Аналитическая геометрия и линейная алгебра, Умнов, 2011 PDF

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514.12(075)
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ISBN 5-7416-0147-7
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2011
ISBN 5-7416-0147-7 2011
3
.................................................................................. 8
................................................................................. 10
1. .......... 12
§ 1.1. ............................................ 12
§ 1.2. ........................................ 21
§ 1.3. ...................... 24
§ 1.4. ......................... 28
§ 1.5. . .................. 34
§ 1.6. -
............................................................ 38
§ 1.7. ............................. 44
§ 1.8. -
.................................................... 47
2. .................................... 54
§ 2.1. .......................... 54
§ 2.2. -
......................................................................... 57
§ 2.3. -
.................................................................... 59
§ 2.4. -
......................................................................... 61
§ 2.5. -
.................................................................... 65
§ 2.6. ................................... 68
§ 2.7. -
................................................................ 70
§ 2.8. ....................... 72
§ 2.9.
............................................................... 75
4 .
3. .......................................... 79
§ 3.1. ........................................... 79
§ 3.2. .............. 84
§ 3.3. ................................... 93
§ 3.4. ........... 103
§ 3.5. -
.................................................... 107
4. -
............................................................ 119
§ 4.1. ................ 119
§ 4.2. ............................... 124
§ 4.3. ....... 127
§ 4.4. ................. 130
§ 4.5. .... 138
§ 4.6. .................. 141
5. .............................. 147
§ 5.1. .......................................... 147
§ 5.2. .
.................................. 158
§ 5.3. ..................... 161
§ 5.4. .......... 169
§ 5.5. ........ 184
§ 5.6. ................................................... 189
6. ....................... 191
§ 6.1 ...................................................... 191
§ 6.2 ..................................... 192
§ 6.3. ................................. 199
§ 6.4. ................................................ 205
§ 6.5. ...................................................... 208
§ 6.6. m n -
............................................................. 213
§ 6.7. ................... 216
§ 6.8. . ... 227
5
7. .................................... 235
§ 7.1. ................ 235
§ 7.2. ,
....................................... 239
§ 7.3. ............. 244
§ 7.4. -
...................... 251
§ 7.5. ................... 254
8 -
............................................................ 267
§ 8.1. ........................................... 267
§ 8.2. .................. 269
§ 8.3. -
.................................................................... 275
§ 8.4. .. 283
§ 8.5.
................................................................ 296
§ 8.6.
.............................................................. 303
§ 8.7. ...................................... 317
9. -
............................................................ 325
§ 9.1. .................................. 325
§ 9.2. ............................... 329
§ 9.3. -
......................................................................... 339
§ 9.4. -
........................................................................ 348
§ 9.5. -
.............................................................. 353
§ 9.6. .............................. 354
10. .................................. 356
§ 10.1. ................... 356
§ 10.2. .
................................................................ 360
6 .
§ 10.3. -
.......................................................... 362
§ 10.4. -
........................................................... 368
§ 10.5.
……...... 372
§ 10.6. -
........................................................... 378
§ 10.7. .......................... 383
§ 10.8. ............................... 391
11. .................................. 400
§ 11.1. ............ 400
§ 11.2. -
.................................................................... 403
§ 11.3. ........................................ 405
§ 11.4. .
......................... 410
§ 11.5. ..................... 413
12. ......... 415
§ 12.1.
.......................................... 415
§ 12.2. 431
§ 12.3. .. 435
1.
................................................. 443
§ . 1.1 …. 443
§ . 1.2 .............................. 445
§ . 1.3. ........................... 452
§ . 1.4. ............................. 459
2. -
........................................................ 465
§ . 2.1. -
......................................................... 465
§ . 2.2. ................................................ 466
§ . 2.3. ..................... 467
7
§ . 2.4. .................. 469
§ . 2.5. ................... 472
§ . 2.6. .................... 474
§ . 2.7. ........................... 475
3. ............................... 478
4. ....... 488
§ . 4.1.
............................ 488
§ . 4.2. ...... 496
§ . 4.3. .............................. 504
§ . 4.4. ....... 515
§ . 4.5. ..... 520
................................................................ 528
.......................................................... 529
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1. 33
b1 -
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1. 35
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g1 , g 2 , g 3 , {g1 , g 2 , g 3 } . -
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1.5.1.
x 1 g1 2 g2 3 g3 ,
1 , 2 , 3 – .
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g1 , g 2 , g 3 x O
x ,
O, g1 , g 2 ( . 1.5.1).
36
y z ,
x z y, z g3 -
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1 , 2 , 3 , ,
x 1 g1 2 g2 3 g3 .
,
( 1 1 ) g1 ( 2 2 ) g2 ( 3 3 ) g3 o,
1. 37
1 1 2 2 3 3 0.
, -
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1.5.1.
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1 1
4 . 2 , 5 . 2 ,
3 3
38
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§ 1.6.
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1. 39
1.6.1. :
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g g
3 3
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y 1 g1 2 g2 3 g3
-
x y x y .
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3 . - -
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-
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40
-
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g g
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g g
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g
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 x y .
g g
3 3 3 3
1.6.1.
x y
x y :.
1. 41
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 .
3 3 3 3
, -
x y
1.6.2. , ,
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g 2 g 2
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,
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1 2 2 1 0, , det 0.
2 2
42
1 1
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2 2
1 2
, 1 0; 2 0, -
1 2
x y -
, .
1 2 0 .
{ x, y, z} -
1.6.3.
1
x 2 ,
g
3
1 1
y 2 z 2
g g
3 3
,
,
1 1 1
det 2 2 2 0. .
3 3 3
1. 43
.
x , y, z -
, 1 x 2 y 3 z o , -
,
1 1 1 0
1 2 2 2 3 2 0 .
3 3 3 0
1 1 2 1 3 1 0,
1 2 2 2 3 2 0,
1 3 2 3 3 3 0,
( , 6.4.1)
, -
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( ) .
1 1 1
det 2 2 2 0.
3 3 3
1 2 3 0,
.
, -
« »
(§ 2.6).
44
§ 1.7.
{g1 , g 2 , g 3 } O, -
1.7.1. , -
) {O, g1 , g 2 , g 3 }.
{O, e1 , e2 , e3 } ,
1.7.2. , -
( ) -
.
{O, g1 , g 2 , g 3 } ,
M
r, O,
– M.
r OM
1.7.3.
M {O, g1 , g 2 , g 3 }.
M
1.7.4. M
{O, g1 , g 2 , g 3 }.
-
-
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1. 45
1.7.1.
{O , g 1 , g 2 , g 3 }
M N,
MN . MN .
. . 1.7.1
.
1 1
OM 2 ON 2 .
3 3
OM MN ON
MN ON OM .
1 1
MN 2 2 .
. 1.7.1
3 3
1.7.2.
{O, g1 , g 2 , g 3 } -
M1 M2,
1 1
OM 1 2 OM 2 2 .
3 3
M, , M1M MM 2 .
46
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. 1.7.2). M. -
OM 1 M OMM 2
OM1 M 1 M OM ; OM MM 2 OM 2 ,
, M1M MM 2 ,
OM OM 1 (OM 2 OM )
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OM
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1
2 2
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1
3 3
: 1.7.2
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1. 47
§ 1.8.
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:
g1 11 g1 21 g2 31 g3 ,
g2 12 g1 22 g2 32 g3, (1.8.1)
g3 13 g1 23 g2 33 g3 ,
OO 1 g1 2 g2 3 g3.
“ ”
1.8.1. “ ” -
:
1 11 1 12 2 13 3 1 ,
2 21 1 22 2 23 3 2 , (1.8.2)
3 31 1 32 2 33 3 3 .
48
.
M “ ” {O, g1 , g 2 , g 3 }
1
2 , “ ”
{O , g 1 , g 2 , g 3 } – 2 .
“ ” “ ”
M. :
OM 1 g1 2 g2 3 g3
OM 1 g1 2 g2 3 g3
1 ( 11 g1 21 g2 31 g3 )
2 ( 12 g1 22 g2 32 g3 )
3 ( 13 g1 23 g2 33 g3 ) .
OM , O M OO
OM O M OO
. 1.8.1 ,
1. 49
1 g1 2 g2 3 g3 o,
1 1 11 1 12 2 13 3 1 ,
2 2 21 1 22 2 23 3 2 ,
3 3 31 1 32 2 33 3 3 .
{g1 , g 2 , g 3 } , -
, o, , -
1 2 3 0
1 11 1 12 2 13 3 1 ,
2 21 1 22 2 23 3 2 ,
3 31 1 32 2 33 3 3 .
(1.8.2)
1.8.1.
{O, g1 , g 2 , g 3 }
{O , g 1 , g 2 , g 3 } .
, « » (1.8.1) (1.8.2)
.
, (1.8.2),
“ ” “ ”,
S , “ ”
50
“ ” , 2 “ ”
3
“ ” .
11 12 13
S 21 22 23 -
1.8.2.
31 32 33
{g1 , g 2 , g 3 }
{g1 , g 2 , g 3 } .
1.8.2.
11 12 13
det 21 22 23 0.
31 32 33
11 12 13
21 22 23 -
31 32 33
-
{g1 , g 2 , g 3 } {g1 , g 2 , g 3 } .
1.6..3 .
.
1. 51
:
1.8.1.
” {O, g1 , g 2 } “ ” {O , g 1 , g 2 } ( . .
1.8.2). -
, “ ” “ ”,
1
g1 OO g2 g1 .
2
. -
, -
“ ” “ -
”:
g1 2 g2 ,
g2 g1 2 g 2 .
0 1 1 1
. 1.8.2 S , .
2 2 2 0
, “ ” “ ”
1 2 1,
2 2 1 2 2.
{O, e1 , e2 } {O , e1 , e2 } . ,
. 1.8.3.
52
e1 e1 cos e2 sin e2 e1 sin e2 cos

:
cos sin 1
S , , OO ,
sin cos 2
“ ” -
“ ”
1 1 cos 2 sin 1 ,
2 1 sin 2 cos 2 .
. 1.8.3
-
“ -
” OO O.
,
-
, , .
. 1.8.4.
, e1
e1 , -
. 1.8.4 e2
1. 53
,
.
1 1 cos 2 sin 1 ,
2 1 sin 2 cos 2 .
, . 1.8.3 . 1.8.4,
,
a
1.8.3.
b -
,
a b -
.
.
, S , -
, det S 1, det S 1,
(
), det S 1
.
54
§ 2.1.
l
2.1.1.
b .
b -
l.
M, -
2.1.2. l, -
, -
M l– -
. 2.1.1
M*, -
-
M .
– , -
, -
.
a l -
2.1.3.
Prl a , l, -
2. 55
a l, –
2.1.3.
a.
b, -
b
e {e }
|b|
l( . 2.1.1).
-
2.1.4.
a l
Prl a { e } 4.
a b -
2.1.5. , -
.
a l
a. . 2.1.2 ,
l
l a a cos , a e.
. 2.1.2
, : , , , -
.
56
1.1 .
:
Prl (a1 a 2 ) Prl a1 Prl a 2 .

. 2.1.3.
. 2.1.3
1.2 . , -
:
Prl ( a ) Prl a .
, 1.1 1.2
:
-
:
Prl ( 1 a1 2 a2 ) 1 Prl a1 2 Prl a 2 .

1.1 1.2 -
-
.
2. 57
2.1 . l (a1 a 2 ) l a1 l a2 ;
2.2 . l a l a.
, 2.1 2.2 ,
l ( 1 a1 2 a2 ) 1 l a1 2 l a2 .
,
.
§ 2.2.
a
2.2.1.
b ,
.
,
,
.
a b
(a , b ) . , a b:
(a, b ) | a | | b | cos , – -
. , 2.1.5, 0 .
, , b o,
(a , b ) b a.
b
58
1 . (a , b ) 0 a o b o ,
a b ;
2 . (a , b ) (b, a) -
( ).
3 . (a1 a 2 , b ) (a1 , b ) (a 2 , b ) ( ).
.
b o, 3 . b o,
(a1 a 2 , b ) b (a1 a 2 )
b
b a1 b a2 (a1 , b ) (a 2 , b ).
b b
.
4 . ( a, b ) ( a, b ) ;
5 . (a , a ) | a |2 0 a ; | a| (a, a) ;
, (a , a) 0 a o -
);
(a, b)
6 . a o b o cos , –
| a || b |
a b.
2. 59
§ 2.3.
{ g1 , g 2 , g 3 } a b, -
a 1 g1 2 g2 3 g3 b 1 g1 2 g2 3 g3 .
3 4
( a, b ) ( 1 g1 2 g2 3 g3 , 1 g1 2 g2 3 g3 )
1 1 ( g1 , g1 ) 1 2 ( g1 , g 2 ) 1 3 ( g1 , g 3 )
2 1 ( g 2 , g1 ) 2 2 (g2 , g2 ) 2 3 (g2 , g3 )
3 1 ( g 3 , g1 ) 3 2 (g3 , g2 ) 3 3 (g3 , g3 )
3
( j 1 ( g j , g1 ) j 2 (g j , g2 ) j 3 (g j , g3 ) )
j 1
3 3
j i ( g j , g i ).
j 1 i 1
{e1 , e2 , e3 } -
,
1, i j,
(ei , e j ) ij
0, i j,
ij – .
-
( a, b ) 1 1 2 2 3 3,
60
:
2 2 2
a 1 2 3
a o b o
1 1 2 2 3 3
cos .
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 2 3 1 2 3
,
cos 1 – :
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 2 2 3 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 i ; i
-
2.3.1. , -
.
{O, e1 , e2 , e3} OM 2 2
OM 1 2 . ,
3
1.7.1,
M1M 2 ( 1 1 ) e1 ( 2 2 ) e2 ( 3 3 ) e3
| M 1M 2 | ( 1 1 )2 ( 2 2 )2 ( 3 3 )2 .
2. 61
§ 2.4.
2.4.1.
{a , b , c } , ( -
) a
b c -
.
{a , b , c } .
-
2.4.2.
a b c, ,
1 . | c | | a | | b | sin , –
a b.
2 . c a
b.
3 . {a , b , c } .
, (
, -
), -
a b
[a, b]. 2.4.2 ,
62
1 . [ a, b ] ,
a b.
2 . a b
,
.
1 . [a, b ] [b, a] ( , -
2.4.2 sin ).
2 . [ a, b ] [a, b ] ( -
, [ a, b ] [a, b ] -
a
b 0 ).
3 . [a b , c ] [a , c ] [b , c ] ( ).
a b, -
2.4.1.
l. -
a b
l -
l .
2. 63
2.4.1
,l (a b) ,l a ,l b.
. 2.4.1. . 2.4.1
e 1 p o, [ p, e ] -
2.4.2.
p ,
e, e
.
2
O – p e – e,
p e.
p , -
e,
,
( . 2.4.2)
64
[ p, e ] p e sin p cos( ),
2
e 1. ,
[ p, e ] Pr e
p, Pr e
p -
,e
2
p ,
e.
. 2.4.2
3.
c o, 3 . c o,
2.4.1, 2.4.2 1.1 § 2.1 -
2. 65
c
[a b, c ] | c | [ a b, ] |c | Pr ( a b )
,c c
|c| 2
| c |( (Pr a Pr b ))
,c c c
2
|c |( Pr a Pr b)
,c c ,c c
2 2
c c
| c | ( [ a, ] [b , ] ) [ a , c ] [ b , c ].
|c| |c |
.
§ 2.5.
{g1 , g 2 , g 3 } , , , -
g1 , g 2 , g 3 , a b, -
a 1 g1 2 g2 3 g3 b 1 g1 2 g2 3 g3 .
2 3
[a, b ] [ 1 g1 2 g2 3 g3 , 1 g1 2 g2 3 g3 ]
1 1 [ g1 , g1 ] 1 2 [ g1 , g 2 ] 1 3 [ g1 , g 3 ]
2 1 [ g 2 , g1 ] 2 2[ g2 , g2 ] 2 3[g 2 , g3 ]
66
3 1 [ g 3 , g1 ] 3 2 [g3 , g 2 ] 3 3[g3 , g 3 ]
3 3
j i [ g j , g i ].
j 1i 1
f1 , f 2 f3 -
[ gi , g j ] :
f1 [ g 2 , g 3 ]; f 2 [ g 3 , g 1 ]; f 3 [ g 1 , g 2 ].
[a , b ] -
, 2-
3- ( . 1.1.1),
[ a, b ] ( 2 3 3 2 ) f1 ( 1 3 3 1 ) f2 ( 1 2 2 1 ) f3
2 3 1 3 1 2
det f 1 det f 2 det f3
2 3 1 3 1 2
f1 f2 f3
det 1 2 3 .
1 2 3
{e1 , e2 , e3 } , -
, 2.4.2,
f1 e1 , f2 e2 , f3 e3 .
2. 67
-
:
e1 e2 e3
[a, b ] det 1 2 3 .
1 2 3
a b -
2.5.1. , ,
2 3 1 3 1 2
det det det 0,
2 3 1 3 1 2
1 2 3
.
1 2 3
-
2.5.2.
, a b, -
2 3 1 3 1 2
S det 2 det 2 det 2 ,
2 3 1 3 1 2
1 2
S det .
1 2
68
§ 2.6.
( ) -
2.6.1.
a, b c,
(a, b, c ) , ( [ a , b ], c ) .
2.6.1.
(a, b, c ) ,
a, b c.
a, b, c -
, ,
, – .
a b, .
a b, -
(a , b , c ) |[ a, b ]| c,
[a ,b]
S = | [ a, b ] | , -
a b,
| c | | c | | cos |
[ a,b ]
2. 69
– -
S,
( . . 2.6.1)
V (a , b , c ) .
(a, b, c )
| [ a , b ] | | c | cos ,
. 2.6.1
-
. .
1 . (a , b , c ) (c, a, b) (b , c , a )
(b , a , c ) (c, b, a) (a, c , b) ;
2 . ( a, b, c) (a , b , c ) ;
3 . ( a1 a2 , b , c ) ( a1 , b , c ) ( a2 , b , c ) ,
-
2.6.1.
70
, , ,
-
.
§ 2.7.
{ g1 , g 2 , g 3 } a, b c,
a 1 g1 2 g2 3 g3 , b 1 g1 2 g2 3 g3 , -
,c 1 g1 2 g2 3 g3 .
2 3 1 3 1 2
[ a, b ] det f 1 det f 2 det f3 ,
2 3 1 3 1 2
f1 , f 2 , f 3 §2.5.
, (g k , f j ) ( g1 , g 2 , g 3 ), k j,
0, k j,
(a , b , c )
(a, b, c ) ([a, b ], c ) ( 1 det

2
2
3
3
2 det
1
1
3
1 2 3
3 det
1
1
2
2
)(g , g , g )
1 2 3 det 1 2 3 ( g1 , g 2 , g 3 ) ,
1 2 3
2. 71
, ,
3- . ( .
1.1.1.)
.1 . 2.6.1 -
1.6.3.
2 .
( e1 , e2 , e3 ) 1,
1 2 3
( a , b, c ) det 1 2 3 .
1 2 3
3 . § 2.5 f1 , f 2 , f 3 -
{ f1, f2 , f3 }
2.7.1.
{g1 , g 2 , g 3 } ).
.
,
f1, f 2 , f3 .
1 , 2 , 3, ,
1 f1 2 f2 3 f3 o.
g j , j [1,3] ,
1 ( f1 , g j ) 2 ( f2, g j ) 3 ( f3 , g j ) 0, j [1,3] .
(2.7.1)
72
( fi , g j ) , i [1,3] , j [1,3]
,i j
( fi , g j ) , 0. , -
0, i j
( f i , g i ) , i [1,3] -
g1 , g 2 , g 3 .
( fi , g j ) , i j
,
.
(2.7.1),
, i 0, i [1,3] ,
f1 , f 2 , f 3 .
§ 2.8.
a, b
2.8.1.
c [ a , [ b , c ]] .
2.8.1.
[ a , [ b , c ]] b( a, c ) c ( a, b) , a, b, c .
2. 73
.
, , a, b , c ,
, -
, (a, b ) (a, c ) .
x [ a , [ b , c ]]. -
x [b, c ] , a.
1º.
( x ,[ b , c ]) ( x, b, c ) 0 ,
{ x, b , c} , 1.4.1,
x b c, .
2º. ( x , a) 0 ,
( b c , a) 0 (b , a) ( c , a) 0.
3º. r, -
:
) r ( x) ,
b c;
) ( r , b) 0 (r , c) 0.( . . 2.8.1.)
(a , r , [ b , c ]) (a ,[ r , [ b , c ]]) . ,
( r , b) 0,
74
2.8.1.
( a , r , [ b , c ]) ( r , a , [ b , c ]) ( r , [ a , [ b , c ]]) ( r , x)
(r, b c) ( r , b) (r , c) ( r , c ).
, [ r , [ b , c ]] b,
0 , [ r ,[b, c ] ] b.
(a , r , [ b , c ] ) ( a, b ) .
b [ r ,[ b , c ] ] r b c sin sin( { r ;[ b , c ]})
r b c cos( ) (r, c) b (r, c) ,

2
2. 75
r [b, c ] .
(a , r , [ b , c ] ) (a, b ) ( r , c ) .
(a , r , [ b , c ] ) ,
(r, c) (a, b ) ( r , c ) (a, b ) .

, , .2º, ,
(a, c ) .
-
4( .§ . 4.5).
§ 2.9.
, ,
. , -
( )
, a b,
1
{g1 , g 2 , g 3 } 2
3
76
2 , -
k i ; k , i 1,2,3 , -
1 1 1 2 1 3
2 1 2 2 2 3 (2.9.1)
3 1 3 2 3 3
, -
-
,
.
, -
k i ; k , i 1, 2,3 , ( -
) ,
.
, , 2.9.1,
,
.
{e1 , e2 , e3 }
11 12 13
{e1 , e2 , e3 } S 21 22 23 .
31 32 33
§ 1.8,
3
et pt ep; t 1,2,3 , -
p 1
2. 77
3 3
s si i; s 1,2,3; s st t ; s 1,2,3.
i 1 t 1
it – ( . § 2.3), -
{e1 , e2 , e3 } {e1 , e2 , e3 }
3 3 3 3
(ei , et ) it ( si e s , pt e p ) si pt (e s , e p )
s 1 p 1 s 1 p 1
3 3 3
si pt sp si st ; t 1,2,3 .
s 1 p 1 s 1
3
, si st it ; i, t 1,2,3
s 1
S
.
1 1 2 2 3 3 {e1 , e2 , e3 } ,
-
:
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
i i ( si i )( st t) i t si st
i 1 i 1 s 1 t 1 i 1 t 1 s 1
3 3 3
i t it t t .
i 1 t 1 t 1
1 1 2 2 3 3
78
,
.
, -
-
2 3 3 2 ,
3 1 1 3 ,
1 2 2 1 .
, .
3. 79
, -
. -
,
, -
, .
3 -
– –
. 3, 4 5 -
x, -
y
z, .
§ 3.1.
{O, g1 , g 2 }
L, r0 , -
a.
80
a
3.1.1. L.
L -
3.1.1.
r r0 a, –
.
r – , a
r r0 ( . 3.1.1) ,
1.4.2
r r0 a.
r r0 a ( , ).
.
. 3.1.1
-
x x0
L. r , r0
g y g y0
ax
a , .
g
ay
3. 81
-
3.1.2.
Ax By C 0, A B 0.
r r0 a -
x x0 y y0
det 0.
ax ay
ay (x x0 ) a x ( y y0 ) 0,
Ax By C 0, A B 0, A ay ; B ax ,
C a y x0 a x y0 , ,
. ,
A B 0
a o.
.
Ax By C 0,
3.1.3.
A B 0,
.
Ax By C 0, A B 0.
x0 y0 , Ax0 By0 C 0.
82
,
A( x x0 ) B( y y0 ) 0.
x0 B
r0 a .
y0 A
3.1.2 , , r0 -
a,
A( x x0 ) B( y y0 ) 0 . , -
.
: 3.1.1–3.1.3 ,
, , -
, -
-
: "
-
?"
3.1.4. A1 x B1 y C1 0, A1 B1 0
A2 x B2 y C 2 0, A2 B2 0
, -
, 0,
,
A1 A2 ; B1 B2 ; C1 C2 .
3. 83
.
A2 x B2 y C 2 0 .
1 1 1
A2 x B2 y C 2 A1 x B1 y C1
1
( A1 x B1 y C1 ) 0,
0, A1 x B1 y C1 0 .
A1 x B1 y C1 0 ,
A2 x B2 y C 2 0.
A1 x B1 y C1 0 A2 x B2 y C 2 0
-
. -
( 3.1.2) 0, ,
A1 A2 ; B1 B2 .
,
A2 x B2 y C1 0 A2 x B2 y C2 0 ,
, C1 C2 .
: -
. -
, ( . § 4.6)
P sec( 0) .
84
§ 3.2.
{O, g1 , g 2 } -
.
.
1 .
,
-
x2 x1
a r2 r1 , -
y2 y1
-
r r1 ( r2 r1 )
x1 r (1 ) r1 r2 .
r1
y1
,
, :
x2 x x1 y y1
r2 ; ( x2 x1 )( y 2 y1 ) 0;
y2 x 2 x1 y 2 y1
y y1 x, y2 y1
x x1 y, x2 x1.
,
x y 1
det x1 y1 1 0.
x2 y2 1
x1 x2
r1 , r2
3.2.1. y1 y2
x3
r3 ,
y3
3. 85
,
x1 y1 1
det x 2 y2 1 0.
x3 y3 1
2 .
, -
-
x0
r0 ,
y0
-
-
-
nx . 3.2.1
n .
ny
x x0 x
a r r0 , r
y y0 y
( .
3.2.1).
n r r0 (n , r r0 ) 0,
( n, r ) d, d ( n , r0 ) .
86
-
( n, r ) d (n , r r0 ) 0, -
d
r0 , , r0 n.
( n, n )
{O, e1 , e2 } -
nx ( x x0 ) n y ( y y0 ) 0,
nx x ny y d, d n x x0 n y y0 .
-
Ax By C 0, -
, -
A
n, n , -
g B
.
n -
3.2.1. L.
3 . - -
-
{O, e1 , e2 }
Ax By C 0, A B 0
, A2 B2 .
3. 87
A B C
cos ; sin ; ,
2 2 2 2 2
A B A B A B2
x cos y sin 0.
.
3.2.2.
. 3.2.2
,
,
Ax By C 0, A B 0
( , x
y ), -
Ax By C 0, A B 0.
,
L : (n, r ) d P , P
P ( . . 3.2.3).
88
. 3.2.3
\
, M
3.2.2.
R P ( P ),
0 ( 0 ), ,
M M n, M -
M L.
M P ,
3.2.1.
( n, R ) d .
3. 89
.
M P , 0 ,
M M n. ( n, R ) . M L,
( n, OM ) d ,
( n , R) ( n , OM M M) ( n , OM ) ( n , M M )
d ( n, n) d
.
( n, R ) d M M n, ,
( n, OM ) d , ( n , R) ( n , OM M M)
( n , OM ) ( n , M M ) d ( n, n) d.
n o , 0 , , M P.
{O, g1 , g 2 }
3.2.1.
L, ( n, r r0 ) 0. -
,
x1
r1 .
y1
90
1 . MK n, r r1 n. ( . .
3.2.4).
2 . K
,
( n, r1 n r0 ) 0.
( n,r1 r0 )
2
.
| n|
3 .
MK ,
. 3.2.4 n
| MK | | (r1 r0 , ) |.
| n|
4 . .
Ax By C 0, A B 0, ,
A
n .
B
A( x1 x0 ) B( y1 y0 )
| MK | .
A2 B2
, r0 L , -
, Ax0 By 0 C 0,
Ax1 By1 C
| MK | .
A2 B2
3. 91
-
3.2.3. ,
, .
, ,
3.2.2.
A1 x B1 y C1 0 A2 x B2 y C 2 0.
1) -
, ,
( A1 x B1 y C1 ) ( A2 x B2 y C 2 ) 0
,
2) , ,
( A1 x B1 y C1 ) ( A2 x B2 y C 2 ) 0
.
.
x
1 . r ,
y
,
A2 x B2 y C2 , ( A1 x B1 y C1 ) .
, 0, r
.
,
( A2 x B2 y C 2 )( A1 x B1 y C1 )
( A1 x B1 y C1 )( A2 x B2 y C 2 ) 0
r ,
, , .
92
2 . A1 x B1 y C1 0 A2 x B2 y C2 0 –
,
,
( A1 x B1 y C1 ) ( A2 x B2 y C 2 ) 0.
( A1 A2 ) x ( B1 B2 ) y ( C1 C2 ) 0
,
A1 B1 0, A2 B2 0 0
, A1 A2 B1 B2 0.
, :
A1 A2 0,
(3.2.1)
B1 B2 0.
A1x B1 y C1 0 A2 x B2 y C 2 0 -
, , .
, . 3.1.4
, 0,
A1 A2 B1 B2 .
A1 A2
1.6.2 det 0.
B1 B2
,
A1 A2
det 0 1.1.2
B1 B2
3.2.1 .
, ,
0, -
0.
3. 93
,
A1 A2 B1 B2 0.
.
3.2.4.
( A1 x B1 y C1 ) ( A2 x B2 y C 2 ) 0
-
.
§ 3.3.
{O, g1 , g 2 , g 3 }
S, r0 S -
p q.
p q -
3.3.1. S.
S
3.3.1.
r r0 p q, –
.
.
r – , p, q
r r0 ( . 3.3.1).
94
1.4.3 1.4.1
r r0 p q,
, , -
r r0 p q,
( , )
( , ).
. . 3.3.1
-
x px
S. r y , p py
g g
z pz
qx
q qy , .
g
qz
-
3.3.2.
Ax By Cz D 0, A B C 0.
r r0 , p q -
1.6.3
3. 95
x x0 y y0 z z0
det px py pz 0.
qx qy qz
A( x x0 ) B( y y 0 ) C ( z z0 ) 0, -
Ax By Cz D 0, A, B C
1.1.1
py pz px pz
A det ;B det ;
qy qz qx qz
px py
C det ,
qx qy
D Ax0 By0 Cz 0 , , , ,
. -
A, B
C p q -
2.5.1.
Ax By Cz D 0,
3.3.3.
A B C 0 -
.
.
,
Ax By Cz D 0, A B C 0
96
C 0
DA DB DC
x y z
A2 B2 C 2 A2 B2 C 2 A2 B2 C 2
det 0 C B 0,
C 0 A
C 0
DA DB
x 2
y z 0
A B2 A2
B2
det B A 0 0,
0 0 1
p q
0 C
p C q 0 C 0, , C 0,
g g
B A
B 0
p A q 0 .
g g
0 1
, , -
-
.
.
3. 97
{O, g1 , g 2 , g 3 } -
3.3.1. , , -
:
x1 x2 x3
r1 y1 ; r2 y 2 ; r3 y3 .
z1 z2 z3
. ,
r2 r1 r3 r1 .
,
r r r1 -
.
r r1 ,
r2 r1 r3 r1 ,
( r r1 , r2 r1 , r3 r1 ) 0,
( § 2.7)
x x1 y y1 z z1
det x 2 x1 y2 y1 z2 z1 0.
x3 x1 y3 y1 z3 z1
{O, g1 , g 2 , g 3 } -
3.3.2. ,
T
r0 x0 y0 z0 -
T
n nx ny nz .
98
. r ,
, r r0 n -
, . (r r0 , n ) 0.
{O, e1 , e2 , e3 }
nx ( x x0 ) n y ( y y 0 ) n z ( z z0 ) 0
, A nx ; B ny; C nz , -
, D nx x0 n y y0 nz z0 ,
Ax By Cz D 0.
-
3.3.1.
{O, e1 , e2 , e3 }
Ax By Cz D 0, A B C 0,
A
n B .
C
n -
3.3.2.
( r r0 , n ) 0.
A
B -
3.3.3.
C
Ax By Cz D 0, A B C 0.
3. 99
-
.
3.3.3.
{O, e1 , e2 , e3 } M -
x
r y ( r r0 , n ) 0.
z
. 1 . K M -
, MK n r r n.( .
. 3.3.2.)
2 . K ,
( n, r n r0 ) 0, ,
,
( n ,r r0 )
2
,
| n|
| MK |
n
|(r r0 , ) |. . 3.3.2
| n|
. -
.
100
A
n B
C
Ax By Cz D 0 .
| A( x x 0 ) B( y y0 ) C ( z z0 ) |
| MK | ,
A2 B 2 C 2
, , r0
, Ax0 By0 Cz 0 D 0,
A B C 0,
| Ax By Cz D|
| MK | .
2 2 2
A B C
A1 B1 C1 0 A2 B2 C2 0,
3.3.4.
A1 x B1 y C1 z D1 0,
A2 x B2 y C 2 z D 2 0
,
.
.
. ,
0,
A1 A2 ; B1 B2 ; C1 C2
A1 x B1 y C1 z D1 0,
A2 x B2 y C 2 z D2 0
3. 101
A1 x B1 y C1 z D1 0,
A1 x B1 y C1 z D2 0.
D1 D2 ,
D1 D2 – ,
.
.
A1 x B1 y C1 z D1 0
A2 x B2 y C2 z D2 0
. -
.
-
, x 0 z 0.
, -
,
x 0, x 0,
B1 y C1 z D1 0 B2 y C2 z D2 0.
0
, B1 B2 ; C1 C2 .
z 0,
z 0, z 0,
A1 x B1 y D1 0 A2 x B2 y D2 0,
B1 B2
, A1 A2 .
.
102
3.3.2. A1 x B1 y C1 z D1 0, A1 B1 C1 0
A2 x B2 y C 2 z D2 0, A2 B2 C2 0
, -
,
0, ,
A1 A2 ; B1 B2 ; C1 C 2 ; D1 D2 .
-
3.3.4. ,
.
,
3.3.5. , -
A1 x B1 y C1 z D1 0,
A1 B1 C1 0
A2 x B2 y C 2 z D2 0,
A2 B2 C2 0,
( A1 x B1 y C1 z D1 )
( A2 x B2 y C 2 z D2 ) 0,
0.
-
3.3.6. ,
.
3. 103
P,
3.3.7.
A1 x B1 y C1 z D1 0,
A1 B1 C1 0,
A2 x B2 y C 2 z D2 0,
A2 B2 C2 0
A3 x B3 y C 3 z D3 0,
A3 B3 C3 0,
,
( A1 x B1 y C1 z D1 )
( A2 x B2 y C 2 z D2 )
( A3 x B3 y C 3 z D3 ) 0,
0
, -
P.
-
, 3.2.1 .
§ 3.4.
{O, g1 , g 2 , g 3 } .
T
1. r x y z
- ,
104
ax
a ay
az
x0
r0 y0 ,
z0
a r r0 , -
r r0 a.
2.
- r r0 a
-
x x0 ax ,
y y0 ay ,
z z0 az ,
-
x x0 y y0 z z0
,
ax ay az
.
axa y az 0
, § 3.2 (1 ).
3. - a
-
,
3. 105
- x2 x1
- r2 r1 y2 y1 ,
-
z2 z1
x1
r1 y1 r r1 (r2 r1 ) r (1 ) r1 r2 .
z1 -
x2 x x1 y y1 z z1
,
r2 y2 x 2 x1 y 2 y1 z 2 z1
z2 ( x2 x1 )( y 2 y1 )( z2 z1 ) 0 .
4. -
-
1- - (n1 , r ) d1 (n 2 , r ) d2 ,
n1 n2 – ,
, d1 d2 – .
, r0 , -
,
-
:
(n1 , r r0 ) 0,
(n2 , r r0 ) 0.
A1 x B1 y C1 z D1 0,
A2 x B2 y C 2 z D2 0.
106
5. - -
-
a
2- -
r r0 ,
[ a , r r0 ] o
[a, r ] b, b [ a , r0 ] .
{O, e1 , e2 , e3 } -
e1 e2 e3 a y z az y bx ,
det a x ay az b a z x a x z by ,
x y z a x y a y x bz .
,
,
. ,
ax , ay az -
, 0 0,
, ax , ay az -
, ,
bx a y z0 a z y0 ,
by a z x0 ax z0 ,
bz a x y0 a y x0 .
3. 107
, d -
R r r0 a -
, -
, S– -
, -
, -
. . 3.4.1
. 3.4.1
[ R r0 , a ]
S
d .
a a
§ 3.5.
.
, ,
, , -
, -
( r r01 , n1 ) 0
3.5.1.
( r r02 , n2 ) 0 -
n1 n2 .
108
( r r0 , n ) 0
3.5.2.
r r0 a , –
2
n a.
3.5.1–3.5.3
3.5.1
1 . 0, ,
r r01 a1 a1 a2 .
r r02 a2 . 2 . [a1 , a2 ] o .
(a1 , a 2 ) 0.
r r01 a1
r r02 a2 .
1 . 0, ,
r r0 a a [n1 , n2 ] .
(n1 , r ) d1 ,
2 . [ a , [n1 , n2 ]] o.
( n2 , r ) d2.
3. 109
( a , n1 , n 2 ) 0.
r r0 a
(n1 , r ) d1 ,
( n2 , r ) d2.
1 . 0 0,
r r01 a1 , a1 a2
r r02 a2 . r01 r02 a1 .
2 . [a 1 , a 2 ] o
[r01 r02 , a1 ] o.
[a1 , a 2 ] o
r r01 a1 (r01 r02 , a1 , a 2 ) 0.
r r02 a2 .
- [a1 , a 2 ] o
r r01 a1 (r01 r02 , a1 , a 2 ) 0.
r r02 a2 .
110
3.5.2
- 1 . 0, ,
r r01 p1 q1 [ p1 , q1 ] [ p2 , q2 ]
(r01 r02 , p1 , q1 ) 0.
r r02 p2 q2 .
2 . [[ p1 , q1 ],[ p2 , q 2 ]] o
(r01 r02 , p1 , q1 ) 0.
1 . 0, ,
r r01 p1 q1 [ p1 , q1 ] [ p2 , q2 ]
r r02 p2 q2 . (r01 r02 , p1 , q1 ) 0.
2 . [[ p1 , q1 ],[ p2 , q 2 ]] o
r r01 p1 q1 (r01 r02 , p1 , q1 ) 0.
r r02 p2 q2 .
- ( [ p1 , q1 ],[ p 2 , q 2 ]) 0.
r r01 p1 q1
r r02 p2 q2 .
3. 111
- ( p, n ) 0
( n , r0 ) d.
r r0 p q ( q, n) 0
( n, r ) d.
( p, n ) 0
( n , r0 ) d.
r r0 p q ( q, n) 0
( n, r ) d.
- 1 . 0, ,
r r0 p q [ p, q ] n.
( n, r ) d. 2 . [[ p, q ], n ] o.
3.5.3
1 . ; ; 0,
r r01 a , a p q
r r02 p q. (r01 r02 , p, q ) 0.
112
( a , p, q) 0,
2 .
(r01 r02 , p, q ) 0.
1 . 0, ,
r r01 a a [ p, q] .
r r02 p q. 2 . [ a ,[ p , q ]] o.
( a , n) 0
r r01 a ( n, r0 ) d.
( n, r ) d.
( a , n) 0,
r r01 a (r0 , n) d.
( n, r ) d.
1 . 0, ,
r r01 a a n.
( n, r ) d. 2 . [a, n ] o.
1 .
; ; 0, ,
(n1 , r ) d1 ,
(n 2 , r ) d2 n n1 n2 .
( n, r ) d. 2 . [ n ,[ n1 , n2 ]] o.
3. 113
, 3.5.1–3.5.3
.
-
5
. , , ,
(n1 , r ) d1 ,
(n 2 , r ) d2,
r r0 a.
, -
a [ n1 , n 2 ] , r0
n1 n2 .
, r0 n1 n2 ,
(n1 , r0 ) d1 ,
,
(n 2 , r0 ) d2
(n1 , n1 ) (n1 , n2 ) d1 (n1 , n 2 )

det , det
(n2 , n1 ) (n2 , n2 ) d2 ( n2 , n2 )
5
, -
-
, , , .( ., -
, 3.5.2.)
114
(n1 , n1 ) d1
det ( . 1.1.2).
(n 2 , n1 ) d 2
, -
n1 n2 0.
r r0 a,
, r0 a . -
, -
, n1 [ a , r0 ] n2 [ a , n1 ] . -
, ( .§
2.8),
n2 [ a , n1 ] [ a , [ a , r0 ]] ( a , r0 ) a ( a , a ) r0 ( a , r0 ) a a r0 .
d1 d2 , , d1 (n1 , r0 )
d2 (n2 , r0 ) . r0 a
.
-
.
(n, r ) d0 -
3.5.1.
r r0 a. -
.
3. 115
.1 . , , (n, a ) 0, ,
.
, (n, a ) 0.
2 . r r0 n, r –
-
, –
( . 3.5.1).
-
3.5.1
, -
( n , r0 a) d0 .
d ( n , r0 ) d ( n , r0 )
, , r r0 a.
( n, a ) ( n, a )
R
3.5.2.
r r0 a.
, -
.
.1 . R
, ( . 3.5.2). -
rx -
.
| R rx | .
116
2 . rx
( a , R rx ) 0
rx r0 a, , -
, -
,
( R r0 , a )
. 3.5.2 rx r0 a
2
|a |
( R r0 , a ) ( R r0 , a )
( R r0 a , R r0 a)
2 2
|a| |a|
( R r0 , a ) 2
| R r0 | 2 .
2
|a|
,
2 2 2
p q ( p, q ) 2 [ p, q ] -
[ R r0 , a ]
§ 3.4 .
|a|
r r01 a1
3.5.3.
r r02 a2 .
3. 117
. 1 . a1 a2 ,
, . 3.4.1 -
S | [r02 r01 , a1 ] |
.
| a1 | | a1 |
2 . a1 a2 -
,
,
, -
r01 , -
r02 ( . 3.5.3).
, -
a1 , a 2
. 3.5.3 r02 r01 , , -

,
,
, -
(r02 r01 , a1 , a 2 ) –
. ,
| (r02 r01 , a1 , a 2 ) |
.
|[a1 , a 2 ]|
118
( n, r ) [ p, r ] q. -
3.5.4.
R – .
n, [ n ,[ p, r ]] [ n , q ] . -
R § 2.8,
p ( n , R) R ( n , p ) [ n , q ] .
R ,
( n , R) , ,
( n , p) 0,
p [ n, q ]
R .
( n , p)
4. 119
§ 4.1.
{O , g1, g 2 }
, ( ,
).
, L
4.1.1.
r F( ) (
Fx ( )
r ,
g Fy ( )
Fx ( ), Fy ( ) – ,
, ),
1. r F( )
L.
2. r0 , L,
0 , , -
r0 F( 0) .
120
G ( x , y) 0, -
x Fx ( )
, .
y Fy ( )
1 .
4.1.1.
r r0 a, a – , r0 –
. -
x x0 ax
, ( , ),
y y0 ay
Fx ( ) x0 ax
, ( , ),
Fy ( ) y0 ay
Ax By C 0 , A B 0,
G ( x , y ) Ax By C .
2 .
x0
R -
y0
x x0 R cos
, [0,2 ) ,
y y0 R sin
Fx ( ) x0 R cos
, [0,2 ) ,
Fy ( ) y0 R sin
( x x0 ) 2 ( y y0 ) 2 R 2 ,
G( x, y) ( x x0 ) 2 ( y y0 ) 2 R2 .
4. 121
,
4.1.2.
m
pk qk
k x y 0, pk qk – -
k 0
, k -
.
N max { pk qk }
4.1.3. k [ 0,m ]
, -
4.1.2, k,
k 0. -
, -
,
.
x 3y 2 0 (N 1)
4.1.2
-
). - y x2 0 (N 2)
xy 1 0 (N 2)
” x3 y3 xy 0 (N 3)
4.1.1. .
.
L
{O, g1 , g 2 } G ( x , y) 0 N.
{O, g1 , g 2 } . ,
(1.8.2), :
122
x 11 x 12 y 1 ,
y 21 x 22 y 2 ,
L “ ”
G( 11 x 12 y 1, 21 x 22 y 2 ) 0.
4.1.2, N N ,
“ ” -
. -
{O, g1 , g 2 }
{O, g1 , g 2 } , N N N N .
: , -
.
1 . -
4.1.4. x 0,
y 0, -
x y 3 0
,
3.
2 . x2 y2 4 0
2 .
. -
{O, g1 , g 2 , g 3 } .
4. 123
, L
4.1.4.
r F( ) (
x Fx ( )
y Fy ( ) ,
z Fz ( )
Fx ( ), F y ( ), Fz ( ) – ,
, ),
1) r F( ) -
L,
2) r0 , L, -
0 , ,
r0 F( 0 ) .
G ( x, y, z ) 0,
H ( x, y , z ) 0,
x Fx ( )
y Fy ( ) , , , -
z Fz ( )
, G 2 ( x, y, z ) H 2 ( x, y, z ) 0.
1 . -
4.1.3. x 2
y 2
0, z
.
124
2 .
R 2 a
:
x R cos ,
y R sin , ( , ),
z a
z
x R cos ,
a
z
y R sin .
a
§ 4.2.
{O, g1 , g 2 , g 3 } – , ,
: , .
, S
4.2.1.
r F( , ) (
Fx ( , )
r Fy ( , ) ,
g
Fz ( , )
Fx ( , ) , Fy ( , ) , Fz ( , ) – -
, , , -
, ),
4. 125
1)
, r F( , )
S,
2) r0 , S, -
,
0 , 0 , -
r0 F( 0 , 0 ).
G( x, y, z) 0 ,
x Fx ( , ),
y Fy ( , ), , .
z Fz ( , ).
4.2.1. x0
R y0
z0
x x0 R cos sin ,
0 2 ,
y y0 R sin sin ,
0 ,
z z0 R cos ,
(x x0 ) 2 (y y0 ) 2 ( z z0 ) 2 R2 .
126
,
4.2.2.
m
pk q rk
k x y kz 0, pk , q k rk –
k 0
, k
.
N max{ pk qk rk } -
4.2.3. k [ 0,m]
, ( -
4.2.2), k,
k 0. -
, -
, -
.
4.2.2 x2 y2 1 0 (N 2)
-
-
). x2 y2 z2 R2 0 (N 2)
4.2.1. .
4.1.1.
: , -
.
4. 127
§ 4.3.
{O, g1 , g 2 , g 3 }
r F( ), , -
.
4.3.1. , , -
a.
,
, -
.
.
r F( ) NM ( . . 4.3.1),
,
NM a,
, , -
r( , ) F( ) a, , ( , ).
Fx ( )
F( ) Fy ( )
g
Fz ( )
ax
a ay ,
g
az
x Fx ( ) y Fy ( ) z Fz ( )
.
ax ay az
128
, -
4.3.1.
- 3, -
, -
, ,
- , -
,
x 3 cos 3 cos 0
y 3 sin , F( ) 3 sin ;a 0 .
z 0 1
,
, x2 y2 9
z, ,
N 2.
. 4.3.1 . 4.3.2
4. 129
4.3.2. ( ),
,
, A ( )
r0 .
,
,
.
.
r F( ) NM ,
( . . 4.3.2)
NM (r0 F ( )) , , , -
r( , ) (1 ) F( ) r0 , , ( , ).
x0
r0 y0 , -
g
z0
x Fx ( ) y Fy ( ) z Fz ( )
.
x0 Fx ( ) y0 Fy ( ) z 0 Fz ( )
,
4.3.2.
- 3, -
, -
, ,
130
- ,
0
r0 0 ,
1
( . 4.3.1):
x 3 cos y 3 sin z
, [0,2 ) .
3 cos 3 sin 1
,
x2 y2
, ( z 1) 2 0,
9 9
N 2.
§ 4.4.
{O, e1 , e2 } L.
4.1.2 4.1.3
4.4.1. , L
,
Ax 2 2 Bxy Cy 2 2 Dx 2 Ey F 0, (4.4.1)
A, B C , x
y , -
L.
4.4.1 -
,
4. 131
{O , e1 , e2 } ,
.
-
4.4.1. ,
(
a b 0, p 0) ( -
) :
4 . 4. 1
- - -
0 0 0
x2 y2 y 2
a2
1
a2 b2 x
x2 y2
0
a2 b2
2
y 0
x
2
x2 y2 y a2
0
a2 b2 x
x2 y2 x2 y2 y 2
2 px
1 1
a2 b2 a2 b2
132
A B
det AC B2
B C
.
1 . , -
: B 0 A C.
, B 0, -
4.4.1. A C, ,
,
e1 e2 ; e2 e1 ; OO o, -
,
x y;y x § 1.8. ,
,
C B A B
det det .
B A B C
2 . B 0, 4 . 140.
B 0, -
{O , e1 , e2 } ,
O 0 , ,
4
xy
. . -
( . § 1.8):
e1 e1 cos e 2 sin
OO o,
e2 e1 sin e 2 cos
{O, e1 , e2 } {O , e1 , e2 }
4. 133
x x cos y sin ,
y x sin y cos .
“ ” “ ”, -
4.4.1
A( x cos y sin ) 2
2 B( x cos y sin )( x sin y cos )
C ( x sin y cos ) 2 2 D( x cos y sin )
2 E ( x sin y cos ) F 0,
2 2
Ax 2B x y Cy 2D x 2E y F 0 .
,
A A cos 2 2 B cos sin C sin 2 ,
2
2B 2 A sin cos 2 B cos
2
2 B sin 2C sin cos ,
C A sin 2 2 B sin cos C cos 2 .
B 0 ,
2 B cos 2 ( A C ) sin 2 0,
, ,
2B 1 2B
tg 2 ; arctg , A C,
A C 2 A C
A C, . -
4
,
A C
tg 2 tg 1 0, B 0,
B
, B 0, .
134
3 . ,
A C . ,
1 ctg 2 2 1 ( A2BC ) 2 1
sin 2 2
0
4
2B A C
sin 2 ; cos 2 .
4B 2 (A C)2 4B 2 ( A C) 2
A C
1 cos 2 1 cos 2
A A B sin 2 C
2 2
A C A C A C
cos 2 B sin 2
2 2 2
A C A C 2B
B
2 4B 2 ( A C ) 2 4B 2 ( A C ) 2
A C 1
4B 2 ( A C) 2 .
2 2
,
A C 1
C 4B 2 ( A C)2 .
2 2
A 0
det
0 C
A C 1
AC ( 2 )4
2
(4 B 2 ( A C ) 2 )
A B
AC B2 det ,
B C
4. 135
-
. ,
A C A C.
4 . , B 0, -
0 0
Ax 2 Cy 2 2 Dx 2 Ey F 0.
0. , A 0 C 0
D E D2 E2
A x ( A ) 2
(
C y
C ) 2
A C
F.
D2 E2
P F, , -
A C
e1 e1 , D
x x ,
e2 e2 , A
E
D E y y ,
OO e1 e2 , C
A C
2
Ax Cy 2 P , ,
2 2
x y
1; P 0,
P P
( | |
A
) ( 2
| |
C
) 2
2 2
x y
0; P 0,
| C |2 | A |2
, ,
:
136
x2 y2 x2 y2 x2 y2
0; 1; 1 0,
a2 b2 a2 b2 a2 b2
x2 y2 x2 y2 x2 y2
0; 2 1; 2 1 0.
a2 b2 a b2 a b2
-
( . 4.4.1),
1 -
x y .
5 . 0. 0, , AC A 0,
C 0 ( A 0( !). ,
x y ), -
2
Cy 2 Dx 2 Ey F 0
E E2
(
C y
C
) 2
C
F 2 Dx, C 0.
D 0
E E2
C y ( C
) 2
C
F,
2
y a2; y 2
0; y 2
a2 .
D 0,
E 2D 1 E2
( y
C
) 2
C
x (2D C
F ( )),
, , y 2 2 px , y 2 2 px ,
p 0.
4. 137
( .
4.4.1), :
e1 e1 ,
x x,
e2 e2 ,
y y.
OO o,
. 1 . 4.1.1 , -
, -
4.4.1 , -
.
2 . , -
,
4.4.1, . ,
( . § 5.4),
-
,
4.4.1, -
.
3 .
,
– -
4 . 4.4.1
,
,
,
.
138
1.
§ 4.5.
{O, e1 , e2 , e3 } .
4.2.2 4.2.3
4.5.1. , S
,
A11 x 2 A22 y 2 A33 z 2

2 A12 xy 2 A13 xz 2 A23 yz (4.5.1)
2 A14 x 2 A24 y 2 A34 z A44 0,
A11 ; A22 ; A33 ; A12 ; A13 ; A23

, x, y z -
, S.
, (4.5.1)
,
, -
.
-
4.5.1.
{O , e1 , e2 , e3 } , -
-
:
4. 139
x 2 y 2
a2 b2 x2 y2
z 2 a2 b2 x2 y2
1 1
b2 z2 a2 b2
0 z
b2
x2 y2
1 x2 y2
a2 b2 0
a2 b2 x2 y2
z 1
z a2 b2
z
2 -
x a2
y,z y 2
2 px
x2 y2
0
a2 b2 z
z
x2 y2
a2 b2
x 2 a2 y,z
z2
x2 0 y,z 0
c2
140
- -
x2 y2 z2 x2 y2 x2 y2 z2
1 2z 1
a2 b2 c2 a2 b2 a2 b2 c2
- -
x2 y2 x2 y2 z2
2z 1
a2 b2 a2 b2 c2
a 0, b 0, c 0, p 0.
, ,
4.4.1,
, -
4.5.1 , -
§ 12.2.
-
2.
4. 141
§ 4.6.
, .
-
.
{ , },
OM , ( OM , OP ) ,
0, 0 2 .
O ,
OP – .
. 4.6.1
( . 4.6.1). -
.
-
:
x2 y2 ;
x cos ,
x y
y sin , cos ; sin .
2 2 2
x y x y2
, .
142
, -
, -
x2 y2 1,
1.
, 1 , -
– , -
–
(1 cos ) p 0, 0 p 0 – ,
-
, -
p :
0 1, 1 1. -
4.6.2.
. 4.6.2. -
4. 143
, -
(1 cos ) p 0 -
. ,
x
x2 y2 cos ,
2
x y2
x
x2 y 2 (1 ) p 0,
2
x y2
, , 0
2 2 2 2
p 0 (1 )x y 2 px p .
1, . 1,
:
p 1 p2
(x 2
)2 2
y2 2 2
.
1 1 (1 )
, 4 4.4.1,
, 0 1 -
, 1– -
.
(1 cos ) p 0, ( -
) , -
, -
, 4.4.1.
, 0 p 0 , 0
p 0 – , p 0 cos 1–
.
144
. 4.6.3.
, -
4.6.1.
(1 cos ) p 0 p 0, 0,
.
, ,
, -
, 4.6.3.
, -
,
.
4. 145
-
{ , , }, ( . 4.6.4),
OM , (Ox, OP) , (OM , Oz ) ,
0; 0 2 ; 0 .
-
-
, -
-
. ,
-
-
1.
-
. 4.6.4
x cos sin ,
y sin sin ,
z cos ,
146
x y
x2 y2 z 2 ; cos ; sin ;
2 2 2
x y x y2
z
cos .
2
x y2 z2
, -
-
-
,
.
-
-
{ , , h}
. 4.6.5),
OM , (Ox, OP) ,
. 4.6.5
0; 0 2 ;h ( , ).
-
:
x cos , x2 y2 ;
y sin , x y
cos ; sin ;h z.
2 2 2 2
z h, x y x y
5. 147
§ 5.1.
C m n (
5.1.1.
ji i [1, n] , j [1, m] ) -
A m l (
jk j [1, m] , k [1, l ] ) B -
l n ( ki k [1, l ] ,
i [1, n] ),
l
ji jk ki i [1, n] , j [1, m] .
k 1
– C –
m n l,
C A B .
. 5.1.1.
,
5.1.1. .
1 . A 2 2, B –
2 1, C 2 1.
148
C A B
11 12 11 11 11 12 21
.
21 22 21 21 11 22 21
11 12 ... 1i ... 1n
11 12 ... ... ... ... ... 1l 21 22 ... 2i ... 2n
21 22 ... ... ... ... ... 2l ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
j1 j2 ... ... ... ... ... jl ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
m1 m2 ... ... ... ... ... ml ... ... ... ... ... ...
l1 l2 ... li ... ln
11 12 ... 1i ... 1n
21 22 ... 2i ... 2n
... ... ... ... ... ...
j1 j2 ... ji ... jn l
... ... ... ... ... ...
ji jk ki
m1 m2 ... mi ... mn
k1
. 5.1.1
2 . A 2 2, B – 1 2,
C 1 2.
11 12
C B A 11 12
21 22
11 11 21 12 12 11 22 12 .
5. 149
3 . , A B 2 2,
C 2 2.
,
:
1) ,
A B B A ,
2)
A ( B C ) ( A B ) C ,
3) -
A ( B C ) A B A C .
, -
,
.
, ( , )
A E
. § 1.1) A .
1
A
5.1.2.
A ,
1 1
A A A A E .
150
. , A ,
, det A 0 6.
A , det A 0,
5.1.3.
, , det A 0,
– .
, -
5.1.1. .
, A
1 1
: A 1
A 2
.
1 1
A A 1
E A A 2
E ,
1 1
A A 1
A A 2
E E O .
1
A 1
, -
1 1 1 1
A 1
A ( A 1
A 2
) A 1
O O
1
, , A 1
A E ,
1 1
A 1
A 2
O .
6
n -
6.
5. 151
11 12
, A
21 22
1
det A 0, A
1 1 22 12
A . (5.1.1)
det A 21 11
7
n -
:
det ( A B ) det ( A ) det ( B ) ;
1 1
det A , det A 0.
det A
, -
5.1.2.
11 1 12 2 1 ,
21 1 22 2 2
A x b ,
1 1 11 12
x ; b ; A ,
2 2 21 22
1
( A ) –
1
x A b .
-
5.1.3. (1.8.2) -
7
n 2 -
1.1.9, n 6.
152
g1 g1
1 1 1
T
g2 S g2 ; 2 S 2 2 ,
g3 g3 3 3 3
S – .
5.1.1. T
( A B )T B A T
.
, A B -
, , -
, .
ik , kj , ij A , B
C A B . , -
5.1.1,
l
ij ik kj .
k 1
, , -
1.1.8,
l l l
T T T T T
ij ji jk ki kj ik ik kj ,
k 1 k 1 k 1
, 5.1.1,
.
.
5. 153
,
g1 g1
T
g2 S g2
g3 g3
g1 g2 g3 g1 g2 g3 S .
-
.
Q
5.1.2.
n- x -
n- , Q
.
.
11 12 ... 1n
21 22 ... 2n
Q . x
... ... ... ...
n1 n2 ... nn
0
...
1 , i.
...
0
154
0 1i 0
... ... ...
Q 1 ii 0 i -
... ... ...
0 ni 0
.
-
5.1.2.
A B
1 1 1
( A B ) B A .
.
1
1 . ( A B ) -
n x c . -
1
( A B ) x c , ,
x A B c ( . 5.1.1 5.1.2).
2 . , ,
1
A x B c
1 1
B A x c .
3 .
1 1 1
( A B ) x c B A x c ,
5. 155
-
1 1 1
(( A B ) B A ) x o ,
5.1.2
x ,
1 1 1
( A B ) B A .
.
1 T
( A ) ( A T) 1 .
5.1.1.
Q , -
5.1.4. 1 T
Q Q , .
, -
, .
Q -
5.1.3.
det Q 1.
.
1 T
Q Q
Q , 5.1.2 -
T T
Q Q Q Q E . ,
det 2 Q 1,
156
-
-
;
- -
;
- det E 1.
Q ,
5.1.4.
det Q 1
cos sin
, – , -
sin cos
det Q 1 –
cos sin
.
sin cos
.
11 12
Q , -
21 22
T 11 12 11 21
Q Q E
21 22 12 22
, ,
2 2
11 12 11 21 12 22
1 0
2 2
.
11 21 12 22 21 22
0 1
5. 157
2 2
11 12 1,
11 21 12 22 0,
2 2
21 22 1,
,
5.1.3, , det Q 1.
det Q 1.
11 22 12 21 1,
2 2 2 2
( 11 12 ) ( 21 22 ) 2( 11 22 12 21 ) 0
( 11 22 )2 ( 12 21 )2 0, ,
11 22 ,
12 21 .
2 2 2 2
, 11 12 1; 21 22 1
2 2
0 11 1; 0 21 1,
11 cos
,
21 sin
Q ,
2 2
, 11 21 1.
det Q 1 .
.
158
5.1.1. .
.
§ 1.8 , S –
-
:
cos sin cos sin

,
sin cos sin cos
– .
S 5.1.4.
§ 5.2. .
(
, ,
, ,
)
,
.
, Â , -
5.2.1. -
, , -
.
5. 159
Â :
y Aˆ x, x , y . y
x, x– y.
– –
5.2.2. , ,
.
, : -
, y ( x ), x .
1 . x
5.2.1.
y, -
x l,
,
y P̂rl l x -
l.
, Aˆ P̂rl .
2 . [ , ]
f( ) -
f ( ) – ,
d
f ( ) f ( ),
d
d
Â .
d
160
3 . x -
x –
. ,
, .
4 . [ , ]
f( ) f ( )d ,
(f) f ( )d , -
[ , ].
Â ,
5.2.3. )P Q,
, -
P
Q.
:
Aˆ : P Q. M P M
Q, M Aˆ M ( -
M Aˆ (M ) ), M -
M, M– M .
Aˆ : P Q -
5.2.4. , Q -
.
5. 161
Â P
5.2.5. P.
5.2.6.
M Aˆ M M Bˆ M -
( ) .
M Bˆ Aˆ M .
, ,
.
,
5.2.7. Aˆ : P P,
Aˆ : P
1
P, , M -
P
Aˆ 1 ( Aˆ M ) M.
P, Â
5.2.8.
, Â .
P,
Â , Â .
P, Â ,
-
Â .
§ 5.3.
{O, g1 , g 2 } M -
M , , 5.2.6,
162
M Aˆ M . -
x x
rM rM , x y
g y g y
x Fx ( x , y )
x y , -
y Fy ( x , y )
x Fx ( x , y )
y Fy ( x , y )
rM Aˆ rM {O, g1 , g 2 } .
, -
Fx ( x , y ) Fy ( x, y ) .
rM ArM -
5.3.1.
,
{O, g1 , g 2 }
x 11 x 12 y 1 ,
y 21 x 22 y 2 .
x x 1
Aˆ ,
g y
y 2
Aˆ
11 12
g
21 22
5. 163
A( -
A) {O, g1 , g 2 } .
rM ArM -
5.3.2.
, -
5.3.1 , , 1 2 0.
1 2 0, Â
.
:
5.3.1.
- A,
-
, “
”, “ ”, -
0
Aˆ
1
,
g 0 2
1 2 – ;
-
-
,
;
-
.
A -
5.3.1. :
164
ˆ (r
1 . A r2 ) Aˆ r1 Aˆ r2 r1 , r2 .
1
ˆ( r )
2 . A Aˆ r r, .
.
-
, . -
, 1º
x1 x2
Aˆ (r1 r2 ) 11 12
( )
21 22 y1 y2
x1 x2
11 12 11 12
Aˆ r1 Aˆ r2 .
21 22 y1 21 22 y2
A -
5.3.2.
ˆ (r
1 . A r2 ) Aˆ r1 Aˆ r2 r1 , r2 ,
1
2 . A( r) Ar r, ,
.
.
r x g1 y g 2 Ar x g1 y g2 – -
,
x g1 y g2 A ( x g1 y g2 ) x A g1 y A g2 .
Aˆ g1 11 g1 21 g2 Aˆ g 2 12 g1 22 g2 ,
5. 165
x g1 y g 2 x Aˆ g1 y Aˆ g 2
( 11 x 12 y ) g1 ( 21 x 22 y) g 2 .
g1 g2
x 11 x 12 y x 11 12 x
, .
y 21 x 22 y y 21 22 y
ax
, a, a -
g
ay
{g1 , g 2 } , Â a
ax ax
Aˆ a 11 12
.
g ay 21 22 ay
5.3.1 5.3.2 .
-
5.3.1.
A {g1 , g 2 }
A g1 A g2 .
-
5.3.2. -
-
, -
.
166
, ,
5.3.1.
:
1 . -
-
ˆ Bˆ
: A Aˆ Bˆ g .
g g
1
2 . A ,
A,
1 1
A g
A g
.
,
.
{O, g1 , g 2 }
5.3.3.
A g
. {O, g1 , g 2 }
1
A g
S A g
S , S – -
{O, g1 , g 2 } {O, g1 , g 2 } .
.
A r Aˆ r , -
g
g g
– r Aˆ r , S – -
g
g g
{O, g1 , g 2 } {O, g1 , g 2 } ,
5. 167
r S r r S r .
g g g g
1.8.2 -
1
S ( S ), -
,
S r Aˆ S r r S 1
Aˆ S r
g g
g g g
r Aˆ r , r (
g
g g g
5.1.2)
1
Aˆ S Aˆ S .
g g
det Aˆ .
g
5.3.3.
.
-
, 5.3.3 -
S
1 1
det Aˆ det ( S Aˆ S ) det S det Aˆ det S
g g g
1
det Aˆ det S det Aˆ .
det S g g
.
168
-
5.3.2. , -
-
x 3y 2 0.
.
M -
x0
r0 ,
y0
M –
M – -
-
x0
r0 .
y0
. 5.3.1
. 5.3.1 , M
x 3y 2 0 , -
M.
x 3y 2 0
,
x x0 1
. , -
y y0 3
M
x0 x0 , 9 3 1
x0 x0 y0 ,
y0 y0 3 , 10 10 5
3 1 3
x0 3y0 2 0 y0 x0 y0 .
10 10 5
5. 169
,
,
9 3 1
x0 10 10 x0 5 ,
y0 3 1 y0 3
10 10 5
9 3
Aˆ 10 10 .
e 3 1
10 10
§ 5.4.
, (
A: P P)
, -
.
x x 1
A ,
5.4.1. y g y 2
P ,
11 12
Aˆ g
,
21 22
11 12
det 0, -
21 22
.
170
5.4.1
det A g
0
). ,
.
5.3.3 -
, -
, det A g
0 -
.
5.4.2. , .
.
1
det Aˆ g
0, Aˆ ,
g
( . § 5.1),
1.1.2
x x
Aˆ
1
g
y y 2
x
y
x
. ,
y
5. 171
, Â
,
x x
Aˆ g
1 1
, 1
Aˆ g
1 1
.
y y 2 2 2
, -
5.4.1. 5.3.2, .
,
, -
?
-
5.4.3. ,
, -
.
.
x 11 x 12 y 1 ,
y 21 x 22 y 2 ,
g1 11 g1 21 g2; g2 12 g1 22 g2 .
T
det Aˆ det Aˆ
11 12
det 0,
21 22
172
g1 g2 ( 1.6.2)
.
1.8.2 5.3.1, ,
, { g1 , g 2 } -
{g1 , g 2 } Â , -
{g1 , g 2 } { g1 , g 2 }
S Aˆ .g
-
, , , -
, ,
.
,
-
.
-
5.4.4. .
.
x x0 p
, p q - (
y y0 q
) , -
x x 1
Aˆ .
y y 2
5. 173
-
x ( x
11 0 12 y0 1 ) ( 11 p 12 q) ,
y ( x
21 0 22 y0 2 ) ( 21 p 22 q) .
, 11 p 12 q 21 p 22 q 0,
. ,
11 p 12 q 0
,
21 p 22 q 0
11 12
det 0
21 22
1.1.2 ( ) p q 0
, .
-
5.4.5. ,
.
.
, -
.
, . -
, -
-
.
, . , -
.
174
,
5.4.6. .
.
xi
M i ; i 1,2,3
yi
( . 5.4.1) M i ; i 1, 2,3
. 5.4.1
xi x2 x1
. ,
yi x3 x2
y2 y1
, 1, ,
y3 y2
5. 175
x2 x1 y2 y1
.
x3 x2 y3 y2
x 11 x 12 y 1 ,
y 21 x 22 y 2 ,
x2 x1 11 ( x2 x1 ) 12 ( y2 y1 )
x3 x2 11 ( x 3 x2 ) 12 ( y 3 y2 )
11 ( x3 x2 ) 12 ( y3 y2 )
.
11 ( x3 x2 ) 12 ( y 3 y2 )
y2 y1
, .
y3 y2
, -
,
.
:
M1 M 2
( x2 x1 ) 2 ( y2 y1 ) 2
M3M2 ( x3 x2 ) 2 ( y3 y2 ) 2
( x3 x2 ) 2 ( y3 y2 ) 2 ( x3 x2 ) 2 ( y3 y2 ) 2
( x3 x2 ) 2 ( y3 y2 ) 2 ( x3 x2 ) 2 ( y3 y2 ) 2
M 1M 2
(x2 x1 ) 2 ( y2 y1 ) 2
.
( x3 x2 ) 2 ( y3 y2 ) 2 M 2M3
.
176
, 5.4.6 ,
-
.
-
5.4.7. , ,
.
M 1M 2
, . M 3M 3 , -
M 3M 4
M4 M2 .
,
5.4.6 M 4 M 2 M 3 M 3 M4M2M3 M3 –
. 5.4.2). , M2 M4 M3 M3 .
. 5.4.2
5. 177
5.4.7
M1 M 2 M1 M 2 M 1M 2 M 1M 2
.
M3M4 M3 M2 M 3M 2 M 3M 4
-
5.4.8. -
, -
.
.
. 5.4.3
{g1 , g 2 } O. 5.4.3
.
O , -
{O , g1 , g 2 } .
178
M
x y, -
M x y ( . 5.4.3),
5.4.6
OM 1 O M1
x x ;
g1 g1
OM 2 O M2
y y .
g2 g2
-
.
1.8.3 , -
.
n -
5.4.2. P, .
a b -
, 0, ,
[a, b ] n -
, 0, ,
[a, b ] n.
5. 179
1 . S –
5.4.9. S – -
-
11 12
S det S.
21 22
2 .
-
,
11 12
det 0, -
21 22
11 12
, det 0.
21 22
-
. , -
g1 g2 ,
Â
g1 Aˆ g1 11 g1 21 g2 g2 Aˆ g 2 12 g1 22 g2 ,
, 5.3.2, 11 , 12 , 21 22
A,
11 12
Aˆ .
g
21 22
180
( . §2.4) -
, g1 g2 ,
S [ g1 , g 2 ] , , -
,– S [ g1 , g 2 ] .
[g1 , g 2 ] [ 11 g1 21 g2 , 12 g1 22 g2]
( 11 22 12 21 )[ g1 , g 2 ] det Aˆ [ g1 , g 2 ] ,
g
S det A g
S , ( 5.4.2)
{g1 , g 2 } ,
det A g
0
det A g
0.
, , -
, , -
.
, -
5.4.10. 4.4.1:
- -
;
- , -
-
.
5. 181
.
.
1 . 5.4.6 5.4.8
, , ,
. -
,
. ,
,
.
2 . -
,
, , ,
.
.
5.4.6.
3 . -
. ,
.
4 . ,
, -
5.4.5 5.4.6 , -
.
.
4.4.1 5.4.1 ,
,
:
2 2 2 2
x y 1; x y 1;
(5.4.1)
2 2 2 2 2
x y 0; y 1 0; y 2x 0; y 0.
182
,
, -
-
(5.4.1),
-
-
.
" ". -
§ 9.4 ( 9.4.1),
.
5.4.11. ,
.
.
p q -
p q . ,
e e
( )
11 12 11 12
p ,
e 21 22 21 22
5. 183
11 12 11 12
q
e 21 22 21 22
.
p q
{e1 , e2 }
( 11 12 )( 11 12 )
( 21 22 )( 21 22 ) 0
2 2 2 2 2
( 11 12 21 22 ) ( 11 12 21 22 )
2
( 11 12 21 22 ) 0,
2 2
U 2V U 0.
:
1) U V 0,
-
.
2) U 0 V 0, 0,
– .
3) , U 0,
p q
2V
( ) 2
U
( ) 1 0,
V V2
( ) 1, 2 U U2
1 -
U.
.
184
§ 5.5.
P -
5.5.1.
Q
*
x x 1
*
Qˆ ,
y e y 2
11 12
Qˆ e
21 22
,
, 5.1.3
det Q e
1, det Q e
1. -
§ 5.4 ,
. -
.
, -
,
-
5.5.1. ,
.
.
{e1 , e2 } {e1 , e2 } S . -
5.1.1, -
1 T
S S ,
1 T
Q {e1 , e2 } , Qˆ e Qe.
5. 185
{e1 , e2 } ,
Q, 5.3.3,
1
Qˆ S Qˆ S .
e e
1
Qˆ e . 5.1.1 5.1.2, -
S Q e,
1 1 1 1 1
Qˆ ( S Qˆ S ) 1
S Qˆ ( S ) 1
e e e
1 1 T T T
S Qˆ S S Qˆ ( S )T
e e
T 1 T
( S Qˆ S )T ( S Qˆ S )T Qˆ .
e e e
1 T
Qˆ e Qe ,
Q̂ {e1 , e2 } .
-
5.5.2. :
1) ;
2)
;
3) .
.
1 . Q̂
Q̂
e
186
{O, e1 , e2 } . , § 2.3, -
a b
1 1
a b -
e 2 e 2
T
1
(a, b) 1 1 2 2 1 2 a b .
2 e e
a b,
Q̂ e , -
(Qˆ a , Qˆ b ) Qˆ a Qˆ b
e e
( Qˆ a ) T Qˆ e b
e
e e
T
T
a Qˆ Qˆ b
e e
e e
T
1
a Qˆ Qˆ b
e
e e
T T
a E b a b ( a , b ).
e e e e
(Qˆ a , Qˆ b ) (a, b) a, b ,
-
.
5. 187
2 .
Qˆ a (Qˆ a , Qˆ a ) ( a, a ) a a .
3 . 2 -
,
.
, -
,
.
-
5.5.3. -
.
.
1 . 5.3.1 5.3.2, -
5.3.1 5.3.1, -
,
{e1 , e2 }
-
.
2 . 5.4.11 ( , -
, ) { 1, 2},
188
Â -
{e1 , e2 } . -
1 2 , ,
1 2
e1 ; e2 ; 1 1 ; 2 2 .
1 2
, {e1 , e2 } – .
3 . , Q̂ ,
{e1 , e2 } -
{e1 , e2 } , , -
Q̂ e .
1 0 e1 e1 T e1 T e1
1
; Qˆ ; 1
Aˆ ,
0 2 e2 e2
e
e2
e
e2
2 2
0
( Aˆ
T
e
1
0
Qˆ
T
e
)e 1 o .
2 e2 o
T 0 T
Aˆ Qˆ
1
{e1 , e2 } ,
e 0 2
e
,
5. 189
0
Aˆ Qˆ
1
.
e e 0 2
, -
"( . 5.3.1).
§ 5.6.
G
5.6.1. ,
x y -
, -
xy , -
:
1) x ( yz ) ( xy ) z ;
2) e, ,
x G xe ex x;
3) x x 1, -
1
, x x e.
, , xy yx x, y G,
.
, :
5.6.1. 1) -
,
e– 0.
2)
,
e– 1.
190
3)
-
.
4)
-
.
6. 191
§ 6.1.
,
1, 2, 3, ..., n . ( -
)
{k 1 , k 2 , k 3 ,..., k n } . ,
n!.
, ki kj -
6.1.1.
( , -
), i j ki kj.
{k 1 , k 2 , k 3 ,..., k n }
(k1 , k 2 ,..., k n ) . , (3,1,4,2) 3 .
11 12 13 ... 1n
21 22 23 ... 2n
A 31 32 33 ... 3n ij ; i, j [1, n].

... ... ... ... ...
n1 n2 n3 ... nn
192
( )
6.1.2.
A n n
det A ,
( k1 , k 2 , k 3 ,..., k n )
det A ( 1) 1k1 2 k2 ... nk n ,
{ k1 , k 2 , k 3 ,..., k n }
{k 1 , k 2 , k 3 ,..., k n } –
,
A .
,
, -
n!.
6.1.2 , -
-
.
6.1.2
6.1.1.
1.1.9 1.1.10.
§ 6.2.
6.2.1. .
.
-
T
B A
( m1 , m2 ,..., mn )
( 1) 1m1 2 m2 ... nmn ,
6. 193
, , k mk mk k ,
T ( m1 , m2 ,..., mn )
det A ( 1) m11 m2 2 ... mn n .
{ m1 ,m 2 ,..., mn }
,
( m1 , m2 ,..., mn )
( 1) 1k1 2k2 ... nk n , 1, 2, 3, ..., n –
, k1 , k 2 , k 3 ,..., k n – .
, -
: km i, i
i
-
(m1 , m 2 ,..., m n ) (k1 , k 2 ,..., k n ) .

, mi mj ,
mi mj i j, k mi
km j , i : k mi i, , ,
k mi i j km j mi mj .
, .
T ( k1 , k 2 ,..., k n )
det A ( 1) 1k1 2k2 ... nk n det A .
{ k1 ,k 2 ,..., k n }
6.2.1 -
6.2.1. .
A , -
6.1.2, -
194
,
.
6.2.1.
11 12 13 1n
, 21 22 23 2n
ik i 31 32 33 3n
jk j -
, - n1 n2 n3 nn
-
“ ”
, - . 6.2.1
.
, -
“ ”
, -
6.1.2, , , -
.
, -
6.2.1. ,
, .
6.2.2. .
.
,
.
( k1 , k 2 ,..., k n )
( 1) 1k1 2k2 ... nk n ,
{ k1 ,k 2 ,..., k n }
,
.
6. 195
{k1 , k 2 , ... k i , k i 1 , k i 2 ..., k n } .

ki ki+1, -
, {k1 , k 2 ,...ki 1 , k i 2 ,..., k n } , -
,
ki ki 1 .
, -
, , -
.
, , -
l , l+l+1
,
2l 1
( 1) 1, -
.
.
, -
6.2.2. , .
.
-
, , , , ,
. -
.
k -
6.2.3 " " ,
-
,k
-
).
" -
.
196
.
A k
ik ik ik , i=1,2,...,n. -
( k1 ,k 2 ,..., k n )
( 1) 1k1 2 k2 ... ik ... nk n
( k1 , k 2 ,..., k n )
( 1) 1k1 2k 2 ...( ik ik )... nk n
( k1 , k 2 ,..., k n )
( 1) 1k1 2k 2 ... ik ... nk n
( k1 ,k 2 ,..., k n )
( 1) 1k1 2 k2 ... ik ... nk n .
n!
det A k -
, det A det A det A , k -
A A -
ik ik , i=1,2,...,n.
6.2.3. .
-
6.2.4. , -
.
.
, , -
, ( 6.2.3) -
, -
. 6.2.2.
.
6. 197
n n
6.2.4. ,
det ( A B ) det A det B .
.
1 . C A B . A , B
C ij , kl pq . -
n
, 5.1.1, pq pj jq
j 1
det C
11 11 12 21 ... 1n n1 ... 11 1n ... 1n nn
21 11 22 21 ... 2n n1 ... 21 1n ... 2n nn

det .
... ... ...
n1 11 n2 21 ... nn n1 ... n1 1n ... nn nn
-
1, 2, 3, ..., n , -
. -
[i1 , i 2 , i3 ,..., i n ] .
( 6.2.3)
det C
1i1 1i2 ... 1in
2i1 2i2 ... 2in

i11 i2 2 ... in n det
[ i1 , i2 ,...,in ] ... ... ... ...
ni1 ni2 ... nin
i1 1 i2 2 ... in n det A .
[ i1 ,i2 ,...,in ]
[ i1 , i2 ,...,in ]
198
[i1 , i 2 , i3 ,..., i n ] (
{i1 , i 2 ,..., i n } ) ,
n
n , -
6.2.2 n! .
2 . , , A
{i1 ,i2 ,...,in }
, A , -
,
6.2.2 .
A ,
{i1 ,i2 ,...,in }
,
ik ; k [1, n]
.
,
,
{i1 , i2 ,..., in } , , ,
A
{i1 ,i2 ,...,in }
( i1 ,i2 ,...,in )
det A ( 1) det A .
{i1 ,i2 ,...,in }
3 . det C , -
( i1 ,i2 ,...,in )
det C det A ( 1) i11 i2 2 ... in n
{i1 ,i2 ,...,in }
T
det A det B ,
6. 199
6.2.1
det ( A B ) det A det B .
§ 6.3.
n A -
i1 , i 2 ,..., i k j1 , j 2 ,..., j k ,
1 k n.
k, -
6.3.1. ,
i1 , i 2 ,..., i k j1 , j 2 ,..., j k ,
j , j2 ,..., jk
k- M i 1, i .
1 2 ,...,ik
n k,
6.3.2. ,
i1 , i 2 ,..., i k
j1 , j 2 ,..., j k , , -
M i j1, i, j,...,
2 ,..., j k
i
,
1 2 k
j , j2 ,..., jk
M i 1,i .
1 2 ,...,ik
A i j ,
ij . A
, A
(n 1) (n 1) .
200
A -
6.3.3.
j
Mi ij .
6.1.2 – A –
(n 1)! , ij ,
.
det A ij Dij .
Dij
6.3.4.
ij .
, 6.1.2
n n
det A ij Dij kj Dkj j [1, n] i [1, n], (6.3.1)
j 1 k 1
-
, -
,
j
Dij ( 1)i j
Mi .
6.3.1.
.
1 . 6.1.2
(1,k 2 , k3 ,..., k n )
det A 11 ( 1) 2k2 ... nk n ,
{1, k 2 , k 3 ,..., k n }
( k 2 ,..., k n )
D11 ( 1) 2k 2 3 k3 ... nk n ,
{ k 2 ,..., k n }
, (1, k 2 , k 3 ,..., k n ) (k 2 , k 3 ,..., k n ) ,

6. 201
D11 -
n 1, A -
. ,
1
D11 M 1.
2 . A , ij -
A , i
, i 1 , -
j , j 1 -
. A
det A ( 1) i 1 j 1
det A ( 1) i j
det A .
( 6.2.3)
, , (6.3.1)
Dij . -
Dij ( 1) i j
D11 .
3 . , , ij -
ij A ,
j 1
Mi M 1.
4 .
j 1
Mi M 1 D11 ( 1) i j Dij ,
j
Dij ( 1) i j M i .
.
202
i-
6.3.1. n
i
det A ( 1) k i
ki Mk
k 1
n
i
det A ( 1) k i M ki M k .
k 1
A
6.3.2.
n
ij Dis js ,
i 1
1, j s
det A js – -
0 , j s
( . § 2.2).
6.3.4
det A 1j D1 j 2j D2 j nj Dnj , -
j s .
j s.
1 j D1s 2j D2 s ... nj Dns
s -
, s j .
6.2.2.
.
6. 203
A ,
6.3.2.
1
A
i
( 1) i j M j
ij ; i, j [1, n] .
A B ,
ij ij ; i, j [1, n] . pq –
A B , , 5.1.1
6.3.2,
j
n n
( 1) j q M q 1 n
pq pj jq pj pj Dqj
j 1 j 1 j 1
1
pq pq ; i, j [1, n] .
B A 1.1.4
A B B A E ,
, 5.1.2 5.1.1,
1
B A .
.
(5.1.1).
I i1 i2 ... ik J j1 j2 ... jk ,
, 6.3.1,
204
j1 , j2 ,..., jk
6.3.3
).
j1 , j 2 ,..., j k
det A ( 1) I J
M i1j1,i,2j,...,
2 ,..., j k
i k M i1 ,i 2 ,..., ik .
{i1 ,i2 ,..., i k }
, -
i1 , i 2 ,..., i k .
n- :
6.3.1.
x aa ... a
a xa ... a
n det a a x ... a .
... ... ... ... ...
a a a ... x
. 1 . ,
x a (n 1) . -
,
,
( .
6.2.4 6.2.3):
1 1 1 ... 1
a x a ... a
n (x a (n 1)) det a a x ... a .
... ... ... ... ...
a a a ... x
2 . , , -
, a,
6. 205
1 1 1 ... 1
0 x a 0 ... 0
n (x a(n 1)) det 0 0 x a ... 0 .
... ... ... ... ...
0 0 0 ... x a
3 . n 1
6.3.1
,
n (x a (n 1))( x a) n 1
.
§ 6.4.
n n -
:
11 1 12 2 ... 1n n 1 ,
21 1 22 2 ... 2n n 2 ,
(6.4.1)
...............................................
n1 1 n2 2 ... nn n n ,
n
ji i j ; j [1, n] -
i 1
A x b , A
ji , x b – i j .
{ 1, 2 ,..., n }
6.4.1.
,
-
.
206
(6.4.1)
6.4.1 , -
).
, det A 0 -
i
i ; i 1,2,..., n ,
i – , -
A i -
b :
11 12 ... 1 ... 1n
21 22 ... 2 ... 2n
i det .
... ... ... ... ... ...
n1 n2 ... n ... nn
i-
1 . ,
1
2
(6.4.1) x , -
...
n
ji i j ; j [1, n] .
i 1
6. 207
j [1, n]
D jk -
j,
n n n
D jk ( ji i ) j D jk k [1, n] .
j 1 i 1 j 1
( -
) :
n n n
( ji D jk ) i j D jk .
i 1 j 1 j 1
ik (
6.3.2), , ,
n n
j D jk k ik i k k ,
j 1 i 1
k k ,k [1, n] . , ,
k
k , k [1, n] . (6.4.2)
, ,
k k ,k [1, n]
0 , ,
(6.4.2), .
2 . ,
k
{ i ,i [1, n] } -
. , i
(6.4.1):
208
n n n n n
i 1 1
ji ji ( k Dki ) k( ji Dki )
i 1 i 1 k 1 k 1 i 1
n
1
k kj j , j [1, n].
k 1
-
6.3.2.
§ 6.5.
A m n.
1 k min{ m, n} .
A k ,
k.
k k ,
, k, -
(k 1) -
k (c . 6.3.1).
,
6.5.1.
A , -
rg A .
,
6.5.2. , .
( ) , -
6.5.3. , .
6. 209
nm :
11 12 1n
21 22 2n
a1 ; a2 ; ... ; an
... ... ...
m1 m2 mn
1 0
2 0
b ; o .
... ...
m 0
( )
, , -
, b
a1 , a 2 , ... , a n , 1 , 2 , ... , n ,
n
, b i ai .
i 1
( )
6.5.1 ( ) -
.
).
.
1 . r.
,
A .
i -
j
.
210
11 ... 1r 1j
... ... ... ...

det ,
r1 ... rr rj
i1 ... ir ij
r 1
r.
2 . ,
i1 D1 i2 D2 ... ir Dr ij M 0,
M 0 – , D1 ,..., Dr –
, i. -
, ij 1 i1 2 i2 ... r ir ,
Ds
s , s [1, r ] i.
M
.
a1 , a 2 ,..., a n -
6.5.4.
,
1 , 2 ,..., n, ,
n n
i ai o , ( i 0 ).
i 1 i 1
( ) -
6.5.1. , ,
.
. 1.4.1.
6.5.2. , -
.
6. 211
.
, k -
, -
, :
11 12 1k 0
21 22 2k 0
1 2 ... k .
... ... ... ...
m1 m2 mk 0
11 1k 1, k 1 1n
21 2k 2,k 1 2n
1 ... k 0 ... 0
... ... ... ...
m1 mk m ,k 1 mn
, -
6.5.2. , ( ) -
.
.
,
n.
6.5.2 .
.
212
:
. 6.5.1
.
n 1
, an i ai . -
i 1
( i 1,2, ,n 1) i
i .
an ,
, -
.
6.5.3 -
.
).
.
1 . ,
.
r 0. , -
r .
r , ,
.
2 . k r ,
. -
A . R r, A -
A .
6. 213
, R r k A ,
, ,
A 6.5.2.
§ 6.6. m
n
m n -
:
11 1 ... 1n n
12 2 1,
21 1 22 2 ... 2 n n 2,
(6.6.1)
..............................................
m1 1 m2 2 ... mn n m,
ji i j , j [1, m] ,
i 1
A x b , A -
m n ji , x b -
i ,i [1, n] , j ,j [1, m] .
{ 10 , 0
2 ,..., 0
n }
6.6.1.
(6.6.1),
.
214
-
0
1
0
x0 2
.
...
0
n
(6.6.1)
(6.6.1).
(6.6.1)
6.6.2. , , -
– .
11 12 ... 1n
6.6.3.
21 22 ... 2n
A -
... ... ... ...
m1 m2 ... mn
(6.6.1),
11 12 ... 1n 1
21 22 ... 2n 2
A b
... ... ... ...
m1 m2 ... mn m
– .
(6.6.1) ,
6.6.4. 0 j [1, m] ,
j
– -
.
6. 215
(6.6.1) ,
6.6.1 ,
– .
).
.
(6.6.1) { 1 , 2 ,..., n },
-
:
1 a1 2 a2 ... n an b ,
T
ai 1i 2i mi ,i [1, n] .
-
, -
, -
. , -
6.5.3 ( ) rg A rg A b .
-
r. ,
-
, 6.5.1 ( -
r
) b i ai , -
i 1
r n
b i ai 0 ai .
i 1 i r 1
, (6.6.1) -
{ 1, 2 ,..., r ,0,...,0} , .
216
.
6.6.1.
Ai x Bi y Ci 0, i [1, n]
,
,
A1 B1 A1 B1 C1
A2 B2 A2 B2 C2
rg rg .
... ... ... ... ...
An Bn An Bn Cn
§ 6.7.
§ 6.6 ,
(6.6.1) , -
. , (6.6.1)
.
(6.6.1)
.
-
6.7.1. (6.6.1)
.
.
i
1
i
xi 2
, i [1, k ] –
...
i
n
, A xi o i [1, k ] .
6. 217
k
y i xi .
i 1
n n
A y A i xi i( A xi ) o .
i 1 i 1
-
6.7.2. (6.6.1) -
-
(6.6.1).
.
x – , y –
,
A x o , A y b .
-
A ( x y ) A x A y o b b .
.
-
6.7.3. (6.6.1)
(6.6.1).
.
x y – ,
A x b , A y b. -
A( x y ) A x A y b b o .
.
218
1 . 6.7.1–6.7.3. ,
, -
.
2 . -
, , ,
, , , -
.
3 . -
, ,
,
, 6.7.1, -
, -
6.5.4.
(6.6.1) n rg A
6.7.1.
.
1 . (6.6.1)
11 1 ... 1n n
12 2 1
21 1 22 2 ... 2n n 2
...............................................
m1 1 m2 2 ... mn n m
,
A|b , r min{ m, n} ,
.
6. 219
6.5.1 ( ) m r -
r -
, , , , -
r -
.
,
r 1, r 2 ,..., n.
1 ,..., r ( , -
, ), r 1 ,..., n – -
( , , ).
11 1 12 2 ... 1r r 1 1r 1 r 1 ... 1n n ,
21 1 22 2 ... 2r r 2 2r 1 r 1 ... 2n n ,
......................................................................................
r1 1 r2 2 ... rr r r r ,r 1 r 1 ... r ,n n .
-
r 1 1 ,..., n n r -
( 6.4.1)
:
j
n r
11 ... 1 1, r k k ... 1r
k 1
(6.7.1)
1
j det ... ... ... ... ... ,
M n r
r1 ... r r ,r k k ... rr
k 1
j [1, r ] , M – .
220
2 . , (6.7.1),
k 0 ; k [1, n r ] , -
(6.6.1).
. -
( 6.2.3)
:
n r
j jk k ,
k 1 (6.7.2)
j [1, r ] ; r i i ,i [1, n r ] ,
11 ... 1,r k ... 1r

1
jk det ... ... ... ... ... ,
M
r1 ... r ,r k ... rr
j [1, r ] , k [1, n r ] .
, (6.7.2)
1 11 12 1, n r r 1
2 21 22 2,n r r 2
. (6.7.3)
r r1 r2 r ,n r n
6. 221
1 11 12 1, n r
2 21 22 2,n r
r r1 r2 r ,n r 2
,
r 1 1 0 0
r 2 0 1 0 n r
n 0 0 1
3 . 1 1, 2 3 ... n r 0,
{ 11 , 1
2 , ... , 1
r , 1, 0, ... , 0} .
1 0, 2 1, 3 ... n r 0
{ 12 , 2
2 , ... , 2
r , 0 , 1, ... , 0} . , -
,
1 2 3 ... n r 1 0, n r 1
n r n r n r
{ 1 , 2 , ... , r , 0, 0, ... , 1} .
-
.
4 . , n r
(6.6.1) -
. , ,
1 1 1
1 2 ... r 1 0 ... 0
2 2 2
1 2 ... r 0 1 ... 0
. (6.7.4)
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
n r n r n r
1 2 ... r 0 0 ... 1
222
, , , ,
n r, ,
, , ,
, n r,
n r, -
.
6.7.1. (6.6.1)
n rg A ,
(6.6.1), n –
(6.6.1), A –
. (6.7.4) -
.
(6.6.1)
6.7.2. -
, -
.
.
{ 1, 2 ,..., n}
(6.6.1). (n r 1) n
1 2 ... r r 1 r 2 ... n
1 1 1
1 2 ... r 1 0 ... 0
2 2 2
1 2 ... r 0 1 ... 0 , (6.7.5)
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
n r n r n r
1 2 ... r 0 0 ... 1
6. 223
, , , ,
n r. , r
( -
(6.7.3)) n r . ,
,
, (6.7.5),
r -
n r. ,
n r, , , n r.
, 6.5.1 ( ), -
r ,
(6.7.5) -
, , ,
(6.6.1)
1 2 n r
1 1 1 1
1 2 n r
2 2 2 2
... ... ... ...

1 2 n r
r r r
... r ,
1 2 n r
r 1 1 0 0
r 2 0 1 0
... ... ... ...
n 0 0 1
i i [1, n r ] – .
(6.6.1)
6.7.1.
224
1 2 n r 0
1 1 1 1 1
1 2 n r 0
2 2 2 2 2
... ... ... ... ...

1 2 n r 0
r r r r r
1 2 ... n r 0
,
r 1 1 0 0 r 1
0
r 2 0 1 0 r 2
... ... ... ... ...

0
n 0 0 1 n
0
1
0
2
...
0
r
0
r 1
0
r 2
...
0
n
-
(6.6.1), i i [1, n r ] –
.
x0 – ( , , ) -
(6.6.1), x – -
. 6.6.3
(6.6.1) y
y x x0 . x y x0 .
.
6. 225
6.7.1 6.7.2
(6.6.1) n m
6.7.2. , ,
-
rg A n.
, -
(6.6.1) ,
det A 0.
, ,
(6.6.1) ,
6.7.3 ,
). T
y 1 2 ... m -
11 1 21 2 ... m1 m 0,
12 1 22 2 ... m2 m 0,
...............................................
1n 1 2n 2 ... mn m 0
T
A y o ) -
m
i i 0 -
i 1
T
b y 0 ).
.
(6.6.1) , -
x b A x .
226
T
b y ,
T
A y o .
T T T T
b y ( A x )T y x A y x o 0.
.
T
b y 0
T
A y o . -
T
A y o
T
A y o,
T
b y 0
, -
. ,
6.7.1 6.7.2,
T T
T A T A
m rg A m rg rg A rg ,
b b
-
, rg A rg A | b , -
6.6.1
A x b .
“ ”( . 10.6.4 10.6.5).
6. 227
§ 6.8. .
6.7.3 6.7.4 ,
, , , -
. -
(
) .
,
(6.6.1),
, .
-
-
,
.
“ ”
( . , ij 0
i j ), -
.
m n (n m) , .
a11 a12 a13 ... a1, m 2 a1, m 1 a1, m a1, m 1 ... a1n
0 a 22 a 23 ... a 2 ,m 2 a 2 ,m 1 a 2 ,m a 2 ,m 1 ... a 2n
0 0 a 33 ... a 3, m 2 a 3, m 1 a 3, m a 3, m 1 ... a3n
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
0 0 0 ... 0 am 1,m 1 am 1,m am 1,m 1 ... a m 1, n
0 0 0 ... 0 0 a mm a m, m 1 ... a mn
:
228
- ( );
- ( -
);
- ( , -
);
- (
);
-
, -
).
(
) -
.
. :
- i j A
m n
S 1
n n, ,
, n
E i j-
;
- i A
0 A
S 2
, -
m m E
i ( -
) ;
6. 229
- i j A -
S 3
m n, -
m E -
, i j
, (
i A ).
( . 8.4.3) , -
S -
S A ,
rg ( S A ) rg A .
det S 1
1 , det S 2
0 det S 3
1,
A .
,
-
6.8.1. ,
,
.
A
6.8.2.
S
A , A
T
S
A , .
230
. , , S ,
A .
S
1
E A , E S A -
A
1 1 1
E A S A A A S E .
, -
1
A B
A| B ( ,
B A ),
A . -
B .
:
6.8.1.
1 2 3 4 5 7,
3 1 2 2 3 4 3 5 2,
2 2 3 2 4 6 5 23,
5 1 4 2 3 3 3 4 5 12.
6. 231
.
1 .
1 1 1 1 1 7
3 2 1 1 3 2
.
0 1 2 2 6 23
5 4 3 3 1 12
2 . .
) ,
, . , -
, -
, , -
, ( 3 ),
. -
: -
( 5) 1 .
, , : -
. -
1 1 1 1 1 7
0 1 2 2 6 23
;
0 1 2 2 6 23
0 1 2 2 6 23
)
, .
, – . -
232
1 1 1 1 1 7
0 1 2 2 6 23
;
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
) , -
,
,
.
3 .
, .
. ,
) , -
2( 6.6.1 -
);
)
6.7.1 n rg A 5 2 3 -
.
4 .
,
-
.
,
, ,
– :
1 2 7 3 4 5 ,
(6.8.1)
2 23 2 3 2 4 6 5.
6. 233
( 1) ,
.
(6.8.1) -
16
23
, 0 .
0
0
-
1 2 7,
2 23.
1 2 0 3 4 5 ,
2 0 2 3 2 4 6 5
-
, 6.7.1.
1
2
1
0
0
1 2 1,
2 2.
234
1 5
2 6
0 0 – -
1 0
0 1
.
-
:
1 1 1 5 16
2 2 2 6 23
3 1 1 2 0 3 0 0 ; 1, 2, 3.
4 0 1 0 0
5 0 0 1 0
: -
, -
, -
, ,
, .
7. 235
§ 7.1.
, x, y, z , ,
7.1.1. 8
, -
,
1 . x, y
, -
x y, , -
) x y y x;
) x ( y z) ( x y) z ;
) o,
, x -
x o x;
) x -
( x) , -
, x ( x) o .
8
« x y»
(x y) « x y » (x y)
x, y .
236
2 . x -
,
x -
, :
) 1x x ;
) ( )x ( x) .
3 .
-
:
) ( )x x x;
) ( x y) x y x, y ;
, .
. 1 . “ ”
.
2 . -
, -
( . § 5.6).
9
:
7.1.1. 1 . .
2 . .
3 . n .
4 . ,
n.
5 . m n.
9
, -
.
7. 237
6 . C[a,b] – ,
[a,b].
7 . m
n .
, -
7.1.1.
, (n, r ) ,
. ,
, , -
7.1.2. , .
-
7.1.3. R ?
.
-
.
1 . “ ” .
,
.
2 . “ ” -
, “
” -
, -
-
,
“1”.
238
7.1.1. .
.
o1 o2 .
, 1 ) 7.1.1
,
o1 o2 o1 o2 o1 o2 .
o1 o2 .
x -
7.1.2. 0x o.
.
x = 1x = (0 + 1) x = 0 x + 1x = 0 x + x.
x = 0x + x y,
x, , 0x o .
.
-
7.1.3. .
.
x -
y1 y2 . , 1 ) -
,
x y1 o x y2 o .
y2 ,
7. 239
y2 (x y1 ) y2
-
. , ,
y 2 ( x y1 ) ( y2 x) y1 o y1 y1 .
y 2 y1 .
.
x
7.1.4. ( 1) x .
.
7.1.2–
7.1.3
o = 0 x = (1 1) x = 1x + ( 1) x = x + ( 1) x .
, x
( 1) x .
.
§ 7.2 ,
n
1 . i xi
7.2.1. i 1
x1, x 2 ,..., x n -
.
2 . x1 , x 2 ,..., x n -
,
1 , 2 ,..., n , -
n
, , i xi o.
i 1
240
3 . x1 , x 2 ,..., x n -
, -
n
i xi o ,
i 1
1 2 ... n 0.
-
7.2.1. , -
,
.
.
1.4.1, -
“ ” “ ”.
7.2.2. x1 , x 2 ,..., x n , -
x1 , x 2 ,..., x n .
.
,
k n
x1 , x 2 ,..., x n .
k
1 , 2 ,..., k , , i xi o.
i 1
k n
i xi 0 xi o, -
i 1 i k 1
x1 , x 2 ,..., x n .
.
7. 241
-
7.2.2. n ,
1 . ;
2 . ,
n 1 , n -
, .
n-
7.2.3. n
, , -
n . n -
n
n
dim( ).
7.2.1. -
.
.
n
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } x. , -
, {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n , x}
7.2.1 x -
g1 , g 2 ,..., g n . -
.
. ,
n n
x i gi x i gi . ,
i 1 i 1
n
( i i )gi o,
i 1
242
,
g1 , g 2 ,..., g n .
.
.
, , , -
. 7.2.1
.
7 . 2. 1
- -
2
- .
3 ,
.
1 0 0 0
n 0 1 0 0
n- nc 0 ; 0 ; 1 ; ... 0 .
... ... ... ...
0 0 0 1
7. 243
n+1 n+1
-
- P1 ( ) 1 ; P2 ( ) ;
2 3
P3 ( ) ; P4 ( ) ;
, n
... ;
n 1 n
Pn ( ) ; Pn 1 ( ) .
nm nm
m n,
m n , , 1.
10
.
,
[a,b]
n r
- .
-
m
n
-
-
r
10
n n 1
, ,
{ 1, cos , cos 2 , , cos n } ,
7.2.2.
244
§ 7.3.
,
7.3.1. , -
,
x, y :
1) x y ,
2) x .
: 7.3.1 ,
, ,
, -
.
1 . ,
7.3.1. ,
, -
.
2 . ,
n, -
C[ , ] .
3 . n
n r
n r.
4 .
:
) ;
) ,
.
7. 245
1 2 -
7.3.2.
.
1 . 1 2 -
x , ,
x 1 x 2 . -
1 2
1 2 .
2 . 1 2 -
x , -
1 2 . -
1 2 -
1 2.
3 . 1 2
x1 x2
, x1 1 x2 2. -
1 2
1 2.
4 . 1 2 -
x1 x2 , x1 1
x2 2 1 2 {o} .
1 2.
,
246
, 1
7.3.1.
2 .
1 2
7.3.2.
dim( 1 2 )
dim( 1 ) dim( 2 ) dim( 1 2 ).
1 . 1 2
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g k } k. -
{g1, g 2 ,..., g l }
1 {g1, g 2 ,..., g m } 2.
x 1 2
{g1, g 2 ,..., g k , g1, g 2 ,..., g l , g1, g 2 ,..., g m } .
2 . ,
{g1, g 2 ,..., g k , g1, g 2 ,..., g l , g1, g 2 ,..., g m } -
.
, , -
:
l k m
i gi jgj p gp o. (7.3.1)
i 1 j 1 p 1
m
~
x
, pgp 2 ,
p 1
7. 247
, ,
m l k
~
x pgp ( i gi jg j) 1.
p 1 i 1 j 1
, ~
x , , -
1 2
(7.3.1)
i 0 , i [1, l ] ; p 0 , p [1, m] .
{g1, g 2 ,..., g k } – ,
j 0, j [1, k ] ,
(7.3.1), . ,
{g1, g 2 ,..., g k , g1, g 2 ,..., g l , g1, g 2 ,..., g m }
– .
3 . 2 ,
{g1, g 2 ,..., g k , g1, g 2 ,..., g l , g1, g 2 ,..., g m }
1 2.
1 2
dim( 1 2 ) l k m (k l ) (k m) k
dim( 1 ) dim( 2 ) dim( 1 2 ).
7.3.1.
dim( 1 2 ) dim( 1 ) dim( 2 )
x ( 1 2 )
x1 x2 , x1 1 x2 2,
,
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g l , g1 , g 2 ,..., g m }
1 2 .
248
7.3.3. { x1, x 2 ,..., xk } -

-
L {x1 , x 2 ,..., x k } .
, n, -
7.3.2.
2
{1, , ,..., n } -
C[ , ] .
{x1 , x 2 ,..., x k } ,
L{x1, x2 ,..., xk } , -
k
x i xi
i 1
,
7.3.3. L{x1, x2 ,..., xk } , -
m , m –
{x1, x 2 ,..., xk } .
.
1 . , -
k
x i xi ( ,
i 1
i )
7. 249
7.1.1, -
.
2 .
{x1 , x2 ,..., xk } m k.
,
x1, x 2 ,..., x m .
m
xj ji xi ; j [m 1, k ]
i 1
-
x1 , x 2 ,..., x m .
3 . , l (l m)
.
l y1 , y 2 ,..., y l ,
, -
x1, x 2 ,..., x m ,
m
yj ji xi ; j [1, l ].
i 1
y1 , y 2 ,..., y l :
l l m m l
j yj j ji x i ( ji j ) xi o.
j 1 j 1 i 1 i 1 j 1
x1 , x2 ,..., x m ,
i -
ji j 0, i [1, m].
j 1
250
( 6.7.1)
l rg ji l m 0
, , -
, rg ji m. , l
m ,
l rg ji l m 1,
y1 , y 2 , ..., y l , o.
,
7.3.4. x x0 , x0
, x –
, -
( -
) .
. 1 .
.
2 . dim( ) k, k -
.
, x y
7.3.1. , -
z x (1 )y ,
– .
7. 251
§ 7.4.
1 , 2 ,..., n
7.4.1. n
x i gi
i 1
( ) -
n
x
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } .
, 7.2.1 x -
n
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } n-
, -
x {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } :
1
2
x g .
...
n
n
-
n
.
n
:“ ” {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } “ ”
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }
n n
x: x i gi x i gi .
i 1 i 1
252
, , “ ” -
“ ”:
n
gj ij gi ; j [1, n]. (7.4.1)
i 1
S , j ( j [1, n])
7.4.2.
ij -
“ ” “ -
”,
{g1, g 2 ,..., g n } {g1, g 2 ,..., g n } .
,
1.8.2
1 , 2 ,..., n 1 , 2 ,..., n -
7.4.1. n
i ij j, i [1, n] , -
j 1
, ij –
S .
(7.4.1)
n n n n n n
i gi x jgj j ij g i ( ij j )gi ,
i 1 j 1 j 1 i 1 i 1 j 1
n n
( i ij j )g i o.
i 1 j 1
7. 253
(
, ) ,
. ,
n
i ij j i [1, n] .
j 1
, , “ ”
“ ”
T
S , -
“ ” -
“ ” .
, x g x g -
,
n
i1 ij j1 , i [1, n] ,
j 1
x g S x g ( . §5.1).
, (7.4.1) -
g1 g1
g2 T g2
S
... ...
gn gn
g1 g2 ... g n g1 g2 ... g n S .
,
.
254
n n
x i gi y i gi ,
i 1 i 1
n
1 . :
n n
, i gi x y i gi ,
i 1 i 1
x y x g
y g
.
n
2 . : x y ( i i )gi ,
i 1
x y g
x g
y g.
3 . :
n n
x i gi ( i )gi ,
i 1 i 1
x g
x g
.
, -
( -
), -
.
§ 7.5.
:
P2 ( ) , 2,
.
7. 255
-
:
2 2
( 1 1 1 ) ( 2 2 2 )
2
( 1 2) ( 1 2) ( 1 2) ,
2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 2.
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2 ; .
1 2 1 2
, ,
, , -
,
.
-
.
1 2
7.5.1. ,
F̂ : 1 2 , ,
x, y 1
1 . Fˆ ( x y) Fˆx Fˆy ;
2 . Fˆ ( x) Fˆx.
F -
1 2 .
256
, F
( ),
) 1 2 (F
);
) 2 -
1 (F ).
7.5.1 1
-
). 2 ,
.
.
dim( 1 ) dim( 2 ). ,
x 1 -
2, , -
, 1 2 .
, n dim( 1 ) dim( 2 ) m, 1 2
. n
1 n 2,
. -
,
-
n 1.
n m
, , , n m.
.
7. 257
7.1.2.
R R ( ,
7.1.3) -
:
x ln( y ) y e x ; x R; y R .
7.5.1 -
n
n
n , -
n
, §§ 6.5–6.7 .
,
-
7.5.2. n
, -
.
.
n
-
n ,
6.5.3 ( ).
n
k
7.5.1. , , -
,
, min{n, k } .
,
7.5.2.
det S 0.
.
, det S 0, rg S n
.
258
g1 , g 2 ,..., g n ,
, {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } – .
, -
, -
S -
x g y g S x g S y g x g x g .
1
T S ,
7.5.3.
S , -
.
g1 g1
g2 T g2
T x g
T x g,
... ...
gn gn
g1 g2 gn g1 g2 gn S , x g
S x g
7.4.1.
n
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } ,
n
x i gi .
i 1
7. 259
m
7.5.4. n
n
ji i 0, j [1, m]
i 1
n
.
.
,
6.7.2 -
n
n
ji i 0, j [1, m] , -
i 1
n
T
1 2 ... n .
n
,
,
– -
.
7.5.5. m n
n
ji i j , j [1, m]
i 1
n
.
.
, 7.5.4.
260
, g1 , g 2 , g 3
7.5.1. 3
x
, :
1 1 2 3
x 3 , g1 1 , g2 1 g3 0 .
1 1 0 1
. 1 . g1 , g 2 , g 3 -
3
,
7.2.2), -
. 7.5.1 -
3
1 2 3
rg 1 1 0 3,
1 0 1
,
1 2 3
det 1 1 0 4 0.
1 0 1
2 . x
1, 2, 3. x 1 g1 2 g2 3 g3 ,
1 1 2 3
3 1 1 2 1 3 0 .
1 1 0 1
7. 261
3 .
,
1 2 2 3 3 1,
1 2 3,
1 3 1,
( , –
6.4.1 – § 6.8),
1 2, 2 1, 3 1. , -
x { g1 , g 2 , g 3 },
2
xg 1 .
1
3
,
7.5.2. {g1 , g 2 , g 3 } , {g1 , g 2 , g 3 } ,
:
1 2 3 7
g1 1 , g2 1 , g3 0 , g1 3 ,
1 0 1 3
16 22
g2 5 g3 7 .
9 8
262
. 1 . x , x x -
x : -
, {g1 , g 2 , g 3 } {g1 , g 2 , g 3} .
( 7.4.2 7.4.1)
x G x x F x ,
G F -
g1 , g 2 , g 3
g1 , g 2 , g3 ,
1 2 3 7 16 22
G 1 1 0 F 3 5 7 .
1 0 1 3 9 8
S
{g1 , g 2 , g 3 } {g1 , g 2 , g 3} ,
x S x . x G x
x F x ,
1
x G F x ,
G, , .
1
S x G F x
x , 5.1.2 ,
1
S G F .
7. 263
2 .
1
1 2 3 7 16 22
1 1 0 3 5 7 ,
1 0 1 3 9 8
, , , § 6.8,
1
G F ,
2 3 4
S 1 2 3 .
1 3 4
,
7.5.3. 3, -
:
2
x1 ( ) 1 2 3 3,
2
x2 ( ) 1 8 6 5 3,
2
x3 ( ) 10 5 8 3,
2
y1 ( ) 1 4 5 3,
2
y2 ( ) 3 2 6 3 3,
2
y3 ( ) 4 2 5 8 3.
. 1 . 7.4.1 -
. 1 -
x 1 1x 2 x2 x ,
3 3
264
2 –
y 1 1 y 2 y2 3 y3 .
, -
( . 7.5.4).
2
1 2 3 4 0.
3
, 1
1 1 1 0
2 2 8 10
1 2 3 ,
3 1 6 5
4 3 5 8
1 , 2 , 3 – , -
2
1 2 3 4
3
1 1 0
2 8 10
1 2 3 4 ( 1 2 3 ) 0,
1 6 5
3 5 8
7. 265
1 , 2 , 3 ,
1 , 2 , 3 , 4 -
1 2 2 3 3 4 0,
1 8 2 6 3 5 4 0,
10 2 5 3 8 4 0.
, , ,
§ 6.8,
1 4 7
2 1 4
1 2 ; 1, 2
3 2 0
4 0 5
,
1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , , -
, ,
1
4 1 2 2 3 0,
7 1 4 2 5 4 0.
, 2:
22 1 9 2 14 3 0,
11 1 6 2 7 4 0.
, 1 2 -
266
4 1 2 2 3 0,
7 1 4 2 5 4 0,
22 1 9 2 14 3 0,
11 1 6 2 7 4 0,
1 2
2 6 ,
1
3 7
4 2
, , 1 2
dim( 1 2 ) 1 ,
2
6 .
7
2
8. 267
§ 8.1.
x
8.1.1.
y . ,
,
,
y Aˆ x .
y
x, x – y.
§ 5.2, ,
, , . , -
, ,
, , -
.
y Ax ,
8.1.2.
x, x1 , x2
1 . A( x1 x 2 ) Ax1 Ax 2
ˆ ( x)
2 . A Aˆ x .
268
1 . 2- -
8.1.1.
1 a11 a12 1
,
2 a21 a 22 2
1
x -
2
1
y .
2
2 .
, -
3 . Pn ( ) -
, 1 ,2 3 -
8.1.1. .
A,
8.1.2. x -
a ?
. a o, A– ,
.
8. 269
§ 8.2.
A B ,
8.2.1.
x : Aˆ x Bˆ x .
Aˆ Bˆ .
A B
C, A B, -
x -
Ax Bx .
-
8.2.1. .
.
x, y ; – , C A B,
Cˆ ( x y) A( x y ) Bˆ ( x y)
Aˆ x Aˆ y Bˆ x Bˆ y
( Aˆ x Bˆ x) ( Aˆ y Bˆ y )
( Aˆ Bˆ ) x ( Aˆ Bˆ ) y Cˆ x Cˆ y.
O , -
8.2.2. x
-
.
270
, A, -
8.2.3.
, Â , -
x -
ˆ ).
( Ax
,
.
-
:
Aˆ Bˆ Bˆ Aˆ ;
( Aˆ Bˆ ) Cˆ Aˆ ( Bˆ Cˆ ) ;
Aˆ Oˆ Aˆ ; Aˆ ( Aˆ ) Oˆ .
A
8.2.4.
, Â ,
x
( Aˆ x ) .
8.2.2. ,
( Aˆ ) ( ) Aˆ ; 1Aˆ Aˆ ;
( ) Aˆ Aˆ Aˆ ;
( Aˆ Bˆ ) Aˆ Bˆ .
.
. ,
x :( ) Aˆ x
Aˆ (( ) x) Aˆ ( x x) Aˆ x Aˆ x .
8. 271
,
8.2.1. , -
.
.
7.1.1, 8.2.1–8.2.4 8.2.1, 8.2.2.
A B -
8.2.5.
, Aˆ Bˆ , -
x -
Aˆ ( Bˆ x ) .
-
8.2.2. , -
Aˆ ( Bˆ Cˆ ) ( Aˆ Bˆ )Cˆ ; Aˆ ( Bˆ Cˆ ) Aˆ Bˆ Aˆ Cˆ ;
( Aˆ Bˆ )Cˆ Aˆ Cˆ Bˆ Cˆ .
.
-
. , x, y ,
Aˆ Bˆ ( x y ) Aˆ ( Bˆ x Bˆ y )
Aˆ ( Bˆ x) Aˆ ( Bˆ y ) ( Aˆ Bˆ ) x ( Aˆ Bˆ ) y.
-
.
( Aˆ ( Bˆ Cˆ )) x Aˆ ( Bˆ Cˆ x ) Aˆ ( Bˆ (Cˆ x)) ,
, ,
(( Aˆ Bˆ )Cˆ ) x Aˆ Bˆ (Cˆ x) Aˆ ( Bˆ (Cˆ x)) ,
.
.
.
272
:
( , -
, ),
AB B A.
AB BA
8.2.6.
A B.
.
8.2.1. n
k
Pn ( ) k :
k 0
A, -
, B –
.
. AB B A. Pn ( )
d d n n
Aˆ Pn ( ) Pn ( ) ( k
k
) k k
k 1
,
d d k 0 k 1
n n
k k 1
Bˆ Pn ( ) ( k ) k .
k 0 k 0
n n n
Bˆ ( Aˆ Pn ( )) ( k k
k 1
) k k
k
k k
k
k 1 k 1 k 0
n n
d
A( Bˆ Pn ( )) ( k
k 1
) (k 1) k
k
,
d k 0 k 0
8. 273
n n
( Aˆ Bˆ Bˆ Aˆ ) Pn ( ) ( (k 1) k
k
) ( k k
k
)
k 0 k 0
n
k
k Pn ( ).
k 0
, -
.
8.2.1 , -
Aˆ Bˆ Bˆ Aˆ -
. -
E ( -
8.2.7. ) , x -
,
Êx x x .
:
Aˆ Eˆ Eˆ Aˆ Aˆ Aˆ , E.
B A
8.2.8. 1
A , AB BA E .
f ( ),
8.2.1.
[ , ]
(k )
f ( ) 0;k 0,1, 2, ... , -
df
Âf Bˆ f f ( )d
d
274
– -
.
,
d
Aˆ Bˆ f f ( )d f( ) Eˆ f
d
df
Bˆ Aˆ f d f( ) f (a) f( ) Eˆ f .
d
. 1 .
. ,
O . ,
Oˆ x o x , B
( Bˆ Oˆ ) x Bˆ (Oˆ x ) o x ,
, , Bˆ Oˆ Eˆ -
B.
2 . , ,
.( , -
5.1.1.)
3 . -
AB E
BA E , , -
,
n
k
Pn ( ) k A B,
k 0
B
8. 275
,
n
k
A k -
k 0
n
k 1
k .
k 1
§ 8.3.
n
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }
m
A { f1 , f 2 ,..., f m } .
n
§ 7.2 , x
1
n
2 m
x i gi , x g
.
i 1 ...
n
y Aˆ x , -
Â
n n
y Aˆ x Aˆ ( i gi ) i Aˆ g i .
i 1 i 1
m
-
m
Aˆ g i ki fk i [1, n] , , ,
k 1
m n
y ( ki i ) fk .
k 1 i 1
276
2
, y f
– -
...
m
m
, y k fk . , -
k 1
k ki i ;k [1, m] .
i 1
. ,
n m
Aˆ :
m n ki .
m n, -
8.3.1.
Âg i :
11 12 ... 1n
21 22 ... 2n
Aˆ ,
fg ... ... ... ...
m1 m2 ... mn
A -
n m
{g1, g 2 ,..., g n } { f1 , f 2 ,..., f m } .
8. 277
n
k ki i ;k [1, m]
i 1
y f
Aˆ fg
x g
(8.3.1)
:
n
k1 ki i1 ;k [1, m] .
i 1
8.3.1. Aˆ : n m
m n .
.
,
n m
Aˆ :
8.3.1 m n.
,
1 11 12 ... 1n 1
2 21 22 ... 2n 2
... ... ... ... ... ...

m m1 m2 ... mn n
n m
Aˆ : , -
.
.
278
1 . c -
8.3.1. ,
Oxy .
Aˆ g1 1 g1 0 g 2 0 g 3 1 0 0
Aˆ g 2 0 g1 1 g 2 0 g 3 , A g
0 1 0 .
Aˆ g 0 g1 0 g 2 0 g 3 0 0 0
3
Aˆ : n n
,
n
,
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } , , n. -
§ 1.1 § 5.1 -
1 . : Aˆ Bˆ Aˆ Bˆ .
g g
8.2.1 Aˆ Bˆ ,
x n
: Aˆ x Bˆ x ,
Aˆ x g
Bˆ x g
x n
. ,
g g
5.1.2, Aˆ Bˆ , ,
g g
Aˆ Bˆ Aˆ Bˆ .
g g
8. 279
2 . : A B g
A g
B g
.
n n
, Aˆ g i ki g k Bˆ g i ki gk
k 1 k 1
,
( Aˆ Bˆ ) g i Aˆ g i Bˆ g i
n n n
ki gk ki gk ( ki ki )g k .
k 1 k 1 k 1
3 . : Aˆ Aˆ .
g g
n
Aˆ g i ki gk ,
k 1
n
( Aˆ ) g i Aˆ ( g i ) ( ki )g k .
k 1
4 . : AB g
A g
B g
.
n
( Aˆ Bˆ ) g i Aˆ ( Bˆ g i ) Aˆ ( ki gk )
k 1
n n n n
ˆ
ki Ag k ki jk g j ji gj,
k 1 k 1 j 1 j 1
n
ji jk ki , -
k 1
5.1.1.
280
1 1
5 . : A g
A g
.
, .
8.2.8 ,
A 1A AA 1
E,
3 , ,
1 1
A g
A -
1 1
A g
A g
A g
A g
E g
, -
A g
.
-
8.3.1. n m
, m n.
.
8.3.1
-
n m
-
m n. , 7.5.1
( ), .
, Â –
fg
n m n
Aˆ : .
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } ,
8. 281
m
G , –
{ f1 , f 2 ,..., f m } { f1 , f 2 ,..., f m } , F . -
Â Aˆ .
fg fg
Aˆ fg
8.3.2.
{g1, g 2 ,..., g n } { f1 , f 2 ,..., f m }
Â {g1, g 2 ,..., g n }
fg
{ f1 , f 2 ,..., f m }
1
Aˆ F Aˆ G .
fg fg
7.3.1 {g1, g 2 ,..., g n } -

{g1, g 2 ,..., g n } x – , y –
Â , -
x g
G x g
y f F y f
,
1 1
2 2
x g ; x g
,
... ...
n n
282
1 1
2 2
y f
; y f
.
... ...
m m
y f
Aˆ x g
y f
Aˆ x g
,
fg fg
, -
1 1
y f
F y f
F Aˆ x g
fg
1
F Aˆ G x g
.
fg
,
1
( Aˆ F Aˆ G ) x g
o ,
fg fg
x g
5.1.2 .
8.3.2. n
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {g1, g 2 ,..., g n }
1
Aˆ S Aˆ S .
g g
8. 283
8.3.3. n
.
.
8.3.2
1
det Aˆ det ( S Aˆ S ),
g g
1 1
det( S Aˆ S ) (det S )(det Aˆ )(det S )
g g
1 1
det S ,
det S
det S 0, ,
det Aˆ det Aˆ .
g g
, , 8.3.2 -
, –
.
§ 8.4.
, -
, , -
-
.
A
x ,
Ax . ,
.
284
“ -
?”
A – , -
8.4.1.
.
1 . Âx x -
.
n
2 . , ,
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } , -
rg Â .
g
Ax
y1, y 2 . x1 x2 , ,
Ax1 y1 Ax 2 y2 .
A :
y1 y2 Aˆ x1 Aˆ x 2 Aˆ ( x1 x 2 ) .
y Aˆ x Aˆ ( x )
.
n
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } .
x
, -
A -
Aˆ g1 , Aˆ g 2 ,..., Aˆ g n , –
-
{ Aˆ g1 , Aˆ g 2 ,..., Aˆ g n } .
8. 285
{ Aˆ g1 , Aˆ g 2 ,..., Aˆ g n }
,
k.
, 7.4.1, ,
*
k, 7.5.2 ,
rg A g
k.
n
A
8.4.1. .
A rg Â .
rg Aˆ rg Aˆ n -
g
8.4.1.
.
-
8.4.2.
A, -
, -
dim( ).
.
-
, 8.4.1.
A B
8.4.2. .
286
.
AB .
8.4.2
, B.
, AB
A, , , -
AB -
A.
A ,
8.4.3.
B
rg ( A B ) rg ( B A ) rg B .
.
A B
A B -
.
1
det A 0, A
8.4.2 , , rg ( A B ) rg B ,
1
– rg B rg ( A A B ) rg ( A B ).
rg( A B ) rg( B A ) rg B .
.
8. 287
. 1 . B ,
A B B A ,
det A 0
rg ( A B ) rg B
rg ( B A ) rg B .
, B -
B ,
B -
, A B
B A , ,
rg B rg B .
2 . -
. :
1 0 0 0 0 0
.
0 0 0 1 0 0
-
,
ker Â .
A
8.4.2.
x , , Ax o.
288
n
rg Aˆ r , ker A -
8.4.4.
dim( ker Aˆ ) n r .
.
, ker A
7.4.1.
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } Â
Aˆ g ij . 8.4.1 rg A
g
r -
. -
1
n 2
x x g
A
...
n
n
ij j 0; i [1, n].
j 1
, -
ij j 0; i [1, n]
j 1
A,
, , 6.7.1,
n rg A g
n r.
.
8. 289
§ 8.1, ,
,
.
§ 7.5 -
, . -
-
. .
y Aˆ x , x , y
8.4.3.
( -
), Aˆ x1 Aˆ x 2
x1 x2 , x1 , x 2 .
y Aˆ x , x , y .
y Aˆ x , x , y
8.4.4.
(
), -
.
-
, , , . 8.4.1
.
, , A -
n n
{g1, g 2 ,..., g n } ,
n
, -
8.3.1.
290
8.4.1
Â g
n, -
8.4.5.
-
Aˆ g1 , Aˆ g 2 ,..., Aˆ g n {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } ,
A
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }.
, -
n m m
Aˆ : ,
– ker Aˆ o . , -
8. 291
,
8.4.5. , ,
.
.
1º. {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } { f1 , f 2 ,..., f m } -

n m
Aˆ : Â fg
,
rg Aˆ m.
fg
Aˆ x g
y f
6.6.1 ( )
fg
m
y f
,
rg Aˆ y m. , A
A .
2º. rg Aˆ n. , 6.4.1 ( ), -
fg
Aˆ x g
o f
-
fg
, . A
.
, ,
, , ( . -
5.2.4).
, , -
, -
. -
,
292
7.5.1 ( ), -
, -
-
.
1 . Pr ,
8.4.1. -
-
, , ,
3 1
, , ,
-
.
, ,
, -
.
, -
{O, e1 , e2 , e3 } , -
, -
T
e1 1 1 1 .
e
, r -
x
r y ,
e
z
(r,e )
r 2
e
e
8. 293
x y z
x 3
x y z , -
y
3
z x y z
3
1 1 1
1
Pr Pr 1 1 1 .
e 3
1 1 1
, , e1
1
, , 8.4.5,
Pr
1
Pr 1 1 1.
ee 3
2 . Â
11 12
-
21 22
11 12
.
21 22
, -
-
11 12 0
.
21 22 0
294
3 3
Â :
8.4.1.
1 2 3
Aˆ 2 3 4 .
3 5 7
. ,
-
.
1 1
.1 . x 2 y 2 – -
3 3
y Aˆ x . – x, ,
Aˆ x o ,
1 2 2 3 3 0,
Aˆ x 0 2 1 3 2 4 3 0,
3 1 5 2 7 3 0,
1 1
2 2 . ,
3 1
Â
1
2 ,
1
, .
8. 295
, -
,
1 2 3 1 2 3
rg 2 3 4 rg 0 1 2 2 3
3 5 7 0 0 0
– .
2. Â
y , , y Aˆ x x . -
y -
1 2 3 1 1
2 3 4 2 2 ,
3 5 7 3 3
, ,
1, 2, 3
. , ,
6.6.1 ( ),
.
1 2 3 1
rg 2 3 4 2
3 5 7 3
1 2 3 1 1 2 3
rg 0 1 2 2 1 2 rg 2 3 4 2
0 0 0 1 2 3 3 5 7
296
, ,
1 2 3 0, , , ,
A -
1 1 1
2 1 1 2 0 1 , 2 ,
3 0 1
1 2 3 0.
, ,
3 3
y , -
.
§ 8.5.
8.5.1.
A, -
x : Aˆ x .
1 . -
8.5.1. -
-
Oxy , -
-
, -
-
. 8.5.1
8. 297
Oz ( . . 8.5.1).
2 . -
f( ),
( , ) , n -
1 2 n
{e ,e , ... , e },
1 , 2 ,..., n – ,
.
A, -
8.5.1. n
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } ,
11 ... 1r 1, r 1 ... 1n
... ... ... ... ... ...

r1 ... rr r ,r 1 ... rn
,
0 ... 0 r 1,r 1 ... r 1,n
... ... ... ... ... ...

0 ... 0 n,r 1 ... nn
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g r } -
A.
298
.
. A
.
{g1, g 2 ,..., g r } -
,
8.3.1
.
r
, k gk ,
k 1
r
Aˆ ( k gk )
k 1
r r r
ˆ
k ( Ag k ) k ik gi
k 1 k 1 i 1
r r r
( ik k ) gi i gi .
i 1 k 1 i 1
7.4.1 , – . -
.
. -
A, -
{g1, g 2 ,..., g r } . -
, , , -
, . -
,
r n
Aˆ g k ik gi 0g i ; k [1, r ]
i 1 i r 1
8.4.5 .
.
8. 299
,
8.5.1.
A
A 1.
. x , –
A, , , y Aˆ x .
A , -
1
A x, y
1
x A y, -
A 1.
" -
", -
.
f
8.5.2.
A,
, , Aˆ f f .
A, -
f.
, , , f -
Aˆ Eˆ ,
f ker( Aˆ Eˆ ) .
300
, A,
n
, n
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } ,
Aˆ g1 1 g1 ; Aˆ g 2 2 g2 ; ... ; Aˆ g n n gn .
, -
Aˆ g k 0 g1 0 g2 k gk 0 gn ; k [1, n] .
, 7.2.1, , ,
8.3.1, , -
A
1 0 ... 0
0 2 ... 0
Aˆ ,
f ... ... ... ...
0 0 ... n
-
.
, , A -
8.5.2. f -
, f
A2 AA
2
.
8. 301
. Aˆ f f , -
Â
Aˆ 2 f Aˆ ( Aˆ f ) Aˆ ( f ) 2
f.
n
{g1, g 2 ,..., g n } , -
n
n
f f i gi ,
i 1
A Aˆ k j .
g
n
Aˆ f f
Aˆ f g
f g
,
g
11 1 12 2 ... 1n n 1 ,
21 1 22 2 ... 2n n 2 ,
...................................................
n1 1 n2 2 ... nn n n ,
( 11 ) 1 12 2 ... 1n n 0,
21 1 ( 22 ) 2 ... 2n n 0,
(8.5.1)
........................................................
n1 1 n2 2 ... ( nn ) n 0.
302
-
,
(8.5.1), ,
6.7.2,
(8.5.1). , ,
: det kj kj 0
11 12 ... 1n
21 22 ... 2n
det 0. (8.5.2)
... ... ... ...
n1 n2 ... nn
det Aˆ Eˆ 0 -
g
8.5.3.
,
det Aˆ Eˆ –
g
n
A, .
8.5.2. n
.
.
, Aˆ Eˆ , ,
Â Ê . ,
8.3.3, .
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } :
det Aˆ Eˆ det Aˆ Eˆ .
g g
.
8. 303
-
n , -
6.1.2 (8.5.2).
n
,
-
:
(8.5.2), -
(8.5.1)
, , -
, .
8.6.1 8.6.2. ,
, -
. -
, ,
, -
f( ) e ( – ) -
, -
df
f.
d
§ 8.6.
8.6.1.
.
304
.
-
n , -
11
, ,
.
.
8.6.1 -
. , Oxy -
k -
. ,
( . § 5.5).
cos sin 2
det 0 2 cos 1 0,
sin cos
cos i sin . , k -
.
n
8.6.2. -
, -
.
.
,
(8.5.1) .
-
i, , (8.5.1), -
n
f u wi , u w– , -
n .
11
, , .
8. 305
, u w . -
: u w. Aˆ f f ,
Aˆ (( i ) w) ( i )w , Aˆ w w, – -
, -
.
-
ˆf
: A f .
Aˆ (u wi ) ( i)(u w i) ,
A
( Aˆ u ) ( Aˆ w) i ( u w) ( u w) i,
,
Aˆ u u w,
Aˆ w u w.
, A -
,
u w,
Aˆ ( u w) Aˆ u Aˆ w ( u w) ( u w)
( )u ( ) w.
8.6.1.
A, -
1 2 2
2 1 2 .
3 2 3
306
:
1 . , A -
.
(8.5.1) – (8.5.2). -
( .
1.1.1),
1 2 2
det 2 1 2
3 2 3
(1 )( 1) 2 2(2 6 6) 2(4 3 3 )
3 2 2
1 ( 1)( 1).
, 1 1
– 2 i 2 i – -
12
.
2 . . 1 1, ,
(8.5.2)
2 2 2 1 0
2 2 2 2 0 .
3 2 2 3 0
-
, 1 , 2 3
1 0
1 1 1
2 0 .
1 0 0
3 0
12
. 3.
8. 307
, f1 , -
1 1,
1 0
2 1 0.
3 1
3 . 2 i,
(8.5.1)
1 i 2 2 1 0
2 1 i 2 2 0
3 2 3 i 3 0
13
,
1 i. ,
1 1 i 1 i 1 0
2 1 i 2 2 0
3 2 3 i 3 0
,
1 0
1 1 i 1 i
2 0 .
0 1 3i 2i
3 0
13
3.
308
,
( i)
1 0
1 1 i 1 i
2 0 .
0 3 i 2
3 0
3 3 i,
:
1 2
f2 2 2 0.
3 3 i
4 . , , -
, 3 i,
1 2
f3 2 2 0.
3 3 i
, f2
f3 , 2 3 ,
f2
f 3 .)
5 . A -
, 8.6.2 A -
0
1 , 1 1,
1
8. 309
, -
2 0
u 2 w 0 , -
3 1
1 2 0
2 1 2 2 0 ; 1, 2.
3 3 1
, -
1 1 2 2 3 3 0
., , 8.4.1).
, -
8.6.3. -
A,
, -
A.
.
Aˆ f1 f1 Aˆ f 2 f2 . , -
Aˆ ( f1 f2 )
Aˆ f1 Aˆ f 2 f1 f2 ( f1 f 2 ),
.
.
310
, -
8.6.1. , ,
, -
( , , )
A.
8.6.4.
Â -
B̂ ,
Â B̂ .
.
– -
Â , Â f f f .
Bˆ Aˆ f Bˆ ( f ) , -
A B
Aˆ ( Bˆ f ) ( Bˆ f ) f .
, B̂ f f ,
– B.
.
, -
8.6.5. , -
.
.
.
m
f 1 , f 2 , ..., f m A, -
.
8. 311
,
m 1 f 1 , f 2 ,... , f m , f m 1 ,
.
:
-
f 1 , f 2 ,... , f m , f m 1
1 f1 2 f2 ... m fm m 1 fm 1 o , (8.6.1)
, -
m 1 0.
Â (8.6.1):
Aˆ ( 1 1 f 2 f2 ... m fm m 1 m 1f )
1 1 1 f 2 2 f 2 ... m m fm m 1 m 1 fm 1 o.
(8.6.2)
, (8.6.1)
m 1 -
(8.6.2),
1 ( 1 m 1 ) f1 2 ( 2 m 1 ) f2 ...
m ( m m 1 ) fm o.
,
f1 , f 2 ,..., f m ,
1 2 ... m 0.
(8.6.1) m 1 0, -
, -
f1, f 2 , ... , f m
f 1 , f 2 ,... , f m , f m 1 .
.
312
n
A
8.6.1. -
) n , -
.
n
A, ,
8.6.6. n , -
, -
A, -
,
A.
.
8.6.5 -
§ 8.5.
– -
8.6.7.
A,
0 k.
1 dim( ) k.
.
n
{g1, g 2 ,..., g m , g m 1,..., g n } ,
m dim( ) .
Aˆ g i 0 g i ; i [1, m] ,
Aˆ Eˆ g , -
( . §8.5),
8. 313
Aˆ Eˆ g
0 0 ... 0 1,m 1 ... 1n
0 0 ... 0 2,m 1 ... 2n
... ... ... ... ... ... ...

.
0 0 ... 0 m ,m 1 ... mn
... ... ... ... ... ... ...

0 0 ... 0 n,m 1 ... nn
det Aˆ Eˆ g
( 0 ) m Pn m ( ).
( 0 )
Pn m ( ) , m k, k –
0 det Aˆ Eˆ g .
1 m , -
( ).
, -
, 0
k, k,
8.6.2. ,
1 1
.
0 1
314
. :
1 1
det (1 )2 0,
0 1
1, 2 1
k 2.
0 1 1 0 1
x 0.
0 0 2 0 0
, ,
-
(m dim( ) 1 ), -
1 2.
8.6.2, 8.6.5 8.6.6 ,

, -
,
.
n
A -
8.6.8.
, A
.
.
n
A , -
, , -
, det A 0.
n
-
.
8. 315
1 11 12 ... 1n 1
2 21 22 ... 2n 2
.
... ... ... ... ... ...
n n1 n2 ... nn n
6.4.1 ( ) , -
-
,
, ( -
),
6.7.1 (
).
Q
8.6.2.
k 2 k -
Q . ,
1 0
Q Q Q E .
n
A -
8.6.9 .
–
).
.
,
n
Â { f1 , f 2 ,..., f n } .
Â -
n
k
Â k 0.
f
k 0
316
Â f, -
, ( .
8.5.2)
n n
k k
( k Aˆ f ) f k ( Aˆ f
f )
k 0 k 0
n
k ( Aˆ f ( Aˆ f ...( Aˆ f
f )...))
k 0
n n
k k
k( f ) ( k ) f 0 f o.
k 0 k 0
-
n
, x .
5.1.2 ,
n
k
k Aˆ f
Oˆ f .
k 0
,
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } ,
n n
k 1
k Aˆ g k ( S Aˆ f
S )k
k 0 k 0
n
1 1 1
k ( S Aˆ f
S S Aˆ f
S ... S Aˆ f
S )
k 0
n n
1 k 1 k
k( S Aˆ f
S ) S ( k Aˆ f
) S
k 0 k 0
1
S Oˆ f
S Oˆ g .
.
8. 317
:
,
.
§ 8.7.
,
,
. -
, , § 5.2,
.
x
8.7.1. -
, f (x ) . ,
f (x ) .
1 . n
8.7.1.
1
2
, -
...
n
n
i i , i ,i [1, n] – -
i 1
.
2 . -
, f ( x) | x |.
3 . x( ) ,
[ 1,1] f ( x) x(0) –
318
” ”, (x) ,
x( )
.
4 . x( ) ,
[ , ], -
, f ( x) p ( ) x ( )d , p( ) – -
[ , ] .
5 .
11 12
21 22
11 12
det 11 22 12 21 .
21 22
f (x ) -
8.7.2. ( ),
x, y :
1 . f (x y) f ( x) f ( y ).
2 . f ( x) f ( x).
, 1 ,3 4 -
8.7.1. , 2 5 –
.
n
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } -
n
x i gi .
i 1
8. 319
n n n
f ( x) f( i gi ) i f (gi ) i i ,
i 1 i 1 i 1
i f (gi ) , i [1, n] – , -
.
n
f (x ) -
8.7.1.
{g1, g 2 ,..., g n } -
f g 1 2 n , -
1 2 n
n
n
f ( x) i i
i 1
f ( x) f g
x g
.
n
( ) -
8.4.5,
n
-
n 1
.
-
n n
.
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } , -
n
S ij , gj ij gi j [1, n] .
i 1
320
x
n n
x i gi i gi , -
i 1 i 1
f (x ) – -
n n
f ( x) i i i i .
i 1 i 1
i i . -
,
n n n
i f ( gi ) f( ki g k ) ki f ( g k ) k ki ,
k 1 k 1 k 1
.
n
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } -
8.7.2.
f g 1 , 2 , ..., n
f g 1 , 2 , ... , n
n
k i ik ;k [1, n] , ik –
i 1
S –
.
f g
f g
S , ,
n
, -
( . §7.3).
8. 321
( ) .
)
-
, -
, .
n
, {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } -
8.7.2. -
p( x ) q ( x)
p q g 1 1 2 2 ... n n
p g 1 2 ... n ,
p g 1 2 ... n
q g 1 2 ... n .
, § 8.2,
,
8.7.3. , -
.
, -
8.7.3. , ( -
) .
8.7.1
n-
,
322
n . ,
n
-
n , -
n
n
.
n n
, ,
8.7.4. n.
n
n ,
.
n n
{r1 , r2 ,..., rn }; ri i [1, n] . f
n
n
, f r,
i i
i 1
f,
2
f r
.
-
n n
f {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {r1 , r2 ,..., rn }
, n, rg
, -
ij ri ( g j ) ; i, j [1, n] – -
ri gj.
8. 323
n
, {r1 , r2 ,..., rn } – ,
8.7.3. n
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } – ,
T 1 T T
f r
( rg
) f g
f g
f r rg
.
rg
E ,
8.7.4.
1, i j
ij ij ; i, j [1, n] ,
0, i j
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {r1 , r2 ,..., rn } -
( ).
n
, {r1 , r2 ,..., rn }
n
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } , -
n n
f (x ) -
T
f r
f g
.
( )
n
n ,
n
, ,
n n n
, . -
n
.
n n n
, , n-
, , . -
n n
,
-
.
324
n
x – , X( f ) –
n n
, , X(f) f ( x) f .
n
, X( f ) ,
n
. ,
X( f
1 1 2 f2 ) f ( x)
1 1 2 f 2 ( x)
n
1 X ( f1 ) 2 X ( f2 ) 1 , 2 ; f1 , f 2 .
n
, X(f) f , ,
n
8.4.1, – .
n
X ( x) : ,
n
y X ( f ( x)) x ;y . -
, ( ) X( f )
f (x ) , , , , . -
, y X ( f ( x )) – ,
n
,
n
7.5.1 dim( ) dim ( ) n.
, ,
n n
dim ( ) n dim( )
n
.
, ,
n n
y X ( f ( x)) x ;y
-
n n
, -
n
n n
, ,
n n
x( f ) f ( x) ; x ; f .
9. 325
§ 9.1.
-
9.1.1. x y -
B( x , y ) ,
1) B( x1 x2 , y ) B ( x1 , y ) B( x2 , y )
x1 , x 2 , y ; , ,
2) B( x, y1 y2 ) B( x, y1 ) B ( x, y 2 )
x, y1 , y 2 ; , ,
,
).
1 . F (x )
9.1.1.
G( y) , ,
B( x , y ) F ( x )G ( y )
.
2 .
B( x, y ) K ( , ) x( ) y ( ) d d
x( ) ( K ( , ) y ( )d )d ,
K( , )
326
: ,
[ , ] .
3 .
-
.
n
.
n
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } -
B( x , y ) .
.
n
, x i gi
i 1
n
y j gj , , 9.1.1, -
j 1
n n n n
B( x, y ) B( i gi , jgj) i B( g i , j gj)
i 1 j 1 i 1 j 1
n n n n
i j B( g i , g j ) ij i j .
i 1 j 1 i 1 j 1
ij B( g i , g j )
9.1.2.
B( x , y )
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } , B g ij – -
.
9. 327
n
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }
n n n n n n
T
( x, y ) ki k i k1 ki i1 1k ki i1
k 1 i 1 k 1 i 1 k 1 i 1
11 12 ... 1n 1
21 22 ... 2n 2
1 2 ... n
... ... ... ... ...
n1 n2 ... nn n
T
x g
B g
y g
,
x g
y g
–
x y .
S –
9.1.1.
{g1, g 2 ,..., g n } {g1, g 2 ,..., g n } ,
T
B g
S B g
S .
n
( . § 7.3)
n
gk ik gi , k [1, n] ,
i 1
328
n n
kl B( g k , g l ) B( ik g i , jl gj)
i 1 j 1
n n
ik jl B( g i , g j )
i 1 j 1
n n n n
T
ik jl ij ki ij jl
i 1 j 1 i 1 j 1
k , l [1, n] .
det B g
det B g
det 2 S .
9.1.1.
.
9.1.1, ( -
6.2.1 6.2.4).
, -
9.1.2. .
.
8.4.3 -
S .
B( x , y ) -
9.1.3. ,
x y
B ( x, y ) B ( y, x ) .
9. 329
9.1.2. n
, -
.
.
ij B( g i , g j ) B( g j , g i ) ji
i, j [1, n].
. ,
ij ji i, j [1, n] ,
n n n n
B ( y, x ) ji j i ji i j
j 1 i 1 j 1 i 1
n n
ij i j B( x, y ).
i 1 j 1
§ 9.2.
-
9.2.1. x
( x) B ( x, x) , B(x,y) – -
, ,
( -
).
-
, -
.
330
, (x)
B( x, y ), -
x y
(x y) B ( x y, x y )
B( x, x ) B( x, y ) B( y, x) B ( y , y )
( x) 2 B ( x, y ) ( y) ,
(x y) ( x) ( y)
B( x, y ) .
2
n
-
9.2.2. 1
(x y) ( x) ( y ))
2
(x).
n
{g1, g 2 ,..., g n } , -
n n
( x) ki k i
k 1 i 1
11 12 ... 1n 1
21 22 ... 2n 2
1 2 ... n
... ... ... ... ...
n1 n2 ... nn n
T
x g g
x g
,
n
x g
– x i gi
i 1
. , ,
T
g
S g
S , -
9.1.1.
9. 331
, -
(x ) , -
. , -
B( x , y )
1
( B( x , y) B ( y , x )) , -
2
(x ) , B( x , y ) ..
,
ij ji ji ij
ij ji , i, j [1, n] ,
2 2
– .
3
9.2.1.
B1 ( x, y ) 1 1 3 2 2 2 1
3 1 2 2 3 1 2 3 3 2
1 3 0 1
1 2 3 1 3 1 2 ,
2 1 0 3
1 3 0
1 3 1
2 1 0
9.1.2 .
3
2 2
1 ( x) 1 3 2 4 1 2 2 1 3 2 2 3 .
332
B2 ( x , y ) 1 1 3 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1
1 3 3 1 2 3 3 2
1 2 1 1
1 2 3 2 3 1 2 ,
1 1 0 3
1 2 1
2 3 1 ,
1 1 0
3
2 2
2 ( x) 1 3 2 4 1 2 2 1 3 2 2 3,
1 ( x)
1 2 1
2 3 1 .
1 1 0
-
,
.
(x ) -
9.2.3. n
{g1 , g 2 , ..., g n } ,
n
2
( x) i i ,
i 1
i i [1, n] – .
9. 333
, , i ,i [1, n]
0 1, , -
9.2.1 n
,
). .
.
.
2
1 . n 1 (x ) = 11 1 . 11 0,
, 11 0, , -
1 11 1, .
2 . , -
, n 1 ,
n .
, 11 0. -
,
ii ,i [2, n] .
ii ,i [1, n] , -
, 12 0. , -
1 1 2 , 2 1 2 , 3 3 , ..., n n,
334
(x ) = 2 12 12 2 21 2
2
F( 1, 2 , 3 ,..., n ),
F ( 1 , 2 , 3 ,..., n ) 1 2 .
3 . ,
1:
n n
( x) ik i k
i 1 k 1
n n n
2 1i
11 ( 1 2 1 i) ik i k ,
i 2 11 i 2 k 2
,
n n n n n
k i ( k )( i ) ( k )2
k 1 i 1 k 1 i 1 k 1
n n n
2 2
( 1 k) 1 2 1 k ( k )2
k 2 k 2 k 2
n n n
2
1 2 1 k k i .
k 2 k 2 i 2
n n n
2 1i 1i 1k
( x) 11 ( 1 2 1 i 2 i k )
i 2 11 i 2 k 2 11
n n
1i 1k
( ik ) i k
i 2 k 2 11
n n n
1i 2 1i 1k
( x) 11 ( 1 i) ( ik ) i k .
i 2 11 i 2 k 2 11
9. 335
,
– , 1
, , -
k ki i ,k [2, n] .
i 2
4 .
(x )
n
1i
1 11 ( 1 i ),
i 2 11
n
(9.2.1)
k ki i ; k [2, n] ,
i 2
.
, 11 0, -
12 1n
11 11 ... 11
11 11
T 0 22 ... 2n
... ... ... ...

0 n2 ... nn
, , (9.2.1) – -
. T :
1
S T ( . 7.5.3), -
.
.
336
: , -
, ,
n
.
(
) . -
( -
) , -
.
, {g1, g 2 ,..., g n }
{g1, g 2 ,..., g n } S -
T
g
S g
S .
S -
g
( . § 6.8).
S , g
, -
6.8.2 g
. -
, S -
,
. , g
-
,
, , -
,
9. 337
g
, x g
S x g
–
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } , -
.
.
3
9.2.1.
2 2 2
( x) 2 1 2 4 3 8 1 2 2 1 3 8 2 3 .
. (x )
2 4 1
4 1 4 .
1 4 4
1º.
:
-
;
- -
,
2 5 1
5 3 0 .
1 0 4
,
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
338
1 0 0
, 0 1 0 .
0 1 1
2º. -
, , -
5. -
.
:
93 0 3 3 0 0
0 3 0 5 1 0 .
3 0 4 5 1 1
3º. ,
, 31.
, -
93 0 0 3 0 3
0 3 0 5 1 5 .
0 0 3751 5 1 26
3 0 3
5 ; 1 ; 5
5 1 26
9. 339
1 3 1 3 3,
2 5 1 2 5 3,
3 5 1 2 26 3 ,
:
2 2 2
( x) 93 1 3 2 3751 3 .
§ 9.3.
,
, ( ) -
n
. -
.
9.3.1.
(x ) rg .
n
-
9.3.1. .
.
9.1.2
.
-
.
, 8.4.3 9.1.1
-
.
.
340
1 . -
9.3.2. ( ) -
n
(x )
-
rg .
2 . -
( ) -
n
(x )
-
rg .
3 . -
n
(x ) -
sgn rg rg .
9.3.2 , -
n
(x ) -
- , -
).
( )
.
.
1 . (x )
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }
n n
(x ) ij i j
i 1 j 1
9. 341
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } , (x ) :
k m
2 2
( x) i i i i ;
i 1 i k 1
m n, i 0, i [1, m]
p q
2 2
( x) i i i i ;
i 1 i p 1
q n, i 0, i [1, q ] .
, -
ij ij
{g1, g 2 ,..., g n }
{g1, g 2 ,..., g n } {g1, g 2 ,..., g n } , ,
n n
s sj j; s [1, n] s sj j ; s [1, n] .
j 1 j 1
(9.3.1)
2 . (x )
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }
n n n
x k gk i gi jgj :
k 1 i 1 j 1
k m p q
2 2 2 2
i i i i i i i i
i 1 i k 1 i 1 i p 1
k q p m
2 2 2 2
i i i i i i i i. (9.3.2)
i 1 i p 1 i 1 i k 1
342
3 . . , k p,
, x -
i 0 i [1, k ] ; i 0 i [ p 1, n] .
, n, k p.
(9.3.1),
{ 1, 2 ,..., n }.
-
, , 6.7.1 -
, , x -
.
, (9.3.2), -
i; i [1, m] i; i [1, q ] ,
i 0 i [1, k ] ; i 0 i [ p 1, n]
, i 0 ; i [1, p].
(9.3.1) n -
n
s sj j ;s [1, n] n -
j 1
, -
, x -
.
, k p.
4 . ,
k p. ,
k p.
5 . 9.3.1 m q, k m p q.
.
9. 343
.
1 . (x )
9.3.3. -
, ( x) 0 -
x .
2 . (x )
-
, ( x) 0 -
x .
3 . ( ) , -
, (x ) -
( ) .
4 . ( x) 0 ( ( x) 0) x ,
, -
( ) -
.
9.3.3. n
,
( ) , -
( )
.
.
9.3.2 -
( )
-
( ).
344
-
9.3.4 n
-
). , -
,
11 12 ... 1k
21 22 ... 2k
det ; k [1, n] ,
... ... ... ...
k1 k2 ... kk
.
.
1 . .
k 1 . , -
k n 1
n 1
n 1
2
( x) i .
i 1
2 . ,
, n -
. , -
n , ,
n:
9. 345
n 1 n 1 n 1
2
( x) ki k i 2 kn k n nn n.
k 1 i 1 k 1
-
( x) , n 1 ,
(x ) n 1 , , -
, . , -
( x)
n 1
k ki i ; k [1, n 1] ,
i 1
n 1
2
( x) i .
i 1
(x )
n 1 n 1
2 2
( x) i 2 in i n nn n
i 1 i 1
n 1
2 2 2
( x) ( i 2 in i n in n )
i 1
n 1 n 1
2 2 2 2
( nn in ) n i nn n ,
i 1 i 1
n 1
2
nn nn in ; i i in n ; i [1, n 1] .
i 1
346
1 1 0 0 1, n 1
2 0 1 0 2,n 2
,
n 1 0 0 0 1 n 1,n n 1
n 0 0 0 0 1 n
,
.
3 . , 9.1.1 -
.
, -
11 12 ... 1n
21 22 ... 2n
det
... ... ... ...
n1 n2 ... nn
n. -
(x ) , -
(x ) nn .
nn 0
n n nn , -
n
2
( x) i .
i 1
, (x ) -
n, , -
, .
.
9. 347
-
-
“ ” § 10.3.
-
, -
.
-
9.3.1. n
-
, -
-
, – .
.
(x ) -
, (x ) , , -
.
, k-
, , -
11 12 ... 1k
21 22 ... 2k
det
... ... ... ...
k1 k2 ... kk
11 12 ... 1k
21 22 ... 2k
( 1) k det 0 k [1, n] .
... ... ... ...
k1 k2 ... kk
.
348
§ 9.4.
-
-
, -
4.4.1.
Oxy
{g1 , g 2 } O.
4.4.1
Ax 2 2 Bxy Cy 2 2 Dx 2 Ey F 0, A, B, C, D, F
E , A, B C
( A B C 0 ).
, -
A, B C ,
( . 9.1.1). -
2 2
, Ax 2 Bxy Cy
( x, y ) Ax 2 2 Bxy Cy 2
A B
{g1 , g 2 } .
B C
9.2.2 9.3.1 , rg –
sgn – ( x, y )
, , rg sgn -
. -
,
-
, , , -
.
9. 349
-
D, F E, ,
,
A, B, C, D, F E.
3
( x, y, z ) Ax 2 2 Bxy Cy 2 2 Dxz 2 Eyz Fz 2
A B D
B C E {g1 , g 2 , g 3 } .
D E F
3
, ,
( x, y,1) 0, ,
3
z 1. -
, z 1 -
. -
( x, y , z ) .
S {g1, g 2 , g 3 }
9.4.1.
{g1, g 2 , g 3 } , z 1
,
11 12 13
S 21 22 23 .
0 0 1
.
Oxy -
x 11 x 12 y 13 ,
y 21 x 22 y 23 ,
350
z 1 z 1,
x 11 12 13 x
y 21 22 23 y .
1 0 0 1 1
S -
11 12
det 0.
21 22
-
, ,
z 1 . rg sgn
, rg sgn
. , -
-
9.4.1.
Oxy rg , rg , sgn
sgn
.
rg , rg , sgn sgn
,
4.4.1, 9.4.1
,
, ,
.
9. 351
9.4.1
rg sgn rg sgn
x 2 y 2
1 1 3 1 2 2
a2 b2
2 x 2 y 2
1 3 3 2 2
a2 b2
x2 y2
3 0 2 2 2 2
a2 b2
x 2 y 2
4 1 3 1 2 0
a2 b2
5 . x2 y 2
0 2 0 2 0
a2 b2
2
6 y 2 px 3 1 1 1
7 -
2
y a2 2 0 1 1
8 -
2
- y a2 2 2 1 1
9 -
y 2
0 1 1 1 1
,
1 .
-
352
.
( x, y, z ) , -
z 1 , , -
0 0
, 0 1 0 .
0 0
-
1 0 1
S 0 1 0 , , -
1 0 1
z 1 , , -
, . ,
T
g
S g
S
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
2 0 0
0 1 0 .
0 0 2
2 . -
, , -
A B
I1 A C I2 det . -
B C
§4.4.
9. 353
3 . , ,
-
.
§ 9.5.
n
9.2.1 ,
(x ) . -
, {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } ,
n
2
(x ) i i 1 2 ... n 1 n .
i 1
n
(x )
9.5.1.
1 minn ( x)
x
n maxn ( x) , x
x
n
2
i 1.
i 1
.
n
2
( x) i i ,
i 1
1 2 ... n 1 n
n n n n
2 2 2 2
i i n i 1 i i i .
i 1 i 1 i 1 i 1
354
n
2
i 1,
i 1
n n
2 2
i i n 1 i i .
i 1 i 1
T
x 0, 0, ...,1 ,
T
x 1, 0, ..., 0 – .
§ 9.6.
,
,
, ,
.
-
9.6.1. k { x1, x 2 ,..., xk } -
Q ( x1 , x 2 ,..., x k ) ,
j [1, k ]
Q ( x1 ,..., x j x j ,..., x k )
Q( x1 ,..., x j ,..., x k ) Q( x1 ,..., x j ,..., x k )
x ,x , ,
, -
, , k- .
9. 355
1 . k -
9.6.1. F1 ( x), F2 ( x), , Fk ( x) ,
Q ( x1 , x 2 , , x k ) F1 ( x1 ) F2 ( x 2 ) Fk ( x k ) ,
k .
2 . -
-
.
3 . n -
n
n , -
.
356
10
§ 10.1.
”, “ ”, “ ” -
. ,
, -
.
10.1.1. x y
( x, y ),
, , -
:
1) ( x , y ) ( y, x );
2) ( x, y ) ( x, y );
3) ( x1 x 2 , y ) ( x1 , y ) ( x 2 , y );
4) ( x, x ) 0 ,
( x, x ) 0 x o,
, E.
: 1–4 ,
( 2
3) ( 1) ,
, , -
( 4) -
. , -
, -
.
10. 357
1 . -
10.1.1. , §
2.2, .
2 . n
1 1
2 2
x ; y
... ...
n n
,
n
( x, y ) i i , -
i 1
.
3 .
[ , ]
( x, y ) x ( ) y ( )d .
10.1.1.
?
. , , 3 -
10.1.1.
E
10.1.2.
1) ( ) x
x ( x , x) ;
2) x y
x y .
358
: -
... -
,
-
, , ,
,
–
.
x, y E
10.1.1
( x, y) x y .
–
).
.
x, y E x y E.
4 10.1.1
2
0 (x y, x y) ( x, x) 2( x, y ) ( y, y )
2 2 2
x 2( x, y ) y .
, ,
2 2 2
( x, y ) x y 0.
.
, -
10.1.2. ,
x y .
x, y E
10.1.1
x y x y .
).
10. 359
.
2
x y (x y, x y) ( x, x) 2( x, y ) ( y, y )
2 2
x 2 x y y ( x y )2 ,
x y x y -
.
,
10.1.1 (2 ) :
n n n
2 2
i i j k ; i, i , i [1, n] ;
i 1 j 1 k 1
n n n
2 2 2
( i i) j k ; i, i , i [1, n] ,
i 1 j 1 k 1
10.1.1 (3 ) -
:
| x( ) y ( ) d | x 2 ( )d y 2 ( )d ;
( x( ) y( )) 2 d x 2 ( )d y 2 ( )d .
360
E
10.1.3. x y
[0, ] ,
( x, y )
cos .
x y
( 10.1.1) ,
E.
E x y -
10.1.4. ,
( x, y ) 0 .
, -
.
§ 10.2. .
n
E
10.2.1. {e1 , e2 ,..., en } ,
(ei , e j ) ij i, j [1, n].
n
E
10.2.1 .
–
).
.
n
1 . E , ,
{g1, g 2 ,..., g n } .
{e1 , e 2 ,..., e n } . -
-
.
10. 361
e1 g1 . e2
e2 g2 e
21 1 , 21 – .
21 , (e1 , e2 ) 0, ,
(e1 , e2 ) (e1 , g 2 21 1e)

(e1 , g 2 )
(e1 , g 2 ) 21 (e1 , e1 ) 0; 21 .
(e1 , e1 )
, e2 o. ,
o e2 g2 e g2
21 1 21 g1
g1 g2 ,
( .
7.2.2).
2 . , k 1
, ek
k 1
ek gk kj ej .
j 1
, (e k , e i ) 0 i [1, k 1] ,
(e j , ei ) 0; j [1, k 1]
k 1
(ei , ek ) (ei , g k kj ej ) (ei , g k ) ki (ei , ei ) 0;
j 1
(e i , g k )
ki ; i [1, k 1] .
(ei , ei )
, ek o. -
k 1
: ek gk kj ej o.
j 1
362
ei , i [1, k 1]
gi ; i [1, k 1] ,
g i ; i [1, k ] , -
. , ek o.
3 . -
gi ; i [1, n] , -
ei ; i [1, n] ,
{e1 , e2 ,..., en } ,
ek
ek ;k [1, n] .
ek
, , -
. -
, , -
.
§ 10.3.
{ f 1 , f 2 ,..., f k } -
.
E -
10.3.1. { f 1 , f 2 ,..., f k } -
10. 363
( f1 , f1 ) ( f1 , f 2 ) ( f1 , f k )
( f 2 , f1 ) ( f 2 , f 2 ) ( f2 , fk )
f
.
( f k , f1 ) ( f k , f 2 ) ( fk , fk )
n
E {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } .
n n
x i gi y j gj,
i 1 j 1
10.1.1,
n n n n n n
( x, y ) ( i gi , jgj) i j ( gi , g j ) ij i j ,
i 1 j 1 i 1 j 1 i 1 j 1
ij (gi , g j ) i, j [1, n] – g
, -
.
, , -
( . 1 . 10.1.1),
, -
. ( . 9.1.2) -
-
:
T
( x, y ) x g g
y g
( g1 , g 1 ) ( g1 , g 2 ) ... ( g1 , g n ) 1
( g 2 , g1 ) ( g 2 , g 2 ) ... ( g 2 , g n ) 2
1 2 ... n ,
... ... ... ... ...
( g n , g 1 ) ( g n , g 2 ) ... ( g n , g n ) n
364
x g
y g
– ( ) -
x y {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } . , -
§ 2.3. § 9.2.
, , e
E ,
, ,
n
T
( x, y ) x g
y g i i .
i 1
g
10.3.1.
det g
0.
.
10.1.1 ,
, ,
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } (
S ) 9.1.1 -
T
g
S g
S ; det g
det g
(det S ) 2 ,
det S 0,
, sgn ( det g
) ,
. , ,
det e
1, -
, det g
0.
.
10. 365
{ f1 , f 2 ,..., f k } En -
10.3.1.
,
.
.
{ f1 , f 2 ,..., f k } , -
. ,
1 , 2 ,..., k , ,
1 1f 2 f2 ... k fk o.
fi i [1, k ] , -
1 ( f i , f1 ) 2 ( f i , f 2 ) ... k ( fi , f k ) 0 i [1, k ] .
, ( . § 1.1),
,
,
1 , 2 ,..., k , , ,
( .
6.5.2 6.5.2).
, { f 1 , f 2 ,..., f k }
,
10.3.1.
9.3.4.
-
9.3.4 n
,
366
, -
).
11 12 ... 1k
21 22 ... 2k
det ; k [1, n] ,
... ... ... ...
k1 k2 ... kk
.
.
1 . § 10.1 , -
-
, -
-
. , -
,
,
.
2 . ,
( ) -
. , -
n
-
,
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }
.
-
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g k } ; k [1, n] .
( ) -
10.3.1 -
,
10. 367
11 12 ... 1k
21 22 ... 2k
det
... ... ... ...
k1 k2 ... kk
( g1 , g1 ) ( g1 , g 2 ) ... ( g1 , g k )
( g 2 , g1 ) ( g 2 , g 2 ) ... ( g 2 , g k )
det 0;
... ... ... ...
( g k , g1 ) ( g k , g 2 ) ... ( g k , g k )
k [1, n].
x
10.3.2. n
E {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }
1
x g g
b g,
( x , g1 )
( x, g2 )
– , b .
g g ...
( x, gn )
.
n
x i gi gk ,
i 1
k [1, n] .
n
i ( gi , g k ) ( x, g k ) , k [1, n] ,
i 1
368
. -
10.3.1 ,
1
x g g
b g.
{e1 , e2 ,..., en } -
10.3.2. n
E
n
x e
i i En
i 1
i ( x, ei ) , i [1, n] .
: i ( x, ei ) , i [1, n] -
, -
x -
. -
-
-
-
( . § 12.3).
§ 10.4.
5.1.4 Q , -
T 1
Q Q , ,
T T
Q Q Q Q E det Q 1.
, -
.
10. 369
( ) En
10.4.1. -
.
.
{e1 , e2 ,..., en } {e1 , e2 ,..., en } En S

.
T
, e
S e
S
T T
S S , E S S .
S , -
1 T
S S .
T
E S S
n
T
kl ki il ; k, l [1, n] , n 3
i 1
§ 2.9.
, -
10.4.2. E n
,
.
.
Aˆ f g f g ,
g
T
f T
g Aˆ f T
g .
g
370
,
T
f T
g Aˆ Aˆ f g
2
f T
g f g .
g g
T
Aˆ Aˆ Aˆ Eˆ ,
g g g
T 2 T 2
f g f g f g f g . , , 1, -
f .
-
, , ,
A ,
10.4.3.
A Q R , Q – -
, R – -
,
.
.
14
,
A Q1 R1 Q2 R2 .
A R1
R2 , Q1 Q2 , ,
.
14
. -
.
10. 371
T 1
Q2 Q1 R2 R1 ,
1
R1 – .
1
, R2 R1 . -
, ,
. ,
1
R2 R1 ,
( -
T 1
Q2 Q1 ) -
.
,
, -
. R1 R2
,
1
R2 R1 E , -
.
, 10.4.3 -
A x b -
A –
R Q ,
T
R x Q b .
372
§ 10.5.
E E1 .
E2 E x, E1 .
E
10.5.1. x, , ( x, y ) 0 y E1 E
E1 .
k -
10.5.1. n
E1 E
n k.
.
n
E -
E2 –
E1 .
E1 {g1 , g 2 ,..., g k } . -
x E2
E1 ( . 7.4.1),
( x , gi ) 0 ; i [1, n]
:
11 1 21 2 ... n1 n 0,
12 1 22 2 ... n2 n 0,
..........................................
1k 1 2k 2 ... nk n 0,
10. 373
1i 1
2i 2
gi e ;i [1, k ] x e .
... ...
ni n
(
x ), -
E2 , k -
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g k } . ,
6.7.1, n k , -
E2 .
E2 –
10.5.2. E1 E, E1 E2 .
.
x E2
( y, x) 0 ; y E1 . , -
y E1 ( x, y ) 0 ; x E2 , E1 -
E2 E.
E y
10.5.2. x -
E ,
1 . y E ;
2 . (x y, z ) 0 z E .
374
E E k- -
10.5.3. , y – x E
E – .
.
E {g1 , g 2 ,..., g k } ,
k
y E y i gi .
i 1
(x y, z ) 0 z E -
x y
E , (x y, g j ) 0 j [1, k ] , , ,
i ,i [1, k ]
k
(x i gi , g j ) 0 j [1, k ]
i 1
k
(gi , g j ) i ( x, g j ) j [1, k ] .
i 1
(
g1 , g 2 ,..., g k , .
10.3.1) , 6.4.1 ( -
) .
, {e1 , e2 ,..., ek } E
, x E
k
y ( x, ei )ei .
i 1
10. 375
E4 -
10.5.1.
1 2 3 4 0,
2 1 2 0
E .
E4 E .
.
1 . E
g1 g2 , -
{e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 } -
, E ,
,
1 1
2 2
g ; g .
1e 1 2 e 0
0 1
2 . dim E 2, -
E 10.5.1 2.
g3
g4 , ,
1 2
1 1
g3 e
; g4 e
,
1 0
1 0
376
E , -
-
.
3 . g1 , g 2 , g 3 g4 -
4 4
E , E
{g1 , g 2 , g 3 , g 4 } .
A -
4
E E , ,
ˆ
Ag 1 g 1 ; Aˆ g 2 g2; Aˆ g 3 o; Aˆ g 4 o,
{g1 , g 2 , g 3 , g 4 }
:
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
Aˆ .
g 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
4 . , {e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 }
{g1 , g 2 , g 3 , g 4 }
1 1 1 2
2 2 1 1
S ,
1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
10. 377
1
Aˆ S Aˆ S , ,
g e
1
Aˆ S Aˆ S , , § 5.1
e g
§ 6.8, ,
Aˆ
e
1
1 1 1 2 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 2
2 2 1 1 0 1 0 0 2 2 1 1
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
2 4 1 1
1 4 8 2 2
.
11 1 2 6 5
1 2 5 6
: -
, -
. , E
[ , ] -
( x, y ) x ( ) y ( )d ,
E –
n
k
Pn ( ) k , n, -
k 0
x( ) – E – E
[ , ]
x( ) .
§ 12.3.
378
§ 10.6.
-
, 8
,
.
-
, .
A ,
10.6.1. E,
A, x, y E -
( Ax , y ) ( x, A y) .
,
10.6.1. , -
, -
( x, y ) x ( ) y ( )d
d
Â ( ) -
d
d
Â .
d
, -
dx( )
( Aˆ x, y ) y ( )d
d
dy ( )
x( ) y ( ) x( ) d
d
10. 379
dy ( )
x ( )( )d ( x, Aˆ y ) .
d
n
E
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } -
A A , ,
. A A -
A g
A g
, x
y {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } –
1 1
2 2
x g
y g ,
... ...
n n
( Ax , y ) ( x, A y)
T
( Aˆ x g
)T g
y g
x g g
Aˆ y g
, (10.6.1)
g g
g
– En .
T T
( A B )T B A -
T T
x g
( Aˆ g g
Aˆ ) y g
0,
g g
x y, ,
,
5.1.2, -
, , , – ,
380
T 1 T
Aˆ g g
Aˆ O Aˆ g
Aˆ g
,
g g g g
, , {e1 , e2 ,..., en }
T
Aˆ Aˆ e .
e
( x, Aˆ y ) 0 x, y E, Â .
10.6.1.
.
x, y E ( x, A y) 0.
x Ay.
( A y, A y ) 0 10.1.1 ,
Ay o . , y -
8.2.2 , A O.
.
-
10.6.1. n
E .
.
n
E A ,
A,
1 T
g
Aˆ g
A.
g
A . , A
A A . ,
x, y E
10. 381
( Ax , y ) ( x, A y) ( Ax , y ) ( x , A y) .
, ( x, ( A A ) y) 0, -
10.6.1 A A O.
.
A B, -
10.6.2. E,
( AB ) B A .
.
x, y E
(( AB ) x , y ) ( x , ABy ) ( A x , By ) ( B A x , y ) .
, ((( Aˆ Bˆ ) Bˆ Aˆ ) x, y ) 0 x , y E
10.6.1 ( AB ) B A O.
(A ) A.
10.6.3.
.
x, y E
(( A ) x , y ) ( x, A y) ( Ax , y ) .
, (( A ( A ) ) x , y ) 0 x, y E -
10.6.1 A (A ) O.
.
382
-
10.6.4. n
A E A .
.
1 . , A , -
ker A , –
A.
, y ker A , ,
A y o,
b Ax , x En,
(b, y ) ( Ax , y ) ( x, A y) 0.
2 . ker A . ,
8.4.3
dim( ker Aˆ ) n rg Aˆ
1 T T
n rg ( Aˆ ) n rg Aˆ n rg Aˆ .
, , 8.4.1
A rg A , dim( n rg Aˆ
10.5.1.
, dim( ker Aˆ ) dim( )
ker Â ker Â .
.
10. 383
: 1) 10.6.4 -
, -
6.7.3 ( ),
Ax b , b -
A.
2) , y b -
m
E -
, -
:
A x b -
10.6.5
-
,
T
). A y o -
b .
§ 10.7.
R,
10.7.1. E, ,
x, y E
( Rˆ x, y ) ( x, Rˆ y ) .
A A ,
10.7.1.
AA A A -
A.
, A A, , ,
x, y E.
384
( A Ax , y ) ( Ax , Ay ) ( x , A Ay ) ,
.
-
.
R En -
10.7.1. ,
.
.
1 T
10.7.1 Rˆ g
Rˆ g
g g
{e1 , e2 ,..., e n }
T
R̂ R e
R e
.
{e1 , e2 ,..., en } . S , §
1 T
10.4, , S S .
T 1 T
Rˆ ( S Rˆ S )T ( S Rˆ S )T
e e e
T T T T
S Rˆ ( S T T
) S Rˆ S
e e
T 1
S Rˆ S S Rˆ S Rˆ .
e e e
T
: Rˆ e
Rˆ e , x, y En
( Rˆ x, y ) Rˆ x ( Rˆ
T
y e
x e )T y e
e e
T T T T
x e
Rˆ y e
x e
Rˆ y e
x e
Rˆ y ( x, Rˆ y ).
e e e
.
10. 385
En -
10.7.1 -
, .
-
10.7.2. n
R E .
.
: -
R
i, 0.
8.6.2 R
. -
x y, ,
Rˆ x x y,
Rˆ y y x.
: – y,
– x,
( Rˆ x, y ) ( x, y ) ( y, y ),
( x, Rˆ y ) ( x, y ) ( x, x).
R, ,
2 2
( x y ) 0.
, 0.
.
386
,
10.7.3. , -
.
.
R -
Rˆ f1 f
1 1 Rˆ f 2 2 f2 , f1
f2 – A 1 2 – -
.
: – f2 , – -
f1 ,
( Rˆ f1 , f 2 ) ( 1 f 1 , f 2 ), ( Rˆ f1 , f 2 ) 1( f1 , f 2 ),
( f1 , Rˆ f 2 ) ( f1 , 2 f 2 ) ( f1 , Rˆ f 2 ) 2 ( f 1 , f 2 ).
, R – -
,
( 1 2 )( f1 , f 2 ) 0,
( f1 , f 2 ) 0.
E – -
10.7.4.
R, E, E
– E E. E –
R.
.
E R,
x E : Rx E . E –
E , x E x E : (x , x ) 0.
10. 387
E – R,
( Rx , x ) 0. -
R ( x , Rx ) 0. ,
Rˆ x E x E , E
R.
.
R En
10.7.1. ,
R.
.
R En ,
, 1. -
10.7.2 .
(8.5.1) 1
e1 . ,
e1 1. n 1, .
E1 – e1 , -
R. En 1
– E1.
n 1
10.7.4 E –
R.
R
n 1
E . , R – ,
388
E n 1, En 1
R 10.7.4 , ,
n
x, y E : ( Rx , y ) ( x , Ry ) ,
x, y En 1.
, -
2 -
e2 . ,
e2 1. 2 1,
, ( e1 , e2 ) 0.
n 2, . -
E2 – { e1 , e2 }
n 2
E , 3
e3 .
En .
.
, 10.7.1, -
10.7.2. R
n
E .
.
§ 8.5.
-
10.7.3. ,
, -
.
10. 389
.
10.7.1.
R En n
10.7.4. , -
.
.
R
, -
R e
, , -
. 10.7.1 Â
.
R , -
10.7.5.
Q ,
1 T
D Q R Q Q R Q
.
.
R
En , -
Q -
-
,
,
10.7.1.
.
390
A B -
10.7.2.
En
, Aˆ Bˆ Bˆ Aˆ .
.
.
Aˆ a a Bˆ a a,
Bˆ Aˆ a Bˆ a a ; Aˆ Bˆ a Aˆ a a,
, , , ( Aˆ Bˆ Bˆ Aˆ ) a o . -
a– ,
, ,
n
E ,
. AB BA O.
.
A B
, ˆa
, A a. , -
A .
, b Ba
A. ,
AB BA
Aˆ b Aˆ Bˆ a Bˆ Aˆ a Bˆ a Bˆ a b.
A ,
, a b -
. b a , b Ba , Bˆ a a.
,a– B.
.
10. 391
§ 10.8.
Q,
10.8.1. E, (
), x, y E -
(Qx , Qy ) ( x, y ) .
10.8.1 , -
.
,
Qˆ x (Qˆ x, Qˆ x ) ( x, x) x ;
(Qˆ x, Qˆ y ) ( x, y )
cos cos ; x, y E,
Qˆ x Qˆ y x y
– x y, –
Qx Qy .
Q
10.8.1. , ,
1
Q Q .
.
10.8.1 x, y E (Qx , Qy ) ( x, y ) ,
,
( x , Q Qy ) ( x , y) ( x ,(Q Q E ) y ) 0.
10.6.1 ,
Q Q E O.
392
Q Q E O , Q Q E.
Qˆ Qˆ Qˆ Eˆ Qˆ , , -
, Qˆ Qˆ Qˆ Qˆ Eˆ
QQ E. , 8.2.8
1
Q Q .
Q̂ Qˆ 1
.
10.8.1.
En -
10.8.2. .
.
Q .
1
Q Q 10.8.1 § 8.3 (4 ) -
1 1 T
Q e
Q e
Q e
Q e.
1 T
Q e
Q e
, , -
5.1.4, Q e.
.
En
, En
10.8.3. ,
-
.
10. 393
.
1º. Q -
1 T
Qˆ Qˆ . x, y En
e e
T
(Qˆ x, Qˆ y) Qˆ x e
Qˆ y e
( Qˆ e
x e ) T Qˆ e
y e
T T T 1 T
x e
Qˆ e
Qˆ e
y e
x e
Qˆ e
Qˆ e
y e
x e
y e
( x, y).
,
{e1 , e2 ,..., e n } .
2º. {e1 , e2 ,..., en } -
, -
. ,
S ,
,
1 1 1 1 1 1 T
Qˆ ( S Qˆ S ) S Qˆ S S Qˆ S
e e e e
T T T T T T T
S Qˆ S S Qˆ ( S ) ( S Qˆ S )T
e e e
1 T
( S Qˆ S )T Qˆ .
e e
A En det Aˆ 0
10.8.4
). A QR , Q ,
R – -
.
394
.
1 . , A A ( .
10.7.1) -
. , Aˆ Aˆ f f,
, , (A ˆ Aˆ f , f ) ( Aˆ f , Aˆ f ) 0
f o, – (Aˆ Aˆ f , f ) ( f , f ) (f , f ),
( Aˆ f , Aˆ f ) (f, f). 0 -
,
Aˆ f o f o ,
Aˆ f 0f det Aˆ 0.
2 . {e1 , e2 ,..., en } – ,
A A. -
Aei ; i [1, n] ,
( Aˆ ei , Aˆ e j ) ( Aˆ Aˆ ei , e j ) i (e i , e j ) i ij ;i, j [1, n] .
1
, ei Aˆ ei ; i [1, n] – -
i
3 . Q , -
{e1 , e2 ,..., en } -
{e1 , e2 ,..., en } , , -
R Q 1A.
, , A QR .
,
Rˆ ei Qˆ 1 Aˆ ei Qˆ 1
i ei i ei ;i [1, n]
10. 395
, ei , i [1, n] -
R, -
i , , R e
{e1 , e2 ,..., en } .
10.7.1 R .
4 . , , .
A A R2 ,
A QR A R Q ,
A A R Q QR R Q 1QR R R,
2
R A A R .
, -
R1 R2 -
, , A A R12 ; A A R22 R12 R22 O.
, R1 R2 ( .2 )
, .
, § 8.2,
Rˆ12 Rˆ 22 Rˆ12 Rˆ1 Rˆ 2 Rˆ 2 Rˆ1 Rˆ 22
( Rˆ 1 Rˆ 2 )( Rˆ1 Rˆ 2 ) Oˆ .
R1 R2
8.6.8 R1 R2
( R1 R2 )( R1 R2 ) O R1 R2 O.
, R – , -
A . Qˆ Aˆ Rˆ 1
, , -
A.
396
.1 . -
5.5.2
-
, -
, – -
,
.
2 . A ,
10.8.2, -
-
R , -
.
E2
10.8.1.
2 1
A Aˆ e0 .
0 2
.
1 . ,
10.8.2. A A -
0 0
( ) {e1 , e2 }
T
Aˆ Aˆ Aˆ Aˆ e0
Aˆ e0
Aˆ e0
e0 e0
2 0 2 1 2 2
.
1 2 0 2 2 3
10. 397
2 1
1 1; 2 4 ; f1 e0
; f2 e0
,
1 2
( , -
10.8.2)
{e10 , e20 } , -
{e1 , e2 } :
2 1
f1 3 f2 3
e1 ; e2 ,
f1 1 f2
2
3 3
{e1 , e2 } :
1
1 3 1
e1 Aˆ e1 ; e2 Aˆ e2
1 2 2
3
1 2
1 2 1 3 3
.
2 0 2 1
2
3 3
398
2 .
2 1 1 2
3 3 3 3
G F
1 2 2 1
3 3 3 3
( )
0 0
{e , e }1 2 {e1 , e2 } {e1 , e2 }
, 7.5.2, -
Q
1
Qˆ F G .
e0
,
Qˆ
{e1 , e2 } {e1 , e2 }
(
)
Gˆ 1
Fˆ
{e1 , e2 } {e10 , e20 } {e10 , e20 } {e1 , e2 } .
1
ˆ
, Q Fˆ Gˆ .
e0 e0 e0
, (8.3.1) (7.4.2), -
1 1
Gˆ 1
Gˆ e0
, Qˆ e0
F G .
e0
, G ( -
, ), -
1 T
Qˆ F G F G
e0
10. 399
1 2 2 1 2 2 1
3 3 3 3 3 3
,
2 1 1 2 1 2 2
3 3 3 3 3 3
.
3 . R Q 1A,
1 1 T
Rˆ e0
Qˆ Aˆ Qˆ Aˆ Qˆ Aˆ
e0 e0 e 0 e0 e0 e0
2 2 1 4 2
3 3 2 1 3 3
,
1 2 2 0 2 2 5
3 3 3 3
, ,
2 2 1 4 2
3 3 3 3
Aˆ Qˆ Rˆ .
e0 e0 e0
1 2 2 2 5
3 3 3 3
400
11
§ 11.1.
U -
11.1.1. a b -
15
ab , -
, , -
:
1 . ab ba ;
2 . ab ab ;
3 . a1 a2 b a1 b a2 b ;
4 . aa – -
,
a a 0 a o,
, .
-
, -
, “ ”.
: 1 ,
-
-
.
15
-
3.
11. 401
, , ab b a ,
a b ab , , -
a i:
ia ia (i)(i) a a ( i) 2 a a i2 a a a a ,
ia ia , a a
4 .
ab b a -
a b ba b a ba ab ,
, -
ia ia ii a a a a ,
4 .
1 . n
11.1.1.
1 1
2 2
a ; b , i , i ; i [1, n]
... ...
n n
– , ,
n
ab i i ,
i 1
.
402
2 .
[ , ] -
ab a( )b( )d .
, , -
, . -
, :
a a bb ab ba .
,
2
a a bb ab ab ab ab b a a, b U .
Un
{g1, g 2 ,..., g n }
.
:
1
2
ab 1 2 n g
g1 g1 g1 g 2 g1 g n 1
g 2 g1 g2 g2 g2 gn 2
1 2 n ,
g n g1 gn g2 gn gn n
11. 403
g
– U n.
, gi g j g j gi , -
T
g g
.
A ,
11.1.2. T
A A, .
A ,
T T
A A E A A E , -
.
,
. ,
T T
det ( A A ) det A det A det A det A
2
det A det E 1.
§ 11.2.
, -
10.
-
, -
.
404
A,
11.2.1. U, ( -
), a, b U
Aˆ a Aˆ b ab .
: , -
n
U , -
.
A ,
11.2.2. U,
A, a, b U -
Aˆ a b a Aˆ b .
A B,
11.2.1. U, -
: ( AB ) B A ( Aˆ ) Aˆ .
.
.
( Aˆ Bˆ )a b Bˆ a Aˆ b a Bˆ Aˆ b a, b U .
11.2.2,
( AB ) B A .
( Aˆ )a b Aˆ a b a Aˆ b a Aˆ b a, b U
.
.
11. 405
, -
n
U ,
A , -
11.2.2. n
A U , {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }
1 T
Aˆ Aˆ ,
g g
(10.6.1) -
.
§ 11.3.
A,
11.3.1. , -
( ), A= A .
: , -
n
U ,
, -
n
E . -
:
1 .
.
2 . , -
-
, .
3 .
,
.
406
4 . -
n
U
.
A
11.3.2. , -
-
.
A B -
11.3.1. ,
Aˆ Bˆ Bˆ Aˆ , .
.
. Aˆ a a Bˆ a a,
Bˆ Aˆ a Bˆ a a,
Aˆ Bˆ a Aˆ a a,
, , , ( AB BA) a o. -
a– , -
,
, ,
.
AB BA O.
. A B
, ˆa
, A a. -
, -
, .
11. 407
,
b Ba A. -
, AB BA
Aˆ b Aˆ Bˆ a Bˆ Aˆ a Bˆ a Bˆ a b.
A ,
, a b -
. b a b Ba Bˆ a a. a
– B.
.
A
11.3.2
-
). B̂ Ĉ ,
A .
.
– f– -
A, -
. , dim 1.
A B ( 11.3.1)
, Bˆ f f , A C ,
Cˆ f f. Aˆ f f -
Aˆ Bˆ f Bˆ Aˆ f f , Cˆ Bˆ Aˆ f f,
Aˆ Cˆ f Cˆ Aˆ f f , Bˆ Cˆ Aˆ f f,
Cˆ Bˆ ( f ) ( f) Bˆ Cˆ ( f ) ( f ).
408
, ,
( Bˆ Cˆ Cˆ Bˆ )( f ) o f ,
BC CB O B C .
, , -
,
.
11.3.1
-
: :
( a, b) ( a, b) ab ab
A: A:
( Aˆ a, Aˆ b) (a , b ) a, b E Aˆ a Aˆ b ab a, b U
: :
T T
A A E A A E
En Un
11. 409
A :
A :
( Aˆ a, b) (a, Aˆ b) a, b E Aˆ a b a Aˆ b a, b U .
En Un
1 T 1 T
Aˆ Aˆ Aˆ Aˆ
g g g g
: ( -
) :
( Aˆ a, b) (a, Aˆ b) a, b E Aˆ a b a Aˆ b a, b U
: :
T T
A A A A
En Un -
- -
n n
E U -
-
11.3.1 -
,
.
410
§ 11.4. .
,
. ,
[ , ] ( ) ( ) ( )
B( ( ), ( )) ( ) K( , ) ( ) d d .
( x) x Aˆ x ,
11.4.1.
x U, A – , -
( -
) U.
Aˆ a a Aˆ a
11.4.2.
A a– -
.
.1 . a– ( a aa 1)
A -
, Âa ,
Aˆ a a Aˆ a a a aa .
2 . ,
, .
A A,
11. 411
Aˆ a a a Aˆ a a Aˆ a Aˆ a a ,
, .
3 . ,
ˆ Ê , E – ,
A Aa 0. -
a
,
Aˆ Aˆ a a a ( Aˆ Aˆ a )a a Aˆ a a Aˆ a a
( Aˆ a Aˆ a ) a a 0.
A (A Aa ) 2
11.4.3. a a
Â -
a.
A A, -
11.4.1. a
, -
, -
Aˆ ( Aˆ ) 2 a ( Aˆ a ) 2 .
a
, A -
a
. Aˆ Aˆ a , , ,
A ( )
Â a ( ).
412
Aˆ a ( Aˆ Aˆ a ) 2 a a ( Aˆ Aˆ a )( Aˆ Aˆ a )a
a
( Aˆ Aˆ a ) a ( Aˆ Aˆ a )a
( Aˆ Aˆ a )a ( Aˆ Aˆ a )a 0.
, 11.4.2,
Aˆ ( Aˆ Aˆ a ) 2 a ( Aˆ Aˆ a ) 2 a
a a
a (( Aˆ ) 2 2 Aˆ Aˆ a ( Aˆ a ) 2 )a
a ( Aˆ ) 2 a 2 Aˆ a a Aˆ a ( Aˆ a ) 2 aa
( Aˆ ) 2 a 2 Aˆ a Aˆ a ( Aˆ a ) 2 ( Aˆ ) 2 a ( Aˆ a ) 2 .
.
A, -
11.4.2. , , -
, .
.
Aˆ a a,
2
Aˆ ( Aˆ ) 2 a ( Aˆ a ) 2 a ( Aˆ ) 2 a a Aˆ a
a
2
a Aˆ ( Aˆ a) a Aˆ a
2 2
a Aˆ ( a ) a a a Aˆ a a a
11. 413
2 2 2 2 2
a a a a a a a a
2 2
0,
a a 1.
§ 11.5.
, -
,
A B, -
11.5.1 , -
(c
- 2
1
). Aˆ Bˆ Aˆ Bˆ Bˆ Aˆ a .
a a 4
.
1 . Qˆ ( Aˆ Aˆ a ) ( Bˆ Bˆ a ) i ( –
),
Qˆ ( Aˆ Aˆ a ) ( Bˆ Bˆ a ) i ,
:
A, A , B , B . , Qˆ Qˆ – -
a a
a Qˆ Qˆ a Qˆ a Qˆ a 0 Qˆ . ( . -
10.8.2, 1 .)
414
2 . Q Q A, A , B , B ,
a a
Qˆ Qˆ (( Aˆ Aˆ a ) ( Bˆ Bˆ a )i)(( Aˆ Aˆ a )
( Bˆ Bˆ a )i)
( Aˆ Aˆ a ) 2 2
( Bˆ Bˆ a ) 2
(( Aˆ Aˆ a )( Bˆ Bˆ a ) ( Bˆ Bˆ a )( Aˆ Aˆ a ))i
( Aˆ Aˆ a ) 2 2
( Bˆ Bˆ a ) 2 ( Aˆ Bˆ Bˆ Aˆ )i.
3 . Cˆ ( Aˆ Bˆ Bˆ Aˆ ) i , , -
Ĉ
.
Qˆ Qˆ :
Qˆ Qˆ a Aˆ 2
Bˆ a ( Aˆ Bˆ Bˆ Aˆ )ia
a a
2
Bˆ Cˆ a Aˆ .
a a
Q Q
a
, -
. , -
,
( C a )2 4A B 0,
a a
1 2
A B AB BA .
a a 4 a
.
12. 415
12
, -
, ,
, , -
, .,
-
.
§ 12.1.
,
, -
, , -
.
-
,
{e1 , e2 ,..., en } -
En (x).
n
E
{e1 , e2 ,..., en } , (x )
.
416
-
9.2.1. ,
, -
n
E ,
(x). -
.
( . § 9.2), -
n
n n
T
( x) ki k i x g g
x g
,
k 1 i 1
g
-
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }

T
g
S g
S .
9.2.1
( -
), -
.
, -
,
12.1.1. , -
, -
16
.
16
, -
, “ -
”.
12. 417
.
1 . § 9.2, -
(x )
T
e
S e
S ,
S ij –
{e1 , e2 ,..., en } {e1 , e2 ,..., en } ,
n
ek sk es , k [1, n] , e
– -
s 1
,
(x ) .
2 . S -
(§ 10.4),
1 T
S S . ,
1
e
S e
S .
3 . e
-
{e1 , e2 ,..., en }
( 10.7.1) ˆ ,
{e1 , e2 ,..., en } ( 8.3.2)
1
e
S e
S .
4 . -
-
-
{e1 , e2 ,..., en } – -
ˆ.
418
( . 10.7.1)
ˆ ( , -
(x ) ) ,
-
ˆ.
, 12.1.1 -
10.7.4.
ˆ
12.1.1.
(x ) En .
(x ) ( x, ˆ x ) ; x En .
( x, Aˆ x)
( x) , En
12.1.2. ( x, x)
A, -
.
12.1.1, -
. -
(x) .
( -
12.1.1. ) (x)
) -
A, -
.
12. 419
.
, -
-
A( 12.1.1),
n n
2
ij i j i i
( x, Aˆ x ) i 1 i 1
( x) n n
,
( x, x ) 2 2
i i
i 1 i 1
, ,
9.5.1, , min ( x) max .
12.1.1 -
.
-
12.1.1. 3
E
(x ) 2 1 2 2 1 3 2 2 3 .
1 .
1 0 0
{e1 , e2 , e3 } e1 0 , e2 1 , e3 0 . -
0 0 1
(x ) 2 1 2 2 1 3 2 2 3
B( x , y ) ,
420
1
B ( x, y ) (x y) ( x) ( y )) ( . § 9.2).
2
( y) 2 1 2 2 1 3 2 2 3,
(x y) 2( 1 1 )( 2 2)
2( 1 1 )( 3 3) 2( 2 2 )( 3 3 ),
B ( x, y ) 1 2 1 3 2 3 1 2 1 3 2 3 ,
1 1
xe 2 y e 2 .
3 3
, (x )
0 1 1
e
1 0 1 .
1 1 0
2 . -
ˆ E 3
. -
8.5.2:
1 1
3
det 1 1 0 3 2 0.
1 1
: 1 2, 2, 3 1, -
. , , -
,
, 10.7.1,
12. 421
2 2 2
( x) 2 1 2 3
.
3 . , S –
,
ˆ.
-
(8.4.1) .
2 :
2 1 1 1 0
1 2 1 2 0 .
1 1 2 3 0
, 2, -
. , -
, § 6.8 ( ),
2 1 2 3 ,
1 2 2 3 .
3 ,
1
f1 1 .
1
1 2, -
10.7.2 (
) . ,
-
:
422
1 1 1 1 0
1 1 1 2 0 ,
1 1 1 3 0
1 2 3. -
1 1 1
2 1 0 ; , .
3 0 1
f1 ,
. , -
1, -
1
. 1 ,
0
, 2 0. , , 1
1 1
2, f2 1 f3 1 .
0 2
4 . { f1 , f 2 , f 3 } E3 ,
. -
, -
{ f1 , f 2 , f 3 } . :
12. 423
1 1 1
3 2 6
1 1 1
e1 , e2 e3 .
3 2 6
1 2
3 0 6
1 1 1
3 2 6
1 1 1
S
3 2 6
1 2
0
3 6
“ ” {e1 , e2 , e3 } “ ”
{e1 , e2 , e3 } ), -
{e1 , e2 , e3 } {e1 , e2 , e3 } ,
,
1 T
S S ,
, “ ”
“ ”.
1 1
(§ 7.4), 2 S 2
3 3
1 1
1
2 S 2
3 3
424
1 1 1
1
3 3 3 1
1 1
2 0 2 .
2 2
3 1 1 2 3
6 6 6
,
,
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } -
n
(x ) (x ) , -
( , ).
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } ,
(x ) , (x ) – -
.
, -
,
.17 ,
2 2
( x) A 1 2B 1 2 C 2
17
, “ -
” (
), -
.
12. 425
2
,
. ( . 4.4.1),
( A C ) sin 2 2 B cos 2 .
2 2
1 ( x) 1 2 2 ( x) 1 2
,
2 sin 2 0,
0 cos 2 ,
, .
n
(x ) (x ) , -
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } , ,
.
1 . (x ) -
n
,
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } , ,
( . 9.2.1). -
, -
,
.
(x ) .
n
2 .
n
( x, y ) k k ,
k 1
-
n
. ,
426
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {e1 , e2 ,..., en } ,
(x ) , -
.
3 . ,
{e1 , e2 ,..., en } ,
S , (x )
, §12.1.1.
(x ) -
, e
E -
S ,
T T
e
S e
S S E S
T 1
S S S S E .
, ,
(x ) ,
(x ) – .
, -
,
, S .
,
12.1.2. (x ) 2
2 1 3 2
1 2 2
2 2
(x ) 4 1 16 1 2 6 2 -
.
12. 427
.
1 . (x ) (x ) -
. ( 9.3.2)
1 1 4 8
det 2 0 ; det 40 0
1 3 8 6
, (x ) – -
, (x ) -
.
2 . -
(x ) . -
2 2
(x ) 1 2 1 2 3 2 ( 1 2 )2 2 2
2 ,
1 1 2
,
2 2 2
1
1 1 2
2 ,
1
2 2
2
2 2
(x ) 1 2
2 2
(x ) 4 1 4 2 1 2 3 2 .
2
3 . -
, { 1; 2}
2
{e1 , e2 } ,
428
1 0
e1 ; e2 .
e 0 e 1
(x )
4 2 2
e
. -
2 2 3
, 1 5
2 4,
2 2 1
3 3
f1 e
f2 e
,
1 2 2
3 3
{e1, e 2 } .
4 . {e1, e2 }
{e1, e 2 } ,
2 2 2 2
(x ) 1 2 (x ) 5 1 4 2 ,
2 2 1
3 3
S .
1 2 2
3 3
,
12. 429
2 2 1 2 2
1 1 2 1 1 2 2 ,
3 3 3
1 2 2 1
2 1 2 2 1 2 .
3 3 3
, , -
,
( ), -
.
, -
(x ) S -
T
, S S E . -
(x )
T
S S .
12.1.1 -
(x ) -
, -
. , -
S .
T
S S E
T 1
, S ( S ) . , -
, -
, -
,
430
T T 1
S S (( S ) )T S
T
(( ) 1( S ) 1 T
) S
1 T 1 1 1
S ( ) S S ( ) S .
, -
-
1
S .
,
1
, .
-
§ 8.5
1
( ) f f ,
( ) f o .
f :
det ˆ ˆ 0
g
– , -
-
(x ) .
12.1.2. -
1 1 4 8
,
1 3 8 6
-
(x )
12. 431
4 8 1 1 4 8
det ( ) 0 det 0.
8 3 1 3 8 3 3
1 5 2 4,
2 2
(x ) (x ) 5 1 4 2 ,
2 2
, (x ) 1 2 .
§ 12.2.
E3 {e1 , e2 , e3 } ,
1 0 0
e1 0 , e2 1 , e3 0 .
0 0 1
2 2 2
11 1 2 12 1 2 22 2 2 13 1 3 33 3
2 23 2 3 2 14 1 2 24 2 2 34 3 44 0
3 k
( ik 0 ).
k 1 i 1
E3 .
, § 12.1.
2 2 2
1 1 2 2 3 3 2 14 1 2 24 2 2 34 3 44 0,
1 2 3 0,
.
432
I. : 1 2 3 0 ,
8.6.8 ,
11 12 13
det 21 22 23 0.
31 32 33
, -
,
2 2 2
1 1 2 2 3 3 44 0,
:
44 0
1)
sgn( i ) sgn( 44 ) , i 1,2,3 ;
2)
sgn( i ) sgn( 44 ) , i 1, 2,3 ;
3)
sgn( 1 ) sgn( 2 )
sgn( 3 ) sgn( 44 );
4)
sgn( 1 ) sgn( 2 )
sgn( 3 ) sgn( 44 );
44 0
5)
sgn( 1 ) sgn( 2) sgn( 3 ) ;
6)
sgn( 1 ) sgn( 2) sgn( 3 ) .
12. 433
II. : 1 0, 2 0, 3 0.
2 2
1 1 2 2 2 34 3 44 0,
:
34 0,
2 2
1 1 2 2 2 34 3 0,
:
7)
sgn( 1 ) sgn( 2 );
8)
sgn( 1 ) sgn( 2 );
34 0, 44 0, :
9)
sgn( i ) sgn( 44 ) , i 1,2 ;
10)
sgn( i ) sgn( 44 ) , i 1,2 ;
11)
sgn( 1 ) sgn( 2 );
34 0, 44 0, :
12)
sgn( i ) sgn( 2 );
13)
sgn( i ) sgn( 2 ).
434
III. : 1 0 2 3 0.
2
1 1 2 24 2 2 34 3 44 0,
-
:
24 2 34 3 34 2 24 3
1 1 ; 2 ; 3
2 2 2 2
24 34 24 34
, , O 2 3 ).
2 2 2
1 1 2( 24 34 ) 2 44 0
:
24 0 34 0, -
:
14) ;
24 34 0, :
15)
sgn( 1 ) sgn( 44 );
16)
sgn( 1) sgn( 44 );
24 34 44 0, :
17) .
12. 435
.1 .
-
-
.
2 .
,
.
§ 12.3.
( )
[ a, b] f( )
g 0 ( ), g1 ( ), g 2 ( ), ..., g n ( ), ... ,
( -
f ( ))
[a, b] , .
,
,
.
[ 1,1] f( ),
k
{g k ( ) ,k [0, n]} .
,
n
k
n , Pn ( ) k , -
k 0
f( ).
436
, [ 1,1]
,
gk ( ) , – -
k
{g k ( ) ,k [0, n] } n 1
,
{ gk g k ( ), k [0, n] }.
-
1
( x, y ) x( ) y ( ) d
1
E.
x( ) y( )
1
x y (x y, x y) ( x( ) y ( )) 2 d
1
x( ) y ( ) E),
x( ) y( ) [ 1,1] .
E,
f( ) f E. -
n
f k gk E
k 0
n n
2
(f k gk , f k gk ) . -
k 0 k 0
2
k ,k [0, n] , -
.
12. 437
n n
2
(f k gk , f k gk )
k 0 k 0
n n n
(f, f) 2 k ( f , gk ) k i ( g k , g i ),
k 0 k 0 i 0
2
k
k [0, n] ,
n
i (gk , gi ) ( f , g k ), k [0, n] , (12.3.1)

i 0
k ,k [0, n] ,
2
. ,
, -
, .
-
10.3.2, , -
k ;k [ 0, n ]
f {g k g k ( ), k [0, n] } ,
f .
2
:
n n n
2
(f, f) k ( f , gk ) k ( ( f , gk ) i ( g k , g i ))
k 0 k 0 i 0
n n
(f, f) k ( f , gk ) (f, f k g k ).
k 0 k 0
,
n
f k gk ,
k 0
438
, f .
-
2
n
2
(f, f k gk ) k ,k [0, n] , -
k 0
12.3.1. ,
,
k
{ gk gk ( ) , k [ 0, n ] }
,
10.2.1, -
:
2 1
e0 ( ) 1 ; e1 ( ) ; e2 ( ) ;
3
3 3 dn 2
e3 ( ) ; ... ; en ( ) ( 1) n ,
5 d n
.
k
{ gk ,k [0, n] } , ,
( , , -
)
dk 2
{ ek ( ) ( 1) k , k [0, n] }.
d k
, -
, 12.3.1
12. 439
n
i (e k , e i ) ( f , ek ) , k [0, n]
i 0
( f , ek )
: k ;k [0, n] , -
(e k , e k )
2
:
2
n n
( f , ek ) 2
(f, f e )
k k (f, f) .
k 0 k 0 (e k , e k )
, , {e k , k [0, n] } ,
(ek , ei ) ki ; k , i [0, n] ,
n
2 2 2
k ( f , ek ) ; k [ 0, n ] f k .
k 0
, k ,k [0, n] – -
:
1)
f
;
2) , -
,
{ek , k [0, n] } ( . 10.3.2).
, , -
, .
-
.
440
-
10.7.3, ,
, ,
.
R̂
[ 1,1] ,
18
, -
, ,
. ,
1 1 1
d 2x dx dx dy
( Rˆ x, y ) 2
y ( )d y( ) d.
1d d 1 1d d
, ,
1 1 1
d2y dy dx dy
( x, Rˆ y ) x( ) 2 d x( ) d .
1 d d 1 1
d d
R̂ ,
1 1
dx dy
y( ) x( ) . , ,
d 1 d 1
, ( , ) -
[ 1,1].
18
10.7.1 , Aˆ Aˆ -
.
d
Â
d
d ( ),
Â
d
d2
Rˆ Aˆ Aˆ .
d 2
12. 441
R̂ . -
Rˆ x x
d 2x
2
x, 0,
d
x( ) e e ,
– , -
.
dx dx
x( 1) x (1)
d 1 d 1
( . 3):
e e 0 sin 0.
:
2
k k 2; k 0,1, 2, ...
:
xk ( ) k cos k k sin k .
k k , -
k.
,
,
[ 1,1] . -
( , ) -
, -
.
442
:
: -
n? , , -
n
2 2
lim ( f k ) 0?
n
k 0
. ,
, E E,
( E ), -
f E, f E , ,
( f , gk ) 0; k
gk E , -
).
19
, , .
19
{g k , k 0,1, 2, ...} , f E
,
.
. 1. 443
§ 4.4 -
, -
.
.
§ 1.1.
-
,
4.4.1. .
1 . “ ”
x2 y2
0 -
a2 b2
{O, e1 , e 2 } .
2 2
y a a 0 .
{O, e1 , e2 }
. 1.1.1. 2
3x 4 xy y 2 0. -
444
(2 x y) 2 x2 0
( ),
y x y 3x .
. . 1.1.1.)
1 0,
-
1
arctg 2 .
2 . . 1.1.1
2 . “ ”
y2 0 y 0 -
{O, e1 , e 2 } . 1
b 0.
3 . “ ”
x2 y2
0 – -
a2 b2
{O, e1 , e 2 } .
4 . “ ”
{O, e1 , e 2 } , -
. 1. 445
x2 y2
1 y2 a2 .
a2 b2
“ ”.
§ 1.2.
, -
. 1.2.1.
x2 y2
1; a b 0,
a2 b2
.
a2 b2
-
. 1.2.2. a
.
a
.
0
a
x -
.
b2
p
a
.
1) – : | x| a | y | b,
446
b
y a2 x2 .
a
2) L Ox
Oy,
.
x x x
L L L,
y y y
x
L,
y
.
. . 1.2.1
( P, Q ) -
P Q, -
– F1 A F2 A .
. 1. 447
x
A , -
. 1.2.1. y
L, ,
:
1) r1 | F1 A | a x ; r2 | F2 A | a x;
2) | F1 A | | F2 A | 2a ;
( A, F1 ) ( A, F2 )
3) ;
( A, D1 ) ( A, D2 )
( M , F1 )
4) M L;;
( M , D1 )
5) | F2 B | p, F2 B Ox ;
6) .
.
1 . ( . . . 1.2.1)
2
r1 (x a ) y 2 ; r2 (x a )2 y2 .
,
, i 1, 2 :
b2 2
ri (x a )2 y2 (x a )2 (a x2 )
a2
( x a )2 (1 2
)(a 2 x2 )
448
x2 2 xa a2 2
a2 a2 2
x2 x2 2
a2 2 xa x2 2
|a x| .
| x| a 0 1, a x 0 , -
,
r1 | F1 A | a x ; r2 | F2 A | a x.
2 . 2 1 .
3 .
( A, F1 ) a x ( A, F2 ) a x
; .
( A, D1 ) a ( A, D2 ) a
x x
4 . 4 .
5 . ,
b b b
| F2 B | a2 a2 2
a 1 2
b p.
a a a
6 .
. 1.2.2.
x0
A , -
. 1.2.2. y0
, ,
. 1. 449
,
A,
x0 x y0 y
1.
a2 b2
.
A
y y0 y ( x0 )( x x0 ) .
2x 2 yy
0,
a2 b2
b 2 x0
y ( x0 ) .
a 2 y0
b 2 x0
y y0 ( x x0 ) , , -
a 2 y0
x 02 y 02
, 1,
a2 b2
x0 x y0 y
1.
a2 b2
,
y0 0,
x a.
6 . 1.2.1.
A,
450
x0
. d2
y0
c
F2 ( .
0
3.2.1):
1 x0 ( c) y 0 (0) 1 x0 c
d2 1 1
a2 b 2
a2
1 r2 x02 y 02
x0 a , .
a a a2 b2
d1 F1 -
c
:
0
1 x0 c 1 r1
d1 1 x0 a .
a2 a a
,
d1 1 d2 1
sin sin
r1 a r2 a
.
6 . 1.2.1 .
. 1.2.1 . 1.2.2 -
.
:
,
2a .
. 1. 451
: ( -
) , -
( )
( ) .
:
-
.( , , -
.)
-
, , .
A, ( . . 1.2.1.),
r2 a x a ( cos a ) a cos a 2.
(1 cos )
2
a (1 )
p
.
1 cos
§ 4.6.) . . 1.2.2
452
§ 1.3.
, -
. 1.3.1.
x2 y2
1; a 0, b 0,
a2 b2
.
a2 b2
-
. 1.3.2. a
.
a
.
0
a
x -
b2
p
a
.
1 . – ,
| x| a,
b
y x2 a2 ;
a
. 1. 453
2 . L
Ox Oy, -
.
x x x
L L L,
y y y
x
L,
y
.
( . . 1.3.1).
y ux v -
. 1.3.3.
y f (x ) x ,
f ( x)
u lim v lim ( f ( x ) u x) .
x x x
b
3 . y x. -
a
b b
, u lim x 2 a2 , ,
x ax a
b b b
v lim ( x2 a2 x) lim ( x 2 a2 x)
x a a a x
b (x 2 a 2 ) x 2 1
lim ab lim 0.
ax x2 a2 x x
x2 a2 x
454
. . 1.3.1.
. . 1.3.1
x
A , -
.1.3.1 y
. L, ,
:
1 .
r1 | F1 A | a x;
r2 | F2 A | a x (x a) .
r1 | F1 A | a x;
r2 | F2 A | a x (x a) ;
2 . | r1 r2 | 2a ;
. 1. 455
( A, F1 ) ( AF2 )
3 . ;
( A, D1 ) ( A, D2 )
(M , F1 )
4 . M,M L;
(M , D1 )
5 . | F2 B | p ;
6 . .
.
1 . .
1.2.1, -
r1 ( x a )2 y2 ; r2 (x a )2 y2 ,
-
. i 1, 2
b2 2
ri (x a )2 y2 (x a )2 (a x2 )
a2
(x a )2 (1 2
)(a 2 x2 )
x2 2 xa a2 2
a2 a2 2
x2 x2 2
a2 2 xa x2 2
|a x| .
| x| a 1, -
r1 | F1 A | a x ; r2 | F2 A | a x,
456
r1 | F1 A | a x; r2 | F2 A| a x.
2 3 .
4 .
5 . ,
b b b
| F2 B | a2 2
a2 a 2
1 b p.
a a a
6 . ,
6 . 1.2.1,
. 1.3.1.
-
a
y -
x
1 1
x x y,
2 2
1 1
y x y.
2 2
. 1.3.1 . 1.2.2 -
.
:
, -
2a .
. 1. 457
: -
, -
( ) ( -
) .
: -
-
. ( , -
,
.)
x0
A , -
. 1.3.2. y0
, ,
, -
,
x0 x y0 y
1.
a2 b2
A
y y0 y ( x0 )( x x0 ) .
2x 2 yy
0,
a2 b2
b 2 x0 b 2 x0
y ( x0 ) . y y0 ( x x0 ) ,
a 2 y0 a 2 y0
, ,
458
x02 y 02
1,
a2 b2
x0 x y0 y
1.
a2 b2
,
y0 0, x a.
,
-
Ox ( . .
1.3.2).
A,
,
r1 a x
a ( cos a ) . . 1.3.2
2
a cos a .
2
(1 cos ) a( 1)
p
.
1 cos
§ 4.6.)
. 1. 459
§ 1.4.
, -
. 1.4.1.
y2 2 px ; p 0,
.
p
2 .
. 1.4.2.
0
p
x -
2
.
p -
.
. . 1.4.1, -
,
–
.
1 . – , x 0;
2 . L
Ox,
x x
L L,
y y
.
460
. . 1.4.1
3 . -
,
.
x
A , -
. 1.4.1. y
L, ,
:
p
1 . r x ;
2
( A, F )
2 . 1;
( A, D)
(M , F )
3 . 1 M,M L;
(M , D)
4 . | FB | p; 5 . .
. 1. 461
.
p 2
1 . r (x ) y2 ,
2
,
p2 p
r x2 px 2 px |x |,
4 2
p
x , -
2
1 2 .
3 .
p
4 . , | FB | 2p p.
2
5 . -
. 1.4.2.
, -
2
y ax , -
.
. 1.4.1
.
: -
,
( ) ( )
.
462
: -
.(
, ,
.)
x0
A , -
.1.4.2 y0
. , ,
,
,
yy 0 p( x x0 ) .
.
A
y y0 y ( x0 )( x x0 ) .
p
2 yy 2p, y ( x0 ) , y0 0.
y0
p
y y0 ( x x0 ) , ,
y0
y 02 2 px 0 ,
yy 0 p( x x0 ) .
,
y0 0, x 0.
.
. 1. 463
5 .1.4.1.
A
y0 p
x0
, – 2 .
p
y0
p
y0 ( x0 ) py 0
2 y0
cos .
y 2
p 2
( x0
p 2
) y 2 y 02 p2
0 0
2
y0
, ,
p
1
.
0
, .
, -
, -
-
( . .
1.4.2).
A, ,
p
x
2 . .1.4.2
464
p p
cos p cos .
2 2
(1 cos ) p
p
.
1 cos
§ 4.6.)
. 2. 465
4.5.1
,
. -
-
.
§ 2.1.
,
4.5.1.
, ,
, -
1, ,
{O, e1 , e2 , e3 } .
,
, ,
x 0,
y 0,
– , , -
Oxy .
466
{O, e1 , e2 , e3 } .
, -
.
-
, -
.
§ 2.2.
, -
. 2.2.1.
x2 y2 z2
1, a 0, b 0, c 0,
a2 b2 c2
.
1 . – , -
, | x | a ; | y | b ; |z | c.
2 . :
- -
;
- ;
-
.
3 . ,
, . ,
. 2. 467
z z0 , z0 c,
:
x2 y2
1,
z2 z2
(a 1 02 ) 2 (b 1 02 ) 2
c c
z z0 ,
.( . . 2.2.1.)
. . 2.2.1
§ 2.3.
, -
. 2.3.1.
468
x2 y2
2z , a 0, b 0,
a2 b2
.
1 . – , -
, z 0
.
. . 2.3.1
2 .
- Oz ;
-
Oxz Oyz .
. 2. 469
3 . , -
Oz , , ,
Ox Oy – . ,
z z0 0 ,
x2 y2
1,
(a 2 z 0 ) 2 (b 2 z 0 ) 2
z z0 ,
.( . . 2.3.1.) , -
y y0
y 02
x2 2a 2 ( z ),
2b 2
y y0 ,
. x x0
:
x 02
y2 2b 2 ( z ),
2a 2
x x0 .
§ 2.4.
, -
. 2.4.1.
x2 y2
2z , a 0, b 0, ,
a2 b2
.
470
1 . – ,
, z – -
.
. . 2.4.1
2 .
- Oz ;
-
Oxz Oyz .
3 . , -
Oz , , -
, Ox Oy , – . ( .
.2.4.1.)
, z z0 0, -
. 2. 471
x2 y2
1,
(a 2 z 0 ) 2 (b 2 z 0 ) 2
z z0 ,
. z0 0 -
:
x2 y2
1,
(a 2z0 ) 2 (b 2 z0 ) 2
z z0 .
,
x x0
2 2 x 02
y 2b ( z )
2a 2 ,
x x0
.
y y0
2 2 y 02
x 2a ( z ),
2b 2
y y0 .
, -
-
,
, ,
, -
.
4 . -
.
472
x y x y
( )( ) 2z ,
a b a b
, -
,
x y x y
2 2
a b a b ,
x y x y
( ) z ( ) z
a b a b
,
,
, .
, ,
,
.
(
) -
.
§ 2.5.
\
, -
. 2.5.1.
x2 y2 z2
1, a 0, b 0, c 0,
a2 b2 c2
.
1 . – ,
,
. 2. 473
z ( , ).
. . 2.5.1
2 . ( . . 2.5.1)
- -
;
-
;
- -
.
3 . , -
Oz , , ,
Ox Oy – . -
-
.
4 . -
.
474
x z x z y2
( )( ) 1 2 ,
a c a c b
, ,
, , ,
x z y x z y
( ) (1 ), ( ) (1 ),
a c b a c b
x z y x z y
( ) (1 ), ( ) (1 ),
a c b a c b
,
,
, .
, -
.
.
§ 2.6.
, -
. 2.6.1.
x2 y2 z2
1, a 0, b 0, c 0,
a2 b2 c2
.
1 . – , -
, x a
.
. 2. 475
. . 2.6.1
2 . :
- -
;
-
;
- -
.
3 . , -
Ox , x a , -
, Oy Oz , – .( .
. 2.6.1.)
§ 2.7.
, Oxz ,
F ( x, z ) 0. Oz ,
.
476
, -
. 2.7.1.
F( x2 y 2 , z) 0,
.
, , :
. 2.7.1.
1 .
x2 y2 z2
1.
a2 c2
2 . k 2z2 x2 y2 .
:
.
, z2 2 px -
Ox , -
, -
Oz ,
z2 2 p x2 y2 z4 4 p2 (x 2 y2 ) .
, -
. 2.7.1. 2
z 2 px Ox .
.
x0
0 . , -
z0
Ox x x0 , -
z0 y2 z2 z 02 .
. 2. 477
2
, z0 2 px0 ,
y2 z2 2 px0 .
x0
, 0 ,
z0
, ,
–
y2 z2 2 px .
478
20
,
, -
{O, g1 , g 2 } .
z -
1 0
g1 g2 , -
0 1
1 0
z g1 g2 .
0 1
– -
:
. 3.1.
1 2
z1 z2
1 2
20
( § 7.5) , ,
-
, .
. 3. 479
-
1 2 1 2
z1 z 2 .
1 2 2 1
,
. 3.2.
1 0
{ g1 , g2 },
0 1
. 3.1, -
, z –
.
. 1 . -
, -
.
2 . -
: -
z1 z2 -
z , ,
z1 z2 z .
3 . , -
, – -
0
. 3.2
,
, -
.
480
, -
:
1 0
z g1 g2
0 1
g1 ( -
“ ”), g2 i (
“ ”).
z z i,
:
z1 z2 ( 1 1i ) ( 2 2 i) ( 1 2) ( 1 2 )i ;.
z ( i) ( ) ( )i ;
z1 z 2 ( 1 1i )( 2 2i ) ( 1 2 1 2) ( 1 2 2 1 )i .
,
,
2
, i 1,
0 0 1
i2 ii (0 1i)(0 1i) ( 1) 0 i 1.
1 1 0
, -
2
i ( 1) ,
z1 z 2 ( 1 i )(
1 2 2 i) 1 2 1 i 2 1 i 1 2 i2
( 1 2 1 2 ) ( 1 2 2 1 ) i,
. 3.1.
:
. 3. 481
z1 1 1i ( 1 1i )( 2 2i)
z2 2 2i ( 2 2 i )( 2 2 i)
( 1 2 1 2) ( 2 1 1 2 )i
2 2
2 2
1 2 1 2 2 1 1 2
2 2 2 2
i.
2 2 2 2
z i:
. 3.3.
1 . -
z Re z .
2 . -
z Im z .
2 2
3 . -
z z .
4 . , ,
cos
2 2
sin ,
2 2
z
arg z , z 0.
5 . i
z -
z.
482
: 1 . , 1 , 2 5 ,
, -
.
2 . -
-
, -
,
z, z1, z 2 :
1 . (z ) z.
2 . z ,
z z.
2 2
3 . zz -
.
4 . z1 z2 z1 z2 ; z1 z 2 z1 z 2 .
n
5 . Pn ( z ) k zk – -
k 0
, ,
.
n
k
, k 0,
k 0
. 3. 483
n n
k k
0 0 k k .
k 0 k 0
: -
,
, -
,
, .
. 3.1.
z2 1 0 .
. , ,
1 0
z i , .
0 0
,
1 0
1 1 0i 0 0 0i .
0 0
-
,
2 2
1 0
.
2 0
, -
, -
:
484
2 2
1 0,
2 0,
0
, ,
1
0
.
1
0 0
z1 0 1i i z2 0 ( 1)i i.
1 1
. 3.3,
, -
:
2 2
z i ( i)
2 2 2 2
(cos i sin ) .
, , -
.
1
g1 ,
0
{O, g1 , g 2 }
. 3. 485
- z – -
, -
,
- arg z
, , , -
. 3.3, z i
z (cos i sin ) .
. .3.1
, , -
:
eiz cos z i sin z , z .

486
z i z (cos i sin )
, z ei .
-
, -
, -
21
. ,
i 1 i 2 i( 1 2 )
z1 z 2 1 e 2 e 1 2 e
, ,
i
i 0 1i cos i sin e2,
2 2
i i
ii (e 2 ) e 2
.
. 3.2.
cos x 5.
. ,
e iz e iz
cos z ; z ,,
2
21
-
.
. 3. 487
ei x
e i x 1
5 y 10 0 ,
2 y
y ei x.
, ei x 5 2 6,
i x ln(5 2 6 )
x ln 2 (5 2 6 ) .
488
§ 4.1.
-
, , ,
, ,
., ,
, , , -
.
-
,
-
, .
, , ,
.
n
,
, ,
. -
, , , ,
, ,
, -
.
. 4. 489
,
, -
( !),
.
-
n
. 4.1.1 -
, , , -
-
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } .
. 4.1.1
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } -
n -
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }
1
x x g
S x g
1
2 n
x g
... j ji i
i 1
n
- f f S
g g
f g
-
1 2 ... n , n
j i ij
i 1
f (x )
i f (gi )
490
-
Aˆ Aˆ
- g g
1
11 12 ... 1n S Aˆ S
g
Â 21 22 ... 2n
,
... ... ... ...
n1 n2 ... nn
ki
n n
n kj mi jm
Aˆ g j ij g i ; j [1, n] j 1m 1
i 1
- B B
g g
- T
11 12 ... 1n S B S
g
21 22 ... 2n
,
B( x , y ) ... ... ... ...
n1 n2 ... nn
ki
n n
jk mi jm
ij B ( g i , g j ); i, j [1, n] j 1m 1
-
g g
- T
11 12 ... 1n S S
g
21 22 ... 2n
,
(x ) ... ... ... ...
n1 n2 ... nn
. 4. 491
ij ji ki
ij ; i, j [1, n] n n
2
jk mi jm
j 1m 1
, , S -
n
ij , gj ij gi ; j [1, n] , -
i 1
1
T S ij ,
n
gj ij gi ; j [1, n] .
i 1
-
, :
1 . {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } ;
2 .
1
S S , .
,
n
. ,
x y,
T T
x 1 2 ... n y 1 2 ... n
492
n n, :
1 1 1 2 ... 1 n
2 1 2 2 ... 2 n
.
... ... ... ...
n 1 n 2 ... n n
, x y
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }
1 2 . ,
n n
k ki i j jm m
i 1 m 1
n n
, k j ki jm i m , , ,
i 1 m 1
1 T 1
x y g
( S ) x y g
S .
, -
1 2 .
, -
, . -
,
, -
, -
, .
, F,
, r -
:
. 4. 493
Fx xx xy xz x
Fy yx yy yz y ,
Fz zx zy zz z
D -
E :
Dx xx xy xz Ex
Dy yx yy yz Ey .
Dz zx zy zz Ez
,
.
, -
, -
.
,
x, y z. -
27
( , ,“ ”).
,
:
xx xy xz xx xy xz xx xy xz
x x x y y y z z z
yx yy yz yx yy yz yx yy yz
.
x x x y y y z z z
zx zy zz zy zx zy zz
zx zz
x x x y y y z z z
494
n
A
, ,
r g
nn
.
-
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } . -
n
A -
n n
1
A g
S A g
S ( ki kj mi jm ),
j 1m 1
,
n n n n n
ki jm jm p
kj mi kj mi
l j 1m 1 l j 1m 1 p 1 p l
n n n
T jm
kj im pl
j 1m 1 p 1 p
A 1 T A
, , S S S .
r g
r g
, -
1 2 .
, , -
-
.
. 4. 495
, ,
1
2 n
x
...
n
x. {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }
n
i ,
i 1
,
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } , ,
n n n
i ij j .
i 1 i 1 j 1
, ,
-
:
- -
- 1 2 , -
, ,
, , S
T
S
, ( ,
), ,
1 1 T
S ( S ) – .
496
§ 4.2.
, ,
, , :
n
,
(q, p) , q p
n
( p q – ), ,
-
np q
j1 j2 ... jqi1i2 ...i p ( jm [1, n] ; m [1, q] – -
ik [1, n] ; k [1, p] – -
), {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } :
n n n n n n
j1 j2 ... jqi1i2 ...i p ... ... i1i1 i 2i2 ... i pi p

i1 1 i2 1 i p 1 j1 1 j2 1 jq 1
j1 j1 j2 j2 ... jq jq j1 j2 ... jq i1i2 ...i p ,
ik [1, n] ; k [1, p] jk [1, p] ; k [1, m] , ij ij
S -
1
T S .
-
-
. -
,
, .
. 4. 497
1 . ,
, q p- -
q p- , q p-
), -
j1, j2 ,..., jq i1, i2 ,..., i p .

1 n,
-
,
.
i i ,
. 4.2.1.
i i i [1, n] .
2 . .
, -
: -
( , -
), ,
.
2
ijk -
. 4.2.2.
: 111 , 112 , 121 , 122 , 211 , 212 , 221 , 222 .
3 . -
, – . ,
, -
“ ” -
.
498
. j k ..
i ..l m .
. 4.2.3.
4 . , -
, .
S,
. 4.2.4.
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } ,
j
(1,1) i (
),
ji
7.3.2
8.3.1.
, -
, , , -
:
, . -
,
.
1 .
. 4.2.5. ( x) i j
.
ij
. 4. 499
2 .
1 1 1 2 1 n 1
1 2 ... n
2 1 2 2 2 n 2
1 2 ... n
.............................................
n 1 n 2 n n n
1 2 ... n
-
k i k
i .
, ij ij ( -
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } )
(1,1),
, -
. 4.2.1. n
(q, p) , q
p ,
n
, -
p q
n
j1 j2 ... jq
i1i2 ...i p ( jm ; m [1, q ] –
ik ; k [1, p] – ), -
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } :
j1 j2 ... j q i1 i2 ip j1 j2 jq j1 j2 ... jq
i1i2 ...i p i1 i2 ... ip j1 j2 ... jq i1i2 ...i p .
500
(q p) ( -
. 4.2.2. j1 j2 ... jq
) i1i2 ...i p .
,
. 4.2.3. -
.
.1 . , -
-
, -
, -
.
2 . ,
,
(0,0).
. 4.2.1
-
n
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }
x ( j j i
i
)
j
(1,0)
( i
j i j
) -
f (x ) (0,1) j
. 4. 501
( m m i j
k j k i
A
-
) (1,1)
j
i
( - j i
km k m ji
) -
B( x , y ) (0,2) ji
( - j i
km k m ji
) -
(x ) (0,2) ji
( m m i j
k j k i
1, i j -
j
i ) (1,1)
0, i j j
i
. 4.2.1 -
.
, . 4.2.1
– – ,
, ,
, – .
, . 4.2.1, -
m m i j m j 1, i j,
k j k i j k
0,i j.
502
, , ,
m j
j k ,
,
m j
j k .
-
, ,
. :
1 . (1, 0) .
(0,1) .
2 . , , -
,
, 2 " ".
, -
, 1, .
3 . ,
– .
,
, –
.
:
1111 1211 1112 1212
2111 2211 2112 2212

.
1121 1221 1122 1222
2121 2221 2122 2222

. 4. 503
x y -
. 4.2.1. 4
f ( x, y ) , -
1 2 3 4 1
, , , , 2, 3, 4
{g1, g 2 , g 3 , g 4 }
1 3 2 4
f ( x, y ) 3 .
, -
, , -
.
. 1 . ,
.
.
4
k
gi i gk
k 1
{g1 , g 2 , g 3 , g 4 }
{g1 , g 2 , g 3 , g 4 } . -
4 4
k l
f (gi , g j ) f( i gk , j gl )
k 1 l 1
4 4
k l
i j f (gk , gl ) .
k 1 l 1
, -
S ,
. 4.2.1 -
(0, 2).
504
2 . f (gk , gl )
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
g1 g
; g2 g
; g3 g
; g4 g
.
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
f ( g1 , g 3 ) 1 ; f ( g 2 , g 4 ) 3 f (gk , g l ) 0
. ,
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 3
.
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
§ 4.3.
, -
. -
.
j1 j2 ... jq
(q, p) i1i2 ...i p
. 4.3.1.
j1 j2 ... j q j1 j2 ... jq
i1i2 ...i p . (q, p) i1i2 ...i p
. 4. 505
j1 j2 ... jq j1 j2 ... j q
i1i2 ...i p i1i2 ...i p , -
j1 j 2 ... jq j1 j2 ... j q j1 j2 ... j q

i1i2 ...i p i1i2 ...i p i1i2 ...i p .
j j
i i , -
. 4.3.1.
(1,1), -
j
, , (1,1) i , -
j j j
i i i .
j1 j 2 ... jq
(q, p) i1i2 ...i p .
.4.3.2.
j1 j2 ... jq
(q, p) i1i2 ...i p -
j1 j 2 ... j q
i1i 2 ...i p ,
j1 j2 ... jq j1 j2 ... jq
i1i2 ...i p i1i2 ...i p .-
: ,
(q, p)
nq p
.
j1 j2 ... j q
(q, p) i1i2 ...i p
. 4.3.3.
506
k1k 2 ... k r
(r , s) l1l2 ...ls . (q r , p s )
j1 j 2 ... jq k1k 2 ...k r
i1i2 ...i p l1l2 ...l s
j1 j2 ... j q k1k 2 ... k r
i1i2 ...i p l1l2 ...ls ,
j1 j 2 ... jq k1k 2 ...k r j1 j2 ... j q k1k 2 ... k r

i1i2 ...i p l1l2 ...l s = i1i2 ...i p l1l2 ...ls .
-
.
n
,
. 4.3.2. .
. 4.3.3.
k i
, x y -
.
, x y y x. ,
k i i k
,
. , -
.
c a b,
. 4.3.1. 1 2
3 4
a – ( 0,3) , b –
5 6
7 8
( 0,1) 9 10 .
. 4. 507
. , c -
(0,4) , (
) -
ijk l , ijk l –
a b .
, c
1 9 2 9 1 10 2 10 9 18 10 20
3 9 4 9 3 10 4 10 27 36 30 40
.
5 9 6 9 5 10 6 10 45 54 50 60
7 9 8 9 7 10 8 10 63 72 70 80
j1 j2 ... j q
(q, p) i1i2 ...i p ,
. 4.3.4.
q 1 p 1. ( ,
jr ) ( , is ) -
( , m ). (q 1, p 1)
j1 j2 ... jq 1
i1i2 ...i p 1
j1 j 2 ... jr ... j q
i1i2 ...i s ...i p -
jr is , -
j1 j 2 ... jq 1 j1 j2 ...m... jq
i1i2 ...i p 1 = i1i2 ...m...i p .
508
, – n
, m – , ,
(q 1)( p 1) -
.
(1,1) ,
. 4.3.3. j
i , (0,0) , -
, -
,
m 1 2 n
m 1 2 ... n .
-
, -
. ,
, , -
.
. , -
, -
n i
. , f ( x) i . ,
k
i .
:
. 4.3.2. a – (1,1) i
j
1 2 3
4 5 6 ;
7 8 9
. 4. 509
j
b – (1,0)
2
3 ;
4
c– (0,1) i
2 3 4 .
i j i
j j i .
i j
. 1 . , j –
3
i i j
(1, 0) j .
j 1
1 1 1 1 2 1 3
1 2 3 1 2 2 ( 3) 3 4 8,
2 2 1 2 2 2 3
1 2 3 4 2 5 ( 3) 6 4 17,
3 3 1 3 2 3 3
1 2 3 7 2 8 ( 3) 9 4 26.
i
2 . , j i – (0,1) -
3
i
j j i .
i 1
1 2 3
1 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 2 4 ( 3) 7 4 18,
1 2 3
2 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 2 5 ( 3) 8 4 21,
1 2 3
3 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 2 6 ( 3) 9 4 26.
510
, -
( ) ,
, , -
,
. ,
.
, N ( )
, N! . -
, , , N!
.
1 2
ij
3 4
k . -
. 4.3.3. 5 6
7 8
.
. -
i j. -
1 3
2 4
.
5 7
6 8
. 4.3.5. ( ) ,
. 4. 511
,
.
-
. 4.3.6. ) , -
,
,
, -
.
, N ( -
, ),
N!
. ,
.
-
. , -
, .
N=1 ( i1 ) i1 ,
. 4.3.4.
1
N=2 ( i1 ,i2 ) ( i1 ,i2 i2 ,i1 ),
2!
1
N=3 ( i1 ,i2 ,i3 ) { i1 ,i2 ,i3 i3 ,i1 ,i2 i2 ,i3 ,i1
3!
i2 ,i1 ,i3 i3 ,i2 ,i1 i1 ,i3 ,i2 }
... ...
512
,
: -
, .
(i j)
.
. 4.3.5.
, N ( -
, ),
N! ,
( k 1 , k 2 ,...,k N )
( 1) , (k1 , k 2 ,..., k N ) –
{1,2,..., N } , -
. , -
.
-
. , -
, .
N=1 [ i1 ] i1 ,
. 4.3.6.
1
N=2 [ i1 ,i2 ] { i1 ,i2 i2 ,i1 },
2!
1
N=3 [ i1 ,i2 ,i3 ] { i1 ,i2 ,i3 i3 ,i1 ,i2 i2 ,i3 ,i1
3!
i2 ,i1 ,i3 i3 ,i2 ,i1 i1 ,i3 ,i2 }
... ...
. 4. 513
,
: -
, .
[i j]
.
. 4.3.7.
, ,
, .
1 2
3 4
ijk . -
. 4.3.4. 5 6
7 8
( ij) k , i ( jk ) i [ jk ] .
. 1 . ijk jik ,
i j,
1 3
2 4
( . . 4.3.3.)
5 7
6 8
ijk ikj ,
j k,
1 5
3 7
,
2 6
4 8
514
2 . ( ij) k
1 1 2 3 5
1
2 2 2
3 2 4 4 5
4
2 2 2
,
5 5 6 7 13
5
2 2 2
7 6 8 8 13
8
2 2 2
i ( jk ) –
1 1 2 5 7
1
2 2 2
3 3 4 7 11
3
2 2 2
,
5 2 6 6 7
6
2 2 2
7 4 8 8 11
8
2 2 2
i [ jk ] –
. 4. 515
1 1 2 5 3
0
2 2 2
3 3 4 7 3
0
2 2 2
.
5 2 6 6 3
0
2 2 2
7 4 8 8 3
0
2 2 2
§ 4.4.
-
, ,
, -
,
. -
-
.
.
n
{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } E x, -
i
, .
i
ij ( gi , g j ) ,
i i
j ij ( gi , g j ) ( gi i , g j ) ( x, g j ) .
, x -
n
E
516
j . j
x {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } , -
x
i
j ij .
, -
-
. , -
x ( . -
10.3.2).
j1 j 2 ... j q
En (q, p) i1i2 ...i p ,
. 4.4.1.
j 2 ... j q
q 1. (q 1, p 1) i0i1i2 ...i p -
-
j1 j 2 ... j q
j1 i1i2 ...i p , -
j2 ... jq j1 j2 ... jq
i0i1i2 ...i p i0 j1 i1i2 ...i p .
, -
, -
. , .
, -
. 4.4.2. E n
. 4. 517
, , -
-
.
, , ,
T
(2, 0) . g
S g
S .
, -
:
1 T 1 1 T 1
g
( S g
S ) S g
( S )
1 1 T
S g
( S ) ,
T 1 T 1 T T
E E ( S S ) ( S ) S -
, S
1 T T
( S ) ( S ) 1. ,
ij
.
j1 j 2 ... j q
En (q, p) i1i2 ...i p ,
. 4.4.3.
j0 j1 j2 ... jq
p 1. (q 1, p 1) i2 ...i p -
j1 j 2 ... j q
i1 i1i2 ...i p ,
j0 j1 j2 ... jq i1 j0 j1 j2 ... j q
i2 ...i p i1i2 ...i p .
518
E2
. 4.4.1. 2 3 i
ij jk
3 5
3 4
5 7
.
2 5
1 3
ij
ijk k .
. 1 .
m
ijk im jk .
1 2
111 11 11 12 11 2 3 3 5 21,
1 2
112 11 12 12 12 2 2 3 1 7,
1 2
121 11 21 12 21 2 4 3 7 29,
1 2
122 11 22 12 22 2 5 3 3 19,
1 2
211 21 11 22 11 3 3 5 5 34,
1 2
212 21 12 22 12 3 2 5 1 11,
1 2
221 21 21 22 21 3 4 5 7 47,
1 2
222 21 22 22 22 3 5 5 3 30.
, ijk
21 29
34 47
.
7 19
11 30
. 4. 519
2 .
ij i mj ij
k mk , – -
, -
ij
1
2 3 5 3
.
3 5 3 2
11 1 11 1 21
1 11 21 3 5 4 3 3,
12 1 12 1 22
1 11 21 3 3 4 2 1,
21 2 11 2 21
1 11 21 5 5 7 3 4,
22 2 12 2 22
1 11 21 5 ( 3) 7 2 1,
11 1 11 1 21
2 12 22 2 5 3 5 5,
12 1 12 1 22
2 12 22 2 ( 3) 5 2 4,
21 2 11 2 21
2 12 22 1 5 3 ( 3) 4,
22 2 12 2 22
2 12 22 1 ( 3) 3 2 3.
ij
, k
3 1
4 1
.
5 4
4 3
ij i
, ij j,
520
1 T
, S S ,
, .
§ 4.5.
,
.
. -
. ,
, -
.
E3 .
-
ijk , -
:
( i , j ,k )
ijk ( 1) , i, j, k ,
ijk 0– .
(l , m, n) , , -
{l , m, n} ( . § 6.1).
. 4. 521
ijk , ,
27 , : 1
1.
, ijk
E3 -
. -
:
lmn li mj nk ijk l1 m2 n3 l2 m3 n1 l3 m1 n2
l1 m3 n2 l2 m1 n3 l3 m2 n1
l1 l2 l3
det m1 m2 m3 ,
n1 n2 n3
( l ,m ,n )
lmn ( 1) , l , m, n ,
lmn 0– ,
11 12 13
21 22 23 (
31 32 33
) -
1.
ijk
( )
, , ,
.
522
-
E3 ,
. § 2.2 § 2.4). .
i k ,
( ) -
a b. -
i k -
, 9 ,
:
1 1 1 2 1 3
2 1 2 2 2 3 .
3 1 3 2 3 3
,
-
:
1 1
i k ( i k k i ) ( i k k i )
2 2
1 1 1 2 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 3 3 1
1
2 1 2 2 2 3 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 2
2
3 1 3 2 3 3 3 1 1 3 3 2 2 3 3 3 3 3
0 1 2 2 1 1 3 3 1
1
2 1 1 2 0 2 3 3 2 .
2
3 1 1 3 3 2 2 3 0
.
. 4. 523
, , -
-
, .
, ,
.
, , i k -
, S ,
:
T
k k ki i kj j ik kj i j ij i j i i ,
: ( )
a b, i k E3 , -
-
i i 1 1 2 2 3 3. ( . § 2.9).
( a, b ) ki i k . a b, -
, -
b cos
a
b sin ,
0
0 0
524
– a b.
(a, b) a b cos , -
, .
. , -
0 1 2 2 1 1 3 3 1
2 1 1 2 0 2 3 3 2
3 1 1 3 3 2 2 3 0
, ,
a b E3
, [ a , b ],
2 3 3 2
3 1 1 3 .
1 2 2 1
, , -
(n 1)n
n ,
2
, .
3
, E -
3
, E
.
. 4. 525
, ,
[ a , b ]i ijk j k .
, , i 1:
1 jk j k 111 1 1 112 1 2 113 1 3
121 2 1 122 2 2 123 2 3
131 3 1 132 3 2 133 3 3
2 3 3 2 .
, i ijk j k
3
E .
i ijk j k ,
is s ijk jm kl m l .
qi i,
qi is s qi jm kl ijk m l ,
qi is s qs s q , qml qi jm kl ijk , -
ijk
. , i iml m l , -
.
, , [ a , b ]. -
, a b -
3
E , -
526
0
0
a b cos ,
0
b sin
– a b.
[ a, b] a b sin ,
,
, .
, , -
-
“ ”,
-
-
.
, -
. :
1 . ( . § 2.6) -
(a , b , c ) ( a ,[b, c ] ) i [ b , c ]i i ijk j k ijk i j k .
2 .
( . § 2.8) -
:
. 4. 527
[ a , [ b , c ] ]i ijk j [ b , c ]k ijk j klm l m
ijk klm j l m .
ijk klm il jm im jl ,
[ a , [ b , c ] ]i ijk j klm l m ( il jm im jl ) j l m
i m m i j j i (a , c ) i (a , b )
, ,
[a , [ b , c ] ] b (a , c ) c (a , b ) .
528
1. .
. 10- , . .: , 2005.
2. .
. .: , 2005.
3. . . .: , 1976.
4. . . .: , 1979.
5. . .
.: , 1983.
6. . . .:
, 1952.
7. . : . .: ,
1976.
8. ., ., . -
. .: -
, 2001.
529
§ 4.1.
§ 4.2.
§ 6.3.
§ . 4.3.
§ 12.3.
§ 5.4.
§ 1.5.
§ 1.5.
§ 7.2.
§ 1.5.
§ 1.5.
§ 6.5.
§ 6.5.
§ 6.5.
§ 9.1.
§ 9.1.
§ 8.7.
, § 1.3.
§ 2.4, § . 4.5.
§ 5.2.
530
( ) § 8.4.
§ 2.5, § 8.7.
( )
§ 8.7.
§ 2.5.
-
§ 2.5.
§ 2.3.
§ 2.7.
-
§ 2.3.
-
§ 2.7.
§ 5.1.
§ . 1.1.
§ . 2.1.
-
§ 5.4.
-
§ 5.4.
§ 4.4.
§ 4.5.
§ 4.5.
§ 7.4.
§ 3.3.
§ 5.6.
531
§ 2.8, § . 4.5.
§ 8.7.
§ 4.5.
§ 8.2.
§ 8.3.
2- 3- § 1.1.
n- § 6.1.
§ 9.2.
§ . 1.3.
§ . 1.4.
§ . 1.2.
§ 11.4.
§ 6.3.
§ 6.3.
§ 10.1.
§ 1.1.
§ 8.2.
§ . 4.2.
-
§ 9.1.
532
§ 9.2.
§ 8.7.
§ 1.8.
§ 7.3.
§ 8.3.
§ 7.5.
§ 7.5.
§ 8.5.
§ 8.6.
§ 9.4.
( ) § 8.4.
§ 4.4.
§ 4.5.
§ 9.2.
§ 1.1.
§ 9.2.
§ 9.2.
n § 1.1.
§ 12.2.
§ 1.4.
§ 1.4.
§ 8.2.
§ 1.4.
§ 1.4.
§ . 3.0.
§ 1.5.
§ 7.3.
533
§ 4.3.
§ 4.6.
§ 4.5.
§ 9.1.
§ 8.3.
§ 8.7.
§ 10.3.
§ 1.5.
§ 7.3.
§ 5.2.
§ 1.5.
§ 1.5.
§ 9.3, § 10.3.
§ 1.4.
§ 7.2.
§ 1.4.
§ 7.2.
§ 1.4.
§ 7.2.
§ 7.4.
§ 3.2.
§ 7.1.
§ 8.2.
§ 8.7.
§ 8.1.
§ 5.3.
534
§ 8.7.
§ 8.7.
§ 4.1.
§ 4.4.
§ 4.1.
§ 1.1.
§ 9.1.
§ 10.3.
§ 9.2.
§ 8.3.
§ 8.4.
§ 5.3.
§ 1.8.
-
§ 7.3.
§ 6.8.
§ 6.8.
§ 9.2.
k § 6.3.
§ 1.2.
§ 3.3.
§ 3.2.
§ 7.5.
§ 6.6.
§ 5.3.
§ 10.1.
§ 10.1.
535
§ 1.1.
§ 1.4.
§ 10.1.
§ 1.7.
§ 3.2.
§ 3.2.
§ 3.3.
§ 1.1.
§ 1.3.
§ 1.2.
§ 8.2.
§ 8.7.
§ 7.1.
§ 8.4.
§ 5.1.
§ 7.5.
§ 5.2.
§ 8.2.
§ 5.1.
§ 8.3.
§ 1.7.
§ 6.6, § 6.7.
§ 6.7.
§ 6.7.
§ 4.5.
§ 6.6.
§ 5.3.
§ 5.2, § 8.1.
§ 5.3.
§ 8.7.
§ . 4.3.
536
§ 7.3.
2- § 1.1.
3- § 1.1.
n § 6.1.
§ 6.2.
§ . 4.4.
§ . 1.3.
§ . 1.4.
§ . 1.2.
§ 10.2.
§ 5.1, § 10.4.
§ 2.1, § 10.5.
§ 2.1.
§ 2.1.
§ 10.5.
§ 5.5.
§ 10.1.
§ 1.5.
§ 10.8.
§ 1.7.
§ 1.5, § 10.2.
6.6.
§ 2.1.
§ 12.1.
§ 5.2.
§ 9.3.
§ 4.4.
§ 4.5.
§ 3.3.
§ 3.1.
§ 7.4.
537
§ 1.8.
§ . 2.7.
§ 4.5.
§ . 4.4.
§ 7.4.
§ 9.6.
§ 9.3.
§ 4.6.
§ 4.1.
§ 4.2.
§ 1.2.
§ 6.4.
§ 1.2.
§ 1.2.
§ 5.2.
§ 9.2, § 12.1.
§ 9.2, § 12.1.
-
§ 4.4.
§ 12.1
§ 5.1.
§ 5.2.
§ 8.2.
§ 8.3.
§ 8.2.
§ 8.7.
§ 1.1.
§ 1.2.
§ 8.2.
§ 8.7.
§ 7.1.
538
§ 7.4.
§ 3.3.
§ 3.2.
§ 1.6.
§ 1.7.
§ 1.1.
§ 6.3.
3-
§ 1.1.
§ 1.1.
§ 7.2.
§ 8.4.
§ 1.2.
§ 6.5.
§ 3.4.
§ 10.1.
§ 3.2.
§ 3.4.
§ 3.3.
§ 6.6.
§ 1.1.
§ 10.7.
§ . 4.3.
§ 5.4.
§ 2.4.
§ . 2.4.
539
§ . 1.3.
§ . 2.6.
§ . 2.5.
§ 1.3.
n- § 6.2.
§ . 1.4.
§ 8.6.
§ 8.6.
§ 2.2.
§ 2.6.
§ . 1.2.
§ . 2.2.
§ . 2.3.
§ 3.3.
§ 9.3.
§ 2.3.
§ . 4.3.
§ 1.1.
§ 9.1.
n n § 6.4.
m n § 6.6.
§ 2.2, § . 4.5.
§ 10.1.
§ 1.1.
§ 1.6.
§ 8.3.
§ 1.2.
§ . 4.3.
§ 2.6.
( ) § 8.5.
§ 8.5.
§ 6.6.
§ 1.4.
§ 11.5.
540
§ 8.7.
§ 10.6.
§ 1.1.
§ 1.2.
§ 11.4.
§ 1.1.
§ 1.1.
§ 8.2.
§ 8.7.
§ 7.4.
-
§ 8.6.
§ 4.6.
( ) § 8.4.
§ . 4.2.
§ . 4.4.
§ . 4.5.
§ 8.6.
§ 10.3.
§ 9.3.
§ 6.6.
§ 6.3.
§ 6.5.
§ 10.8.
§ 6.5.
§ 7.5.
§ 6.7, § 10.6.
§ 8.2.
§ 3.4.
§ 1.1.
§ 5.1.
§ . 4.3.
§ 1.4.
541
§ . 3.0.
§ 2.2.
§ 10.1.
§ 1.1.
§ 1.2.
§ 1.6.
§ 8.3.
§ . 4.3.
§ . 4.3.
§ 11.1.
§ 11.2.
§ 3.3.
§ 3.1.
§ 3.2.
§ 1.6.
§ 1.6.
§ 3.5.
§ 3.5.
§ 3.5.
§ 3.1.
§ 3.1.
§ 3.1.
§ . 1.3.
§ . 1.2.
542
§ . 3.0.
§ 1.8.
§ 3.3.
§ 3.2.
§ 6.7.
§ 6.7.
§ 5.2.
§ 8.5.
§ 8.5.
§ 4.3.
§ 4.6.
§ 6.6.
§ 2.1.
§ . 3.0.
§ 9.5.
§ 1.1.
§ 6.3.
-
§ 6.8.
543
§ 4.4.
§ 4.5.
§ 4.5.
§ 4.5.
§ 11.2.
§ 11.3.
§ 11.3.
§ 11.4.
§ 11.4.
§ 8.4.

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)

e1 e1 cos e2 sin e2 e1 sin e2 cos

Prl (a1 a 2 ) Prl a1 Prl a 2 .

Prl ( 1 a1 2 a2 ) 1 Prl a1 2 Prl a 2 .

(a, b, c ) ([a, b ], c ) ( 1 det

b [ r ,[ b , c ] ] r b c sin sin( { r ;[ b , c ]})

r b c cos( ) (r, c) b (r, c) ,

(r, c) (a, b ) ( r , c ) (a, b ) .

(n1 , n1 ) (n1 , n2 ) d1 (n1 , n 2 )

. 3.5.3 r02 r01 , , -

A11 x 2 A22 y 2 A33 z 2

A11 ; A22 ; A33 ; A12 ; A13 ; A23

OM , (Ox, OP) , (OM , Oz ) ,

11 12 ... ... ... ... ... 1l 21 22 ... 2i ... 2n

... ... ... ... ... ...

cos sin cos sin

A 31 32 33 ... 3n ij ; i, j [1, n].

(m1 , m 2 ,..., m n ) (k1 , k 2 ,..., k n ) .

{k1 , k 2 , ... k i , k i 1 , k i 2 ..., k n } .

, det A det A det A , k -

21 11 22 21 ... 2n n1 ... 21 1n ... 2n nn

2i1 2i2 ... 2in

, (1, k 2 , k 3 ,..., k n ) (k 2 , k 3 ,..., k n ) ,

... ... ... ...

11 ... 1,r k ... 1r

... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

{g1, g 2 ,..., g k , g1, g 2 ,..., g l , g1, g 2 ,..., g m } .

7.3.3. { x1, x 2 ,..., xk } -

... ... ... ... ... ...

7.3.1 {g1, g 2 ,..., g n } -

1º. {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } { f1 , f 2 ,..., f m } -

... ... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ... ...

0 0 ... 0 1,m 1 ... 1n

0 0 ... 0 2,m 1 ... 2n

... ... ... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ... ... ...

8.6.2, 8.6.5 8.6.6 ,

... ... ... ...

( x, y, z ) Ax 2 2 Bxy Cy 2 2 Dxz 2 Eyz Fz 2

(e1 , e2 ) (e1 , g 2 21 1e)

{e1 , e2 ,..., en } {e1 , e2 ,..., en } En S

{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }

i (gk , gi ) ( f , g k ), k [0, n] , (12.3.1)

eiz cos z i sin z , z .

j1 j2 ... jqi1i2 ...i p ... ... i1i1 i 2i2 ... i pi p

j1 j1 j2 j2 ... jq jq j1 j2 ... jq i1i2 ...i p ,

ik [1, n] ; k [1, p] jk [1, p] ; k [1, m] , ij ij

j1, j2 ,..., jq i1, i2 ,..., i p .

{g1 , g 2 ,..., g n } {g1 , g 2 ,..., g n }

2111 2211 2112 2212

2121 2221 2122 2222

j1 j 2 ... jq j1 j2 ... j q j1 j2 ... j q

j1 j 2 ... jq k1k 2 ...k r j1 j2 ... j q k1k 2 ... k r

121 2 1 122 2 2 123 2 3

131 3 1 132 3 2 133 3 3

(a , b , c ) ( a ,[b, c ] ) i [ b , c ]i i ijk j k ijk i j k .

[ a , [ b , c ] ]i ijk j [ b , c ]k ijk j klm l m

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