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Calibration of high-heat-flux sensors in a solar

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Article in Metrologia · November 2006

DOI: 10.1088/0026-1394/43/6/003

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INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS PUBLISHING METROLOGIA
Metrologia 43 (2006) 495–500 doi:10.1088/0026-1394/43/6/003

Calibration of high-heat-flux sensors in a

solar furnace
J Ballestrı́n1 , M Rodrı́guez-Alonso1 , J Rodrı́guez1 , I Cañadas1 ,
F J Barbero2 , L W Langley3 and A Barnes3
1
CIEMAT—Plataforma Solar de Almerı́a, Aptdo. 22, E-04200 Tabernas, Almerı́a, Spain
2
Departamento de Fı́sica Aplicada, Universidad de Almerı́a, Spain
3
Vatell Corporation, PO Box 66, Christiansburg, VA 24073, USA

Received 26 October 2005

Published 6 November 2006
Online at stacks.iop.org/Met/43/495

Abstract
The most common sensors used for the measurement of high solar
irradiance are the Gardon gauges, which are usually calibrated using a black
body at a certain temperature as the radiant source. This calibration
procedure is assumed to produce a systematic error when solar irradiance
measurements are taken using these sensors. This paper demonstrates a
calorimetric method for calibrating these high-heat-flux gauges in a solar
furnace. This procedure has enabled these sensors to be calibrated under
concentrated solar radiation at higher irradiances under non-laboratory
conditions in the CIEMAT solar furnace at the Plataforma Solar de Almerı́a.
Working at higher irradiances has allowed the uncertainty in the calibration
constant of these sensors to be reduced. This work experimentally confirms
the predicted systematic errors committed when measuring high
solar irradiances using Gardon sensors calibrated with a black body.
(Some figures in this article are in colour only in the electronic version)

1. Introduction 2. Heat-flux sensors at Plataforma Solar de Almerı́a

Measurement of high irradiances obtained by solar
concentrating systems is required in a growing variety of
research fields and technical applications, such as photovoltaic
and solar thermal energy. At the present time, the sen-
sors used at the Plataforma Solar de Almerı́a (PSA) [1] for
this purpose are the circular foil or Gardon-type [2]. Their
small size and short response time (<1 s) make them versatile
devices, which may be used for many applications involving
the concentration of solar radiation without interfering with
test procedures. At present, there is no international stan-
dard providing traceable high solar irradiance measurements
for calibrating these heat flux sensors. Several manufacturers
and laboratories have made an effort to calibrate them [3, 4],
using black bodies and pyrometric temperature measurement
traceable to the National Institute of Standards and Tech-
nology (NIST) to determine heat flux, but these calibrations
are not valid in the solar context because the spectral radi-
ance of a black body is significantly different from the so-
lar spectral distribution. This paper describes a calorimet-
ric method for calibrating high-heat-flux sensors in a solar
furnace.
At the present time, the sensors used to measure high
solar irradiance in the various Plataforma Solar de Almerı́a
(PSA) facilities are Gardon-type gauges. Their transducer
is a differential thermocouple that measures the temperature
difference between the centre and the circumference of a thin
foil disc, the diameter and thickness of which vary with the
range of irradiance [5]. The disc is bonded to a circular
opening in a 2.54 cm long cylindrical heat sink with a 0.79 cm
to 2.54 cm front-face diameter. The standard foil is made of
constantan and the heat sink is copper. These materials produce
an EMF output which is directly proportional to the heat flux
absorbed. The usual signal is 0 mV to 10 mV regardless of the
heat flux range, which means a constantan–copper temperature
difference of up to 214 ◦ C.
One of the few suppliers of Gardon-type sensors is the
Vatell Corporation. The exposed face of the sensors is sprayed
with a high-absorptance black coating to achieve absorption
high enough to generate a significant signal. Zynolyte® [6]
is the preferred coating at Vatell because it creates a rough
surface that improves heat absorption; however, when heat flux
is over 3500 kW m−2 colloidal graphite (Electrodag® 154) is a

0026-1394/06/060495+06$30.00 © 2006 BIPM and IOP Publishing Ltd Printed in the UK 495
J Ballestrı́n et al
Figure 1. Spectral irradiance from a black body at 850 ◦ C and solar
spectral irradiance with AM2, both normalized to a solar constant of
1353 W m−2 . Reflectance of a typical mirror used to concentrate
solar radiation. Absorptance of the two coatings (Zynolyte® and
colloidal graphite) used to paint heat flux sensors.
better option because the centre of the foil gets so hot that the
Zynolyte® would burn off.
The current procedure for calibrating these sensors at
Vatell is based on a dual-cavity black body, which is basically
an electrically heated double-ended cylindrical graphite tube
with a centre partition that allows its internal temperature
to be measured with an NIST-traceable pyrometer while
the reference transducer is being calibrated. When the
selected temperature of 850 ◦ C has stabilized, the transducer
is quickly inserted into the cavity opposite the pyrometer. The
Stefan–Boltzman law supplies the resulting irradiance value
of about 90 kW m−2 on the front face of the sensor, assuming
hemispherical irradiation. Calibration of the reference heat-
flux sensor is performed with this single-point technique.
This calibration is transferred to the commercial sensors by
comparison in a calibration furnace with a graphite plate that
radiates evenly and symmetrically when an electrical current
passes through it. The calibration constant obtained with this
method translates voltage to irradiance on the front face of the
sensor. The manufacturer states that the accuracy of gauges
calibrated in this way is within ±3% with a repeatability of
±1% [6].
These heat flux sensors have been used since 1953 [5]
in different fields such as plasma diagnostics and combustion
research, which have to deal with dissimilar spectral radiances,
and, therefore, compatibility with solar radiation is not given,
as the spectral absorptance of these two coatings (Zynolyte®
and colloidal graphite) is not constant over the whole
electromagnetic spectral range (figure 1). Unfortunately, at
850 ◦ C, the spectral radiance of a black body is significantly
different from the solar spectral distribution and a systematic
error arises due to the difference in power absorbed by the
coatings under these two dissimilar electromagnetic spectral
distributions [6, 7]. Figure 1 shows the spectral irradiance
from a black body at 850 ◦ C and solar spectral irradiance with
air mass ratio 2 (AM2), both normalized to a solar constant
of 1353 W m−2 , the reflectance of a typical mirror used to
concentrate solar radiation and the absorptance of the two
coatings (Zynolyte® and colloidal graphite) used on heat flux
sensors. The systematic error from measuring solar irradiance
496
Figure 2. Solar furnace diagram.
with these gauges has been estimated from all this information
in a previous paper [6]. If the sensor coating is Zynolyte® , the
sensor overestimates the solar irradiance by 3.6%. However,
if the coating is colloidal graphite, the overestimation of solar
irradiance is 27.9% [6].
3. Thermal balance calibration in a solar furnace
The validity of the thermal balance technique for calibrating
heat flux sensors was presented in a previous paper [8], which
reported the calorimetric method applied in the laboratory.
The main limitation was that the maximum irradiance level
was about 100 kW m−2 . This constraint has been overcome
by working in the Plataforma Solar de Almerı́a (PSA) solar
furnace.
3.1. PSA solar furnace
Solar furnaces reach one of the highest concentration levels
obtainable with a solar concentrating system, having attained
concentrations of over 10 000×. A solar furnace essentially
consists of a flat solar-tracking heliostat, a parabolic collector
mirror, an attenuator or shutter and the test zone located in
the concentrator focus (figure 2). The flat collecting mirror,
or heliostat, reflects the parallel horizontal solar beams onto
the parabolic dish, which in turn reflects them onto its focus
where the test area is set up. The amount of incident light is
regulated by the shutter located between the concentrator and
the heliostat. Below the focus there is a test table movable in
three directions (East–West, North–South, up and down) that
places the test samples in the focus with high precision.
The PSA solar furnace currently has one 140 m2 heliostat.
The reflective surface of the heliostat is made up of 32 non-
concentrating flat facets with 90% reflectivity that continually
track the solar disc and reflect its parallel horizontal beams onto
the concentrator. The concentrator dish is the main component
of the solar furnace (figure 2). It concentrates the incident
light from the heliostat, multiplying the irradiance in the focal
zone. Its optical properties especially affect the irradiance
Metrologia, 43 (2006) 495–500

Figure 3. Gardon sensor and calibration set-up.
distribution at the focus. It is composed of 89 spherical
facets with a total surface of 98.5 m2 , 92% reflectivity and
focal distance of 7.45 m. The parabolic surface is achieved
with spherically curved facets, distributed along five radii with
different curvatures depending on their distance from the focus.
The attenuator consists of a set of horizontal louvres that rotate
on their axes, regulating the amount of sunlight incident on the
concentrator. The total energy on the focus is proportional to
the radiation that passes through the attenuator. It is composed
of 30 louvres arranged in two columns of 15. In closed position
the louvres form a 55◦ angle with the horizontal and 0◦ when
open.
The concentrator and distribution of the irradiance in the
focus characterize a solar furnace. The characteristics of the
focus when 100% open and with direct solar irradiance of
1000 W m−2 are an irradiance peak of 3000 kW m−2 , total
power of 58 kW and focal diameter of 23 cm [10].
3.2. Gardon sensor details and basis for thermal balance
Two 15.9 mm front-face diameter Vatell Gardon sensors
(#7915, #7918) were used for this experiment. The
ranges of the sensors are between 1200 kW m−2 and
5000 kW m−2 , respectively, the coatings are Zynolyte®
and colloidal graphite, and the calibration constants
supplied by the manufacturer are 113.59 kW m−2 mV−1 and
541.74 kW m−2 mV−1 , respectively.
Approximately 95% of the front face of the Gardon sensor
is copper (figure 3). The excellent thermal conductivity of this
metal allows this sensor to be used as a calorimeter because its
thermal time constant is about one second. The principle of
calorimeters is based on the measurement of the power input
into a cooling medium according to

higher the temperature increment, the lower its uncertainty. An
Tout
Q̇ = V̇ ρ(T )cp (T ) dT , (1)
Tin
where V̇ , ρ and cp are the volume flow, the density and the
specific heat of the cooling medium, respectively. Tin and Tout
are the inlet and outlet temperatures of the coolant. When the
temperature difference is only a few degrees centigrade, the
Metrologia, 43 (2006) 495–500
Calibration of high-heat-flux sensors
following equation can be employed with a negligible error:
Q̇ = V̇ ρ(Tav )cp (Tav )T , (2)
where T is the temperature increment in the coolant and Tav
the average temperature between Tin and Tout .
The heat flux absorbed per unit area on the front face of
the sensor is
Q̇ − Q̇Ins
q= , (3)
A
where A is the front area of the calorimeter and Q̇Ins the
power from the insulation to the calorimeter. Assuming
homogeneous hemispherical irradiation, it is possible to obtain
the solar irradiance on the front face of the sensor from
q
E= , (4)
α
where α is the hemispherical solar absorptance of the coating.
Some samples of mirror and metal plates painted with
Zynolyte® and colloidal graphite were analysed in detail to
obtain the absorptance of this coating under concentrated solar
radiation from [6]
 2500
Gbλ ρλ αλ dλ
α = 300 2500 , (5)
300 Gbλ ρλ dλ
where λ is the wavelength, 300 nm to 2500 nm is the
approximate solar spectral band, Gbλ is the direct solar
spectral irradiance, ρλ is the spectral specular reflectance of
the mirror and αλ is the spectral hemispherical absorptance
of the coating. The solar hemispherical absorptances of
Zynolyte® and colloidal graphite (Electrodag® 154) estimated
using equation (5) are 95.4% and 84.7%, respectively.
3.3. Experimental set-up and measurement equipment
The sensors are placed successively in a stainless steel housing
in the test area of the solar furnace (figures 2 and 3). An
automated low-conductivity shutter (figure 3) is placed in
front of the sensor to allow irradiance steps over the gauge.
The different apertures of shutter 1 (figure 2) make different
irradiance levels possible. The stainless steel enclosure is
filled with low conductivity insulation and all gauge surfaces
are insulated except the entire front face which is exposed
to the radiation (figures 3 and 4). A Type-T thermocouple
measures the temperature of the insulation and a differential
Type-T thermocouple measures the temperature increment
between inlet and outlet water. Two PT-100 sensors also
measure both temperatures independently. The differential
thermocouple and the two PT-100 sensors are calibrated using
methods specific to each. An uncertainty of less than 2% in the
measurement of the temperature difference is obtained after
inclusion of the data acquisition system (DAS) error. The
offset adjustment is performed before starting measurement to
eliminate possible thermal input from water friction [9].
An electromagnetic flow meter, expressly selected for this
experiment, measures the flow volume with an uncertainty
of 0.25% in a range 1 litre min−1 to 20 litre min−1 , rising to
0.75% after the DAS error has been included. The higher
the flow volume, the higher the uncertainty. The uncertainty
497
J Ballestrı́n et al
gauge
Figure 4. Gardon sensor under concentrated solar radiation.
litre
litre
litre
litre
litre
Figure 5. Calculated measurement uncertainty of the absorbed heat
flux density by the Gardon sensor at different cooling water flows.
Laboratory and solar furnace conditions.
in measurement of the heat flux density absorbed can be
calculated with equations (2) and (3) and is given in figure 5.
This figure shows how, by working at higher irradiances, it is
possible to reduce the uncertainty in this measurement. A 16-
bit resolution DAS card connected to a PC receives the signal.
A DASYLab® program handles the data transfer, visualization,
on-line calculations and storage.
3.4. PSA solar furnace operating procedure
The sensor is placed in the solar furnace test area as described
above (figures 2–4) and the water flow is selected. Shutter 1 is
then opened to a predefined position and shutter 2 is removed
for about five seconds (figure 6), during which time a stable
level of irradiance is achieved. This level is simultaneously
obtained by thermal balance (equations (2)–(4)) and by the
black body calibration associated with the signal voltage of the
transducer. After this short time, shutter 2 goes back in front
of the sensor and shutter 1 is closed. The voltage generated by
the transducer is recorded throughout the process.
498
3.5. Heat flux conduction from the insulation to the
calorimeter
The heat flux transfer between the insulation and the
calorimeter is calculated assuming heat conduction between
two concentric cylinders in a stationary state. The inner and
outer radii are the radius of the calorimeter and the distance
from the insulation thermocouple to the centre of the gauge,
respectively. The average cooling water temperature, obtained
from inlet temperature Tin and outlet temperature Tout , is
considered to be the sensible measurement of the insulation
contact temperature. The thermal emission loss of the outer
enclosure is neglected. With the 12 mm insulation thickness,
the heat transfer coefficient of the insulation, 0.1 W m−1 K−1 ,
and the insulation temperature, TIns , the estimation of this
reduced power is continuously included in the thermal balance
obtained by equations (2)–(4) according to
 
Tin + Tout
Q̇Ins = 1.72 × 10−2 TIns − . (6)
2
During all the tests, the average cooling water temperature
(<20 ◦ C) is lower than the temperature of the insulation
(<30 ◦ C).
3.6. Calibration constant, linearity, uncertainty and
repeatability
The cycle described above (section 3.4) is repeated at different
shutter 1 apertures, obtaining 13–19 irradiance values on
the front faces of the Gardon sensors and the corresponding
voltages. Operating in this manner, the solar irradiance
achieved in this experimental set-up is limited to a maximum
of about 1300 kW m−2 . With this information, a linear fit
of the data is taken (figure 7) as the sensor calibration.
This hypothesis is confirmed by the correlation coefficient
R (tables 1 and 2). This procedure has been systematically
repeated for both sensors at different water flow rates (tables 1
and 2) with less than 1% uncertainty for the calibration constant
B, (figure 7) and a repeatability of 0.6%. This repeatability at
different cooling conditions confirms the reduced contribution
of convective and thermal effects on the front face of the
sensor to the thermal balance. A significant loss of heat to the
environment (convection, thermal) would significantly modify
constant calibration under different cooling conditions [11].
Once the thermal balance calibration constant (B) of the
sensor has been obtained (tables 1 and 2), the deviation of
the corresponding black body calibration constant (BCC) is
estimated from
BCC − B
SE = 100 (7)
B
and the uncertainty of this deviation
∂SE ∂SE
SE = BCC + B
∂BCC ∂B 
1 BCC
= 100 BCC − B , (8)
B B2
where B and BCC are the uncertainties of the two
calibration constants, respectively (tables 1 and 2). The
predicted systematic errors in measuring high solar irradiances
using Gardon sensors calibrated with a black body of 3.6% and
Metrologia, 43 (2006) 495–500

Figure 6. Estimated solar irradiance by the thermal balance and by black body calibration when the Gardon sensors are under concentrated
solar radiation.
litre
Figure 7. Calibration of both Gardon sensors by the thermal balance method.
27.9%, respectively, are in agreement with these experimental
results (tables 1 and 2).
It should also be kept in mind that these heat flux sensors
are calibrated according to their hemispherical absorptance.
Any alteration in this would mean a smaller solid angle of
vision, as in the solar furnace case, and possible consequent
change in absorptance, which would have to be considered for
every specific application of the gauges [7, 11]. Changes in
absorptance at different temperatures would be another factor
to consider [11]. However, the good agreement between theory
and experimental results leads us to believe that the influence
of these factors is minor and negligible.
3.7. Thermal and convective losses and gains
Thermal and convective effects on the front face of the sensor
are difficult to analyse experimentally and during mid-range
calibrations are usually assumed to be negligible [12]. Any
change in cooling conditions, ambient temperature or incident
Metrologia, 43 (2006) 495–500
Calibration of high-heat-flux sensors
litre
heat flux can modify the contribution of these factors to the
thermal balance. As this contribution to the balance may
be negative (losses) or positive (gains) during calibration and
subsequent use of the gauge, the contributions to the calibration
process are difficult to estimate. However, such contributions
should be included as additional random uncertainty in the
calibration. Detailed thermal simulation of the gauge in
a central receiver context has been performed in previous
work, showing that the order of magnitude of the convective
and thermal contributions to the uncertainty of the constant
calibration is about 1% [13].
4. Conclusions
This paper reports on a calorimetric method for calibrating
high-heat-flux sensors in a solar furnace. This technique
calibrates for the absorbed radiation. In order to get the
incident radiation it is necessary to know the absorptivity of
the surface, which usually is a property not very well known.
This procedure has enabled these sensors to be calibrated
499
 J Ballestrı́n et al

Table 1. Calibration of a the Gardon sensor (#7915, Zynolyte) by the thermal balance method. Convective and thermal effects are not
considered.
Water flow/ Inlet temperature/ B/ B/
litre min−1 ◦
C kW m−2 mV−1 kW m−2 mV−1 100 × Uncertainty R 100 × SE 100 × SE
1.5 29.5 111.4 0.4 0.4 0.999 91 6 3
2 29.2 112.6 0.5 0.4 0.999 94 5 3
2.5 29.4 113.6 0.6 0.5 0.999 95 4 3

Table 2. Calibration of a Gardon sensor (# 7918, colloidal graphite) by the thermal balance method. Convective and thermal effects are not
considered.
Water flow/ Inlet temperature/ B/ B/
litre min−1 ◦
C kW m−2 mV−1 kW m−2 mV−1 100 × Uncertainty R 100 × SE 100 × SE
1.5 22.1 416 2 0.5 0.999 89 30 4
2 22.0 416 2 0.5 0.999 92 30 4
2.5 21.8 414 3 0.7 0.999 92 30 4

under concentrated solar radiation at higher irradiances under
non-laboratory conditions in the CIEMAT solar furnace at the
Plataforma Solar de Almerı́a. The thermal balance calibration
technique in the laboratory is limited to approximately
100 kW m−2 . Working at higher irradiances has allowed the
uncertainty of the calibration constant of these sensors to
be reduced. This work has experimentally confirmed the
predicted systematic errors in measuring high solar irradiances
using Gardon sensors calibrated with a black body.
Acknowledgments
This work received financial support from the Spanish Ministry
of Science and Technology under the MEPSOCON project
(Ref DPI2003-03788).
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500 Metrologia, 43 (2006) 495–500

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