ASM Handbook, Volume 6: Welding, Brazing, and Soldering
D.L. Olson, T.A. Siewert, S. Liu, and G.R. Edwards, editors, p 1004-1009
DOI: 10.1361/asmhba0001462
Thermal Spray Coatings
H e r b e r t H e r m a n , State U n i v e r s i t y o f N e w Y o r k
R o b e r t A. S u l i t , S u l i t E n g i n e e r i n g
THERMAL SPRAY COATINGS (TSCs) are
surface coatings engineered to provide wear-,
erosion-, abrasion-, and corrosion-resistant
coatings for original equipment manufacture and
for the repair and upgrading of in-service equip-
ment. In general, TSCs can be applied to a range
of substrate materials, including metals, ceram-
ics, plastics, and polymer composites. Thermal
spray technology evolved and developed within
the welding field because of similarities in the
electrical and combustion equipment and the
feedstock materials used in thermal spray with
those used in welding and brazing. Accordingly,
thermal spraying is classified as an allied weld-
ing process.
This article presents a general overview of the
five thermal spray processes and the specific
flame and arc spray processes used to preserve
large steel components and structures. Also in-
cluded are a TSC selection guide and an indus-
trial process procedure guide for applying alumi-
num and zinc TSCs onto steel. Additional
information on thermal spray processes is avail-
able in the article "Hardfacing, Weld Cladding,
and Dissimilar Metal Joining" in this Volume.
Thermal spraying processes deposit finely di-
vided metallic or nonmetallic feedstock surfac-
ing materials in a molten or semimolten condi-
tion onto a properly prepared, grit-blasted
substrate to form a TSC. The thermal spray feed-
stock materials (wire, cored wires, ceramic
rods, and powders) are heated to their plastic or
molten state by combustion (flame, high-veloc-
ity oxygen fuel, and detonation) and by electric
Table 1 Classification of thermal spray processes relative fo method of heat generation
and feedstock form
Combustion
Feedstock form Flame HVOF(b) Detonation
Powder X X
Wire X . . . . . .
Cored wire X . . . . . .
Ceramic rod X . . . . . .
(a) X, applicable.(b) High-velocityoxyfuel
(arc and plasma) processes. The materials in
their plastic or molten state are accelerated to-
ward the substrate. The particles or droplets
strike the surface, flatten, and form thin platelets
(splats) that conform, adhere, and interlock with
the roughened surface irregularities and with
each other. As the sprayed particles impinge on
the substrate, they cool and build up, particle by
particle, into a lamellar-structured coating on the
substrate. In general, the substrate temperature
can be kept at 200 °C (390 °F) or below to
prevent metallurgical changes in the substrate
material.
The properties of the TSC depend on such
factors as its porosity, the cohesion between par-
ticles, adhesion to the substrate (including inter-
face integrity), and the chemistry of the coating
material. The particles bond to the substrate me-
chanically (the primary mechanism), metallurgi-
cally, or chemically. Particle impact velocity,
particle size, substrate roughness, particle tem-
perature, and substrate temperature influence
bond strength. Figure 1 shows the lamellar
structure of particle splats, oxide inclusions, and
unmelted particles in a typical TSC cross sec-
tion.
Aluminum and zinc TSCs have a long history
of corrosion protection in structural steel work:
• Buildings
• Bridges
• Towers
• Radio and TV antenna masts
• Steel gantry structures
Thermal spray precess(a)
Electrical
Plasma
Direct
Arc current
X .-- X X
X . . . . . .
X . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
Copyright © 1993 ASM International®
All rights reserved.
www.asminternational.org
Cohesive strength
betweenparticles Unmelted
Poresandvoids \ n~ai~i,=
Oxide . . ~ ~
inclusion
Substrate~ ~
roughness
Ads;Ta,e' ;:
Fig. 1 Schematic showing cross-sectional view of
TSC lamellar structural components that af-
fect coating integrity
• High-power search radar aerials
• Overhead walkways
• Railroad overhead line support columns
• Electrification masts
• Tower cranes
• Traffic island posts
• Street and bridge railings
On a smaller scale, aluminum-zinc TSCs have
been successfully used to protect lawn furniture
in corrosive seacoast environments.
T h e r m a l S p r a y C o a t i n g Processes
Thermal spray processes differ in the feed-
stock materials used, the method of heating ap-
plied, and the method of propelling the material
toward the substrate. The primary TSC feed-
stock materials can be classified as powder,
wire, cored wire, and ceramic rod. Thermal
spray processes can be categorized into two ba-
sic groups (combustion or electrical) according
to the method of heat generation (Table 1).
Table 2 gives typical characteristics of these
thermal spray processes. The combustion flame
and the electric arc processes are the main ones
used for preserving steel. Recommended feed-
stock requirements, area coverage, and spray
rates for flame and arc spraying are given in the
Coupled section "Typical Process Parameters" in this ar-
induction
ticle.
Flame spraying is the simplest and most ver-
satile process. All five feedstock forms can be
sprayed with subsonic flame spray. The feed
material is melted by an oxyfuel gas flame. In
flame powder spraying (Fig. 2), powder parti-
 Thermal Spray Coatings / 1005

Table 2 Typical parameters of selected TSC processes

Flame or arc Partide impact
Gas flow temperature velocity Spray rates

Process Feedstock Operation m3/h fl3/h °C °F m/s Ws kg/h I1~

Group I (combustion)
Subsonic Flame powder Powder feedstock fed into oxyfuel flame 10 350 2200 3990 30 t00 t/2-10 1.1-22
Flame wire, rod, and cord Feedstock fed into oxyfuel flame 70 2500 2800 5070 180 590 I/2-10 1.1-22
Supersonic High-velocity oxygen fuel powder Powder fed into supersonic velocity 110 3900 2600 4710 900 2950 2-15 4.4-33
combustion flame
Detonation gun Powder and explosive gas cyclically fed ...... 2600 4710 900 2950 -"
into explosion chamber
Group II (electrical)
Arc Wire Two consumable electrodes fed into 70 2500 5000 9300 240 790 2(a) 4.4(b)
atomizing air/gas stream
Plasma Powder Powder fed into plasma torch with 4 140 5000 9300 240 790 0.1(a) 0.22(b)
temperatures to 8300 °F
(15,000 °F)
(a) kg/h/kW.(b) lb/h/kW

feed material Air envelope Anode

Plasma gas / _ .
Shock diamonds =:~______.~/~// t'owoer injection
/
~'%x,~lH L~ _~ ~ . _ ~ - --

/ " Oxyfuel mixture

i
Carrier gas
Cross-sectional view of a flame powder spray-
Fig. 2 ing system showing powder feed material be-
rng transported by the career gas and then melted by
the oxyfuel mixture
Wire feed material
/ Compressed air
Oxyfuel gas mixture
Atomization of wire feedstock from the noz-
r:_r=~. 3 zle of a flame wire spraying gun
cles are heated to 2200 °C (3990 °F), and impact
the substrate at 30 m/s (100 ft/s). In flame wire
spraying (Fig. 3), melted and vaporized wire
particles are heated to 2800 °C (5070 °F), and
impact the substrate at 180 m/s (590 ft/s). The
higher gas flow used in flame wire spraying
gives the droplets greater impact energy. The
impact particle velocity in flame powder spray-
ing is the lowest, resulting in reduced adhesion
and increased porosity relative to the other ther-
mal spray processes. Spray rates are usually in
the range of 0.5 to 10 kg/h (1.1 to 22 lb/h) for
both flame wire and flame powder spraying.
Detonation Gun. In the detonation gun (D-
gun) process, oxygen and fuel gases are mixed
with powder and cyclically injected into a con-
stricted shotgunlike barrel and ignited. A spark
ignites the mixture, producing a supersonic det-
onation wave that heats the powder particles to
2600 °C (4710 °F) and propels them at 900 m/s
(2950 ft/s) onto the substrate.
nd oxyfuel Supply
Cross-sectional view showing the output of
Fig. 4 an HVOF spraying system
Electrically
charged wire Atomizing air
Spray pattern generated by two electrically
Fig. 5 charged wires melted at the nozzle of an arc
spraying gun
The H V O F gun (Fig. 4) operates continuously
and uses higher oxidant and fuel gas pressures.
resulting in higher particle impact velocities,
thus producing extremely dense, well-bonded
TSCs.
Detonation Gun Versus HVOF Gun. High-
velocity oxyfuel equipment is portable and can
be transported to the job site, while the detona-
tion gun equipment must be operated in fixed
facilities. The HVOF gun can spray powder
feedstock materials at the rate of 2 to 15 kg/h
(4.4 to 33 lb/h).
Arc Spraying. Two oppositely charged con-
sumable wires are fed into the gun (Fig. 5).
Where they emerge from the nozzle, at their
point of intersection, an arc is formed, melting
the wire at 5000 °C (9030 °F). The molten metal
is atomized and propelled by an air or gas
stream. ~mpacting the substrate at 240 m/s (785
ft/s). Metal and alloy wires and powders in me-
tallic sheaths (cored wire) can be sprayed at rates
of over 25 kg/h (55 lb/h).
Plasma spraying uses a nontransferred arc
gun to create the plasma jet that melts and pro-
Cathode
Schematic of a plasma arc powder spray sys-
Fig. 6 tem showing routing of plasma gas and pow-
der material at the output nozzle
pels the powder to the substrate (Fig. 6). The
nontransferred plasma arc is contained in the
gun. The arc is maintained between a thoriated
tungsten cathode and a constricting nozzle anode
(copper). An inert or reducing gas under pres-
sure enters the annular space between the anode
and the cathode, where it becomes partially ion-
ized. The gas emerges from the nozzle as a high-
temperature (up to 17,000 °C, or 30,600 °F)
high-velocity jet. Powder feedstock material is
injected into the hot gas stream, where it melts
or softens, then impacts the substrate at 250 m/s
(790 ft/s). Spray rates are 0.1 kg/b./kW (0.2 lb/h/
kW). The usual power supplies range from 15 to
80 kW. Higher-power plasma guns, operating
up to 200 kW can, in principle, spray ceramics
at 25 to 50 kg/h (55 to 110 lb/h) and metals at an
even higher rate.
Selection of TSCs to Preserve
Integrity of Steels
Thermal spray coatings are extensively used
for the corromon protection of steel and iron in a
wide range of environments. The long-term ef-
fectiveness (over 20 years) in rural, industrial,
and marine environments is well documented.
The corrosion tests carried out by the American
Welding Society (Ref 1) and the 34-year marine-
atmosphere performance report of the LaQue
Center for Corrosion Technology (Ref 2) con-
firm the effectiveness of flame-sprayed alumi-
num and zinc coatings over long periods of time
in a wide range of hostile environments. The
1006 / Special Welding and Joining Topics

British Standards Institution code of practice
for the corrosion protection of steel specifies
that only TSCs are able to give more than 20
years of protection before maintenance is neces-
sary in the 19 industrial and marine environ-
ments considered. Only sealed, sprayed alumi-
num or zinc gives such protection in seawater
immersion or splash zones (Ref 3). The Cana-
dian Standards Association tabulates the life ex-
pectancy at more than 40 years for aluminum
and zinc TSCs in various exposure environments
(Ref 4).
The selection of a TSC depends on the service
environment, the desired service life, operating
duty cycle, and the maintenance and repair sup-
port to be provided during the life cycle. Tables
3 and 4 give current service life information for
aluminum and zinc TSCs in various service en-
vironments. Figures 7 and 8 plot the required
thickness specifications given in Tables 3 and 4,
respectively. The service life estimates for 85/15
wt% Zn/AI alloy and the 90/10 vol% aluminum
metal-matrix composites (MMCs) TSCs intro-
duced in the late 1970s and 1980s, respectively,
are based on accelerated laboratory tests and
service applications through 1992. In a marine
environment, powder TSC with higher alumi-
num content exhibits improved corrosion resis-
tance (Ref 2). Where resistance to wear, abra-
sion, or both, is required in addition to corrosion
protection, 90/10-MMC TSCs should be consid-
ered. The 90/10 MMC wire is composed of 90
vol% AI + 10 vol% AI203 (8 to 10 p.m, or 320
to 400 pan., diameter).
Galvanic Properties. Aluminum and zinc
and their alloys and composites provide broad
atmospheric protection. Aluminum and zinc are
anodic to steel and protect the ferrous substrate
in electrolytic solutions. When applied in a
nonthrough porosity thickness, they provide
Table 3 Service life estimates of 85/15 Zn/AI TSCs in selected corrosive environments
5-10 years
Type of exposure pJna in.
Rural atmosphere . . . . . .
Industrial atmosphere . . . . . .
Marine atmosphere . . . . . .
Freshwater immersion 150-200 0.0(0-4).008
Saltwater immersion 250-300 0.0104).012
both barrier and cathodic protection. When cut
through to the steel or when applied too thinly to
rule out through porosity, these TSCs provide
galvanic protection to the steel. Aluminum cor-
rodes less rapidly than zinc in highly acidic con-
ditions, while zinc performs better in alkaline
conditions. Aluminum TSCs immediately oxi-
dize to form a loosely adherent A1203 protective
film (as compared to the tightly adherent protec-
tive film on stainless steels) that prevent further
oxidation. Thus, there is no advantage to apply-
ing aluminum TSCs greater than the non-
through-porosity thickness of 150 to 200 ~m
(0.006 to 0.008 in.) unless wear or abrasion
resistance is also required in addition to corro-
sion resistance. Aluminum TSCs have greater
wear, abrasion, and erosion resistance than zinc
TSCs.
Zinc alloyed with aluminum forms an effec-
tive corrosion-resistant coating, combining the
attributes of both elements. The greater electro-
chemical activity of zinc provides greater gal-
vanic protection than aluminum. Aluminum,
with its lower electrochemical activity and a
loosely adherent aluminum oxide film, provides
long-term protection even through porous coat-
ings and gives better wear, abrasion, and erosion
resistance than zinc TSCs.
Aluminum and aluminum composite TSCs
can be used where the temperature is greater
than 200 °C (390 °F). Aluminum composite
TSCs are used when wear, abrasion, and erosion
resistance are required beyond that provided by
aluminum and zinc TSCs.
Thermite Sparking Hazard (Ref 5, 6). Ther-
mite sparking is caused by the reaction of rusted
steel and aluminum (in the form of a finely di-
vided smear) when this combustible mix is ig-
nited by an impact. Aluminum smears may be
generated on rusting steel by striking or drag-
Coating thickness required for indicated service life
10-20 years 20-40 years >40 years
p.m In. i~m in. ~m
75-125 0.00~0.005 125-175 0.005--0.007 250-300 0.010-0.012
150-200 0.0(04).008 300-375 0.0124).015 350-400 0.014-0.016
250-300 0.010-0.012 300-375 0.0124).015 350-400 0.0144).016
250-350 0.010--0.014 300-375 0.0124).015 . . . . . .
350-400 0.014--0.016 . . . . . . . . . . . .
ging steel components and tools over bare alu-
minum surfaces or vice versa. Bare aluminum
and bare aluminum TSCs should be avoided
whenever there is a thermite sparking hazard.
Situations where bare aluminum or bare alumi-
num TSCs and rusted steel will be near a com-
bustion or explosion source can occur on a regu-
lar basis and should be avoided. There appears
to be little risk of thermite sparking as a result of
the impact of rusted steel on a sealed or painted
aluminum, aluminum alloy, or aluminum com-
posite TSC surface.
Porosity is an inherent feature of TSCs.
When applied to nonthrough porosity thickness
(nominally about 175 Ixm, or 0.007 in.) for
flame-sprayed aluminum and 90/10 MMC,
these TSCs will protect the substrate steel.
When applied to a less than nonthrough porosity
thickness, the TSC will retard substrate corro-
sion because of galvanic protection. The poros-
ity of the TSC is a function of the feedstock
material, the application method, and the spray
parameters.
Role of Sealants and Topcoats. Thermal
spray coatings are applied in a single applica-
tion. They emit no volatile organic compounds,
need no drying time, and provide galvanic pro-
tection to exposed steel substrates. The natural
surface texture of TSCs provides an excellent
base for paint and thermoplastic or thermoset-
ting powder sealers as well as paint and powder-
coating topcoats.
It is preferable to seal TSCs. The sealer fills
the pores of the TSC, smooths the sprayed sur-
face, and improves appearance and service life.
Sealers also simplify maintenance, which is gen-
erally only the reapplication of the sealer. Seal-
ers should be applied immediately after applying
the TSC.
TSC paint sealers should have low viscosity
to flow and should be absorbed into the natural
pores of the TSC. The pigment particle size of
colored paint sealers must be small enough to
freely flow into the pores of the TSC, nomin-
ally a 5 fineness grind per ASTM D 1210. Ther-
moplastic and thermosetting powder sealers
in.
have fine particles but should be electrostatically
applied to maximize penetration into the pores
of the TSC. Furthermore, thermal sprayed com-
ponents must be sufficiently heated to maximize
outgassing of the pores prior to electrostatic ap-
plication of the powder coating.

Table 4 Service life estimates of aluminum and 90/10 aluminum metal-matrix composite TSCs
Coating thickness required for indicated service life(a)

5--10 years 10-20 years 20-40 years >40 years

Type of exposure I*m in. iLm in. p.m in. ~m in.

Rural atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . 150-200 0.006-0.008

Industrial atmosphere . . . . . . 150-200 0.006-0.008 250-300 0.010-0.012 250-375 0.010-0.015
Marine atmosphere 150-200 0.006-0.008 200-250 0.008-0.010 250-300 0.010-0.012 250-375 0.010-0.015
Freshwater immersion 150-200 0.006--0.008 200-250 0.0084).010 250-300 0.010-0.012
Saltwater immersion 200-250 0.008-0.010 250--300 0.0104).012 300-350 0.012-0.014
High-temperature (100-540 °C, or 150-200 0.0064).008 200-250 0.008-0.010 250-300 0.010-0.012
210-1000 °F)
Wear, abrasion, erosion, and impact 150-200 0.006-0.008 250-300 0.010-0.012
(90/10 MMC preferred)
(a) With exception of wear, abrasion, erosion, and impact properties,data for aluminum and 90/10 aluminum MMC TSC are identical.
 Thermal Spray Coatings / 1007

Coating thickness, I~ln. Thermal spray coatings should be topcoated

50,usra--eMarneamo
. . . .i. . . here
0 1.25 2.50 3.75 5.00 6.25 7.50 8.75 10.0 only when:
55

• The environment is very acid or very alkaline

(that is, when the pH is outside the range of 5
45 Freshwater immersion / ~
T.';
to 12 for zinc TSCs, or 4 to 9 for aluminum
and 90/10 MMC TSCs).
Saltwater immersion ~ 2"
• The metal is subject to direct attack by spe-
.0 .ura, I / cific chemicals.
• The required decorative finish can be ob-
35 tained only with paint.
• Additional wear, abrasion, and erosion resis-
8 tance are required.
30

One or two coats of paint may be sufficient

except in abnormally aggressive environments.
Sealed TSCs are preferable to painted TSCs.
Paints usually have a longer life on TSCs than on
bare steel, because the TSC reduces or prevents
rusting and pitting of the steel.
Zinc TSCs complement hot-dip galvanizing
,0 i / ° .2' and should be considered when fabricated goods
are excessively large or cannot be hot-dip galva-
nized. Zinc TSCs should also be considered for
repairing galvanized coatings damaged during
fabrication (for example, welding and cutting)
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 and for maintenance recoating.
Coating thickness, IJm Zinc spraying can restore corrosion protection
to areas where galvanizing is inadvertently re-
Plot of service life versus coating thickness as a function of selected environments for an 85/15 Zn/AI alloy moved during fabrication and assembly. This
Fig. 7 with a TSC can occur on the threaded end of electrical con-
duits or along the welded seams inside galva-
Coating thickness, pin.
nized barrels and drums. Zinc spray is particu-

55
0 1.25 2.50 3.75 5.00 6.25 7.50 8.75 10.0 larly advantageous in such cases because it
L ensures the uniformity and reproducibility of the
galvanized coating thickness.
50 ............... (~ Industrial atmosphere ,, :.= Wellhead valve assemblies for offshore use
• Marine atmosphere have been coated for salt atmosphere protection
45. •---- /~ Freshwater immersion /k al~ since the 1950s. Aluminum TSCs have been
used for flare stacks. Aluminum and zinc TSCs
• Saltwater immersion a[r]J, l~,=lA
have been used for the external protection of oil
40 [] Hightemperature a i and propane gas storage tanks. The interiors of
- - • Wear/abrasion # steel coal rail cars have been sprayed with alumi-
35 I
, 1 :- / num for sulfuric acid corrosion protection and
I,i with aluminum composite for both corrosion and

.3
30 • L:! abrasion protection. The exteriors have been
sprayed with zinc for atmospheric-corrosion

25 / }
protection. Thermal spray coatings have been
used to protect pipelines against many environ-
/ ments. Pile couplings, valves, manhole covers,
industrial gas bottles, and other small industrial
20
LU .j , items are candidates for protection by TSCs.
Zinc TSCs are used to protect potable water
pipelines and storage tanks (Ref 7). Aluminum
and zinc TSCs are used in sluice and canal lock
s°
gates in irrigation systems and in shipping canal
lock gates. Once coated, these components re-

5 J/ quire virtually no maintenance for decades.

Sealed zinc coatings improve the resistance of
steel bridgework and railings to marine corro-
0 sion and deicing salts. Rebars in reinforced con-
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 crete can be zinc sprayed to retard corrosion.
Coating thickness, pm Reinforced concrete bridges and highways, es-
Plot of service life versus coating thickness as a function of selected environments for a 90/10 aluminum pecially those in marine and freezing environ-
Fig, 8 metal-matrix composite with a TSC ments where deicing salts are used, commonly
1008 / Special Welding and Joining Topics
Table 5 Deposition rates for selected feedstock used in flame and arc TSC applications
Parameter A!
Flame spray
Depositefficiency(a),% 80-85
Materialrequired,kg/m2/izm 0.0024--0.0026
Arc spray
Depositefficiency(a),% 75-80
Materialrequired,kg/m2/izm 0.0029-O.0031
(a) Data for fiat plate. (1o)Not applicable
suffer from chloride intrusion into the concrete,
leading to rebar corrosion and concrete spalling.
Zinc TSCs are sometimes used for rebar protec-
tion before concrete is poured. Zinc TSCs are
sprayed directly onto bridge concrete substruc-
tures to provide a cathodic-protection coating or
to serve as secondary anodes connected to an
impressed-current cathodic-protection system.
In marine applications, the structural areas
and components of ships are preserved with alu-
minum and zinc TSCs. The U.S. Navy routinely
uses aluminum TSCs in new ship construction,
in the maintenance of ship structures, and for a
wide range of shipboard components, especially
those in topside and wet spaces. The British,
Australian, and New Zealand Navies use a du-
plex zinc (base) and aluminum (top) TSC sys-
tem. Commercial ships and barges have used
TSCs to preserve ship superstructures and vari-
ous topside and interior components.
Sealed TSCs have a longer service life than
unsealed TSCs, are easier to clean and maintain,
and provide both barrier and galvanic protec-
tion. Sealer paints and powder coatings must be
chemically compatible with the TSC material,
the service environment, and the intermediate/
topcoat paint. Sealers must be suitably thinned
and have a fine pigment grind to effectively pen-
etrate the TSC. As indicated above, sealed TSCs
are preferable to painted TSCs. Descriptions and
specifications of sealer and intermediate/topcoat
paints are given in Ref 3 and 8.
Future Outlook. The suitability of a particu-
lar paint or thermoplastic/thermosetting powder
(applied electrostatically or by thermal spray)
must be evaluated when the coating is designed
and specified. Such an evaluation is necessary in
order to get the sealer/topcoat paint or powder
system that best meets the service and life cycle
cost (LCC) requirements compliant with the
evolving environmental and safety regulations.
Specific paint or powder systems can be ranked
and validated with accelerated exposure tests
simulating the service environment and duty cy-
cle. The penetrability of the sealer into the TSC
can be validated by metallographic analysis and
the service life ranked by accelerated weathering
tests.
Thermal spray coatings are supplementing
and replacing paint coating systems because of
their predictable service life, increased effec-
tiveness, and lower life cycle costs. The LCC
Feedstock material
Wire Powder
Zn 85/15 Zn/AI 90110 AI MMC Ai
65-70 80-85 80-85 90
0.0098-0.0105 0.0(1664).0070 0.0024-0.0026 0.0027
65-70 72-78 75-80 (b)
0.009-0.010 0.0089~.0096 0.0029-0.0031 (b)
includes the initial installation cost plus the re-
pair and maintenance costs incurred during the
service life of the coating system. The installa-
tion cost of TSC systems may range up to one
and one-half times that of high-performance
paint systems, but the LCCs could be less than
three-fourths the paint system LCC. Compara-
tive TSC and painting system LCC may be esti-
mated with the economic models in Ref 3 and 8.
Industrial Process Instruction for
Applying TSCs on Steel
An industrial process instruction is an engi-
neering procedure detailing the necessary equip-
ment, consumables, method (step-by-step pro-
cedure), trained/certified personnel, and records
required to accomplish the objective of that
process with the requisite quality control, safety,
and environmental compliance in a timely and
cost-effective manner. The scope of an indus-
trial process instruction for applying TSCs on
steel should include (Ref 9):
• Definition of terms unique and critical to the
safe and successful accomplishment of the
process
• Safety and environmental compliance re-
quired for operator, observers, and passersby.
For thermal spraying, airborne aluminum and
zinc dust could be an explosive hazard if not
properly handled. Aluminum and zinc fumes
produced in thermal spraying and in blasting
debris from surface preparation, especially if
there was old lead-bearing paint, require per-
sonnel protection, containment, and the req-
uisite waste disposal
• Job and contract description detailing the fol-
lowing: the thermal spray work area bound-
ary; what is and what is not to be thermal
sprayed; the thermal spray feedstock and TSC
thicknesses; sealing/topcoating materials; and
the inspection and acceptance requirements
• Materials required, including thermal spray
feedstock (based on the nominal area cover-
age and spray rates for the specified process
equipment), abrasive blasting media for
rough and final anchor-tooth blasting, sealer
and topcoating paints or thermoplastic/
thermosetting powder coatings, quality con-
trol consumables, and energy requirements
(fuel gases, inert gases, and oxygen)
• Equipment for surface preparation and ther-
mal spraying to include spray gun qualifica-
tions, air compressor, and air dryers
• Quality control equipment to determine the
Zn acceptability of surface preparation (white
and near-white metal finish, blasting media
cleanliness, and anchor-tooth depth) and TSC
85 application (substrate temperature, air tem-
0.0076 perature, dew point and humidity, TSC thick-
ness, and TSC bend test)
• Application process: surface preparation (in-
(b)
(b) cludes new steel, old steel, masking, degreas-
ing, and surface profile with quality control
check points; post blasting substrate condition
and thermal spraying period; thermal spraying
(includes equipment setup and bend test;
planning and executing thermal spray se-
quence and controlling overspray with two
quality control points)
• Procedures for spraying edges of materials or
into cavities (that is, holes)
• Sealing and topcoating with quality control
control check points
• Maintenance and repair of TSCs based on
degree of damage and wear as related to expo-
sure of the underlying coating or substrate
steel and the size of the degraded area
• Debris containment and control
• Records, including a job control record sum-
marizing the TSC job requirements, operator
qualifications, and a check list of the nine
quality control check points
• Operator test and qualifications per ANSI/
AWS C2.16-92 ("Guide for Thermal-Spray
Operator Qualification")
Typical Process Parameters
(Ref 9)
Table 5 gives the nominal thermal spray de-
posit efficiency and feedstock material required
per unit area or unit thickness for representative
materials sprayed onto a flat plate. Deposit effi-
ciency is the percentage by weight of sprayed
materials adhering to a large fiat plate. Table 6
gives the typical spray rates and area coverage
for flame and arc spraying on a flat plate. Addi-
tional feedstock will be required to spray com-
plex geometrical shapes. Specific values vary
with the shop or field job site, thermal spray
equipment, spray parameters, process used, and
the geometrical shape of the components being
sprayed. The data in Tables 5 and 6 are technical
data supplied by various equipment manufactur-
ers and are given for comparison purposes and
relative ranking; they are not intended for cost
estimating.
Thermal spray coating applicators should de-
velop their own shop and field deposit-effi-
ciency data and production planning factors for
their specific equipment and their method of op-
eration. Past production records should provide
a good information base for job cost estimating,
production scheduling, and cost control.
 Thermal Spray Coatings / 1009

Table 6 Typical deposition rates (spray rate and area coverage) for flame spraying and arc spraying with selected
feedstock on a flat plate
Deposition rates per indicated feedstock

AI Zn 85/15 Zn/AI 90110 At MMC

Spray rate, Coverage, Spray rate, Coverage, Spray rate, Coverage, Spray rate, Coverage,
Application method kg/h rn2/h/l~m kg/h rn2/h/p~m kg/h m2/h/~m kg/h m2/h/tun
Flame spraying
With wire diameter:
2.38 mm (0.0937 in.) 2.5 1.44 9.1 2.05 8.2 1.96 2.5 1.44
3.18 mm (0.125 in.) 5.4 3.18 20 3.33 18 3.33 5.4 3.18
4.76 mm (0.187 in.) 7.3 4.22 30 4.81 26 4.81 7.3 4.22
With powder 6.8 100 14 80 . . . . . . . . . . . .
Arc spraying (per 100 A) 2.7 1.39 12 2.85 10 2.66 2.7 1.39

REFERENCES
1. "Corrosion Tests of Flame-Sprayed Coated
Steel, 19-Year Report," C2.14-74, Ameri-
can Welding Society, 1974
2. R.M. Kain and E.A. Baker, Marine Atmos-
pheric Corrosion Museum Report on the Per-
formance of Thermal Spray Coatings on
Steel, Testing of Metallic and Inorganic
Coatings, STP 947, American Society for
Testing and Materials, 1987
3. "Code of Practice for Protective Coating of
Iron and Steel Structures Against Corro-
sion," BS 5493, British Standards Institu-
tion, 1977; available from the American Na-
tional Standards Institute
4. "Sprayed Metal Coatings for Atmospheric
Corrosion Protection," G 189-1966, Cana-
dian Standards Association, 1966; reaf-
firmed 1980
5. Rosenburgh et al., Aluminum Offshore--
Safety Analysis, Publication 85-3208, Veri-
tec, 1985
6. Thermite Sparking, Aluminum Design
Guide, Vol 2, Design Guide on the Use of
Aluminum in Offshore Structures, Wimpey
Offshore, London, Section 4.5
7. "Painting Water Storage Tanks," ANSI/
AWS D102-78, American Welding Society,
1978
8. Steel Structures Painting Manual, Steel
Structures Painting Council
9. "Guide for the Protection of Steel with Ther-
mal Spray Coatings of Aluminum and Zinc
and their Alloys and Composites," ANSI/
AWS C2.18-X, American Welding Society,
in preparation