
RESPIRATORY INFECTIONS
 These are common in case of felids. Feline viral rhinotracheitis is the most common of the
diseases that affect the felid group.
 Transmission is through the saliva and respiratory secretions contaminating the feed resources.
 Incubation period of this viral infections is two to four days. In case of calci viral infections of
felids, it is one to two days.
 Symptoms comprise the weight loss, signs of dehydration, anorexia, fever and salivation along
with sneezing and reluctance to drink.
CANINE DISTEMPER
 This is a viral disease affecting the canids as well as the felids.
 The occurrence of canine distemper in case of felids as an outbreak has been documented among the free
ranging lions in Africa.
 Affected ones reveal dullness, ataxia or deranged gait, anorexia, thick muco-purulent discharge etc. in
general.
HAEMOCHROMATOSIS AND AMYLOIDOSIS IN CAPTIVE BIRDS
 In aviary species, abnormal accumulation of iron mainly in liver, with lesser amounts in heart, kidney and
pancreas occurs (mynahs are most commonly affected by this metabolic disease condition) and there is no
specific therapy.
 Deposits of shapeless material in liver , spleen , adrenal and renal tissues occur in amyloidosis and has been
documented in case of aquatic birds like swans, flamingos and ducks. Older birds are specifically affected by
this condition.
PARASITIC DISEASES
Natural areas in tropical and sub tropical climates are more likely to enhance development of parasitic
loads because of the fact that there are variations in climates of these areas in addition to the variations in the type
of vegetations and species of wild fauna.
The parasitic diseases have caused serious problems in captive animals and it is to be accepted that some of
the diseases bear Zoonotic significance.
Hence, treatment and prevention against parasites gain significance always in the wild animal health and
disease management.
 In non–human primates, the following parasites are more commonly encountered, i.e.
Strongyles, Strongyloides spp, Trichuris spp, Entamoeba spp and Balantidium spp are zoonotically
important ones.
 In carnivores, especially in felids, the parasites are numerous leading to harmful features to different
systems in the body and depending on the load and pathogenesis, animals suffer, in general. The common
internal parasites in felids are Toxocara cati, Ancylostoma spp, Taenia spp, Dirofilaria
immitis, Spirocerca lupi and the common blood protozoa parasites that are often encountered
comprise Trypanasoma evansi, Toxoplasma gondii and Hepatozoa spp. Similarly, fleas
like Ctenocephalides spp and the ticks are also more common.
 The trematodes like Fasciola hepatica and Fasciola jacksoni have been reported in Asian elephants, where
as Protofasciola robusta was reported in African elephants. There are numerous nematode parasites in the
elephant like ascarids, oxyurids, strongylids, paraphistomes, ancylostomes, syngamids and filarids.
Cestodes like Anoplocephala manubriuta are also reported. The protozoan disease like Trypanosomosis is a
serious problem in Asian elephant caused by Trypanasoma evansi. Flea and tick infestations are more
common in elephants. Amblyomma tholloni ticks (elephant tick) are found through out the
body. Haematomyzus elephantis (elephant louse ) are generally found in the base of the tail and behind the
ears.
 Internal parasitres are more common in wild ruminatnts also. The common parasites
are Haemonchus spp, Ostertagia spp, Trichostrongylus sp, Oesophagostomum spp,
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 80
Strongyloides spp, Trichurisspp, Taenia spp, Ascaris spp, Eimeria spp, Fasciola spp, and protozoan
diseases like Babesia spp, Theileria spp, Trypanasoma spp etc are more common in wild
ruminants.External parasites mange and tick ingestion are also common. Psoroptes spp, Sarcoptes spp and
demodex spp are caused mange infestation in wild ruminants.
 In case of reptiles like snakes, tick infestation is more common. The common ticks
are Aponomma sp, Amblyomma spp, and Hyalomma spp .Internal parasites
like Capillaria spp, Rhabdius spp.Ophidascaris spp, Isospora spp, Eimeria spp, Kalicephalus spp, Polydep
his spp are similarly encountered in them.
MODULE-18: WILDLIFE DISEASES - II
 This unit associates you with understanding of different metabolic diseases occurring in various wild
animals, in addition to specific disorders.

The objectives are


 To study about various metabolism-related diseases in case of wild animals including the metabolic bone
diseases.
METABOLIC AND NUTRITIONAL DISEASES IN WILD ANIMALS
 Metabolic Diseases mean the diseases that occur due to the “imbalance between the rate of „input‟ of
dietary nutrients and the „output‟ of products (product like new born, milk for young one etc.) and lead to
the occurrence of metabolic derangements in the affected wild animal species.
RICKETS AND OSTEOPOROSIS
 Rickets occurs due to malformation of the growing bone (bowing of limbs/curving in limbs) due to lack of
vitamin D3 and there is a failure of hardening of bone.
 In case of rickets, the mineralization and mineral absorption are not in a match.
 Osteoporosis occurs in both the adults and juveniles (but may be frequent in senile female reptiles), where
the already hardened bones become weakened by the withdrawal of calcium for metabolic purposes and the
wild animals become more prone for the development of fractures.
 This is a condition of bone wherein there is more resorption of osteoid than the deposition of new tissue.
 Hence, there is reduction in the organic matrix of bone. Protein deficiency also may have some influencing
effect on the occurrence of osteoporosis.
OSTEOMALACIA AND FIBROUS OSTEODYSTROPHY
 These disorders are often seen in the young hatchlings of crocodiles which subsequently reveal failure of
hardening of bones due to lack of calcium.
 Among mammals, bone eaters (eg. hyaena) if deprived of bones during feeding (like hyaenas) will end up in
metabolic bone diseases.

Etiology
 Feeding diet with less calcium (provision of mince with liver and heart without bone or with less bones)
 Failure in proper absorption of calcium (diseases of GI tract / excessive phosphorus in diet)
 Insufficient calcium supplement and hormonal imbalances due to multiple causes
 Lack of vitamin D esp. in indoor-kept wild animals.
 Prolonged storage of ration leads to less vitamin D3

Clinical signs
 Crocodiles get often affected by the metabolic bone diseases. The signs are :
o Persisting of kyphokoliosis ( hunch backed appearance) esp. in subadults and adult crocodiles
o Weakness of hatchling to walk on land while they still can move freely if in water or can swim
freely in water.
o Falling of teeth and poor calcification of teeth
o Jaw bones become more pliable as evidenced in case of hatchlings(rubber jaws)
o Weakness in hatchlings along with sluggish movements
o Teeth becomes diaphanous like shards of glass (glassy teeth)
o In chelonians, lump like appearance of carapace(compare with normal nearby chelonian)

Diagnosis
 Serum estimation of calcium and phosphorus in addition to the radiographical examination and clinical
signs and history of feeding and management

Note
 In this context, it is to be remembered that especially in the periods of production of egg shells, the calcium
mobilization from bones is at peak and hence, the reptiles when hypocalcemic during these periods will
have difficulties in maintaining muscular tonicity and as a result, prolapse of uterus may occur in
crocodiles.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 81


 Hence, whenever prolapse occurs in crocodiles or any reptiles, correlation with the metabolic derangements
of calcium need to be paid attention.
METABOLIC BONE DISEASE IN CAPTIVE AVIARY SPECIES
 Rickets is encountered in growing birds esp. in birds which have long or large legs and is caused by Ca and
Ph. Imbalance and deficiency of vitamin D. But osteomalacia is a disease of adult birds and causes are same
as the previous ones.

Clinical signs
 Weakness, anorexia, polydipsia, intermittent loose droppings
 Poor feather growth and chewing at plumage
 Hunch backed appearance if thoracic cage reveals collapse.
 Upper and lower beaks may not oppose each other properly and prehension of food is faulty.
 Hyperaesthetic and reveal muscle spasms
 Improper calcification of eggs (eggs become more soft)
 Retention of eggs without laying due to lack of calcium
GOUT
 This condition is more common in captive birds and reptiles in particular.
 Among the aviary species, especially raptors like hawks, eagles, kites, vultures, falcons are highly
susceptible in addition to ostrich, cassowary, peafowls, budgerigars, love birds, parakeets, cormorant,
goose, duck etc.
 Broader classification and the specific classification of gout should be known for a good understanding
about this disorder.
BROADER CLASSIFICATION
 True gout
o Deposition of monosodium urate crystals
 Pseudo gout
o This is formed by deposition of any crystal other than sodium urate.
SPECIFIC CLASSIFICATION
Visceral gout  Deposition of whitish urate or uric acid crystals (end products of
(usually occurs nitrogenous metabolism or protein metabolism) in case of reptiles and
as acute form) birds (urate crystals are deposited as white coloured powder or foci often on
epicardium and liver mainly and also on kidney and some times on
peritoneum)
 Note
o Localization of urate crystals may vary from individual to
individual
Articular  Urate deposition in and around the joints.
gout or  Deposition of urate crystals form in joints form small white nodules called
synovial as tophi or tophus which are clearly visible to the unaided eyes.
gout
(usually occurs
as chronic
form)
ETIOLOGY
 Renal problems (infection/inflammation/renal lesions due to nephrotoxic substances like gentamicin and
anti-inflammatory drugs like salicylates, probenecids, phenylbutazone etc.) are the basic cause because
liver and esp.the renal tissues are involved in production of urate crystals.
 Nutrition (increased protein intake with provision of water, increased protein intake without provision of
water or incorrect balance of aminoacids in the feed).
 Stress leading to dehydration or dehydration due to diseases all lead ultimately reduced renal blood flow
and thereby renal efficiency is lots and ultimately gout occurs.
 Congenital causes might be the causal factors as documented in case of nile crocodile hatchlings.
CLINICAL SIGNS AND DIAGNOSIS
 Elevated serum uric acid helps the diagnosis in general, in addition to the specific examination for urate
crystals in joints.
 In crocodiles or lizards or chelonians affected by gout, general depression is there but antemortem-
diagnosis is difficult in visceral gout.
 In articular gout, the affected leg joints become painful and the animal is reluctant to move.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 82


 In advanced arthritic gout, the swollen joints can be easily seen or palpated.
 In captive aviary species, affected by visceral gout, antemortem- diagnosis is difficult as in case of many
species.
 In articular gout, urate tophi may be seen esp. in advanced cases (seen as whitish areas at joints).

Note
 The signs of articular gout often are confused with bumble foot (Muroxide test helps to confirm uric acid
crystals and in this test, take one drop of nitric acid on a clean slide and mix it with the crystals aspirated
from a urate typhus and slowly flame it till this becomes dry and cool. Now, add one drop of ammonia and
presence of a reddish-purple color will indicate the presence of uric acid.
 In raptors or other aviary species, when you ventral surface of digits, uniform swelling may be seen in entire
digits of both the limbs and of course and experienced zoo veterinarians will naturally try to differentiate
the perch based problems or lesions, in these aviary species reared under captive conditions.
HYPOTHYROIDISM
Hypothyroidism in captive wild mammals
 This may occur in any species of wild mammals.
 Clinical signs
o Obesity, alopecia, dullness with lethargic movements and lowered serum cholesterol are the major
features in this hypothyroidism.

Hypothyroidism in captive aviary species (documented in budgerigars etc.)


 Goiter in birds due to iodine deficiency may lead to hypothyroidism because the iodine is a must for the
development of thyroid gland.
 Due to iodine deficiency, there may be hypertrophy of thyroid gland resulting in goiter.
 Clinical signs
o The affected birds will reveal change of voice i.e. a respiratory noise heard as a characteristic „click‟
and this is due to the pressure of the enlarged thyroid on syrinx and the lower trachea.
o In addition to the obesity and dullness, there may be ruffled feathers in the affected bird.
DIABETES MELLITUS IN MAMMALS AND BIRDS
 Differentiate insulin dependent diabetes mellitus from non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. Mostly,
insulin dependent diabetes mellitus occurs. This condition is recorded in non-human primates in
particular.(polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia and glycosuria in addition to the dullness, anorexia,
unconsciousness in extreme stages and staggering may be noticed in the affected animals)
 Other mammals may also get affected by this condition. However, this needs a more detailed but a specific
study esp. in case of aged wild animal species.
 Further, this condition has been documented in case of captive birds also (ruffled feathers, polyuria,
polydipsia, polyphagia, glycosuria and weakness are the consistent clinical signs in the affected birds).
FATTY LIVER IN MAMMALS AND BIRDS
 This may occur in captive mammals and aviary species like budgerigars (male budgerigars
especially have increased incidences of fatty liver and multiple metabolic causes might be
assigned as etiological factors.
NEONATAL HYPOGLYCEMIA IN WILD ANIMALS
 This occurs mainly due to in-sufficient intake of colostrums or milk from mother due to multiple
reasons and this causes metabolic derangements and hypoglycemia occurs in the affected wild
animal species.
 Pale skin, weakness, recumbency, hypothermia, incoordination with terminal convulsions are the
clinical signs revealed.
 Monitoring the infant for proper feeding (ensure for proper energy intake) and monitoring of the
mother on proper nursing may help for the prevention of this problem in case of wild animals.
KETOSIS (ACETONEMIA) IN WILD RUMINANTS
 In ruminants whether it is domestic or wild (giraffe, deer, antelope, wild goat, wild sheep and wild bovid),
the dietary carbohydrates are fermented in the rumen to short chain fatty acids (acetate in majority
amount, propionate in moderate amount and butyrate in lesser amount).
 Hence, the glucose needs in these animal species are largely met by gluconeogenesis and it is to be
understood that propionate and aminoacids are the major precursors for gluconeogenesis.
CLINICAL SIGNS
In wasting form
 Woody appearance of the animal due to apparent wasting and loss of cutaneous elasticity

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 83


In nervous form (rule out rabies)
 Animal walks in circles, head-pushing, apparent blindness, aimless walking, vigorous licking of objects and
skin, depraved appetite, chewing movements with salivation.
LACTATION TETANY IN WILD EQUIDS
 This can be anticipated in case of wild equids reared under captive conditions. Zebras, wild asses and wild
horses may get affected by this condition and often, it occurs in the lactating equids, either at about
10th day, after giving birth or 1 to 2 days after the weaning of the young one for management reasons.
 Even after the prolonged transport or after the severe exertion, this condition may occur.
CLINICAL SIGNS
 Stiff gait and the tail may be raised.
 Incoordination and tetany.
 Sweating in profuse manner
 Rapid and labored respiration with wide dilatation of pupils which may be accompanied by a distinct
thumping sound from the thorax due to spasmodic contraction of the diaphragm.
 Muscular fibrillation esp. of the masseter and shoulder region and trismus without prolapse of membrana
nictitans unlike in tetanus disease.
 Reduced peristalsis and suspended urination and defecation.
 May attempt to drink but unable to swallow.
 Lowered calcium diet during the pre-stress period may help to avoid the excess gastro-intestinal absorption
of calcium.
PARTURITIENT PARESIS (MILK FEVER) IN WILD RUMINANTS
 Though there is no systematic study of this disease condition in wild cervids, this condition can be
anticipated in the newly fawned deer or antelopes that have given birth. Especially when there are twin
births, this can be anticipated. However, this can affect surely the gaur, mithun etc.
 This condition commonly occurs within two days of parturition and this may also occur few weeks before or
after the parturition.
CLINICAL SIGNS AND DIAGNOSIS
Clinical signs
 Hypothermia, dilated pupils, dry muzzle, suspended urination and defecation along with lethargic
movements or dullness.
 Weak heart sounds(rule out immobilization effects) and anorexia.

Diagnosis
 Serum estimation of calcium helps to diagnose the condition.
CALCIUM RELATED METABOLIC DERANGEMENTS IN WILD
BIRDS
 Other than bone related disease, some abnormalities are encountered in captive birds due to deranged
calcium metabolism and are furnished below:
o Egg binding is commonly encountered in many aviary species and along with other causes,
calcium deficiency due to multiple metabolic derangements play a significant role. Hence, in egg
bound aviary species, calcium borogluconate is given by I/V or S/C route and this helps in the
improvement of the tonicity of the musculatures and helps in the rapid expulsion of egg
o Malformed egg esp. shell less egg or partially shelled egg or soft shelled egg may be laid by
multiple aviary species reared under captive conditions. In addition to the salpingitis, the
etiological factor for this might be the existence of imbalance in calcium and phosphorus levels.
o An imbalance in calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D is commonly encountered in parrots and the
problem arises as a result of their customary diet of high oil-bearing foods such as sunflower and
peanuts. This in addition to the metabolic derangements produce a variety of clinical expressions
in the affected wild birds reared in captivity.
COLIC AS A RESULT OF METABOLIC DERANGMENT
 Colic is more commonly encountered in case of elephants in severe metabolic derangements like acidosis.
 Feeding of unaccustomed food material, excess feeding of the routine food materials, obstruction anywhere
in the gastro-intestinal tract and lesser exercise with non-provision of adequate amounts of water for the
drinking purposes- all may precipitate the colic condition, in general.

Signs of colic
o restlessness
o constipation
o depression
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 84
o disobedience / aggression
o absence of signs of health, in general.
 Acute abdomen is a non-infectious disease condition that can affect any wild animal species, in general.
However, this problem is more encountered in case of llamas. Camelids often experience this problem.

Clinical signs
 Dullness
 Temperature may be normal to sub-normal
 Anorexia
 Increased pulse and pain due to colic
 Normal to cyanotic mucosa
 Decreased defecation
 Decreased motility of stomach
 Increased respiration
WOUNDS, ABSCESSES AND INJURIES
 These are very common among wild animal species esp. the captive ones. In-fighting is the common cause
often.
 Abscesses may occur if immediate treatment is not done due to multifaceted causes.
 Long time persisting wounds are common among elephants in particular and routine treatment protocol
needs to be adapted in all these cases.
 In many captive animals, wounds may get further complicated by affections with maggots.

A
Animal Indicator: Animals are being used to indicate the health status of themselves, the
environment etc.

Antelopes: Hollow horned ruminants

Artiodactylids: Even toed ungulates.


B
Biome: Major global units of flora and fauna are termed as biomes.

Biosphere: Biosphere is the thin covering of our planet that contains and sustains life.

BNHS: Bombay Natural History Society

BSI: Botanical Survey of India


C
Captive Breeding: Captive populations of animals can play a significant conservation role as
demographic and genetic reservoirs from which infusions of „new blood‟ may be obtained for
wild populations, as source from which new population can be found and at last redoubts for
species which have no immediate chance of survival in the wild.
Capture Myopathy: Capture Myopathy is one of the important pathological changes that occur
in case of wild animals due to the stress factors during the restraint operation.
Elephant hooks are used for the control of the elephants

Capture Stress: Capture stress is defined as the “cumulative response” and may be
considered as the end result of the wild animal‟s interaction with it‟s environment through
receptors

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 85


Carnivores: Carnivores are the meat eating animals

Carrying capacity: Carrying capacity of a habitat for a particular species may be defined as
the number of individuals of that population (species) which the concerned area/habitat can
carry or support during the pinch period

CITES: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species

Colic: Colic is a condition that is more commonly encountered in case of elephants during
occurrence of severe metabolic derangements like acidosis

Components of wildlife habitat: The components of wildlife habitat may be multiple.


However, for the purpose of understanding, major ones are Food, Cover, Water and Space

Conservation: This is the management of human use of biosphere with an ultimate


aim of yielding the greatest sustainable benefits to the present generation, while maintaining
the potential to encounter the requirements and expectations of the future generation.

Critical distance: If this is violated and if there is no place or route to escape, animal may
threaten or attack the opposing individual.

CZA: Central Zoo Authority

D
Dart: Specialized syringes used for loading of the immobilizing drug and act by mechanical
pressure or by using the gas

Dholes: Indian wild dogs (Cuon alpinus) are also called as Dholes

Diurnal: Active in day time

E
Ecdysis: This means the periodical shedding of entire skin

Eco Development: This may be defined as the set of conservation oriented development
measures to make protected areas and the human neighbours compatible with each other.

Eco-system: This is a mosaic of habitat patches.

Ectothermic animals: These are the cold-blooded animals and it means that they are unable
to raise their body temperature by means of internal heat unlike the case with mammals and
birds.

Enclosure barriers: Enclosure barriers are the must and more cautions need to be
exercised in order to design these types of barriers especially for the hazardous type of
wild animal species like tiger, panther, lion, jaguar etc

Endangered wild animals: Endangered wild animals are those whose numbers are at a
critically low level and whose habitats are so drastically reduced or damaged that they are
in imminent danger of extinction.

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 86


Environmental Enrichment: During the meeting out of the physical requirements of various
species of wild animals, one has to find ways to stimulate the concerned wild animal species for
the purpose of exhibition of more activities in an environment.

Estuarine habitat: This habitat uniquely represents the confluence of fresh water with sea.
But at the low tides and at periods of high rain fall, there is often an increase in the fresh
water level.

Ethology: It means the study of animal behavior.

EX-SITU population of wild animals: Population of wild animals in captive wild animal
places like a zoo

F
FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization

Flight distance: If it is violated bird or animal will run or move away.

Fresh water habitat: Fresh water habitats are small and are some what easily accessible
and comprises plankton and nekton inhabiting them.

G
Gout: This condition is more common in captive birds and reptiles.

Gregarious: Nature of living in groups.

GTF: Global Tiger Forum

I
IBWL: Indian Board for Wildlife

ICBN: International Commission on Botanical Nomenclature

ICZN: International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature

IIS: Indian Institute of Sciences

Individual distance: It is the personal space or distance that an animal prefers between
itself and other members of its own species.

IN-SITU population of wild animals: Population of wild animals in free ranging areas or
forests

Isolation Unit: This unit is meant for the confinement of wild animals that are found to be
affected by any infectious diseases that may affect other co-exhibits or nearby wild animals of
the same group or the wild animals of another species in a zoological park-environment.

IUCN: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 87


Krall: Krall is used mainly to restrain the elephants in free ranging regions

L
Loafing cover: Loafing cover is the one in which some wild animal species try to spend
their time aimlessly and this may be a secluded place in a habitat.

M
Macro Habitat: This comprises larger areas than the micro habitat. Control of the
factors in macro habitats is more difficult as the case with land-use patterns, velocity of
wind, amount of rain in an area etc

Makhnas: These are the tuskless male elephants

Marin habitat: This habitat is being used widely by marine mammals, fish, coral reeves etc.
inhabit these areas. This is the largest in the biosphere.

Micro Habitat: This is the one associating with a small area


(few square centimeters as the case with the area under a fallen tree trunk or a stone
material found in the forest).

N
National park: National park is an area that has more legal status in general.
A wildlife sanctuary may be elevated to the status of national park in the course of
time, depending on the extent of additional protection, the value of the concerned wild
animal species etc.

NBWL: National Board for Wildlife

Notochord: This is the elsastic skeletal rod below the nerve cord and above the alimentary
canal and may be replaced partially or completely by vertebral column.

P
Perissodactylids: Odd-toed unglulates

Pheromones: Pheromones are the scent materials by which the wild animals of different
species in the forest communicate with each other and are often used to attract the opposite
sex. Pheromones are also used to indicate the occupation of a territory to the
conspecifics (animals of the same species).

Puppets: The puppets are mainly used to capture the freely swimming birds in a lake etc

Q
Quarantine: This is a procedure in which the newly arrived animals into the zoo are kept
in confinement in a separate place for a specified length of time.

R
Restraint: Restraint means the control of wild animal which may be in trapped or freely
moving status.

S
Sanctuary: Sanctuary can be defined in nut shell as a larger area meant for the protection of
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 88
wild fauna and flora. Sanctuaries have sound legal status with a strong but not exclusive
wildlife oriented management.

Snake hooks: Snakes are restrained well by using hooks with adequate lengthy handle

Social distance: It is the one which an animal maintains with other members of its social
group. It provides cohesiveness to the group.

STUD BOOK: Name of the enclosure, House name and number, National Stud book
number International Stud book number, Sex, Sire (National Stud book number),
Dam (National Stud book number),Date of birth, Since when Date of death, Any other
mode of disposal etc.

T
Taxonomy: This is the science of nomenclature is called as the taxonomy.

TCS: Tiger Conservation Society

Terrestrial habitat: Terrestrial habitats are comparatively a larger type of habitat in general
but at the same time lesser than the marine habitat.

Territory: This is a fixed area from which intruders are excluded by some combination of
advertisement, threat or attack. Aggression may be revealed if territory is violated especially
by the members of its own species

TRAFFIC: Trade Records Analysis of Flora and Fauna in Commerce

U
UNDP: United Nations Development Programme

UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

W
WII: Wildlife Institute of India

Wildlife: Wildlife” is defined as „any animal, bee, butterflies, crustaceae, fish and moths
and aquatic or land vegetation‟. Thus it is to be understood that Wildlife is the term that
embraces all life forms that are wild or care themselves.

Wildlife As Per Wildlife Protection Act: “Wildlife” is defined as „any animal, bee, butterflies,
crustaceae, fish and moths and aquatic or land vegetation‟.

Wildlife management: This is the art and science of changing the characteristics and
interactions of habitats, wild animal populations and homosapiens

Wildlife Management Triad: This is the one that is associated with population of wild
animals, interaction with human beings and habitat.

Wildlife Sanctuary Declaration: It is an area of adequate ecological faunal, floral,


geomorphological, natural or zoological significance for the purpose of protecting,
propagating or developing wildlife or its environment.
VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 89
WPSI: Wildlife Protection Society of India

WTI: Wildlife Trust of India

WWF: World Wide Fund for Nature

Z
Zoo: Zoo is the collection of number of wild animals in captivity

Zoological Medicine: In general, medicine is defined as any means to cure disease or


improve health and health is broadly defined as the general condition of body and
mind. Zoological Medicine is a wide spectrum of disciplines associated with the medical
problems of all species of wild animals in a captive wild animal place.

ZSI: Zoological Survey of India

VMD-512 TANUVAS Notes Compiled by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Sharma 90

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