Explain the structural working principles of the following structural forms, giving

examples in each:

Arches and portal frames

Arches

An arch is a curved structure capable of spanning a space while supporting significant weight.

Arches and vaults are characterized by a thrust whose intensity and angle may disturb the stability

of the whole. The thrust is the resultant of two forces: the weight of the arch and the horizontal

thrust. Thus, the thrust always pushes downwards with an angle which depends on the arch profile

and weight. The intensity of the horizontal thrust is generated by the weight of the voussoirs, which

rest on each other, and the flatness of the arch. The flatter the arch is, the more intense the

horizontal thrust is. The horizontal thrust (HT) is applied on both springer, but it is also found on

top of the arch, as it represents the balance of the second half of the arch. The horizontal thrust can

be minimized by the optimization of the arch profile. Nevertheless, there will always be a thrust

which can be neutralized by means of buttresses, truss rods or ring beams.

Portal Frames

Portal frames are generally low-rise structures, comprising columns and horizontal or

pitched rafters, connected by moment-resisting connections. Resistance to lateral and vertical

actions is provided by the rigidity of the connections and the bending stiffness of the members,

which is increased by a suitable haunch or deepening of the rafter sections. This form of

continuous frame structure is stable in its plane and provides a clear span that is unobstructed by

bracing. Portal frames are very common, in fact 50% of constructional steel used in the UK is in

portal frame construction. They are very efficient for enclosing large volumes, therefore they are
often used for industrial, storage, retail and commercial applications as well as for agricultural

purposes. A portal frame building comprises a series of transverse frames braced longitudinally.

The primary steelwork consists of columns and rafters, which form portal frames, and bracing.

The end frame (gable frame) can be either a portal frame or a braced arrangement of columns

and rafters. The light gauge secondary steelwork consists of side rails for walls and purlins for

the roof. The secondary steelwork supports the building envelope, but also plays an important

role in restraining the primary steelwork. The roof and wall cladding separate the enclosed space

from the external environment as well as providing thermal and acoustic insulation. The

structural role of the cladding is to transfer loads to secondary steelwork and also to restrain the

flange of the purlin or rail to which it is attached.

Folded slabs and shells

Folded slabs

They are a special class of shell structures formed by joining flat, thin slabs along their edges so

as to create a three-dimensional spatial structure

Folded plates may be prismatic non prismatic, or faceted. The first two types, which are the most

common, consist generally of planar thin slabs joined along their longitudinal edges to form a

beamlike structure spanning between supports. Faceted folded plates, which are much less

common, are made up of triangular and/or polygonal planar thin slabs joined along their edges to

form three-dimensional spatial structures similar to continuously curved thin shells such as

domes or other shell forms. Only limited experience is available on the design, analysis, and

construction of faceted folded plates.ve

The principle of folding as a tool to develop a general structure shape has been known for a long

time. Folded structure system which are analogous to several biological system such as found at

broadleaf-tree leaves, petals and foldable insect wings, are adopted to be employed in a new

technical

Shells

Shells are three-dimensional spatial structures made up of one or more curved slabs or folded
plates whose thicknesses are small compared to their other dimensions. Thin shells are
characterized by their three-dimensional load-carrying behavior which is determined by the
geometry of their forms, by the manner in
which they are supported, and by the nature of the applied load.
Common types of thin shells are domes (surfaces of revolution), cylindrical shells, conoids
elliptical paraboloids, hyperbolic paraboloids and groin vaults. Considerable information on the
experience gained in the design, analysis and construction of these shells may be found in the
cited references. Less experience is available regarding other shell types or shapes, including
free-form shells. However, a number of these have been successfully.
The shells are most commonly flat plates and domes, but may also take the form of ellipsoids
or cylindrical sections, or some combination thereof. The first concrete shell dates back to the
2nd century.

Thin shells are characterized by their three-dimensional load-carrying behavior, which is

determined by the geometry of their forms, by the manner in which they are supported, and by
the nature of the applied load.
The basic assumption in the linear theory of shells that the displacements of the shell are
considered to be small in comparison to the thickness is abandoned in the present nonlinear
analysis of shells. A shell is called thin if the maximum value of the ratio h/R, where h is the
thickness of the shell and R is the principal radius of curvature of the middle surface... is less
than or equal to 1/20 ...beyond this range... the shell is regarded as thick. ...in a large number of
practical applications the ratio... lies in the range between 1/50 and 1/1000, making the theory of
thin shells of great practical importance.

SUSPENDED CABLES AND CASTELLATED BEAMS

.Suspended cables

Cables and arches are closely related to each other and hence they are grouped in this course in the
same module. Structure may be classified into rigid and deformable structures depending on change in
geometry of the structure while supporting the load. Rigid structures support externally applied loads
without appreciable change in their shape (geometry). Beams trusses and frames are examples of rigid
structures Unlike rigid structures, deformable structures undergo changes in their shape according to
externally applied loads. However, it should be noted that deformations are still small. Cables and
fabric structures are deformable structures. Cables are mainly used to support suspension roofs, bridges
and cable car system. They are also used in electrical transmission lines and for structures supporting
radio antennas. In the following sections, cables subjected to concentrated load and cables subjected
to uniform loads are considered.
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Cables are used to support the dead weight and live loads of the bridge decks having long spans. The
bridge decks are suspended from the cable using the hangers. The stiffened deck prevents the
supporting cable from changing its shape by distributing the live load moving over it, for a longer
length of cable. In such cases cable is assumed to be uniformly loaded.
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CASTELLATED BEAMS

Castellated Beam is also called as perforated web. Main objective of perforated web is to increase the depth of
section
so that the moment of inertia parameter will be increase. Castellated beam have been used in many year. The

castellated beam were firstly used in Europe in 1950s due cheap labor cost. Castellated beam is a name commonly

used for type of expanded beam. The primary advantages of castellated beam is the improved strength due to

increased depth of the section without any additional weight. This new type of beam showed a mechanical behavior

similar to that of isolated rectangular openings mainly regarding the Vierendeel bending. In castellated beam to

avoid local failure of beam provision of plate below concentrated load.

Castellated beam have been used in construction for many years. Today with the development of automated cutting
and welding equipment. These beams are produced in an almost unlimited number of depths and spans. Suitable for
both light and heavy loading conditions. In the past the cutting angle of castellated beams ranged from 45° to 70°

but currently, 60° has become a fairly standard cutting angle. Although 45° sections are also available. It should be

noted that these are approximate values. Actual angles will vary slightly from these to accommodate other

geometrical requirements. As roof or floor beams joists or purlins, these sections may replace solid sections or truss

members. Their aesthetic attributes produce an attractive architectural design feature for stores, Schools and service

buildings. In structures with ceilings the web openings of these members provide a passage for easy routing and

installation of utilities and air Conditioning ducts. Castellated beams refer to the type of beams which involve

expanding a standard rolled steel section in such a way that a predetermined pattern is cut on section webs and the

rolled section is cut into two halves. The two halves are joined together by welding and the high points of the web

pattern are connected together to form a castellated beam.