Ansa Priyadarsini

INTRODUCTION
Alexander Graham Bell became famous for his invention of telephone but
he was very much engrossed almost at the same time about
communication system using light source (i.e. Sun’s Rays) in his
photophone. In 1880 Alexander Graham Bell was capable for speech
transmission over 200 m. using his photophone. From that time the
advantages of using light as the basis of communication system have been
apparent for long time, the problem has been to find a secure transmission
path to avoid the vagaries of the weather and suitable light source.
In 1960 Kao & Hochham, who were working at the Standard
Telecommunication Laboratories in Harlow, England, realized that a glass
fibre was a possible medium for light signal transmission. It is possible to
transfer information efficiently to anywhere in the World at any time and
major contributions for this achievement is the use of optical
communication. Two major components for optical communication are
transmission medium i.e. optical fibre & suitable light source i.e. laser. The
information can be transmitted through optical fibre in optical form as fibre
can guide light. Laser was invented in 1960 and when in 1970 for the first
time, low loss optical fibre was produced, the way to fibre optic
communication got opened. Today after many years of scientific research
done all around the World, optical fibres have proven to be more versatile
than copper and millions of kilometers of fibre are linking people &
machines. Optical fibres are taking over the World and it is just a matter of
time before glass replaces copper totally.
The use of optical fibres for information transmission has become
widespread during the decade of the 1980s, as is evident from the
installation of fibre optic telecommunication networks throughout the
World.
Optical fibre is treated as a carrier wave because the optical frequencies are
extremely large (N1015Hz) as compared to micro waves (N10 10Hz) and with
conventions radio waves (N106Hz). It clearly confirmed that the light beam
acting as a carrier waves is capable of carrying for more information than
microwaves & conventional radio waves.
Optical fibres transport light signals from place to place like metallic
conductor transport electronic signals. Optical fibres can guide light around
bends and carry light for long distances with a little loss of light power.
2. Fibre is a medium made of ultra pure cylindrical glass or plastic through
which optical signal is being sent. To design and improve communication
system for sending messages over long distances from one place to
another, these are known as optical fibres.
Ansa Priyadarsini

Fibre optics thus may be defined as a technology related to transportation

of optical energy or light energy in guided media especially the transparent
dielectric fibres of glass, plastic, etc.
3. An optical fibre is a very thin cylindrical fibre of glass or any transparent
dielectric medium such as plastic, having a radius, a micrometer (10-6m). A
bundle of such thin fibre forms a light pipe which is consisting of many
thousands of very long fire-quality glass or quartz fibres. The fibres are
coated with a layer of materials of lower refractive indoor.
Figure:
Total internal reflection is the basic principle of optical fibres. When light is
incident at one end of the fibre wall, it makes a nearly glancing incidence
because of the small radius of the fibre. 1.
Let ‘i’ be the angle at incidence of the ray with the axis and ‘re’ be the angle
of retraction. If θ be the angle at which the ray is incident on the fibre
boundary, then
θ = 90o – r
let n1 be the regractive index of the fibre
if θ > θc (the critical angle)
1
where θc = Sin-1 ( n )
1

then the ray will undergo total internal reflection.

Fig.
In this fig. the ray is thus transmitted along the fibre by repeated internal
reflection until it emerged by other end.
In the fig. the fibre is bent in a complicated shape, but the transmission
occurs without any appreciable loss.
Thus, by this principle we concluded that the light ray is guided through the
fibre from one end to the other without any energy being lost due to
refraction.
4. Physically an optical fibre is a very thin and flexible medium having a
cylindrical shape consisting of three section core, cladding & protective
jacket as follows:
Fig.
The core: An optical fibre consists of an inner cylinder usually made of glass
and is known as the core. The dia of core varies from about 5 m – 100 m.
The fibres are generally silica (sio2) based. It is the core that carries the
light.
The cladding: The core is surrounded by another coaxial cylindrical shall of
refractive indoor lower than that of the core. This is called the cladding
whose diameter is usually about 125 k.m. The function of cladding is to
retain the light within the core through total internal reflection.
Ansa Priyadarsini

The protective jacket:

The outermost section is called as the jacket consisting of primary coating is
(250 rm diameter) followed by another layer i.e. secondary coating. These
are made of plastic or polymer and is provided for protection against
moisture, abrasion, crushing and other environmental dangers.
5. Classification
There are mainly two types of optical fibres based on refractive index
profile of the core.
i. Step-index fibre
ii. Graded-index fibre
iii. Monomode Optical fibre
Step-index fibre
In Step-index fibre the refractive index n1 of the core is uniform throughout
the core. Similarly the refractive index n 2 of the cladding is also uniform.
Necessarily n1>n2. Let a & b be the radius of the core and cladding
respectively so that b>a. The index profile and the radii of the core and the
cladding of a step-index fibre is illustrated in the figure.
Fig.
Depending on the launch angle of the incident light into the fibre, there
may be a large number of different zig-zag paths of the rays or modes by
which energy travels down the core.
Fig.
In this figure two rays are entering at different angles of incidence with the
fibre axis and emerging out of the fibre at different times. Then that is
called as a step-index multimode fibre. The rays travelling along different
paths take different times to reach the other end of the fibres leading to an
widening of input pulse as it traverses the fibre. This is called intermodal
dispersion that distorts the signal to be transmitted.
2. Graded-index Fibre
In a graded index optical fibre, the core has a non-uniform refractive index
that gradually decreases from the centre towards the core-cladding
interface. The cladding however has a uniform index. The refractive index
profile of a graded index fibre is illustrated in the Fig.
Here in multimode graded index fibre, the ray paths are not zig-zag, they
are refracted gradually. All the central region, the index is higher implying
that the light velocity is smaller but near the cladding the situation is
reverse, the index is smaller and the light velocity is greater. The rays thus
spiral around near the axis, take shorter paths & travel slowly. But the rays
spiraling around the vicinity of cladding take longer paths and travel faster.
As a result all the rays tend to recross the axis at almost the same instant.
Ansa Priyadarsini

MONOMODE OPTICAL FIBRES

There is another type of optical fibre called monomode optical fibre having
narrow cores (N10rem) which allow only one mode to propagate.
Fig.
Here the rays travel only parallel to the axis and the problem of intermodal
dispersion is practically absent.
Difference
Of the different types of optical fibres, the multimode step-index is the
oldest. Its advantages are that it is least expensive, rugged and can be
infused easily with light. But its serious drawback is its intermodal
dispersion and is unsuitable for long distance communication.
The multimode graded index fibre is medium priced and intermodal
dispersion is not serious. It is thus widely used in medium distance
communication.
The monomode fibre are relatively expensive and require laser sources.
There is no intermodal dispersion. They are most suitable for long distance
communication.
Acceptance Angle
Fig.
Consider a step-index fibre. Let n 1, n2 be the indices of the core and
cladding respectively and n0 be that of the outside medium.
Let a ray be incident on the entrance aperture of the fibre at an angle θ 1
with its axis and θ2 be the corresponding angle of refraction.
n0 Sin θ1= n1 Sin θ2
To retain the ray inside the core, the angle of incidence θ 3 at the core-
cladding interface must not be less than the critical angle θ c.
But θ3 = 900- θ2
Now if θ1 is increased, θ2 also increases & so θ3 decreases. Thus there is a
maximum value of θ1 for which θ3 is not less than θc and internal reflection
of core-cladding interface occurs. This angle is called as the acceptance
angle θA or θmax.
The acceptance angle is thus defined as the maximum value of launch angle
of incident light into the fibre for which the ray is totally internally reflected
at core-cladding interface and gets transmitted without loss.
The acceptance angle is a measure of the light gathering power of the fibre.
A cone of light of semi-angle θA is called as the acceptance cone. Maximum
acceptance angle is 2 x θA.
∴We have
n0 Sin θ1 = n1 Sin θ2
= n1 Sin (900 – θ3)
Ansa Priyadarsini

= n1 Cos θ3
∴n0 Sin θA = n1 Cos θc
here θ1 = (θ) max = θA
and θ3 = θc = critical angle
n0 Sin θA = n1√ 1−sin2 θc
n22
√
= n1 1−
n21
n21−n22
√√
= n1
n21
= n21−n22
Ansa Priyadarsini

Numerical Aperture (N.A.)

n2
Since Sin θc =
n1
The quantity n0 Sin θA or Sin θA (when the outside medium is Air) is defined as the numerical
aperture (N.A.) of the fibre. It is a measure of thelight gathering power of the fibre. If N.A. is
2 2
large it becomes easier to launch power into the fibre since ( n1 −n2 >1)
We can write the N.A. as
N. A. = n21−n22
√
Fractional index change
It is defined as the fractional difference ∆ between the indices of the core and the cladding of
the fibre
n1−n 2
∆=
n2
The parameter ∆ is always positive since n1 is always greater than n2 to satisfy one of the
conditions for total internal reflection. For guiding the light rays effectively through a fibre ∆ <<
1
& typically ∆ N. 0.0.1
Relation between ∆ & N.A.:
As we know than N.A. = n21−n22
√
Now we know that N.A. = n21−n22
√
n21 −n22 = (n1+n2) (n1-n2)
1 n1−n 2
= (n1+n2) 2n1
2 n1
1
≈ (n1) ∆ 2n1 [∴ (n1+n2)≈ n1]
2
2
= 2n1 ∆

∴= √2 n21 ∆ = n1 √ 2 ∆
Fibre Optics Communication System:
A fibre optics communication system consists basically of the following units.
A Tranmitter
A Receiver
An information channel
Transmitter Information Channel Receiver

1. A transmitter that transforms an electric signal to be transmitted into an optical system.

2. A receiver whose function is to covert the optical signal back into the original electric form.
3. An information channel that guides the optical signal from transmitter to the receiver.
Each of the receiver and transmitter again has a number of different parts, each with definite
function.

Transmitter Receiver
Message origin Message Output
Modulator Signal processor
Carrier Source Detector
Channel input Information Channel Channel
output
Ansa Priyadarsini

1. It converts a non-electrical message into an electric signal e.g. a

microphone converts sound waves into electric current and a TV-
Camera transforms images into electric current.
2. This converts electrical messages into proper modulation formal and
impress the signal onto the carrier waves. The format may be analog or
digital.
3. It generates carrier waves. While in radio-communication these are
provided by an oscillator, in fibre optic system a light emitting diode
(LED) or a laser diode (LD) is used.
4. It feeds power into the information channel. In TV, the antenna is the
channel coupler. In fibre system the coupler transfers the modulated
light beam from the source into the optical fibre.
5. It provides a path between the transmitter and the receiver. In fibre
optic system, a glass or plastic fibre is the channel.
6. This routes the information collected from information channel into the
receiver. In radio communication, it is the antenna of the receiver. In
fibre system, it is a simple but connection, directing the emergent light
from fibre into light detector.
7. The function of the detector is to separate the information from the
carrier waves. In fibre system, a photo-detector is used and its output
current contains the information.
8. This includes amplification and filtering of the undesired frequencies in
analog transmission and in digital system there is an additional decision
circuit.
9. In order to hear the message the electric signal is transformed into
sound waves as in radio or for viewing the message as in TV, the
cathode ray tube is used.
Application of fibre optics
The most important application of fibre optics is to transmit
communication signals through light pipes and its advantages over the
conventional system have just been described at length.
1. The fibre optics system is widely used in defence services as high privacy
can be maintained. The military applications include communication,
command and control links on ships and aircrafts data links for satellite
earth stations, etc.
2. Digital data generated by computers are most suited for transmission by
the fibre system.
3. It is also used in signaling.
Ansa Priyadarsini

4. Its applications in science & industry are numerous. Fibre-optic sensors

measure temperature, pressure, liquids levels, rotary and linear
positions, etc.
5. It is also used in cable television, space vehicles, ships and submarine
cables.
6. Optical fibres are also widely used in security and alarm systems,
electronic instrumentation systems, industrial automation and process
control.
7. The other important application is in the medical field for diagnostic
purpose is the endoscopy. The endoscopy is meaning to see within. To
see the inner part of a human body while difficulty the endoscopy is
used. An endoscope consists of a bunch of optical fibres called
fiberscope i.e. light pipes carry laser beam to the inside of the body.
For example:
Fig.
A patient’s stomach can be viewed by inserting one end of a light pipe
into the stomach through the mouth. Light is sent through one set of
fibres in the pipe to illuminate the inside of the stomach. The light
reflected from inside travels back through another set of fibres in the
pipe. The viewer gets the image at the other end on the screen.
Conclusion
According to my opinion the fibre can be treated as the medium for the
information carrying light waves. This is a more dependable
communicating medium during any environmental dangers.
Reference