Stability and Ductility of Steel Structures Volume 2 PDF

VOLUME 2
Proceedings of
SDSS’Rio 2010
International Colloquium
Stability and Ductility of Steel Structures
First published in Brazil in 2010 by Federal University of Rio de Janeiro and State University of Rio de Janeiro
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International Colloquium on Stability and Ductility of Steel Structures, SDSS’Rio 2010
ISBN: 978-85-285-0137-7
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Federal University of Rio de Janeiro and State University of Rio de Janeiro
Telephone: (+55 21) 2562-8474 and (+55 21) 2334-0469
E-mail: batista@coc.ufrj.br ; pvellasco@globo.com and luciano@eng.uerj.br
Editors: Eduardo de M. Batista, Pedro C. G. da S. Vellasco and Luciano R. O. de Lima

RIO DE JANEIRO - BRAZIL
08 - 10 SEPTEMBER 2010
ORGANISATION
Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, UFRJ
State University of Rio de Janeiro, UERJ
Structural Stability Research Council, SSRC
EDITORS
Eduardo de M. Batista
Pedro C. G. da S. Vellasco
Luciano R. O. de Lima
SPONSORS
SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE
S.A.L. Andrade - Brazil J.R. Liew - Singapore

R. Azoubel - Brazil L.R.O. Lima - Brazil
E.M. Batista - Brazil J. Lindner - Germany
R. Battista - Brazil M. Mahendran - Australia
E. Bayo - Spain R. Maquoi - Belgium
D. Beg - Slovenia F. Mazzolani - Italy
F. Bijlaard - Netherlands E. Mirambel - Spain
R. Bjorhovde - USA J.R. Muzeau - France
M.A. Bradford - Australia D.A. Nethercot - UK
I. Burges - UK L.C. Neves - Portugal
D. Camotim - Portugal J. Packer - Canada
P.J.S. Cruz - Portugal G. Parke - UK M. Pfeil - Brazil
J.B. Davison - UK R. Plank - UK
R. Driver - Canada A. Plumier - Belgium
D. Dubina - Romania K.J. Rasmussen - Australia
L. Dunai - Hungary P.V. Real - Portugal
W.S. Easterling - USA J.P.C. Rodrigues - Portugal
R.H. Fakury - Brazil B. Schafer - USA
J.M. Franssen - Belgium J.G.S. Silva - Brazil
T. Galambos - USA L.S. Silva - Portugal
P.B. Gonçalves - Brazil N. Silvestre - Portugal
R. Greiner - Austria M. Skaloud - Czech Rep.
G. Hancock - Australia H. Snijder - Netherlands
J.-P. Jaspart - Belgium R. Souza - Brazil
V. Kodur - USA B. Uy - Australia
U. Kuhlmann - Germany P.C.G.S. Vellasco - Brazil
R. LaBoube - USA A. Wadee - UK
D. Lam - UK F. Wald - Czech Rep.
A. Landesmann - Brazil B. Young - Hong Kong
R. Landolfo - Italy R. Ziemian - USA
ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
Alexandre Landesmann - UFRJ Maximiliano Malite - USP / SC

Arlene Maria Sarmanho Freitas - UFOP Michele Schubert Pfeil - UFRJ
Eduardo de Miranda Batista - UFRJ Pedro Colmar G. da Silva Vellasco - UERJ
Francisco Carlos Rodrigues - UFMG Remo Magalhães de Souza - UFPA
José Guilherme S. da Silva - UERJ Ronaldo Carvalho Battista - UFRJ
Leandro Palermo Junior - UNICAMP Sebastião A. L. de Andrade - PUC-RJ/UERJ
Luciano Rodrigues Ornelas de Lima - UERJ Zacarias M. Chamberlain Pravia - FUPF
Luciano Mendes Bezerra - UNB
CONTENTS
VOLUME 1
PREFACE v
1. SDSS HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 1

How all of it started - some reminiscences about the first international colloquia
in the stability series 3
M. Škaloud
2. KEYNOTE LECTURES 7
Some issues for column stability criteria 9
Reidar Bjorhovde
The effect of edge support on tensile membrane action of composite slabs in fire 21
Anthony K. Abu and Ian W. Burgess
Latest developments in the GBT analysis of thin-walled steel structures 33
Dinar Camotim, Cilmar Basaglia, Rui Bebiano, Rodrigo Gonçalves and Nuno Silvestre
Dual-steel frames for multistory buildings in seismic areas 59
D. Dubina
Advanced stability analysis of regular stiffened plates and complex plated elements 81
László G. Vigh and László Dunai
Direct strength design of cold-formed sections for shear and combined actions 101
Cao Hung Pham and Gregory J Hancock
Manufacturing specifications for hollow sections in 2010 115
Jeffrey A. Packer
Numerical study on stainless steel beam-columns with transverse loading 123
N. Lopes, P. Vila Real and L. Simões da Silva
3. BRIDGES AND FOOTBRIDGES 131

Improved cross frame connection details for steel bridges with skewed supports 133
Craig Quadrato, Anthony Battistini, Todd A. Helwig, Karl Frank
and Michael Engelhardt
Flange thirkness transitions of bridge griders-buckling behaviour in global bending 141
A. Lechner, A. Taras and R. Greiner
A visco-elastic sandwich solution for orthotropic decks of steel bridges 149
Ronaldo C. Battista, Emerson F. dos Santos, Raimundo Vasconcelos
and Michèle S. Pfeil
v
Contents
Elegance and economy - a new viaduct over the river Llobregat 157
Peter Tanner, Juan L. Bellod and David Sanz
Design of beam-to-beam butt-plate joints in composite bridges 165
A. Lachal, S.S. Kaing and S. Guezouli
4. CONNECTIONS 173
Experimental analysis of composite connections using slab made by precast joist
with lattice and bricks 175
William Bessa, Roberto M. Gonçalves, Carlo A. Castiglioni and Luis Calado
Response of end-plate joints under combined forces 183
N. Baldassino, A. Bignardi and R. Zandonini
Influence of member components on the structural performance of beam-to-column
joints of pitched roof portal frames with class 3 and 4 sections 191
I. Mircea Cristutiu, Dan Dubina
Application of Eurocode 3 to steel connections with four bolts per horizontal row 199
J.-F. Demonceau, K. Weynand, J.-P. Jaspart and C. Müller
A new hybrid testing procedure of the low cycle fatigue behaviour
for structural elements and connections 207
Carlo Andrea Castiglioni, Alberto Drei and Roberto Goncalves
Proposal of a three-dimensional semi-rigid composite joint: tests and finite
element models 215
Beatriz Gil, Rufino Goñi and Eduardo Bayo
Strength and ductility of bolted T-stub macro-components under monotonic
and cyclic loading 223
Nicolae Muntean, Daniel Grecea, Adrian Dogariu and Dan Dubina
Prediction of the cyclic behaviour of moment resistant beam-to-column
joints of composite structural elements 231
Nauzika Kovács, László Dunai and Luís Calado
Numerical modeling of joint ductility in steel and steel-concrete
composite frames 239
Leslaw Kwasniewski and Marian Gizejowski
Influence of chord axial loading on the stiffness and resistance of welded “T”
joints of SHS members 247
Rui M. M. P. de Matos, Luís F. Costa-Neves and Luciano R. O. de Lima
Experimental studies of behaviour of composite beam-column flush end plate
connections subjected seismic loading 255
Olivia Mirza and Brian Uy
Modelling connections of moment resisting steel frames for seismic analysis 263
L. Mota, A. T. da Silva, C. Rebelo, L. Simões da Silva and Luciano R. O. de Lima
Influence of local plastic buckling of joint on carrying capacity of a thin-walled truss 271
H. Pasternak, G. Kubieniec and V. Bachmann
vi
Contents
Numerical analysis of endplate beam-to-column joints under bending and axial force 279
Monique C. Rodrigues, Luciano R. O. de Lima, Sebastião A. L. de Andrade,
Pedro C. G. da S. Vellasco and José G. S. da Silva
Loss of preload in bolted connections due to embedding and self loosening 287
Roland Friede and Jörg Lange
Plastic resistance of L-stubs joints subjected to tensile forces 295
M.Couchaux, I.Ryan and M.Hjiaj
Composite beam modelling at real scale including beam-to-beam joint 303
S. Guezouli and A. Lachal
Resistance of laser made t RHS joints under compression load 311
Jerzy K. Szlendak
Cold-formed steel and concrete composite beams: study of beam-to-column
connection and region of hogging bending 319
Mairal R. and Malite M.
Shear bolted connections: numerical model for a ductile component,
the plate-bolt in bearing 327
J. Henriques, L. Ly, J.-P. Jaspart and L. Simões da Silva
5. DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR AND ANALYSIS 335

Considerations on the design, analysis and performances of eccentrically braced
composite frames under seismic action 337
Hervé Degée, Nicolas Lebrun and André Plumier
Effect of the loading modelling, human heel impact and structural damping
on the dynamic response of composite footbriges 345
José Guilherme S. da Silva, Francisco J. da C. P. Soeiro,
Pedro C. G. da S. Vellasco, Luciano R. O. de Lima and Nelson L. de A. Lima
Structural damage assessment using the differential evolution and the ant colony
optimization techniques 353
Genasil F. dos Santos, José Guilherme S. da Silva and Francisco J. da C. P. Soeiro
Free and forced nonlinear vibrations of steel frames with semi-rigid connections 361
Andréa R.D. Silva, Ricardo A.M. Silveira, Alexandre S. Galvão and
Paulo B. Gonçalves
Static and dynamic behavior of lens-type shear panel dampers for
highway bridge bearing 369
Tatsumasa Takaku, Feng Chen, Takashi Harada, Masayuki Ishiyama,
Nobuhiro Yamazaki, Tetsuhiko Aoki and Yuhshi Fukumoto
Elasto-plastic buckling behavior of H-shaped beam with large depth-thickness
ratio under cyclic loading 377
Tao Wang and Kikuo Ikarashi
Analytical studies of a full-scale steel building shaken to collapse 385
Keh-Chyuan Tsai, Yi-Jer Yu and Yuan-Tao Weng
vii
Contents
Robustness of steel and composite buildings under impact loading 393

Ludivine Comeliau, Jean-François Demonceau and Jean-Pierre Jaspart
Design of steel frames of dissipative shear walls 401
C. Neagu, F. Dinu and D. Dubina
Effects of wind on a 3 dimensional steel structure for the central
corridor roof (central spine) at TCS campus at Siruseri, Chennai (India) - a case study 409
T. S. Gururaj and Nagaraja M. Thontalapura
Influence of system uncertainties on structural damage identification
through ambient vibrations of steel structures 417
Leandro Fadel Miguel, Letícia Fadel Miguel, Jorge D. Riera, Marta G. Amani
and Raúl O. Curadelli
Non-linear dynamic analysis of stayed steel columns 423
Ricardo R. de Araujo, José G. S. da Silva, Pedro C. G. da S. Vellasco,
Sebastião A. L. de Andrade, Luciano R. O. de Lima and Luis A. P. Simões da Silva
6. FIRE ENGINEERING 431

Interaction diagrams for design of concrete-filled tubular columns under fire 433
Rodrigo B. Caldas, João Batista M. Sousa Jr. and Ricardo H. Fakury
Ductility of simple steel connections in fire 441
J. Buick Davison, Ian W. Burgess, Roger J. Plank, Hongxia Yu and Ying Hu
Methodology for reliability-based design of steel members exposed to fire 449
Shahid Iqbal and Ronald S. Harichandran
Capacity reduction and fire load factors for steel columns exposed to fire 457
Shahid Iqbal and Ronald S. Harichandran
Stability of steel columns subjected to fire 465
Markus Knobloch, Diego Somaini, Jacqueline Pauli and Mario Fontana
Fire behavior of concrete-filled steel circular hollow section columns with
massive steel core 473
Martin Neuenschwander, Markus Knobloch and Mario Fontana
Buckling of concrete filled steel hollow columns in case of fire 481
Tiago A. C. Pires, João P. C. Rodrigues and J. Jéfferson Rêgo Silva
Buckling of steel and composite steel and concrete columns in case of fire 489
Antonio M. Correia and João Paulo C. Rodrigues
A coupled fluid-thermal-mechanical analysis of composite structures
under fire conditions 497
Julio Cesar Gonçalves da Silva and Alexandre Landesmann
Behaviour of composite floor beam with web openings at high temperatures 505
V.Y. Bernice Wong, Ian W. Burgess and Roger J. Plank
To shear resistance of castellated beam exposed to fire 513
F. Wald, A. Pelouchová, J. Chlouba and M. Strejč ek
viii
Contents
Numerical analysis of steel columns considering the walls on fire condition 521
Jonas B. Dorr, Jorge M. Neto and Maximiliano Malite
On the strength and DSM design of cold-formed steel columns failing
distortionally under fire conditions 529
Alexandre Landesmann, Dinar Camotim
VOLUME 2
7. MEMBERS’ BEHAVIOR: TENSION, COMPRESSION, BEAMS, BEAM-COLUMNS 537

The collapse load in submarine pipelines under compressive load and internal pressure 539
Luciano M. Bezerra and Ramon S. Y. C. Silva
Stability analysis of 3D frames using a mixed co-rotational formulation 547
Rabe Alsafadie, Mohammed Hjiaj and Jean-Marc Battini
Plastic collapse mechanisms in compressed elliptical hollow sections 555
Aimar Insausti and Leroy Gardner
Collapse of a steel structure as a result of local buckling 563
Heiko Merle and Jörg Lange
Strength and ductility of steel beams with flange holes 571
K.S. Sivakumaran, P. Arasaratnam and M. Tait
Residual stress measurements in roller bent he 100b sections 579
R.C. Spoorenberg, H.H. Snijder and J.C.D. Hoenderkamp
Lateral torsional buckling of space structures with I-beams - structural behavior
and calculation 587
Richard Stroetmann
Analytical derivation of a generalized-slenderness formula for in-plane beam-column
design and comparison with interaction-concept formulae 595
Andreas Taras and Richard Greiner
Load bearing capacity of bracing members with almost centric joints 603
Harald Unterweger
Finite element modeling of angle bracing member behavior in experimentally
tested sub-frame specimens 611
Anna M. Barszcz, Marian A. Gizejowski and Wael A. Salah Khalil
Influence of splices on the stability behaviour of columns and frames 619
Pedro D. Simão, Ana M. Girão Coelho and Frans S. K. Bijlaard
Further results on the application of the extrapolation techniques 627
Tadeh Zirakian
Elastic lateral-distortional buckling of singly symmetric i-beams:
the 2005 AISC specification 635
Tadeh Zirakian and Jian Zhang
ix
Contents
System stability design criteria for aluminum structures 641

Ronald D. Ziemian and J. Randolph Kissell
Advanced nonlinear investigations of a 50 m span frame case study:
the steel structure of the ice rink, city of Targus-Mureş, Romania 649
Zsolt Nagy and I. Mircea Cristutiu
Local post-buckling behaviour of elliptical tubes 657
Nuno Silvestre and Leroy Gardner
Plastic design of stainless steel structures 665
Marios Theofanous and Leroy Gardner
Inelastic behaviour of partially restrained steel frames 673
Renata G. L. da Silva and Armando C. C. Lavall
Robust design – alternate load path method as design strategy 681
Lars Roelle and Ulrike Kuhlmann
Use of eigenvalue analysis for different levels of stability design 689
Jozsef Szalai
The non-destructive measurement of residual stresses in stainless steel roll
formed sections 697
Rachel B. Cruise and Anna M. Paradowska
Influence of flange-to-web connection on the patch load resistance of I beams 705
László G. Vigh
Further studies on the lateral-torsional buckling of steel web-tapered beam-columns:
analytical studies 713
Gabriel A Jimenez
Lateral buckling of continuous steel beams with hinges 721
Peter Osterrieder, Stefan Richter and Matthias Friedrich
8. PLATED STRUCTURES AND BOX GIRDERS 729

The interaction behaviour of steel plated structures under transverse loading,
bending moment and shear force 731
Benjamin Braun and Ulrike Kuhlmann
Hybrid steel plate girders subjected to patch loading 739
Rolando Chacon, Enrique Mirambell and Esther Real
Numerical and experimental research in tapered steel plate girders
subjected to shear 747
E. Real, A. Bedynek and E. Mirambell
Shear strength of steel plates with reinforced opening 755
Bo Chen and K.S. Sivakumaran
Crack initiation under static loads including the influence of residiual welding stresses 763
Michael Volz and Helmut Saal
x
Contents
The fatigue and serviceability limit states of the webs of steel girders subjected
to repeated loading 771
M. Škaloud and M. Zörnerová
Imperfections in steel plated structures and their impact on ultimate strength 779
J.Kala, M.Škaloud, J.Melcher and Z.Kala
Imperfection sensitivity analysis of longitudinally stiffened plated girders subjected
to bending-shear interaction 787
F. Sinur and D. Beg
9. SHELLS 795
Influence of geometry on the dynamic buckling and bifurcations of cylindrical shells 797
Zenon N. del Prado and Paulo B. Gonçalves
Buckling of a shallow rectangular bimetallic shell subjected to outer loads
and temperature 805
M. Jakomin and F. Kosel
A geometry based method for the stability analysis of plates 813
Hesham Ahmed, John Durodola and Robert G. Beale
Critical loads and stability of an open elastic-plastic cylindrical shell with the core
of variable stiffness 821
Jerzy Zielnica
10. STEEL-CONCRETE COMPOSITE MEMBERS AND STRUCTURES 829

Ductile response of composite steel and concrete frames 831
Luigi Di Sarno
Stability and ductility of castellated composite beams subjected
to hogging bending 839
Marian A. Gizejowski and Wael A. Salah Khalil
Shear connection in steel and concrete composite trusses 847
Josef Machacek and Martin Cudejko
Steel and concrete composite building structures – an economical approach 855
Catarina Costa, Luís F. Costa-Neves and Luciano R. O. de Lima
Behavior of steel-concrete composite beams with flexible shear connectors 863
Gilson Queiroz, Francisco C. Rodrigues, Sebastião S. Pereira, Michèle S. Pfeil,
Cláudia G. Oliveira and Luciene A. C. da Mata
Influence of the friction at the support in the longitudinal shear strength
of composite slab 871
A. C. C. Lavall, R. S. Costa and F. C. Rodrigues
A parametric analysis of composite beams with t-perfobond shear connectors 879
Juliana da C. Vianna, Sebastião A. L. de Andrade, Pedro C. G. da S. Vellasco
and Luís F. da C. Neves
xi
Contents
FE modelling of slender concrete-filled stainless steel tubular columns

under axial compression 887
Zhong Tao, Brian Uy and Lin-Hai Han
Buckling resistance of steel-concrete columns composed of high-strength materials 895
Marcela Karmazínová and Jindrich J. Melcher
11. THIN-WALLED CONSTRUCTION AND COLD-FORMED MEMBERS 903

Effects of distortion on the shear stiffness of rack structures 905
Sambasiva R. Sajja, Robert G. Beale and Michael H.R. Godley
Buckling, post-buckling, collapse and design of two-span cold-formed steel beams 913
Cilmar Basaglia and Dinar Camotim
Experimental and numerical investigation of polyurethane sandwich panels 921
I. Vayas, M.-E. Dasiou and X. A. Lignos
Imperfections’ sensitivity analysis of pitched roof cold-formed steel portal frames 929
Dan Dubina, Viorel Ungureanu, Zsolt Nagy, Luis Nunes and Paul Pernes
Ultimate limit strength of perforated cold-formed steels sections 937
Andrei Crisan, Viorel Ungureanu and Dan Dubina
On the use of cold-formed thin walled members for vertical addition
of existing masonry buildings 945
G. Di Lorenzo, A. Formisano, R. Landolfo, F. M. Mazzolani and G. Terracciano
Theoretical analysis of perforated rack columns 953
Arlene M. S. Freitas, Marcílio S. R. Freitas and Flávio T. Souza
Optimization of cold-formed steel channel using the direct strenght method
and finite strip method 961
Gladimir de Campos Grigoletti, Ignacio Iturrioz, Gustavo Mezzomo
and Zacarias Martin Chamberlain Pravia
Experimental investigation of high strength cold-formed supacee sections in shear 969
Cao Hung Pham and Gregory J. Hancock
Effective design of cold-formed thin-walled channel beams with bent edges of flanges 977
Ewa Magnucka-Blandzi and Krzysztof Magnucki
Lateral buckling of steel sigma-cross-section beams with web holes 985
Jindrich J. Melcher and Marcela Karmazínová
Load-bearing capacity of perforated trapezoidal sheeting 993
Thomas Misiek and Helmut Saal
Trapezoidal sheeting made of stainless steel – two amendments
to complete the design codes 1001
Thomas Misiek, Helmut Krüger, Karsten Kathage and Thomas Ummenhofer
Pull-trough resistance of tensile-loaded screw-fastenings of thin-walled sheeting
and sandwich panels 1009
Thomas Misiek, Saskia Käpplein and Karsten Kathage
xii
Contents
The cold work of forming effect in steel structural members 1017

Tian Gao and Cristopher D. Moen
Finite element analysis of high strength cold-formed supacee sections in shear 1025
Classification of stability failure modes of sandwich panels under compression loading:
global and local buckling, crippling at support line 1033
Saskia Käpplein and Thomas Ummenhofer
Strength estimation of end failures in corrugated steel shear diaphragms 1043
Nobutaka Shimizu and Kikuo Ikarashi
Plate buckling according to Eurocode 3. Comparison of the effective width method
and the reduced stress method 1051
Jose M. Simon-Talero and Ana Caballero
DSM design of lipped channel columns undergoing local/distortional/
global mode interaction 1061
Nuno Silvestre, Pedro B. Dinis, Dinar Camotim and Eduardo M. Batista
Bracing stiffness and strength in sheathed cold-formed steel stud walls 1069
Luiz C. M. Vieira Jr. and Benjamin W. Schafer
Shear behaviour of trapezoidal sheeting without shear panel construction 1077
J. Lindner and F. Seidel
Thin beam static stability analysis by an improved numerical method 1085
A. Khelil
Investigation of the test method for distortional buckling of compressed
pallet rack members 1093
Miquel Casafont, Magdalena Pastor, Francesc Roure and Teoman Peköz
Behaviour of expanded metal panels under shear loading 1101
Phung Ngoc Dung and André Plumier
Analysis of contact buckling in built-up cold-formed steel beams assembled
by laser welding 1109
F. Portioli, O. Mammana, G. Di Lorenzo and R. Landolfo
Cross-sectional stability of structural steel 1117
Mina S. Seif and Benjamin W. Schafer
Influence of holes on the behaviour of cold-formed steel sections under compression 1125
M.M. Pastor, M. Casafont, F. Roure, J. Bonada and J. Noguera
Applications of pure and combined buckling mode calculation of thin-walled
members using the finite element method 1133
Gustavo P. Mezzomo, Ignacio Iturrioz and Gladimir de C. Grigoletti
Post-buckling behaviour and strength of angle columns 1141
Pedro B. Dinis, Dinar Camotim and Nuno Silvestre
Experimental study on cold-formed steel lipped channel columns undergoing
local-distortional-global interaction 1151
Eliane S. Santos, Eduardo M. Batista and Dinar Camotim
xiii
Contents
12. TRUSSES, TOWERS AND MASTS 1159

Stability bracing requirements of trusses 1161
Rangsan Wongjeeraphat and Todd A. Helwig
Theoretical and experimental analysis of steel space-truss with stamped connection 1169
Cleirton A. S. Freitas, Luciano M. Bezerra and Ramon S. Y. Silva
Real scale experimental analyses of circular hollow section
multi-planar steel trusses 1177
Rodrigo C. Vieira, João A. V. Requena, Newton de O. P. Junior
and Afonso H. M. de Araújo
Natural period of steel chimneys 1185
Aleksander Kozlowski, Andrzej Wojnar and Leonard Ziemianski
Dynamic response of conical and spherical shell structures subjected to blast pressure 1193
Tomasz Kubiak, Zbigniew Kolakowski, Katarzyna Kowal-Michalska,
Radoslaw Mania and Jacek Swiniarski
AUTHOR INDEX
Volume 1 537
Volume 2 1201
xiv
7. MEMBERS’ BEHAVIOR:
TENSION, COMPRESSION, BEAMS,
BEAM-COLUMNS
SDSS’Rio 2010 STABILITY AND DUCTILITY OF STEEL STRUCTURES
E. Batista, P. Vellasco, L. de Lima (Eds.)
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, September 8 - 10, 2010
THE COLLAPSE LOAD IN SUBMARINE PIPELINES UNDER

COMPRESSIVE LOAD AND INTERNAL PRESSURE
LUCIANO M. BEZERRA*, RAMON S. Y. C. SILVA*
* Department of Civil Engineering, University of Brasilia, 70910-900 – Brasilia, DF - Brazil

e-mails: lmbz@unb.br, ramon@unb.br
Keywords: Pipeline Collapse Load, Pressurized Pipelines, Petroleum Pipelines.

Abstract. In off-shore plataform, petroleum from the oil well may have to be heated up so that its density
decrease, making easier the pumping of petrolium along pipelines. Due to temperature increase, such
pipelines may be under thermal dilatation and, consequently, under high compressive thermal loading.
There is a great difficult in finding the collapse load of such submarine pipeline. An analytical method is
presented in this paper for the determination of the collapse load of pressurized pipelines extended over
large free spans. The collapse load is determined from a closed solution equation. Results of the
presented formulation are compared with sophisticated finite element analyses. For the determination of
the collapse load of pressurized freespan pipelines under compression, non-linear finite element analysis
requires a lot of computer processing while the present formulation takes practically no time to assess a
good approximation for the collapse load.
NOTATION
539
1. INTRODUCTION
Submarine pipelines are often laid on relatively rough sea-bottom terrains and, consequently, may be
supported by soil only intermittently, without intermediate support. Such spans are identified as
“freespans”. The scope of this paper is to predict the behavior of freespan pipelines under compressive
loads originating from effects such as temperature differentials. The paper deals exclusively with free
span pipelines under compressive load combined with internal pressure. The compressive load, P, is
assumed to be applied at the ends of the pipe segment and to be collinear with a line through the end
supports of the pipe segment. Consequently, the load is considered to act along the chord connecting the
two ends of the freespan segment, without change in the load direction. The collapse mechanics of a
segment of a free span pipeline (FSP) under compressive load is not necessarily the same as for a buried
pipeline (BP). Adequate support around a BP may prevent it from buckling globally. Assuming a FSP
under compression deforms as shown in Fig.-1, the collapse mode of a FSP under compression, depends
upon the length of the free span, and will be different than for local wrinkle formation typically observed
in short segments of BPs. For short free span lengths, the collapse mode of the FSP might be similar to
the local wrinkle formation mode observed in BPs. For long free spans, the collapse mode might be
comparable to the global buckling collapse mode observed in a structural column.
2. THE PIPE AND THE MODEL

Assuming small deformation theory, a long FSP, if ideally straight, elastic, and isotropic, loaded
along the central axis, should behave like any long structural member under compression. The first model
that comes to our mind is the buckling of the Euler’s column. For all practical purposes, the prescribed
Euler’s collapse load in Eq.(1) for a pinned-end column is an upper limit of compressive loading for an
ideal FSP.
Figure-1: Freespan pipeline under compressive load and initial imperfection δ 0.
S 2 EI
PE (1)
L2
To determine a more realistic behavior of FSPs under compressive load it is necessary to admit the
existence of initial imperfections, the possibility of inelastic behavior, and the mobilization of fully plastic
moment capacity of the pipe section. Let us consider the effect of initial imperfection and plastic
deformations, using the mechanical model shown in Fig.-2 [6]. Subsequently, it is possible to examine for
the effects of initial imperfection and inelastic material behavior on the buckling behavior. The
mathematical model consists of two rigid arms pinned together at the span center-line at C. On the ends
(A and B) they are pinned too, as in Fig.-3. A vertical spring, with stiffness K, is attached at C. Applying
an increasing horizontal axial force P at point A through the centroidal cross-sectional axis, with G = 0,
will make P reaches its critical load, P cr.
At this critical load, when buckling takes oplace, the model forms a mechanism in which point C
displaces laterally through a distance G, and the arm rotates D - see Fig.-2b. Prior to instability, the force
in the spring, Ps = 0. As soon as the instability takes place, P s=Kδ - with K being the spring constant.
From moment equilibrium of the arm from A to C, about C, for Fig.-2b, we can write for small angles
540
§ PS ·§ L · Pcr L
Pcr G ¨ 2 ¸¨ 2 ¸ or (2)
© ¹© ¹ Ps 4G
In Fig.-2a, to simulate the Euler’s buckling load, the lateral defection G will take place abruptly when the
critical load reaches the Euler’s load. Substituting KG for Ps in Eq. (2) and equating Pcr = PE yelds
KL 4PE
Pcr PE or K (3)
4 L
Figure-2: (a) An elementary buckling model and Figure-3: The mechanical model with initial
(b) free-body diagram. imperfection.
Up to now, the pre-buckling shape is a straight line, however, by now let’s consider the existence of an
initial imperfection Go z 0 in Fig.-3. Note that small initial imperfections will be amplified by the axial
force. The model of the FSP with an initial imperfection Go is in Fig.-3a. Go exists initially, for P = 0 and
Ps = 0. For P z 0, the incremental displacement at the centerline increases by the amount G due to the
rotation of the arms – see Fig.-3a. The total displacement, due to the arm rotation, E, becomes Gtot = G0 + G
- Fig.-3b. The moment equilibrium of arm A-C, about C, for Fig.-3b may be expressed by Eq.(4).
§ PS ·§ L · § Ps L ·
PG tot ¨ 2 ¸ ¨ 2 ¸ or G tot ¨ 4P ¸ and Gtot = Go + G (4)
© ¹© ¹ © ¹
As PS = KG and δ = δtot – δ0, and using Eq.(3) for K; Eq.(4) can be transformed into the following
equation
§ Ps L · § KLG · § 4PE LG · § PE · § 1 G0 ·
G tot ¨ 4P ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ 4P ¸ ¨ P ¸ G tot G o or P ¨ ¸ PE (5)
© ¹ © 4P ¹ © ¹ © ¹ © G tot ¹
The model for the FSP with an initial Go will result in an increase in bending moment at the center
of the span as P and Gtot increase. However, P in Eq. (5) indicates that the compressive load for the model
of the imperfect column (or FSP) will never reach the Euler’s load, PE, but approaches PE asymptotically.
In addition, the maximum bending moment that can arise at the central section cannot exceed that
associated with the fully plastic condition for the pipe. At the central section M = PGtot and the collapse
load for can be determined by the load P that produces the moment which, when combined with the axial
effects, mobilizes the fully plastic capacity of the pipe section ( M Tpc ). To compute the full plastic
capacity of the pipe it is necessary a yield criterion.
Pressurized pipes are subjected to hoop and longitudinal stresses due to axial forces and transverse
bending moments acting on the pipe cross section. For a thin-walled pipe, the hoop stress is considered
constant and stresses other than hoop and longitudinal may be neglected. The longitudinal stress Vl and
the hoop stress VT are identified as the principal stresses V1 and V2, respectively. Using the Von-Mises-
541
Hencky yield criterion (with Vy as the uniaxial yield strength) the maximum (and minimum) longitudinal
stresses that the fully-plastic pipe cross section can sustain on the cross section may be calculated as
2
§ Vl · § 2VT · § 3 ·§ V ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ r 1 ¨ ¸¨ T ¸ (6)
¨V y ¸ ¨ Vy ¸ © 4 ¹ ¨© V y ¸
© ¹ © ¹ ¹
Eq.(6) is also valid for the ultimate stress (Vu) in the place of the yielding stress (Vy). Eq.(6) also
identifies the two values of Vl that produce yielding for a specified VT. One corresponds to a compressive
stress (Vl = Vc), and the other, to a tensile stress (Vl = Vt) - Fig 4. These values represent the maximum
longitudinal compressive and maximum longitudinal tensile stresses that can be developed on the extreme
fibers of the pipe cross-section for the given VT. If VT = 0, then, for yielding, Vl=Vc=Vt=Vy. If VT z 0, then,
the longitudinal stress Vl required to origin yield in tension is Vl = Vt which is different than that required
in compression (Vl = Vc) (See Fig.4). Naming [ = VT /Vl and K = Vl /Vy, the Von-Mises-Hencky yield
criterion is shown in Fig.-4 [4, 5]. From Fig.-4 and Eq.(6), the extreme values for Vl and VT. For the
determination of the fully-plastic capacity of the pipe section, we will assume that the stress-strain curve
shows a well defined yield-stress plateau. The yield stress is an important engineering property in order to
establish limits on the longitudinal and hoop stresses. The hoop stress VT is given by
pr
VT (7)
(Rr)
The longitudinal stress acting on the pipe cross-section will depend on the axial force P and the
bending moment. The limiting combinations of axial force and bending moment that develop the fully
plastic capacity of the pipe section can be presented on an interaction diagram due to [2, 3]. In the
following Section, the equations for the fully plastic moment capacity of the FSP pipe section will be
derived.
3. DEVELOPING THE FULLY PLASTIC MOMENT

For a pipe, Fig.-5 shows the fully plastic stress distribution, accounting for the effects of stresses Vt
and Vc [2]. As the pipe is under compressive load P applied at the pipe ends, the applied force is
concentrically distributed on the pipe end sections with area Ao giving rise to an equivalent longitudinal
uniform stress V = P/A0 at points A and B of Fig.-3, therefore
P P
V
ªS R r 2 º
(8)
A0 2
¬ ¼
The stresses on the pipe section at the point of maximum moment are in Fig.-5 which is a fully plastic
condition. At such a point, at the center of the span, we have a combination of stress from bending
moment plus stress from axial loading. However, at the ends of the FSP (see Fig.-1 and 3); the force P
acts in concert with the transverse force of Ps/2, and the combination of these loads must be equilibrated
by the stress distribution of Fig.-5 at the centerline of the span. Therefore, at the point of maximum
moment, the resultant longitudinal force given by the difference between the tensile force F t = σtAt and
compressive force Fc = σcAc, in Fig.-5, must be in equilibrium with the external applied force P at the
ends of the FSP. The areas Ao, At, and Ac in Fig.-5 can be expressed as
§\ · 2 2 ª§ 2S \ · º
S R 2 r 2 , At ¨ ¸ R r and Ac R r 2 «¨ ¸»
2 (9)
Ao
©2¹ ¬«© 2 ¹ ¼»
542
From Eqs. (8) and (9) we can write the following longitudinal equilibrium equation
ª 2S \ º 2 §\ ·
P VS R 2 r 2 Fc Ft V c R2 r 2 « » V t ( R r )¨ ¸
2
(10)
¬ 2 ¼ ©2¹
The angle \ can be calculated as a function of the stresses V, Vt, and Vc of Eq.(10).
ª § V V · º
\ 2S «¨¨ c ¸¸ » (11)
«¬© V c V t ¹ »¼
A search for P (that causes the stress distribution depicted in Fig.-5) is the same as a search for the
equivalent stress V = P/Ao at the end of the FSP. The arms yt & yc of the respective forces Ft and Fc,
such forces are at the centroids of the areas At and Ac in Fig.-5 - can be calculated as
ª§ § \ · ·º ª§ § \ · ·º
«¨ 4 R r sin ¨ ¸ ¸ » «¨ 4 R r sin ¨ ¸ ¸ »
3 3 3 3
yt «¨ © 2 ¹ ¸ » and y «¨ © 2 ¹ ¸»
«¨ 3\ R r ¸ » «¨ 3 2S \ R r 2 ¸ »
2 2 c 2
(12)
«¨ ¸» «¨ ¸»
¬© ¹¼ ¬© ¹¼
Knowing At, Ac in Eq.(9); yt , yc in Eq.(12); and Vc and Vt in Eq.(6); the maximum plastic resisting
moment MTpc can be determined due to the load P (or stress σ) at the ends of the FSP. MTpc is in
equilibrium with the moment caused by the external force P and the eccentricity Gtot of Fig.-3 and Eq.(4),
therefore
M T pc Fc yc Ft yt V c Ac yc V t At yt PG tot V Ao G tot (13)
Using Eqs.(9), and (12) in Eq.(13), the expression for the maximum plastic bending moment is
§ 2S \ · 2 4 R3 r 3 §\ ·
M T pc Vc ¨
© 2 ¹
¸ R r 2
3 2S \ R 2 r 2
sin ¨ ¸
©2¹
(14)
§\ · 4 R3 r 3 §\ ·
V t ¨ ¸ R2 r 2 sin ¨ ¸
© ¹
2 3\ R r
2 2
©2¹
Substituting into Eq.(14) the expression for the angle< from Eq.(11), we arrive at the following
simplified version of Eq.(14) which is an expression for the maximum moment capacity for the FSP
§2· ª§ S V c V · º
M T pc ¨ ¸ V t V c R r sin «¨¨ ¸¸ »
3 3 (15)
©3¹ ¬«© V c V t ¹ ¼»
4. THE PLASTIC COLLAPSE

The limiting fully plastic moment for the FSP as expressed in Eq. (15) is an upper bound on the
moment that can be developed before a plastic collapse buckling mechanism occurs. For this mechanism
to occur we note that MTpc is a function of: (a) the maximum allowable longitudinal stresses, Vt and Vc;
and (b) the equivalent applied stress σ (or load P, since V = P/A0) applied at the ends of the FSP. It is
assumed that a structure with an initial imperfection and under increasing applied compressive load will
deform until its fully plastic moment capacity is developed. The expression for maximum moment
543
capacity in Eq.(15) shows that for an increase in V, there will be a decrease in MTpc at center span. The
formulation contained, herein, is based upon the argument that, to find the compressive collapse stress V
of a FSP, the effect of out-of-straightness must be taken into account. In reality, every structure has
imperfections in geometry; but long structures like FSP laid on rough terrains, are more susceptible. The
initial imperfection G0 is taken into account in Eq.(5). Such equation represents the behavior of the FSP in
the elastic range until the fully plastic stress distribution of Fig.-5 is developed giving rise to Eq.(13).
Note that Eq.(5), expressed in terms of Euler’s critical stress VE = PE/A0, can give an expression for Gtot as
P ª § G0 · º § PE · ª § Go ·º
V «1 ¨ ¸ » ¨ ¸ or V «1 ¨ ¸ » V E and, G tot G o ª¬1 V V E º¼ (16)
Ao ¬« © G tot ¹ ¼» © Ao ¹ ¬« © G tot ¹ ¼»
Once yielding has fully developed, put MTpc from Eq. (15) into Eq.(13) to get an expression for Gtot as
§ M T pc · ° ª 2 V t V c R r º ½
° ª S V c V º
3 3
V ¨¨ ¸¸ or G tot ®« » ¾ sin « »
(17)
© AoG tot ° «¬ 3S R r V »¼ ¿ ° «¬ V t V c »¼
2 2
¹ ¯
Finally, by equating the right hand sides of Eq.(16) and Eq.(17), we arrive at the following
transcendental equation for the determination of the collapse stress V, which will be designated as V
° ª 2 V t V c R r º ½
· ª S V c V º
3 3
°§ V
« » ¾¨ 1 » VG o
(18)
® ¸ sin « 0
° «¬
¯
3 S R 2
r 2
»¼ ¿° © E V ¹ ¬« V c V t ¼»
Developing Eq.(18) into a Taylor series and keeping only two terms of this series, one obtains:
ª R2 r 2 º
V ² CV D 0 where C V E V c 1,5G oV E « 3 3 » and D V EV c (19)
«¬ R r »¼
Figure 4: Von-Mises-Hencky Yelding Criterion Figure 5: Idealized fully plastic stress distribution
The solution for the collapse stress V in Eq.(19) takes into consideration: (a) the geometric
properties of the pipe section; (b) the initial imperfection for the particular FSP; (c) an upper bound limit
represented by the Euler’s buckling load; (d) the fully-plastic stress distribution, (Fig.-5); (e) the fully-
plastic capacity depends on both the plasticity criterion and the hoop stress, which is a function of the
applied internal pressure; (f) long structures, with initial imperfection, never reach the Euler’s Load
(which is an upper bound limit); (g) the Euler’s load (or stress) which is a function of the modulus of
544
elasticity, pipe cross-section properties, and pipe length; and (h) the consideration of initial imperfection
that is essential as it triggers the limiting fully-plastic moment capacity mechanism.
5. COMPARISON TO FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSES

For obtaining collapse load for FSPs as a function of L i/D ratios; consider a typical pipeline for
petroleum transportation with a range of free spans L i. The material and cross section properties of the
pipeline are: (a) E= 200000MPa, (b) Vy =448MPa, (c) Vu =531MPa, (d) D = 323.85 mm, (e) t = 19.05
mm, (f) d = 285.75 mm, (g) R = D/2 (161.925 mm), and r =d/2 (142.875 mm), and na internal pressure p
= 10.2Mpa. The range of free span ratios (or Li/D) are shown in Table 1. For each FSP length L i, an initial
imperfection Goi is assumed. In this paper, Goi is taken as the transversal deformation of the FSP such that
the extreme fibers of the pipe cross section are just reaching the onset of yielding. Any other value of Goi
could be arbitrarily used. For simplification, and just to calculate an initial imperfection, it was assumed
that on the onset of yielding Vt=Vc=Vy. Each Li determines different Euler’s load PE and stress VE. The
collapse loads of such FSPs without internal pressure are readily obtained and reported in Table-1. The
analytical solutions are compared to Finite Element Analyses using ABAQUS [1]. It is also noticed that
the analytical results reported in Table-1 consider the ultimate stress Vu in the place of yielding stress Vy
into Eq.(6) - in the ABAQUS runs and results the ultimate stress is reached.
Table-1: Comparison with FEM results

FSP Collapse(kN)
Euler’s Load & Stress
With Internal Pressure
Initial
Li/D
δ0i(mm) Euler’s Euler’s ABAQUS Error(%)
Ultimate
Load Stress FE with w.r.t.
Stress
PE(kN) σE(Mpa) Pressure ABAQUS
0 0.00 f f 7871.194 NA NA
4 2.902 2.50E+05 1.37E+04 6694.619 8041.080 -16.74
6 6.529 1.11E+05 6.09E+03 6546.097 7324.820 -10.63
8 11.607 6.25E+04 3.43E+03 6348.670 6828.900 -7.03
12 26.119 2.78E+04 1.52E+03 5844.567 5913.680 -1.17
15 40.815 1.78E+04 9.75E+02 5408.596 NA NA
20 72.577 1.00E+04 5.48E+02 4660.695 4027.00 15.74
6. CONCLUSIONS
This paper presented a mathematical formulation regarding the investigation of compressive
collapse loads of pressurized FSPs. A strategy for obtaining collapse loads as a function of the span
length, initial imperfection, and fully plastic stress capacity has been presented and discussed. Examples
of collapse loads, for pressurized FSPs with a variety of lengths and initial imperfections, were compared
to the sophisticated FE results from the ABAQUS program. The numerical tests show that the proposed
analytical formulation represents a good approximation to freespan solutions. Instead of yield stress, the
analytical solutions were almost coincident with the collapse results generated by ABAQUS FE analyses.
Each complex nonlinear FE run in ABAQUS took approximately 5 hours of CPU on a SUN workstation.
Finally, it is noted that the scope of the present formulation is not to propose a method to substitute
precise FEM modeling and analyses, but to provide an easy, faster and practical way for a first assessment
of compressive collapse loads of pressurized FSPs for the petroleum industry.
545
Figure 9: Comparison of analytical and FEM results for FSP
REFERENCES
[1] ABAQUS. (2000). Standard User’s Manual. Version 6.3. Hibbitt, Karlsson and Sorense, USA.
[2] DOREY, A.B.. (2001). Critical Buckling Strains for Energy Pipelines. PhD Thesis, University of
Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada.
[3] MOHAREB, M., D. W. MURRAY. (1999). Mobilization of Fully Plastic Moment Capacity for
Pressurized Pipes. Journal of Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Eng., ASME. vol. 121. p. 237-241.
[4] POPOV, E. (1998), Eng. Mechanics of Solids. Prentice Hall. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA.
[5] HOFFMAN AND SACHS, (1953), Theory of Plasticity, McGraw-Hill Book Inc. New York, USA.
[6] SHANLEY, F. R. (1957). Strength of Materials. McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc. New York,
USA.
546
STABILITY ANALYSIS FOR 3D FRAMES USING MIXED

COROTATIONAL FORMULATION
Rabe Alsafadie*, Mohammed Hjiaj* and Jean-Marc Battini**
* Structural Engineering Research Group/LGCGM, INSA de Rennes, 20 avenue des Buttes de Coësmes
35043 Rennes Cedex France
e-mails: Rabe.Alsafadie@insa-rennes.fr, Mohammed.Hjiaj@insa-rennes.fr
** Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering, KTH, Royal Institute of Technology, SE-10044
Stockholm, Sweden
e-mail: Jean-Marc.Battini@sth.kth.se
Keywords: Geometrically nonlinear, 3D beams, corotational formulation, mixed finite element analysis,
arbitrary cross-sections, elasto-plastic material behavior, Hellinger-Reissner functional.
Abstract. The corotational technique is adopted for the analysis of 3D beams. The technique applies to a
two-noded element a coordinate system which continuously translates and rotates with the element. In
this way, the rigid body motion is separated out from the deformational motion. Then, a mixed
formulation is adopted for the derivation of the local element tangent stiffness matrix and nodal forces.
The mixed finite element formulation is based on an incremental form of the two-field Hellinger-Reissner
variational principle to permit elasto-plastic material behavior. The proposed element can be used to
analyze the nonlinear buckling and postbuckling of 3D beams. The mixed formulation solution is
compared against the results obtained from a corotational displacement-based formulation having the
same beam kinematics. The superiority of the mixed formulation is clearly demonstrated.
1 INTRODUCTION
In recent literature, there have been notable contributions to improve the accuracy and efficiency of
displacement-based finite elements. This approach has the limitation in elasto-plasticity since the
approximations of the axial strains and curvatures are constrained by the element's assumed displacement
fields. Nonetheless, these curvatures can vary in a highly nonlinear fashion along the length of an elasto-
plastic structural member. For example, Izzuddin and Smith [1] found that a large number of
displacement-based beam finite elements are typically required to represent elasto-plasticity behavior
accurately. In the mixed formulation, both internal forces and displacements are interpolated
independently. This formulation addresses the fundamental limitation of conventional displacement-
based elements: the inability of simple displacement polynomials to represent the highly nonlinear
distribution of the curvatures along the member lengths due to general distributed yielding.
The corotational approach has been recently adopted by several authors to handle the geometric
nonlinearity in 3D displacement-based beam models (Alsafadie et al. [2], [3], Battini and Pacoste [4], [5],
Crisfield and Moita [6]). This paper extends the works of Battini on corotational beam elements by
applying the two-field Hellinger-Reissner variational principle for the development of a mixed local
formulation. The corotational approach is employed to handle the geometric nonlinearity, where, in the
corotational frame, the element rigid body motion has been removed and the formulations focus solely on
the element deformational degrees of freedom.
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R. Alsafadie et al.
2 COROTATIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR 3D BEAMS

The central idea in the corotational formulation for a two-noded 3D beam is to introduce a local
coordinate system which continuously rotates and translates with the element. Then, local deformational
displacements d l are defined by extracting the rigid body movements from the global displacements d g .
The local displacements are expressed as functions of the global ones, i.e.
d l = d l (d g ) (1)
Then, d l is used to compute the internal force vector fl and tangent stiffness matrix K l in the local
frame. The transformation matrix B between the local and global displacements is defined by
δ dl = Bδ d g (2)
and is obtained by differentiation of (1). The expression of the internal force vector in global coordinates
f g and the tangent stiffness matrix K g in global coordinates can be obtained by equating the internal
virtual work in both the global and local systems, i.e.
f g = BT f l , K g = BT K l B + ∂ (BT fl ) / ∂d g (3)
fl
Relations (1), (2) and transformations (3) are explained in details in [4].
3 NONLINEAR BERNOULLI MIXED LOCAL ELEMENT FORMULATION

In this section, the internal force vector fl and tangent stiffness matrix K l of a mixed local element
formulation based on the kinematics assumption of the Bernoulli beam theory are derived.
3.1 Kinematics and local displacements interpolations
ay
ax
ry R u
az P
rx G II
I
rz x
Figure 1: Local beam configuration.
Let x0P ( x, y, z ) denote the position vector of an arbitrary point P in the initial configuration and let
x P ( x, y, z ) denote the position vector of P in the current configuration (see figure 1).
x0P ( x, y, z ) = x G0 ( x) + y ry + z rz
(4)
x P ( x, y, z ) = x G ( x) + y a y ( x) + z a z ( x) + α ( x) ω ( y , z ) a x ( x)
where x0G and xG denotes the position vectors of the centroid G in the initial and current onfigurations,
respectively. In the case of thin-walled open cross-sections, the normalized warping displacement is
expressed as the product of the warping parameter α ( x ) and the warping function ω ( y , z ) . To handle in
a convenient way nonsymmetric cross-sections with distinct shear center and centroid, the warping
function ω is defined according to Saint-Venant torsion theory and refers to the centroid G, [7]:
548
R. Alsafadie et al.
ω ( y, z ) = ω − yc z + zc y (5)
and ω refers to the shear center defined by its coordinates yc , zc . The orthonormal triad a i , i = ( x, y , z )
which specifies the orientation of the current cross-section, is given by
a i = R ri , i = ( x, y , z )
(6)
The rotation defined by the matrix R can be considered as the sum of two bending rotations and a
twist rotation, and given by (cf. [8]).
ª1 −v, x − w, xϑx − w, x + v, xϑx º

« »
R = « v, x 1 −ϑx » (7)
« w, x ϑx 1 »
¬ ¼
where v , w and ϑx are the transverse displacements and the twist rotation of the cross-section centroid
relative to the local coordinates system, respectively. Introducing the local rotation matrix defined in (7)
into(4), the displacement vector can be evaluated as
U = u − y (v, x + w, x ϑx ) − z ( w, x − v, x ϑx ) + ωα
V = v − z ϑx (8)
W = w + y ϑx
To obtain the strain vector the following assumptions are adopted: the nonlinear shear strain
components generated by warping are omitted since warping effects are rationally taken into account in a
linearized way only, the warping deformations are proportional to the variation of the torsional angle
(Vlasov assumption), an average value of the axial strain is taken in order to avoid membrane locking and
finally the nonlinear terms in the expressions of the bending curvatures and are neglected. With these
modifications, the following strain expressions are obtained:
1 Io 2
ε xx = ε av − y κ z + z κ y + (r 2 − ) κ x + ω κ x, x
2 A
2 ε xy = (ω, y − z ) κ x (9)
2 ε xz = (ω, y − z ) κ x
with κ x = ϑx , x , κ y = − w, xx − ycϑx , xx , κ z = v, xx − zcϑx , xx

1 ª 1§ I ·º
L ³L «¬
and r 2 = ( z 2 + y 2 ) , ε av = u, x + ¨ v,2x + w,2x + o ϑx2, x ¸ » dx, I o = ³ r 2 dA
2© A ¹¼ A
Since the strain field in (9) is obtained from the local displacement field d l , therefore, all the
components of the strain vector deduced from d l will be designated with a superimposed hat and
combined as İˆ = (εˆxx 2 εˆxy 2 εˆxz ) . Based on the above expression for strain vector idealization, the strain at
any point in the cross-section of the beam element can be related to the cross-sectional generalized strain
1
vector eˆ = (ε av κ y − κ z κ x2 κ x , x κ x ) as
2 İˆ = A( y, z ) eˆ ( x) (10)
In the present formulation, the axial rotation ϑx is interpolated with shape functions based on the
closed-form solution of the torsional equilibrium equation for an elastic prismatic and geometrically
linear beam. Cubic Hermitian shape functions are chosen for the transverse displacement v and w of the
549
R. Alsafadie et al.
centroid of the cross-section relative to the local element axes. And finally, linear interpolation is adopted
for the axial elongation u of the local element. Thus, the variation in the cross-section deformation
ê can be written as δ eˆ = N eˆ δ dl . Hence, an infinitesimal change in strain vector can be written as
δ İˆ = A N eˆ δ d l (11)
3.2 Equilibrium and generalized stress interpolation functions

The generalized stress resultants vector S, which is work conjugate to the generalized strains ê, may
be expressed in vector form as S=( N My Mz B ȍ Tsv) where N is conjugate to İav, My and Mz are
conjugate to țy and țz, respectively. The bimoment B, Wagner stress resultant ȍ, and the uniform torque
Tsv are conjugate to țx,x, țx2/2 and țx, respectively. Within each element, the generalized stress resultant
internal force vector is approximated as
S = N S1 fS (12)
where fS =( N MIy MIz BI T ȍ MIIy MIIz BII) the corotational force degrees of freedom of the mixed
formulated element (where I: first node, II: second node and T a constant torque) and NS1 is the force
shape functions matrix satisfying the equilibrium equations.
ª1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0º
«w 1 − x / L 0 0 0 −x / L 0 0 0 »»
«
«v 0 x / L −1 0 0 0 x/ L 0 0»
NS1 = « » (13)
« 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1»
«0 0 0 f BI 0 0 0 f BII 0»
« »
«¬ 0 0 0 f BI, x 1 0 0 f BII, x 0 »¼
sinh [ k ( L − x) ] sinh(k x) GJ
where f BI = − , f BII = and k =
sinh( k L) sinh( k L) E Iω
The resulting element will subsequently be termed as bmw3d element. It should be mentioned that
relation (12) includes P-į effects in the internal moment fields, based on the interpolated transverse
displacements. The variation of the generalized stress resultant internal force vector, may be expressed as
δ S = N S 2 δ dl + NS1 δ fS (14)
3.3 Hellinger-Reissner potential for beams

In the Hellinger-Reissner mixed formulation, both the displacement and the internal forces are
approximated by independent shape functions. This principle is applied to a beam element of length L loaded
by end forces only. This two-field variational principle yields two sets of nonlinear equations
EQ = ³ NTeˆ S dx + ³ NTS 2 (eˆ − e) dx − Flext = 0 (15)

L L
EC = ³ NTS1 (eˆ − e) dx = 0 (16)

L
where EQ and EC are the element equilibrium and element strain-displacement compatibility equations,
respectively. A third equation, the cross-section equilibrium, may be expressed as
SQ = S Σ − S = 0 (17)
550
R. Alsafadie et al.
where SȈ is given by the nonlinear cross-section constitutive relation and represents a general function
that permits the computation of cross-section stress resultants for given cross-section deformations. The
linearization of the cross-section constitutive relation SȈ= SȈ(e) is obtained using the cross-section tangent
stiffness matrix k = ∂S Σ / ∂e . The cross-section tangent exibility matrix q is obtained by inverting the
cross-section tangent stiffness matrix: q=k-1. Furthermore, S is the interpolated generalized stresses acting
over a cross-section and defined by (12).
3.4 Linearization of the Hellinger-Reissner functional
The nonlinear system of equations EQ=0, EC=0 and SQ=0 may be solved using various combinations
of Newton iteration at the element, and cross-section levels. Since interelement compatibility is not
enforced for the generalized stress variables interpolation, the nonlinear discretized strain-displacement
compatibility equation EC=0 can be solved iteratively at the element level for every global equilibrium
iteration. Similarly, the nonlinear constitutive equation SQ=0 can be solved iteratively at the cross-section
level for every element level iteration. In the following Subsections, the consistent linearization of the
above nonlinear equations is presented. In the process of consistent linearization, it is important to
recognize the arguments of any given function.
3.4.1 Linearization of the Cross-section Constitutive Equation
By expanding SQ=0 about the current cross-section state while holding S constant, we can write
∂ SQ
S Qj +1 ≈ S Qj + Δe j Δe j = −qS Qj = q (S − S Σj ) (18)
∂e
3.4.2 Linearization of the Element Compatibility Equation

The incremental form of the element compatibility condition EC=0 may also be derived by taking a
Taylor series expansion of EC=0 about the current state variables fS and dl
∂E ∂E
ECi +1 ≈ ECi + C Δd li + C ΔfSi = 0 (19)
∂d l ∂fS
Then, solving for ǻfiS, we obtain
−1
ΔfSi = H11 ª¬(M κ + G1 − H12 ) Δd il + ECi º¼ (20)
3.4.3 Linearization of the Element Equilibrium Equation

Although the linearization of the discrete weak-form of the element equilibrium equation EQ=0
follows standard procedure [35, 36], this linearization is complicated by the presence of displacement-
dependent nonlinear interpolation functions for the generalized stresses. For the case at hand, the
consistent local tangent stiffness equations are obtained by expanding (15) for each of the state variables
dl, fS and Flext about the current state. Again, a Taylor series expansion of EQ=0 is written as follows
∂EQ ∂EQ
EQn +1 ≈ EQn + Δd ln + ΔfSn − ΔFlext , n = 0 (21)
∂d l ∂fS
This equation can be rewritten by substituting ΔfSn from (20), and solving for Δd ln . Hence,
K l Δd ln = Flext , n +1 − fl (22)
where K l is the local consistent tangent stiffness matrix given by

−1
K l = K g + G T2 + G 2 − H 22 + (M κ + G1 − H12 )T H11 (M κ + G1 − H12 ) (23)
and fl is the local internal force vector
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R. Alsafadie et al.
fl = G1T fSn + ³ NTS 2 (eˆ n − e n ) dx + (Mκ + G1 − H12 )T H11

−1 n
EC (24)
L
3.5 Nonlinear state determination algorithm

The nonlinear system of equations is iteratively solved using Newton's method using three imbricated
loops at different levels (structural level, element level and cross-section level). The local element strain-
displacement compatibility equation EC=0 is solved iteratively for every global equilibrium iteration.
Similarly, the local cross-section constitutive equation SQ=0 is solved iteratively at the cross-section
level for every element compatibility level iteration. Therefore, residuals at the cross-section equilibrium
and element compatibility levels are eliminated through iterations at each of these levels. In this
subsection, the superscripts n, i and j denote the iteration indices for the global structural equilibrium, the
element compatibility and the cross-section equilibrium levels, respectively. Before launching the
computer program (initialization), the local displacement vector for each finite element and the
generalized strains e at each Gauss point along the element length, need to be stored as zero vectors. Once
the local displacements are obtained, the state determination procedure, established to obtain the internal
force vector and tangent stiffness matrix in the local frame, starts as follows:
1. Evaluate the generalized strains ê compatible with the interpolated displacements d l
eˆ n = eˆ(d ln )
2. Evaluate the nodal force degrees of freedom fS . (iterate on ΔfSi )
EC , fSi +1 =: fSi + ΔfSi where EiC = ³ NTS1 (eˆ n − ei ) dx
−1 i
ΔfSi = H11
L
3. Evaluate the generalized stress resultant internal force vector S

S i +1 (fSi +1 ) = N S1 fSi +1
4. Cross-section equilibrium level : Consider for the first iteration at this level that e j =: ei , then,
evaluate the generalized strains e derived from the interpolated stress-resultant force fields
T
Δe j = q (S i +1 (fSi +1 ) − S Σj (e j )), e j +1 =: e j + Δe j where S Σj (e j ) = ³ A ı ( A e j ) dA
A
5. Repeat the above step until S i +1 − S Σj +1 ≤ tolerance , then consider ei +1 =: e j +1 upon convergence.
6. Repeat the above steps from 2 to 5 until EiC+1 ≤ tolerance , then consider fSn =: fSi +1 , e n =: ei +1 and
ECn =: ECi +1 upon convergence.
7. Calculate local element forces fl and tangent stiffness matrix K l
4 EXAMPLES
4.1 Cantilever with channel-section

Figure 2 contains the problem description. This example was first introduced by Gruttmann et al. [7]. The
beam is modeled using 4 bmw3d elements and the results are compared against 4 and 20 pbw3d
displacement-based beam elements. These meshes used 2 Gauss points per element length and 80
integration points within the cross-section. In Figure 2, the load versus the vertical displacement v of
point O at the cantilever tip is depicted, where the nonlinear response has been computed up to v = 200.
The results obtained with 4 bmw3d and 20 pbw3d elements are in very good agreement with those
presented by [7] based on shell elements. Furthermore, the results obtained with 4 pbw3d elements do not
agree well over a large extend of the computed load deflection curve. It can be observed that, in elasto-
plasticity, the number of mixed-based beam elements used to discretize the structure is considerably
reduced compared to the number of displacement-based beam elements needed to obtain the load-
displacement curve with the same accuracy. This problem demonstrates the capability of the mixed
formulation to satisfactorily predict the nonlinear behavior of beams with nonsymmetric cross-sections.
552
R. Alsafadie et al.
Figure 2: Cantilever with channel-section: data and results.
4.2 Right-angle frame

The right-angle frame, shown in Figure 3 is subjected to a concentrated out-of-plane load P acting at the
middle of the span of the horizontal member. In the first model, each member is modeled using 4 bmw3d
elements with 3 Gauss integration points along the element length. The square beam cross-section is meshed into
a grid of 64 integration points. Four and 20 pbw3d elements per member are also used for the second and third
models, respectively, with the same elemnt and cross-section discretization. Nonlinear analysis is also performed
with FineLg [9], using 20 corotational two-noded spatial beam elements . The load versus the out-of-plane
displacement of point O curves are depicted in Figure 3 for all models. The comparison between the models
shows a very good agreement between the results obtained with the mixed model and those obtained with
FineLg and with 20 pbw3d displacement-based elements per member.
Figure 3: Right-angle frame: data and results.
5 CONCLUSION
This paper proposed an efficient local mixed finite element formulation for the analysis of 3D
Bernoulli beams with small strains and large displacements and rotations. The corotational technique
proposed in [4] is employed here. The local strains are derived based on a consistent second-order
linearization of the fully geometrically nonlinear Bernoulli beam theory. A 3D, geometric-nonlinear,
elasto-plastic local beam element based on the incremental form of the two-field Hellinger-Reissner
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functional has been presented. This element is targeted particularly for the analysis of thin-walled beams
with generic open cross-section where the centroid and shear center of the cross-section are not
necessarily coincident. Several numerical examples have demonstrated the superiority of the mixed
formulation over displacement-based one: the use of mixed formulation leads to a considerable reduction
in the number of elements needed to perform the analysis with the same accuracy.
REFERENCES
[1] Izzuddin B.A., Smith D.L. “Large-displacement analysis of elasto-plastic thin-walled frames. I:
Formulation and implementation”. Journal of Structural Engineering (ASCE), 122(8), 905-914,
1996.
[2] Alsafadie R., Battini J.-M., Somja H., Hjiaj M. “Local formulation for elastoplastic corotational
thin-walled beams based on higher-order curvature terms”. Finite Elements in Analysis and
Design, submitted.
[3] Alsafadie R., Battini J.-M., Hjiaj M. “Efficient local formulation for elasto-plastic corotational
thin-walled beams”. Communications in Numerical Methods in Engineering, in press.
[4] Battini J.-M., Pacoste C. “Co-rotational beam elements with warping effects in instability
problems”. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, 191(17), 1755-1789,
2002.
[5] Battini J.-M., Pacoste C. “Plastic instability of beam structures using co-rotational elements”.
Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, 191(51), 5811-5831, 2002.
[6] Crisfield M.A., Moita G.F. “A unified corotational framework for solids, shells and beams”.
International journal of Solids and Structures, 33(20-22), 2969-2992, 1996.
[7] Gruttmann F., Sauer R., Wagner W. “Theory and numerics of three-dimensional beams with
elastoplastic material behavior”. International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering,
48(12), 1675-1702, 2000.
[8] Van Erp G.M., Menken C.M., Veldpaus F.E. “The nonlinear flexural-torsional behavior of
straight slender elastic beams with arbitrary cross-sections”. Thin-Walled Structures, 6(5), 385-
404, 1988.
[9] FineLg User's Manual. V9.0. Greisch Info S.A. - Department ArGEnCo - Liege University
(ULg), 2005.
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PLASTIC COLLAPSE MECHANISMS IN COMPRESSED ELLIPTICAL

HOLLOW SECTIONS
Aimar Insausti* and Leroy Gardner*
* Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ
e-mails: a.insausti@imperial.ac.uk, leroy.gardner@imperial.ac.uk
Keywords: Compression; Elliptical hollow sections; Local buckling; Plastic mechanism; Steel structures.
Abstract. The plastic collapse response of structural steel elliptical hollow section (EHS) profiles in
compression is examined in this paper. As an initial step, a parametric study to identify the factors that
determine which plastic mechanisms would arise has been carried out using finite element (FE) results
from the current work and experimental data from the literature. Following this, an analytical model to
describe the “split flip disc” plastic collapse mechanism in compressed EHS is derived. The parameters
controlling the shape and size of the plastic hinges have been investigated and found to be of key
importance; hence, special care has been taken in their definition. Finally, the analytically derived load–
displacement curves have been compared with FE results. The comparisons have revealed good
agreement, confirming the ability of the developed analytical models to predict the plastic collapse
response of elliptical tubes.
1 INTRODUCTION
Hot-finished structural steel elliptical hollow sections (EHS) have recently been introduced to the
construction sector. These structural elements can offer greater structural efficiency than circular hollow
sections (CHS) when subjected to bending or combined loading, or when used as columns with
intermediate restraint about the weaker axis, since they posses different major and minor axis flexural
properties. Despite recent investigations involving the testing, numerical modelling and development of
design rules for EHS, a number of aspects of their structural response remain unexplored. In particular,
the behaviour of elliptical profiles in the post ultimate region has not yet been examined.
The aim of the present work is to develop an analytical model to predict the load–deformation
response of EHS under pure compression. To this end, rigid-plastic theory has been applied to EHS based
on the method presented by Murray for plates [1]. As an initial step, a parametric study was carried out to
identify the most common local plastic collapse mechanisms arising in EHS. The study involved finite
element (FE) modelling and the analysis of existing test data [2]. Whilst a number of failure modes were
identified, an inward plastic collapse mechanism of the form shown in Fig. 1 was the most prominent. An
analytical description of this collapse mechanism is therefore the focus of the present study. The key
parameters controlling the size and shape of the hinge lines in the plastic mechanism were carefully
examined and their influence on the overall load–deformation response was assessed. Finally,
comparisons between the analytical model and the results obtained from the FE models are presented.
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
The intermediate response of elliptical tubes between that of flat plates and circular shells has been
previously identified in terms of elastic buckling [3]. In anticipation of an analogous scenario for plastic
collapse, previous studies on rigid-plastic failure mechanisms in flat plates and circular shells are initially
reviewed. For rigid-plastic mechanisms in flat plates, pioneering work was carried out by Murray [1],
who introduced a number of different failure modes and derived corresponding load–deformation curves.
Among the common plate-like patterns identified, the so called “flip disc” mechanism was presented in
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detail. This mechanism is formed by two curved hinge lines, one of them folding outwards and the other
inwards, creating a disc shape plate within the hinge lines that flips around the horizontal mid axis.
Research on compressed CHS has identified two main local plastic failure modes - the “elephant
foot” and “Yoshimura” mechanisms. The elephant foot is an axisymmetrical mode with outwards
deformation that creates a concertina shape in the surface, while the Yoshimura pattern includes several
sequential folding lines that deform the cross-section in a non axisymetrical way. The boundaries that
define the occurrence of each plastic failure mode were studied experimentally by Andrews et al. [4].
Both failure modes as well as a mixed mode were identified in the experimental work and a classification
chart to predict their occurrence was developed. Later, the available experimental data on compressed
CHS was expanded by Guillow et al. [5] carrying out more tests over a wider cross-section slenderness
range. As a consequence, a revised classification chart was developed. For the elephant foot mode, load-
displacement curves were derived by Grzebieta [6] using the plastic mechanism approach. Further
experimental results on circular tubes specifically proportioned to develop axisymmetric failure modes
were presented by Gupta and Velmurugan [7] while Johnson et al. [8] studied the Yoshimura type
mechanism by means of tests on circular PVC tubes.
The key difference between the elements previously studied (i.e. flat plates and CHS) and elliptical
hollow sections lies in the continuously varying curvature brought about by the following geometrical
definition where the symbols are defined in Fig. 1.
z 2 y2
1 (1)
a 2 b2
With the recent introduction of hot-finished EHS into the construction sector, heightened interest in
the structural behaviour of elliptical profiles, as well as the need to develop design guidance, have
emerged. Structural performance data have been generated on elliptical sections in compression [2, 9]
and bending [10]. The result of the 25 compression tests (stub column tests) given in [2], together with
numerically generated results, have been used in the present study for the development and validation of
the analytical model. Based on the results of compression and bending tests [2, 10] and an analysis of the
elastic buckling of EHS, a cross-section slenderness parameter was derived for the purpose of cross-
section classification [11]. The slenderness parameter was based on an equivalent diameter De, which
allowed the classification of EHS to be made on the basis of the CHS slenderness limits. For the pure
compression case, De = 2a2/b, which corresponds to the point in the section with maximum radius of
curvature, 2a and 2b being the larger and smaller outer dimensions respectively of the EHS, as shown in
Fig. 1. This point of the section was identified by Kempner [12] as suitable for use with the classical
formula for CHS in determining elastic buckling stresses for EHS. Later, more precise expressions for
determining the equivalent diameter were proposed [3, 13], and an alternative approach to EHS
classification, based on an equivalent rectangular hollow section has also been investigated [9].
3 FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING

In this section, the use of FE analysis to examine the behaviour of stocky EHS under compression is
described. These models have already been validated against a total of 25 compression tests in [2]. As
well as being used to generate a series of load–deflection curves that will be used to validate the
analytical model presented later, the FE models were used to identify the different plastic collapse
mechanisms arising for different geometries, making it possible to focus the research on the more
common plastic collapse modes. The FE models also provided useful information about the size and
shape of the mechanism throughout the deformation process.
All models were developed using the nonlinear FE software ABAQUS. The elements designated as
S4R in ABAQUS were employed throughout the modelling. The cross-sectional dimensions of the
modelled elliptical sections was kept constant at 150×75 mm, while the thicknesses used were 4, 5, 6.3
and 8 mm, covering a range of cross-section slenderness values. The above thickness values are also
representative of commercially available profiles and consistent with those previously studied
556
experimentally. The member length was fixed at 300 mm, which was sufficiently short to ensure no
global buckling, and all sections were subjected to concentric compression. All models were assigned
rigid-plastic material properties without strain-hardening or residual stresses to allow direct comparison
with the analytical model developed herein.
Fixed boundary conditions were applied to the ends of the columns, with all degrees of freedom,
other than vertical displacement at the loaded end, restrained. Initial geometric imperfections were
introduced in the shape of elastic buckling modes obtained from eigenvalue analyses. Three modes were
considered, in which the number of half sine waves along the stub column length was either odd or even,
the imperfection was either positive or negative (positive being inwards at the mid-height of the stub
column) and the imperfection was either symmetrical or asymmetrical about the mid-height. Three
imperfection amplitudes were also considered: t, t/10, t/100, where t is the section thickness.
4 IDENTIFICATION OF PLASTIC MECHANISMS IN EHS

According to plastic theory, the number of possible plastic mechanisms in a thin-walled structure is
unlimited; however, some plastic failure patterns are more commonly repeated when the element is
loaded in a specific way. The present section discusses the trend of the elliptical profiles to follow
specific failure mechanisms with reference to the FE and test results. Hence, the more common local
plastic failure modes in EHS can be identified and focussed upon in the analytical study.
Figure 1. (a) Split flip disc failure pattern observed in tests and (b) illustration of the mechanism.
Variation of the initial geometrical imperfections described in the previous section trigger four
different plastic failure patterns, two of them akin to plate-like behaviour and the other two akin to shell-
like (CHS) behaviour. Within the plate failure modes, one of them is similar to the flip disc mechanism
proposed by Murray [1] for flat plates, while the other is a variation of it. This variation includes an extra
straight hinge line in the middle of the mechanism splitting the disc into two half parts as shown in Fig. 1.
This plastic mechanism is referred to herein as the split flip disc (SFD) mechanism. The shell-like plastic
557
collapse mechanisms observed in the EHS are the elephant foot and the Yoshimura patterns. All four
mechanisms are shown in Fig. 2.
The specific failure mode that a given EHS profile would succumb to was found to be influenced by
the shape and amplitude of the initial geometric imperfection, as well as the slenderness (De/t, where
De = 2a2/b) of the cross-section. The FE models showed that plate-like failure modes dominate the
profile’s behaviour for smaller (and more practical) levels of initial imperfection, and that, overall, the
split flip disc mechanism was the most common.
The experimental work presented in [2] has also been used to identify the plastic failure mechanisms
in compressed EHS. The tests exhibited three of the four modes revealed in the numerical study: the flip
disc, the split flip disc and the elephant foot modes. However, the elephant foot was present only in four
out of 25 tests. The flip disc and the split flip disc modes appeared in the remaining 21 tests in no clear
pattern; overall, the split flip disc mechanism appeared more frequently. Hence, the most commonly
arising mode in both the experimental and numerical studies was the split flip disc mode; consequently,
development of an analytical description of this plastic failure mechanism is the focus of this paper.
(a) Flip disc (b) Split flip disc (c) Elephant foot (d) Yoshimura
Figure 2. Plastic collapse mechanisms obtained from FE models for EHS.
5 ANALYTICAL MODELLING
In this section, an analytical model for the split flip disc failure mode arising in compressed EHS is
developed based on the plastic theory for thin-walled structures presented by Murray [1]. As stated by
Murray, assuming that the material stress-strain curve is a step function with a step height between tensile
and compressive yielding of 2fy, where fy is the material yield strength, a cross-section’s load-carrying
capacity can be derived as a function of the displacement from equilibrium, based on an assumed plastic
collapse mechanism. Rigid-plastic material behaviour is therefore used, which neglects strain hardening,
and assumes that all deformation is localised along the hinge lines with no deformation elsewhere.
The moment capacity of a plastic hinge, based on a rectangular element of width b and thickness t is:
fy b t2
M pl (2)
4
And the reduced plastic moment M'pl in the presence of an axial load N may be shown to be:
§ N2 ·
Mcpl M pl ¨1 2 ¸ (3)
¨ Ny ¸
© ¹
where N is the axial load and Ny = fybt is the yield load in the element. Eq. 3 applies when the hinge
line is perpendicular to the direction of the thrust. However, for an inclined hinge line, the reduced plastic
moment is given by Eq. 4, where ȕ is the angle between the line perpendicular to the thrust and the
studied inclined hinge line.
Mcplc Mcpl sec2 E (4)
558
In the present work, both parabolic and elliptical functions were considered for the description of the
curved hinge lines in the plastic mechanism. However, the parabolic hinge lines were found to more
accurately replicate the actual load-displacement response of EHS, thus, this shape is used throughout the
present derivation. A parabola can be defined using two parameters that fix the height Xh and the width
Sh of the curve on the surface of the EHS. Hence, the values of Xh and Sh define the mechanism along the
development of the plastic hinge (Eq. 5). Fig. 1 summarises the notation used in the present section to
define the modelled failure mechanism, as well as the angle ȕ used in Eq. 4.
§ s2 ·
x (s) X h ¨¨1 2 ¸¸ (5)
© Sh ¹
With reference to Fig. 1, the load transmitted by the complete cross-section can be obtained in terms
of the load inside the plastic hinges (Nin) plus the load outside the plastic hinges (Nout). Furthermore, by
using symmetry, only one quarter of the cross-section needs to be analysed with the result for the full
cross-section being factored accordingly. The contribution to the load-carrying capacity of the cross-
section from within the hinge lines and outside hinge lines are derived in the following two sub-sections.
5.1 Load-carrying contribution within the plastic hinges
Since the inclination of the hinge lines is variable around the cross-section, a differential strip of
material is analysed, as depicted in Fig. 1, with the following reduced plastic moment:
2
f y t 2 §¨ § dN · ·¸
M cplc ¨ ¸ 2
(6)
¨1 ¸ sec E dS
4 ¨ ¨ f y t ds ¸ ¸
© © ¹ ¹
in which dN is the load in the strip and dS is the strip width. Fig. 3(a) presents the free body diagram
of the material strip, that relates the lateral displacement of the strip ǻds to the applied load dN and the
reduced plastic moment. The bending moment diagram in the material strip is presented in Fig. 3(b). The
load borne by the strip dN can be related to the lateral displacement by considering equilibrium at a null
bending moment point. For the split flip disc mechanism, the point of zero bending moment lies between
the curved hinge line and the straight hinge line that splits the flip disc into two equal parts. Denoting ǻ'
the straight distance between the null bending moment point and the undeformed position (see Fig. 3(a)),
this distance can be related to ǻdS through the magnitudes of M'pl and M''pl, and consequently as a
function of the plastic hinge inclination ȕ:
M cplc sec 2 E
'c ' dS ' dS (7)
M cpl M cplc 1 sec 2 E
Figure 3. (a) Free body diagram and (b) bending moment diagram of the material strip.
Having obtained ǻ', the load borne by the strip dN may be related to the reduced plastic moment:
dN 'c M cplc M cpl sec 2 E (8)
Merging Eq. 7 and Eq. 8, introducing the reduced plastic moment in the material strip (Eq. 6) and
rearranging, we obtain.
559
§ 2 ·
¨ § 2 ' dS · 2 ' dS ¸
dN f y t ¨ ¨¨ 2
¸
¸ 1 2 ¸dS (9)
¨ © (1 sec E ) t ¹ (1 sec E ) t ¸
© ¹
The lateral displacement in the strip ǻdS can be related to the maximum lateral displacement in the
hinge ǻ through Eq. 10, where x(s) defines the parabolic shape of the curved hinge line (Eq. 5).
x (s ) § s2 ·
' dS ' ' ¨¨1 2 ¸¸ (10)
Xh © Sh ¹
From Eq. 9 and 10, and following some manipulation, we obtain the load carried by each strip as:
§ 2 ·
¨ § S2h (S2h s 2 ) ' · S2h (S2h s 2 ) ' ¸
dN f y t ¨ ¨ 4
¨
2 2 ¸ 1 (S4 2 X 2 s 2 ) t ¸dS
¸ (11)
¨ © (Sh 2 X h s ) t ¹ h h ¸
© ¹
Eq. 11 can not be integrated explicitly; hence, in the present work Simpson’s rule has been employed
to obtain the load–lateral displacement curve, as advised in [1]. The load in the strip was evaluated at
s = 0, s = Sh/2 and s = Sh, leading to the following relationship between load within the plastic hinges Nin
(for one quarter of the section) and lateral displacement ǻ for the split flip disc mechanism:
f y t Sh § ' 6S2h ' '2 9S4h '2 ·
N in ¨1 1 4 1¸ (12)
¨ 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 ¸
6 t ( 2Sh X h ) t t 4( 2Sh X h ) t
© ¹
5.2 Load-carrying contribution outside the plastic hinges
The area of the cross-section outside the plastic hinges is considered to be working at the yield stress.
Hence, the load-carrying contribution from outside the plastic hinges is proportional to the arc length
outside the hinge Sout, and is given for one quarter of the section as:
N out f y t Sout (13)
The total load carried by the full cross-section is obtained from Eq. 12 and Eq. 13 as:
N ( ' ) 4N out N in (14)
5.3 Governing parameters

Since the load-carrying capacity of the section depends on the shape of the plastic mechanism, Xh
and Sh must be defined as a function of ǻ in order to determine the final load–lateral displacement curve.
At this point, information obtained from the FE models and the tests has been used to monitor the value
of both parameters throughout the deformation process. The height of the parabola Xh has been observed
to remain almost constant during deformation; its value may therefore be defined simply as a function of
the cross-section dimensions. However, the width of the parabola Sh, has been seen to increase as lateral
displacement increases. Furthermore, the FE models showed that Sh is not directly proportional to the
lateral displacement, but grows more rapidly at the beginning of the deformation process and tends
towards a final value. Hence, both Xh and Sh have been defined by means of the cross-section dimensions
in the present work, Xh being constant throughout the deformation and Sh being a function of ǻ.
As stated in [3], the longitudinal wavelength for elastic buckling of CHS is a function of the radius r
and the thickness t. Clearly the elastic buckling wavelength is influential in the definition of the size of
the plastic collapse mechanism, particularly at the early stages of the deformation process. Hence, the
measured values of Xh from the FE models and the experiments have been plotted against (Det)0.5 in Fig.
4. The data may be seen to follow an approximately linear trend, and hence Eq. 15 was obtained by least
squares regression, ensuring that the line passes through the origin, and used in the analytical model.
Xh 1.22 De t (15)
560
140
120
100
Xh (mm)
80
60 ABAQUS data
40 Tests data
20 Eq. 15
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
(Det)0.5 (mm)
Figure 4. Xh values from the FE models and the tests.
The FE models showed that the Sh parameter increased more rapidly at the beginning of the plastic
deformation than when the mechanism was fully developed. Hence, it was chosen to represent Sh with a
rational expression of the form given by Eq. 16 that tends to Sh,a, and where C is a constant.
'
Sh Sh,a (16)
'C
Based on observations of the test failure patterns, it was found that the maximum extent of the plastic
mechanism was approximately 75% of the way around the quarter perimeter of the section – i.e.
Sh,a = 0.75P/4 = 3P/16, where P is the perimeter of the ellipse. Furthermore, from the FE results, it was
found that C = t provided a good approximation of the progression of Sh towards its asymptotic value.
Hence, Eq. 17 was established:
3P § ' ·
Sh ¨ ¸ (17)
16 © ' t ¹
6 COMPARISON OF ANALYTICAL MODEL WITH OBSERVED BEHAVIOUR

The analytical equations developed throughout Section 5 are validated in this section by reference to
the results of the FE study. Load-lateral displacement curves for two cases are shown in Fig. 5 – EHS
150×75×4 and EHS 150×75×8, representing the extremes of slenderness in currently available elliptical
steel profiles. An initial geometric amplitude of t/100 was used in the FE models, since this had being
found to provide the best agreement with test results [2]. The comparisons reveal good agreement
between the results of the analytical model and of the FE simulation. For the sections investigated, a
maximum deviation between the two load-lateral displacement curves of 6.7% was observed.
1.0 Analytical model 1.0 Analytical model
0.8 FE model 0.8 FE model
0.6 0.6
N/Afy
N/Afy
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0 0.0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
ǻ (mm) ǻ (mm)
(a) t = 4 mm (b) t = 8 mm
Figure 5. Load-lateral displacement comparisons for 150×75 EHS with (a) t = 4 mm and (b) t = 8 mm.
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7 CONCLUSIONS
Local plastic collapse mechanisms in compressed EHS have been examined in this study. Four
collapse mechanisms were identified, two of which were akin to plate-like behaviour and two to shell-
like behaviour. A numerical study, coupled with examination of existing test data, revealed that the so-
called split flip disc mechanism arose most frequently. Hence an analytical model to describe the load–
lateral displacement response of EHS under pure compression following this failure pattern was derived.
Simple expressions, in terms of section geometry, to determine the key parameters required to fully
describe the shape of the collapse mechanism were developed. Comparisons between the analytical
model and FE model revealed good agreement over a range of cross-section slenderness, with a
maximum discrepancy of 6.7%. It is concluded that the derived analytical model provides an accurate
means of predicting the load-lateral displacement response of a compressed EHS undergoing local plastic
collapse in the split flip disc mechanism.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the Basque Government (Department of Education,
Universities and Research) for the financial support given under the overseas post-doctoral development
scheme in 2009 and 2010.
REFERENCES
[1] Murray NW. Introduction to the theory of thin-walled structures. Oxford University Press 1984.
ISBN 0-19-856186-5.
[2] Chan TM and Gardner L. Compressive resistance of hot-rolled elliptical hollow sections.
Engineering Structures 2008;30(2),522–532.
[3] Ruiz-Teran A and Gardner L. Elastic buckling of elliptical tubes. Thin-Walled Structures
2008;46(11):1304-1318.
[4] Andrews KRF, England GL and Ghani E. Classification of the axial collapse of cylindrical tubes
under quasi-static loading. International Journal of Mechanics and Science 1983;25(9):687-696.
[5] Guillow SR, Lu G and Grzebieta RH. Quasi-static axial compression of thin-walled circular
aluminium tubes. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 2001;43(9):2103–2123.
[6] Grzebieta RH. An alternative method for determining the behaviour of round stocky tubes
subjected to an axial crush load. Thin-Walled Structures 1990;9(1-4):61-89.
[7] Gupta NK and Velmurugan R. An analysis of axi-symmetric axial collapse of round tubes. Thin-
Walled Structures 1995;22(4):261-274.
[8] Johnson W, Soden PD and Al-Hassani STS. Inextensional collapse of thin-walled tubes under axial
compression. Journal of Strain Analysis 1977;12(4):317-330.
[9] Zhao XL and Packer JA 2009. Tests and design of concrete-filled elliptical hollow section stub
columns. Thin-Walled Structures, 47(6-7): 617-628.
[10] Chan TM and Gardner L. Bending strength of hot-rolled elliptical hollow sections. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 2008;64(9):971-986.
[11] Gardner L and Chan TM. Cross-section classification of elliptical hollow sections. Steel and
Composites Structures 2007;7(3):185-200.
[12] Kemper J. Some results on buckling and postbuckling of cylindrical shells. Collected papers on
instability of shell structures. NASA TND-1510, Dec. 1962:173-186. Polytechnic Inst. Brooklyn.
[13] Silvestre N. Buckling behaviour of elliptical cylindrical shells and tubes under compression.
International Journal of Solids and Structures 2008;45(16):4427-4447.
562
COLLAPSE OF A STEEL STRUCTURE AS A RESULT OF LOCAL

BUCKLING
Heiko Merle, Jörg Lange
Institut for Steel Structures and Material Mechanics, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Germany
merle@stahlbau.tu-darmstadt.de, lange@stahlbau.tu-darmstadt.de
Keywords: stability, buckling, local joint collapse,
Abstract. The collapse of a steel structure required a detailed analysis of the reasons for the catastrophe.
Several parts of the whole process of the design and construction had to be assessed. The results of this
analysis are presented. Furthermore it will be shown how the design process, the autonomous checking
procedure of the structural design, the workmanship, the construction on the erection side, the material
characteristics as well as human failure affect the failure.
1 INTRODUCTION
Trusses with hinge joints experience only tension and compression forces. Compression forces in
combination with hinge joints lead to a structural design using the well known Euler’s cases especially
the Euler case II. By designing the hinge joints the mounting of the joints has to be considered. This asks
for a long connection area. Due to the compression, the joints have to be as compact as possible. These
two oppositional requirements have to be considered in the design and the construction. The analysis of a
collapse of a truss within the construction of a coal power plant showed that the failure of non-compact
joints led to a catastrophe. The non-compact joints increased the buckling length severely beyond the
Euler case II. The collapse of the joints led to a global collapse of the truss.
2 DESCRIPTION OF THE BEARING STRUCTURE AND ITS LOADS

Power plants have as main load-bearing structure a boiler supporting steelwork. This steelwork bears
the steel boiler on its inner side. Several working platforms, power piping and the technical installations
are attached to the supporting steelwork. During the erection the boiler supporting steelwork has to be
built first. Subsequent the boiler itself as well as the platforms and installations will be fit in. Therefore
several auxiliary steel structures are needed.
The building described in this paper contains auxiliary platforms up to the top of the main structure.
These platforms were mounted in segments and held by the boiler supporting steelwork at several levels.
One auxiliary structure was seated at level +78.00 m and rose up to the level of +145.00 m. At level
78.00 m the structure was held by a truss. The boiler supporting steelwork bore this truss. Figure 1 shows
the truss with a height of 4740 mm and a length of 36500 mm. This girder was held out of its plane by
several supports. Therefore buckling out of the plane can be neglected.
The girder’s cross sections were H-Beams of different sizes. The tension forced bottom chord was a
hot rolled H-Beam of 700 mm height and 300 mm width with a steel grade of S 355 (yield strength = 360
N/mm²). The upper chord was a welded H-Beam of 2100 mm height and 400 mm width with a steel grade
of S 235(yield strength = 240 N/mm²). This member was part of the final structure and therefore its
design had to take care of additional requirements. Because of the large slenderness of the upper chord it
563
was stiffened with many braces. The trusses outer diagonals were hollow sections with a height and width
of 350 mm and a thickness of 30 mm with a steel grade of S 355.
Level + 82.740m
4740
Level + 78.000m
6208 3559 3560 4923 4923 3560 3559 6208
36500
Figure 1: Truss at level +78.00m
A portal frame transferred the loads from the sections standing above into the truss. This structure
may be reduced to the single girder with vertical loads from the portal frame. A static analysis of the
upper auxiliary steel structure as a two-dimensional framework led to four main vertical loads for the
girder. The loading points were the outer joints of the upper chord and the outer diagonal. These loads
were design loads with specific partial safety factors. Figure 2 shows the loads and loading points.
Fd = 1514kN Fd = 1070kN Fd = 1070kN Fd = 1509kN
Level + 82.740m
Level + 78.000m
Figure 2: Truss and design loads
3 INTERNAL FORCES
The inner diagonals as well as the vertical struts were designed for small forces with max
Nd = 130 kN. The bottom chord got a tension force of Nd = 3300 kN. The upper chord received a
compression force of Nd = 2500 kN. Due to its large dimension buckling was eliminated. At last the outer
diagonals were analyzed. They receive a compression load of Nd = 4160 kN. A comparison of the original
structural design and a new and autonomous structural design after the collapse led to the same
compression and tension forces. All members were strong enough to carry the applied loads.
4 DETAILED ANALYSIS OF THE OUTER DIAGONALS

The structural design of the outer diagonals is governed by buckling according to Euler’s case II.
Figure 3 shows that this Euler case relies on non-sway hinge joints at both ends. By using the national
code the ideal buckling load as well as the ultimate load can be analyzed.
564
Figure 3: Euler’s cases of buckling taken from [1]
π2 π2 (1)
N ki ,z = ⋅ EI = ⋅ 21000kN / cm 2 ⋅ 66112cm 4 = 22442kN
sk
2
(781cm)2
By using the German code DIN 18800 [2] the effective slenderness can be calculated with the help of
the buckling curve c.
N pl 384cm 2 ⋅ 36kN / cm 2 (2)

λ= = = 0.785 κ = 0.68
N ki 22442kN
The hollow sections ultimate load is defined by:
N ultimate = κ ⋅ N pl,d = 0.68 ⋅12557 kN = 8539kN ≥ N d = 4160kN (3)
The ultimate load is twice as big as the compression force of the outer diagonal. Therefore a collapse
of the outer diagonal according to Euler’s case II is not expected.
A
0
40
5
70
400
1 0
78
t=20
35
M27 - 10.9
0
M27 - 10.9
4
70
Plate 30 x 295; S355 A-A
1
58 Plate 30 x 350; S355
t=20
HEB 700; S355 0
40
730
300
5
70
A
20
54
4
70
1
58
Figure 4: Construction of the outer diagonal and its joints
565
By analyzing the workshop drawings it can be assessed that the support conditions are not as assumed
in Euler’s case II. The top and bottom flanges of the hollow section were cut out at the end of the beam to
enable the boltability. Figure 4 shows an overview of the outer diagonal and its joints. Special attention
shall be given to the 704 resp. 705 mm of the compression strut that are without top and bottom flange.
The hollow section is connected with the joint plate by bolts. The joint plate is connected to the chord
by a welding seam. Therefore the modeling of the outer diagonal to the Euler’s case is incorrect. The
slenderness of the joint plate and its length lead to the model of a segmented beam with different
stiffnesses. Rotation springs as well as translation springs have to be used at the end of the segments.
Whereas the Euler’ case II has an elastic buckling mode the segmented beam has a combination of an
elastic buckling and a rigid body motion (fig. 8). The stiffness of the springs as well as the relative
stiffness of the equivalent end segments built by the joint plates are difficult to define. Therefore the
whole truss was modeled as a three-dimensional finite element system.
5.1 Finite element method – elastic eigenvalue analysis
By using the finite element software SOFiSTiK the top as well as the bottom chord, the outer
diagonals, and the joints of the girder were modeled with shell elements. The stiffeners of the upper chord
were modeled too, to avoid local buckling effects. The inner diagonals and the vertical compression struts
were modeled using beam elements. A very fine discretization of the model was used to get results as
close to reality as possible. The model was supported as shown in figure 1. To avoid a horizontal
displacement of the system a support in the point of symmetry was modeled.
The material characteristics were ideal elastic and ideal plastic functions with a yield strength of
fy = 240 N/mm² (S235) resp. fy = 360 N/mm² (S355) and a modulus of elasticity of E = 210000 N/mm².
The loads were as shown in figure 2. Figure 5 gives a view of the finite element model.
Figure 5: General finite element model
Figure 6 (left) shows the connection between the outer diagonal and the bottom chord whereas figure
6 (right) shows the connection between the diagonal and the upper chord.
Upper joint
plate
Bottom joint
plate
Figure 6: Connection between diagonal and chords in detail
By using the finite element model and the loads an elastic eigenvalue analysis was done. 10% of the
design loads were applied to the system. Thirty eigenvalues with the associated buckling modes were
566
calculated. The eigenvalues can be divided into two major groups. Firstly there are many values with
local buckling figures of the slender web of the upper chord. These values will not be pursued. The other
group is made up of eigenvalues with buckling modes containing both outer diagonals.
The result of this analysis is shown in figure 7. Eigenvalues 1 to 3 are buckling modes of the outer
diagonals. The first and second mode is a rigid body motion of the diagonal with a sideways buckling of
the bottom joint plates. There is a symmetric rigid body motion of both diagonals in eigenvalue 1 whereas
in eigenvalue 2 an asymmetric rigid body motion can be observed. The third eigenvalue describes a rigid
body motion of the diagonal with a sideways buckling of the top joint plates. The first eigenvalues are
close together between the load factor 13.1 and 14.1. By using 10% of the design load, the ideal buckling
load can be calculated.
Eigenvalue 1: Eigenvalue 2: Eigenvalue 3: Eigenvalue 27:

load factor 13.1 load factor 13.7 load factor 14.1 load factor 59.1
Figure 7: Results of the eigenvalue analysis: First, second and third eigenvalue with rigid body motion
and 27th eigenvalue with buckling mode of Euler’s case II
Eigenvalue 1: Nki,1 = 5370kN Eigenvalue 2: Nki,2 = 5600kN Eigenvalue 3: Nki,3 = 5780kN
Figure 7 shows the 27th eigenvalue and the buckling mode analogous to Euler’s case II. This buckling
mode has an ideal buckling load of Nki,Euler = 24200 kN with the load factor of 59.1. Compared with
formula (1) there is an explicit accordance between the two ideal buckling loads. This shows the usability
of the finite element model. Altogether the first three eigenvalues show a rigid body motion. The failure
mode is not the buckling of the outer diagonal but rather the buckling of the joint plates. The joint plates
act like a spring at the end of the diagonal. Schmidt et al. [3] showed an equivalent system that is given in
fig. 8.
Joint plates
Outer diagonal
Euler's case two Rigid body motion
Equivalent rotation spring
Rigid body motion
Equivalent translation spring
Figure 8: Equivalent spring system
5.2 Finite element method –plastic and nonlinear ultimate load analysis
To get the ultimate load of the finite element model a plastic and nonlinear load analysis was used.
Therefore the ideal elastic and ideal plastic function of the material characteristics was used. To include
the nonlinear secondary order theory the first eigenvalues buckling mode was fit in the model as its
imperfection. To take a realistic value the imperfection was set to 1/500 of the length of the joint. Then an
567
ultimate load iteration was started. Within load steps the design load was raised to the ultimate load of the
system.
Design load factor
1
0,8
Ultimate load factor
Load factor
0,6
0,4
0,2 Sideways deformration of the upper joint plates

Sideways deformation of the bottom joint plates
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Sidways deformation [mm]
Figure 9: Sideways deformation of the joints in the plastic and nonlinear load analysis
Figure 9 shows the joint plates sideways deformation of the connection between the chords and the
diagonals which are shown in figure 6. The plates get a clear nonlinear sideways deformation. At the load
factor 0.69 the deformations will be infinite and the outer diagonals as well as the joint plates fail. At this
load factor the system analysis is not convergent and the whole system collapse at 69% of the design
loads. The deformation figure in the last convergent load step is affine to the first buckling mode of the
first eigenvalue.
6 RECONSTUCTION OF THE COLLAPSE BY ANALYSING THE SCRAP

After the collapse the scrap was analyzed. Figure 10 shows in the upper left photography the upper
part of the diagonal with its connection to the upper chord. The joint plates have a sideways deformation
affine to the finite element solution. The upper right photography shows the diagonal with its joint plates
to the bottom chord as well as the bottom chord. Again the sideways deformation of the joint plates is
clearly visible. The bottom photography shows the bended bottom chord, the joint plates and the straight
diagonal.
Figure 10: Debris after the collapse
568
As the finite element system showed, the connections between the outer diagonals and the chords fail
first. In this moment the whole system is still stable. The inner forces of the truss without the diagonals
create bending moments in the bottom chord. These bending moments create the extreme bending
deformation shown in figure 10. Due to the large deformations the whole girder slips off the support and
the system collapses.
7 CONCLUSION
In the process of design and construction of steelwork structures there is a straight progression.
Firstly the structural analysis gives the loads and forces as well as profiles and defined materials.
Subsequently the detail design with workshop drawings and detail drawings follows.
The truss was firstly designed as a framework. All structural elements and their material definitions
were determined by using the theory of stability respectively the elastic second order theory. This
structural analysis was done by the structural engineer. After this the design engineer determined the
structural details. He has to be aware of problems like the boltability and the erection. The design
engineer receives the forces and the stresses from the structural analysis. The load flow in the details had
to be analyzed. The discrepancy between a compact design of the connection and montage aspects as well
as the boltability had to solved. Therefore the structure had to fulfill structural restraints as well as the
static requirements. After the detail design was finished the structure was fabricated.
Figure 11: Progression of design and construction
There was no feedback loop between the engineers. Figure 11 shows that after the construction of the
details the structural engineer should have checked the design. The outer diagonals in coherence with the
new designed details had to be analyzed again. There the engineer had to notice that an important
alteration of the support conditions of the outer diagonal happened. An updated structural analysis should
have been done. This might have led to the recognition of the structures ultimate load and failure
criterion. The design engineer would have had to redesign the details to fulfill the requirements of the
structural design. This kind of feedback loop will take more time but maybe the collapse of the girder
could have been avoided.
569
REFERENCES
[1] Petersen C., “Stahlbau”. Vieweg , Braunschweig , 1993
[2] DIN 18800-2 “Steel structures – Part 2: Stability – Buckling of bars and skeletal structures”,
2008/11
[3] Schmidt H. et al., “Ein ungewöhnliches Stabilitätsproblem verursacht Schadensfall – An
uncommon stability problem causes failure”, Stahlbau 77 (12), 862-869, 2008
[4] Unterweger, H.; Ofner, R, “Traglast von Verbandsstäben aus Hohlprofilen mit quasi-zentrischem
Knotenblechanschluss – Load bearing capacity of bracing members with almost centric joints“,
Stahlbau 78 (6), 425-436, 2009
570
STRENGTH AND DUCTILITY OF

STEEL BEAMS WITH FLANGE HOLES
K.S. Sivakumaran, P. Arasaratnam, and M. Tait
Department of Civil Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, CANADA, L8S 4L7
e-mail: siva@mcmaster.ca
Key words: Experimental, Steel beams, Flange holes, Ductility, Steel standards
Abstract: This paper presents an experimental investigation, involving twenty five steel beam specimens,
on the effects of flange holes on the flexural behaviour of steel I-beams. This study used ASTM A992
grade steel beams. Circular holes of various diameters, ranging form 0% to 48% of the gross flange area
are under consideration Based on the experimental results, this research study recommends a design
approach analogous to the axial tension member provisions as per the current CAN/CSA-S16.01
standard [1]. The comparison of the proposed procedure with the 15% exemption rule as per current
steel standard S16.01 [1] demonstrated that the current code provision is unnecessarily conservative for
steel grades such as A992 steel. On the other hand, the current code provision may not be adequate for
higher strength steels such as HSLA 80 steel, ASTM A913 Gr: 60 and HPS-485W having the minimum
yield-to-ultimate strength ratio of more than 0.85.
1 INTRODUCTION
Flange holes are frequently made in structural steel construction, primarily for bolting purposes. The
influence of flange holes on the flexural behaviour of beam members has been the focus of debate for
many years. Early North American design codes allowed a designer to place holes in flanges up to 15% of
the gross area of the tension flange without penalty. If more than 15% of the gross flange area is removed,
the amount of area exceeding 15% would be deducted in calculating the section properties and typically,
only the yield moment could be used rather than the plastic moment. This provision was based on the
study by Lilly and Carpenter [2] on riveted plate girders made of ASTM A7 steel having the yield-to-
ultimate strength (Fy/Fu) ratio of about 0.5. However, in 1989, the Allowable Stress Design version of
specification [3] adopted a new provision that altered the use of the 15% exemption rule in this subject
matter. This specification introduced for the first time a mathematical formula based on the ratio of the
fracture strength of net area (AfnFu) and the yield strength of gross area (AfgFy) of the tension flange to
ignore the effects of holes. The present AISC-Load and Resistance Factor Design version [4] of the
specification also follows the same procedure as specified in the 1989-AISC specification [3] to ignore
the effect of flange holes.
The present trend in steel construction industry is to use higher strength steels with better structural
performance over traditionally used ASTM A36 steel. These high strength steels have the specified yield-
to-ultimate strength ratio ranging from 0.75 to a code permitted maximum of 0.85. In some instances,
steels such as HPS-485W, HSLA 80 steel and ASTM A913 Gr: 60 exhibit yield-to-ultimate strength
values of more than 0.85[5]. Nevertheless, the comparisons of corresponding various international code
provisions indicate that the 15% exemption rule which is currently in use as per the clause 14.1 of the
current Canadian Steel Design Code [1] is more restrictive for steel grades having the yield-to-ultimate
strength of less than 0.85, whereas it is inadequate and inappropriate for the high strength steels with the
minimum yield-to-ultimate strength of more than 0.85.
571
K.S.Sivakumaran et al.
2 THE RESEARCH PROGRAM

The objectives of the research program presented in this paper were: (i) to investigate the effects of
flange holes and flange fastener holes on the strength and rotation capacity of steel I-beams made of
ASTM A992 steel, (ii) to assess the applicability of the 15% exemption rule used in the clause 14.1 of the
current steel code provision [1] along with various other international steel code provisions dealing with
the proportioning of flexural members with flange holes (or fastener holes) and (iii) to provided
recommendations on the modification of the current CSA code provision[1].
2.1 Test Specimens
The test program considered twenty five full scale beam specimens (Beam section W200X42) each
having a nominal length of 3050 mm. All beam specimens were from the same production batch thus the
material characteristics discrepancy would be minimal. The tests were divided into four series as follows:
Series-1: This series involved the beam tests with solid flanges. Four beams under consideration were
named as A100-1, A100-2, A100-3 and A100-4, wherein ‘A100’ denotes that the area of tension flange of
100% and the number that follows denotes the test-number.
Series-2: The beam tests of this series contain holes in tension flanges only. Seven different
configurations with the net flange area-to-gross flange area (Afn/Afg) ratio between 90% and 50% were
considered. The beam specimens tested in this category were named as A90-1, A85-1, A80-1, A75-1,
A70-1, A60-1 and A50-1. For example, here, A70 indicates that (Afn/Afg) ratio is 70%. In addition, tests
on the beam specimens A75, A70 and A60 were repeated due to the fact that such beam specimens
exhibited dominant failure modes varying from a mixed type of local compression flange buckle followed
by net-section fracture to a definite net-section fracture.
Series-3: This series included beam specimens with holes in both tension and compression flanges. It
includes four tests A85-B-1, A75-B-1, A70-B-1 and A60-B-1, where ‘B’ denotes both flanges. The
purpose of this test was to investigate the flexural behaviour when holes exist in both flanges.
Series-4: This series included beam specimens with flange holes in both flanges, and with fasteners
placed in these holes. Standard size of high strength ASTM A490 fasteners, leaving a clearance of
approximately 2 mm between the perimeter of hole and the outer surface of the fastener were inserted into
the holes of beam specimens: A85-F-1, A75-F-1, A70-F-1 and A60-F-1, where “F” represents fasteners.
The fasteners were tightened by a hand wrench to a specific level. The purpose of this type test was to
investigate the role of fasteners in resisting the flexural stresses in compression flanges.
2.1.1 Mechanical Characteristics
Six standard tension coupon tests involving 3-flange coupons and 3-web coupons were conducted. All
coupons, except the web coupons obtained closer to the flange-web junction, exhibited a sharp yield point
followed by a yield plateau. However, the web coupons obtained closer to the flange-web junction
exhibited no sharp yield point, and showed higher yield and ultimate strengths, and lower ductility
compared to other tension coupons tested in this research program. This can be attributed to the fact that
higher stresses exerted at the corner of rolled sections during the course of rolling process and faster
cooling following rolling due to the smaller web thickness. The average measured elastic modulus of such
coupons was of 215GPa. The yield strength of each coupon was established by the method of 0.2% strain
offset, though the flange and middle-web coupons exhibited a shaper yield point. The average measured
yield and ultimate strength of flange coupons were of 409 MPa and 531 MPa, respectively resulting in the
yield-to-ultimate strength ratio of 0.77.
2.2 Testing of Beams

Test Setup: Figure 1 shows a photographic image of the overall test setup. Each beam specimen was
simply supported at its ends and was subjected to two point loads applied at a distance of 750 mm apart
leaving a shear span of approximately 1075 mm on either side of the mid-span of the test beam. The test
arrangements allowed for large end rotations and vertical displacements that might occur during the test.
572
Figure 1: Overall View of Test Setup Figure 2: Bracing System

Bracing System: Figure 2 shows a close-up view of the bracing system used in this test program. The
triangular bracing system consisted of 3 members whose sizes are shown. A solid cold-rolled bar of 25
mm diameter was welded to the vertical member to function as a knife edge guide. The whole assembly
was firmly fastened to the laboratory test floor. Prior to applying the test load, the bracing frames were
adjusted such as to touch the flange tips of the test specimen and then tightened to the test floor.
Loading System: As could be seen in Figure 1, the loading system consisted of a 500 mm stroke
actuator combined with a commercially available load cell of 900 kN capacity and a 500 mm stroke string
transducer attached between the load cell and the outer perimeter of the actuator. Since this is a
displacement controlled loading system, it also included a controller, function generator, power supply
and a servo valve. The loading system was positioned upside down and loaded from above at mid-span.
Instrumentation: In order to determine the rotation of the beam specimen, potentiometers were placed
at each ends of the beam. The differential readings between a pair of potentiometers and a pair of LVDTs
and the corresponding vertical distances between them were used to calculate the beam end rotations. The
deferential reading between a pair of vertical
potentiometers and the corresponding
horizontal distances between them were used to
establish the rotations at load points. The mid-
span deflection of the test beam was measured
using potentiometer S.P-3. The vertical
deflections at the quarter points of the test
beams were also measured using
potentiometers. High elongation capacity strain
gages were also used in some of the beam tests.
Additional instruments such as LVDT-3 and
LVDT-4 were used to monitor the out-of-plane
movements of the compression flanges with Figure 3: Instrumentation of Test Beam
respect to the tension flange at the center of the
mid-span. These instruments detected the initiation of local buckling at the center span of the test beam.
Test Procedure: Once the instruments were properly attached to the specimen, it was preloaded using
the displacement control loading system. The applied preloading was within the elastic range. The beam
specimen was then unloaded and instruments were reset. Once this preload protocol is completed, which
was to ensure proper seating of the test beam within the loading frame, actual loading began. The test
beams were subjected to increasing displacements until failure. The loading rate of 0.025 mm/sec was
maintained throughout the test. The beam test was considered complete when the load versus mid-span
deflection curve reached below the plastic load again on the unloading branch. However, in the case of
beam tests where the failure of the specimen occurred as a result of net-section fracture the test was
terminated as soon as a sudden drop in loading was noticed.
573
3 TEST RESULTS
Some of the results reported herein include normalized quantities of (1) load versus mid-span
deflection, (2) moment versus load point rotation and (3) moment versus beam end rotation. The rotation
is the average of the rotations measured underneath the two load points. Table 1 presents the measured
peak moments Mm associated with each test and the theoretical gross-section plastic moment MP of each
test specimen. Theoretical MP considers the openings and the resulting neutral axis shift. Table 1 also
provides the percentage reduction in strength as compared to the solid beams (see column 7).
Table 1: Comparison of Experimental Peak Moments with Theoretical Plastic Gross-Section Moment
Ave
Type [Afn Mm Mave %difference
Beam [AfnFu/ MPave rage
of /Afg] (Test) (Test) compared to
ID AfgFy] (kNm) Mm/
Test (%) (kNm) (kNm) solid section
(2) (4) (8) MP
(1) (3) (5) (6) (7)
(9)
A100-1 100 1.30 215
Series-1 A100-2 100 1.30 214
214 0.0 176 1.22
A100-3 100 1.30 214
A100-4 100 1.30 214
A90-1 91 1.18 214 214 0.0 176 1.22
A85-1 85 1.10 216 216 0.9 176 1.23
A80-1 79 1.03 212 212 0.9 174 1.22
Series-2 A75-1 74 0.96 210 209 2.3 175 1.19
A75
A70-12 74
71 00.92
96 206
204 204 4.7 176 1.16
A70
A60-12 71
62 00.81
92 205
197 195 8.9 174 1.12
A60 2 62 0 81 194
A50-1 52 0.67 178 178 16.8 172 1.03
A85-B-1 86 1.17 210 210 1.8 178 1.18
Series-3 A75-B-1 74 0.96 200 200 6.5 176 1.14
A70-B-1 70 0.91 197 197 7.9 176 1.12
A60-B-1 63 0.82 192 192 10.3 179 1.07
A85-F-1 85 1.10 212 212 0.9 175 1.21
A75-F-1 74 0.96 210 210 1.9 174 1.21
Series-4 A70-F-1 70 0.91 207 207 3.3 177 1.17
A60-F-1 62 0.81 194 194 9.3 175 1.10
Series-1: Solid Beam Tests: The maximum moment carrying capacity of solid beams A100-1, A100-
2, A100-3 and A100-4 were 215 kN.m, 214 kN.m, 214 kN.m and 214 kN.m, respectively. However, the
corresponding measured average load point rotations corresponding to peak moment were of 0.0938,
0.0972, 0.0949 and 0.0878 radians, respectively, resulting in the maximum deviation from the average
measured rotation (0.0934 radians) of approximately 6%. The normalized moment (M/MP) versus the
normalized load point rotation (Ө/ӨP) relationship for each solid beam was established. The moment
versus load point rotation relationship was in close agreement up to the peak moment, even though slight
variations were observed perhaps due to the inherent variability associated with the presence of residual
stresses and initial geometric imperfections. Two different rotation capacities such as Ry (a measure of
574
available rotation capacity corresponding to the plastic moment MP obtained on the unloading branch)
and Rm (rotation capacity at peak moment) were established in this research program. The average
measured Ry and Rm of the solid beam specimens were 23.5 and 13.1, respectively. The failure of the
solid beam was due to local flange buckling of the compression flange which was followed by lateral
torsional buckling in the critical span region.
Series-2: Beams Having Holes in Tension Flange Only: Figure 4 shows the normalized moment,
M/MP versus the normalized average load point rotation, Ԧ/ԦP for the beam specimens with holes in
tension flanges only. In order to illustrate how the flexural behaviour of steel member could be influenced
due to the presence of holes in the tension flanges, the moment-rotation response of a solid beam (A100-
3) is also shown in the same figure. Figure 5 shows a close up view of failure pattern of the beam
specimen (A60-3) failed as a result of net-section fracture through the holes in tension flange.
Figure 4: Normalized Moment Versus Figure 5: Failure Pattern of beam with holes in
Normalized Load Point Rotation Tension Flange
From figure 4, it can be noted that the rotation capacities of the flexural members were reduced even
when the holes removed was small, say approximately 10% (A90-1). However, it can be observed that the
strength of the flexural members was not significantly impacted provided the nominal net-section fracture
strength was greater than nominal gross-section yield strength (AfnFuAfgFy). This ratio is given in Table
1- Column 4. The percentage reduction in strength (Table 1- Column 7) increased as the AfnFu/AfgFy ratio
became lower than 1.0. Thus, for beam specimens having the AfnFu/AfgFy ratio of 0.96 (26% flange holes
of gross flange area) and 0.92 (29% flange holes of gross flange area), the percentage reductions in the
average maximum load were of 2.3% and 4.7%, respectively, compared to that of solid beams. These
specimens having the AfnFu/AfgFy of 0.96 and 0.92 eventually failed by net section fracture which
occurred after visible local bulking of the compression flanges in the uniform moment region which can
be seen in Figure 5. However, for beam specimens having the AfnFu/AfgFy ratio of 0.81 (38% holes of
gross flange area) and 0.68 (48% holes of gross flange area), which were well below 1.0, the percentage
reductions in the average maximum applied load were of 8.9% and 16.8%, respectively. Such beam
specimens failed by net-section fracture, prior to local bucking of compression flange. The reduction in
the moment capacity of beam specimens, having the AfnFu/AfgFy>1.0, was not substantial, although a
slight reduction did occur with increasing hole size. Based on these results, suppose it is presumed that
any strength reductions within ±5% range can be ignored from a design stand point, then the tension
flange holes of up to 29% of the gross flange area can be safely ignored in beams made of ASTM A992
steel having yield-to-ultimate strength ratio of 0.77. Table 1- Column 9 gives the ratio of test moment to
theoretical moment resistance. For series-2 specimens, since the Mm/MP for all specimens were more than
1.0, it can be concluded that the tension flange rupture did not occur prior to the attainment of the gross-
section plastic moment, when the holes removed was from 9% to 48%.
575
Series-3: Beam Having Holes in Both Flanges: As presented in Table 1, the percentage decrease in
the moment capacity of beam specimens with holes in both flanges (Series-3) having the AfnFu/AfgFy
ratio of 1.17, 0.96, 0.91 and 0.82, compared to the solid beams, were 1.8%, 6.5%, 7.9% and 10.3%,
respectively. As expected, the flexural behaviour of beam specimens in terms of strength and rotation
capacity was considerably influenced as holes were present in both flanges. The percentage decrease in
the maximum moment capacity of beam specimens having the A fnFu/AfgFy ratio of 1.17 (A85-B-1), 0.96
(A75-B-1), 0.91 (A70-B-1) and 0.82 (A60-B-1), compared to the corresponding beam specimens having
holes in the tension flanges only (Series-2) were of 2.7%, 4.2%, 3.2% and 1.4%, respectively. The beam
specimen having the AfnFu/AfgFy ratio of 0.96 (26% holes of gross flange area), which is closer to 1.0,
failed due to local buckling of the compression flange whereas, similar beam specimen (A fnFu/AfgFy
=0.96) having holes in the tension flange only failed due to net-section fracture of the tension flange,
which occurred after noticeable local buckling of the compression flange. This can be attributed to the
fact that the compression flange was weakened locally due to the presence of holes which resulted in
early yielding of the locally buckled compression flange. However, the beam specimens having the
AfnFu/AfgFy ratio of 0.91 and 0.82 failed due to tension fracture.
Series-4: Beam Tests Having Holes With Fasteners in Both Flanges: These tests were somewhat
similar to Series-3 tests, in that both set of beams had holes in both flanges, except that fasteners were
present in the holes in the current set of beams. For beam specimens having the AfnFu/AfgFy ratio of 1.10
(A85-F-1), 0.96 (A75-F-1), 0.91(A70-F-1) and 0.82 (A60-F-1), the percentage reduction in the maximum
moment capacity in compared to similar solid beam specimens, were of 0.9%, 1.9%, 3.3% and 10.3%,
respectively. The moment capacities of beam specimens were greatly improved when the holes in the
compression flanges were filled with the standard size of fasteners. The percentage improvement in the
maximum moment capacity of beam specimens having the AfnFu/AfgFy ratio of 1.10, 0.96, 0.91 and 0.81
when compared to the similar beam sections having holes in both flanges were of approximately 50%,
71%, 58%, and 10%, respectively. This clearly indicated that the presence of fasteners within the holes in
the compression flanges improved the moment resistance of beams with flange holes.
4 PROPOSED DESIGN APPROACH

Largest experimentally measured moment (Mm), the calculated gross-section plastic moment (MP=
ZgFy) and the calculated net-section fracture moment (Mfn= ZnFu) of each beam specimens were
established. Note that in calculating the plastic section modulus of net-section, Zn, the neutral axis of the
net-section was presumed to be shifting from the neutral axis of the gross-section to that of the net-section
for beam specimens having holes in tension flanges only. Also, similar procedure was adopted for beam
specimens having the fastener holes in both flanges although, the strain measurements at the middle of the
web indicated that the movement of the neutral axis was not detected. Nevertheless, the consideration of
the position of neutral axis shifting from the gross-section to net-section would yield a lower moment
capacity [conservative design approach]. Comparing the gross-section plastic moment (MP) and the net-
section fracture moment (Mfn), the MP/Mfn ratio increased with increasing AfnFu/AfgFy ratios. This
suggested the proposed design approach which is analogous to an axial tension member provision. That is
the gross-section plastic moment capacity and net-section fracture moment should be checked and the
lesser of two could be used as a design moment.
However, a detail analysis of the experimental results [Not given here] indicated that the (MP/Mfn)
ratio was less than 0.85 when the AfnFu/AfgFy ratio was greater than 1.0 for beam specimens having holes
in either tension flanges only or fastener holes in both flanges. Moreover, in such cases, the beam
specimens eventually failed due to local buckling of the compression flange preceded by lateral torsion
buckling in the critical span region [ductile failure]. On the other hand, the M P/Mfn ratio was greater than
0.85 when the AfnFu/AfgFy ratio was reduced to below 1.0. The failure of beam specimens in this case was
mainly due to local buckling of the compression flange in the critical span (mid-span) region which was
eventually followed by net-section fracture in the tension flange [brittle failure]. However, for the beam
specimens having holes in both flanges and having the AfnFu/AfgFy ratio of greater than 0.95, the MP/Mfn
576
ratio was less than 1.0. Also, the failure of beam specimens in such cases was mainly due to local
buckling of the compression flange preceded by lateral torsional buckling in the critical span. On the
other hand, as the AfnFu/AfgFy ratio became less than 0.95 the MP/Mfn ratio was increased to more than
1.0. The failure of beam specimens in such cases was mainly due to net-section fracture of the tension
flange. By considering all the scenarios tested in this research program, a factor of 0.85 can be considered
as an optimum upper bound that should be used to multiply the theoretical net-section fracture moment
(Mfn). Therefore, this research study suggests a design check, which is analogous to the tension member
provision as per the current CAN/CSA-S16.01 [1] standard,; (a) The gross-section shall be designed for
the gross-section plastic moment capacity, MP (ZgFy) (or lower if compression flange or web limit states
control) (b) Calculate the factored net-section fracture moment, Mfnf =0.85ZnFu. If MP ≤ Mfnf, the effects
of holes (or fastener holes) shall be ignored and the flexural member shall be designed for its gross-
section plastic moment as usually followed in the design solid beams. Otherwise, design the member to
carry the factored net-section fracture moment.
Overall, the design moments calculated as per the proposed design approach resulted in higher design
moments than that permitted by the current code provisions for flexural members having either flange
holes or flange fastener holes. The 15% exemption rule, which is still in use as per the current CAN/CSA-
S16.01 (Clause 14.1) code provision [1], is conservative for currently used structural steels which often
possess a yield-to-ultimate strength ratio of less than 0.85. Note that the design moment as per the
proposed design procedure in this investigation has a reduction factor of approximately 0.85 as compared
to the maximum measured moments associated with the net-section observed in this investigation.
Moreover, the suggested design method was analogous to the tension member provision as per the current
CAN/CSA-S16.01 (Clause 13.2) code provision [1] eliminating unnecessary ambiguity in regards to the
design of flexural members having holes (or fastener holes) in tension flanges. That is, the clause: 14.1 of
the current CAN/CSA-S16.01 standard [1] treats the effects of holes and the effects fastener holes in
different manner, in which when holes occur in flanges a theoretical net-section calculations shall be
followed whereas, when fastener holes in beams is considered, the 15% exemption rule would be applied.
However, the proposed method in this investigation follows a unified approach, in which the effects of
holes or fastener holes that may present in flanges of a flexural member or a tension member would be
treated in an identical manner. In addition, the proposed method as opposed to the current CSA code
provision [1] takes into account the material characteristics in terms of yield-to-ultimate strength ratio.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The following points summarize the main observations of this research program:
[a] Experiments considered ASTM A992 steel with the measured yield-to-ultimate strength ratio of
0.77 beams having flange holes as high as 48% of the gross area of the tension flange. Though tension
flange rupture was observed in some cases, the peak moments in all of the beams were higher than the
gross-section plastic moment (MP) for the beam [b]The strain measurements indicated that no great
deviation occurred with regards to the position of the neutral axis of the gross cross-section when holes
when holes were made in the tension flange only (or fastener holes occurred in both flanges) [c]The strain
measurements made in the vicinity of hole region of beam specimens A75-3 and A75-2, in which holes
existed in tension flanges only, were about 1.2% and 2%, respectively when the beam members reached
the gross-section plastic moment, MP. This yielded a conclusion that the flexural members with holes in
tension flanges only require a strain in the range of 6-10 times the yield strain (0.2%) for the ASTM A992
steel as has been already verified by Dexter et al.[5] who performed flexural tests made of HPS 480W
steel grade. [d]When holes were present in the tension flange only, and for the cases of fastener holes in
both the tension flange and the compression flange, the failure of flexural members having the
AfnFu/AfgFy≥1.0 was primarily due to lateral torsional buckling which was eventually followed by local
buckling in the critical span (mid-span) region. It was noted in such cases that the gross-section plastic
moment-to-the net-section fracture moment (MP/Mfn) ratio was less than 0.85. [e] The design moment
calculation as per the proposed design method was quite comparable with the present AISC code
577
provision [4]. However, beyond a threshold value, depending on the yield-to-ultimate strength ratio, the
proposed method allowed higher moments on net-sections than the presently used design code provisions.
It should also be noted that the proposed design moments are lower than the experimentally measured
maximum moments on the net-section. Therefore, the design moments as per the proposed design method
would be safe. [f] The ratio of the nominal net-section fracture strength (AfnFu)-to-the gross-section yield
strength (AfgFy) did not seem to be as of a significant parameter for flexural members as it is for the
tension members in determining the required strength since the flexural member (A50-1) having the
AfnFu/AfgFu ratio as low as 0.67 attained the maximum net-section moment which is more than the gross-
section plastic moment. However, this parameter seemed to significantly influence the available total
rotational capacity of flexural members having flange holes and fastener holes. [g] All beam specimens
tested in this investigation attained more than the required rotation capacity of 3 before the onset of local
buckling However, the required rotation capacity for non-seismic applications as per the current AISC
specification [4] is greater than or equal to 7-9. In this investigation, beam specimens having the
AfnFu/AfgFu ≥ 1.0 exhibited substantial inelastic rotation capacity beyond the maximum load and were
able to reach the gross-section plastic moment on the unloading branch. Thus, beam specimens with holes
in the tension flanges only and fastener holes in both flanges satisfying A fnFu/AfgFu≥1.0 exhibited a total
available rotation capacity, Ry of more than 9. If the condition was violated, the beam specimens failed
primarily due to a rupture of tension flange through the flange holes which occurred before the flexural
members reached the gross-section plastic moment again on the unloading branch. That is, for flexural
members having the AfnFu/AfgFu<1.0 in the tension flanges, the inelastic deformation beyond the ultimate
load was substantially reduced. However, the beam specimens with holes in both flanges satisfying the
AfnFu/AfgFu≥0.95 exhibited a total available rotation capacity, Ry of more than 9. It should be noted that
the available rotation capacities would substantially vary depending on many parameters, such as the
cross-sectional geometry of the beam specimens, bracing locations (closer bracing will result in higher
rotation ductility), material strain hardening, local instabilities associated with flange and/or web
buckling, presence of initial geometric imperfections, etc. Thus, the generalization of available rotation
ductility from a certain type of flexural test is not reasonable. Further details of this investigation are
available in the thesis by Arasaratnam [6].
REFERENCES
[1] CSA (2003), Limit States Design of Steel Structures, CAN/CSA-S16-01, Canadian Standard
Association, ON, Canada.
[2] Lilly, S.B., and Carpenter, S. T., (1940), Effective Moment of Inertia of a Riveted Plate Girder,
Transactions, American Society of Civil Engineers, Paper No. 2089, pp.1462-1517.
[3] AISC (1989). Allowable Stress Design for Structural Steel Buildings,9th Edition, American
Institute of Steel Construction, Inc., Chicago, Illinois, USA.
[4] AISC (2005). Load and Resistance Factor Design Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, 4th
Edition, American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc., Chicago, Illinois, USA.
[5] Dexter, R.J. Alttstadt, A. and Gardner, C.A. (2002). Strength and Ductility of HPS70W Tension
Members and Tension Flanges With Holes, Research Report, University of Minnesota,
Minneapolis, MN, 55455-0116, USA.
[6] Arasaratnam, P. (2008), “Effects of Flange Holes on Flexural Behavior of Steel Beams”, Ph.D.
Thesis, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, p.xxv, p. 350.
578
RESIDUAL STRESS MEASUREMENTS IN ROLLER BENT HE 100B

SECTIONS
R.C. Spoorenberg* **, H.H. Snijder** and J.C.D. Hoenderkamp**
* Materials innovation institute M2i, Delft, the Netherlands

r.c.spoorenberg@tue.nl
** Eindhoven University of Technology
h.h.snijder@tue.nl, j.c.d.hoenderkamp@tue.nl
Keywords: Residual stresses, roller bending process, plastic deformation.
Abstract. This paper presents residual stress distributions in roller bent wide flange HE 100B sections
obtained from experiments. The wide flange steel beams are curved at ambient temperature by means of
the roller bending process, which alters the initial residual stress pattern. Curved wide flange steel
sections are frequently used in large span structures like roofings and bridges. Their geometry and
loading often make these arches susceptible to instability phenomena’s. An accurate knowledge of the
residual stresses is therefore necessary. An experimental program was set up to investigate the residual
stresses in roller bent sections. Measurements were carried out on straight and curved sections. It was
found that the residual stresses in roller bent sections differ significantly from those in their straight
counterparts.
1 INTRODUCTION
A structural steel section contains residual stresses which are a result of the manufacturing process.
Residual stresses are in general of primary importance for structures susceptible to loss of stability, since
the presence of these stresses causes early yielding and thereby a reduction in load carrying capacity.
Extensive research has been carried out on the measurements of residual stresses in straight hot rolled
sections, [1], [2], [3] and [4] amongst others. Results were summarized and published in various forms
[5], [6] and [7]. It was found that residual stresses in straight hot-rolled sections are characterized by
compressive stresses in the flange tips and tension in the web-flange junction. The web can be either
under compressive or tensile residual stress depending on the shape of the cross-section.
Cold forming structural steel at ambient temperature changes the residual stress pattern due to plastic
strains. This characteristic of cold forming was first observed in [8] where the residual stress distribution
in cold-formed circular hollow sections was investigated. Residual stresses in press-braked plates were
measured in [9], [10]. The residual stresses in bent sheet metals were reported in [11].
Theoretical models are available to obtain a residual stress distribution in cold-bent sections. A first
solution was proposed in [12] for bars under uniform bending based on elastic perfectly-plastic material
behavior. The basic theory is illustrated in Figure 1, where Į=ratio between the plastic and elastic section
modulus or shape factor, fy=yield stress, h=height of the cross section and R=radius of the circular arch.
When a stress free bar or plate is plastically bent into a specific radius, a plastic stress distribution
emerges (Figure 1(b)). After releasing the acting moments, an elastic release or springback of the member
takes place, thereby imposing an elastic stress distribution on the already present loading stresses (Figure
1(c)). The result is a stress distribution, which is a summation of the loading and unloading stresses
(Figure 1(d)) thereby assuming a uniaxial stress condition. The theoretical model has found widespread
application in structural analysis of curved steel, as reported in [13].
579
R.C. Spoorenberg et al.
Figure 1 Simplified theory on residual stresses due to cold bending.
This theoretical model has been used to find residual stresses in roller bent sections. However the
model is questionable since the true bending process features a complex interaction between rollers and
beam which cannot be represented by a uniaxial loading-unloading procedure. At Eindhoven University
of Technology an experimental and numerical investigation has been started to study the roller bending
process and its effects on wide flange steel beams. This project includes a variety of wide flange sections
and different steel grades. Some of the experimental results have been published in [14].
A short description of the roller bending process is presented in section 2. The experimental program
and test setup are given in section 3. In section 4 the results of the residual stress measurements as taken
from both straight reference sections and roller bent sections are presented. Section 5 discusses the results
of the measurements and the paper ends with conclusions in section 6.
2 ROLLER BENDING PROCESS

Roller bending is a manufacturing technique whereby a straight wide flange section is shaped into a
curved one by feeding it through a roller bending machine. The roller bending machine can be equipped
with either three or four rollers. This study is confined to the first type. Because of the three rollers’
pyramid arrangement, roller bending is sometimes referred to as ‘pyramid rolling’ (see Figure 2).
Figure 2 Roller bending process
A straight member is placed in the machine (Figure 2(a)) and successive rolling and movement of the
rolls induces permanent curvature of the sections (Figures 2(b) and (c)). The top flange and bottom flange
are elongated and shortened respectively. The roller bending process is mainly featured by continuously
changing bending-type deformations as the section moves through the rollers. During the bending process
all three rollers are driven and automatic speed compensation is implemented for the difference in surface
speeds between the inner and outer circumference of the section being rolled. Depending on the machine
type, sections with a height of up to 1 m can be bent. Several additional passes are required until the
designated radius is attained. Steel members can be bent the easy way or the hard way which involves
bending about its weak axis or about its strong axis respectively. When bent the hard way, a small roller
580
is placed at the inside of the top flange to prevent web crippling. This investigation is limited to wide
flange sections bent about the strong axis. Although complex curvatures are possible, this study is
confined to beams bent into a circular shape. Due to placement requirements within the bending machine,
it is impossible to impose a permanent curvature along the complete length of the beam. The ends remain
straight and have to be considered as waste material (Figure 2(c)). A more extensive description of the
roller bending process is reported in [15].
3 EXPERIMENTAL TEST SETUP
3.1 Experimental Plan

The complete experimental program is presented in Table 1. It comprises commercially available hot-
rolled wide flange steel sections bent into different radii and with different steel grades. A full overview
on the HE 100B profiles which will be presented in this paper is given in Table 2.
Table 1: Total experimental plan

Section Steel Grade Bending Radius [mm]
HE 100A1 HE 100B S235, S355 1910, 2546, 3820
HE 360B1 S235, S355 8000
IPE 3601 S235, S355 4500, 8000
1
Published in [14]
The initial residual stress distribution was determined from straight reference sections from which the
curved ones were made. Tensile tests were carried out on coupons taken from the flange of the straight
and curved members in order to assess the increase in yield stress and ultimate tensile stress as a result of
the roller bending process (Figure 3).
600 600
500 500
stress [N/mm ]
400
stress [N/mm ]
400
2
300 300
200 200
100 100
S235 S355 S235 S355
0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
strain [-] strain [-]
Figure 3. Stress strain relationship for HE 100B with steel grade S235 and S355, straight reference
section (left) and roller bent section with a radius of 2546 mm (right).
581
Table 2: Experimental plan

Specimen no. Steel grade Section Radius [mm] Measured yield stress of straight
reference sections [N/mm2]
1 1910 248
2 S235 2546
285
3 3820
HE 100B
4 1910 386
5 S355 2546
390
6 3820
3.2 Preparation
The sectioning method was used to measure residual stresses in roller bent steel arches. The test
specimen was saw cut from larger steel arches. Electrical strain gauges were applied to the surface of the
roller bent wide flange sections. For this investigation small (2 x 6 mm) electric strain gauges
manufactured by Tokyo Sokki Kankyujo Co. Ltd. were used. The arrangement of the strain gauges is
shown in Figure 4(a). To reduce end effects, the test area was a distance of 2.5 times the height of the
beam from the ends (Figure 4(b)). Only longitudinal stresses were measured.
A transverse saw cut and subsequent longitudinal saw cuts were made with an electrical band saw and
hand saw respectively. The influence of heat release from the electrical band saw cuts was suppressed by
supplying fluid coolant. Short-circuiting of the electrical strain gauges was prevented by covering the
gauges with a protective layer of paraffin. Strain release was recorded during the entire saw cutting
procedure. Strain measurements were recorded until approximately 30 minutes after the end of the
cutting. Strain measurements were converted into stress values by multiplying the strain by the Young’s
modulus as obtained from the tensile tests on the straight reference sections, thereby assuming elastic
release of the strains. Stress values on opposite sides of the flanges and webs were averaged.
Figure 4 Location of strain gauges
582
4 RESULTS
4.1 Straight sections

The measured residual stresses of the straight reference sections are presented. The number of the
specimen is related to its roller bent counterparts (Figure 5). It can be seen that the stresses are usually
small and below 100 N/mm2. Similar observations for straight hot-rolled HE 100B sections were made in
[16].
200 50
100 25
0 0
-100 -50 0 50 -25 -50 0 50
-200 -50
50 50
1 Top fl. Top fl.
2-3
S235 S235
0 0
Bot. fl. Bot. fl.

-50 -50
200 50
-100
100
-50
-25
0
25
50
100 25
0 0
-100 -50 0 50 -25 -50 0 50
-200 -50
50 50
25 25
0 0
-25 -50 0 50 -25 -50 0 50
-50 -50
50 50
Top fl. Top fl.
4 5-6
S355 S355
0 0
Bot. fl. Bot. fl.

-50 -50
50
-100
-50
0
50
100
50
-100
-50
0
50
100
25 25
0 0
-25 -50 0 50 -25 -50 0 50
-50 -50
Outside, left Inside, right Average
Figure 5 Hot rolled residual stresses in straight HE 100B reference sections in N/mm2
583
4.2 Roller bent sections

A plot of the residual stresses of the roller bent specimens is shown in Figure 6. The top flange and
bottom flange are referred to as the elongated flange and compressed flange, respectively. The
theoretically obtained stresses for cold-bent sections as proposed by Timoshenko are shown alongside the
measured stresses by using the measured yield stress (Table 2) of the straight reference sections and the
shape factor on the basis of nominal section dimensions (Figure 1).
200 200 200

100 100 100
0 0 0
-100 -50 0 50 -100 -50 0 50 -100 -50 0 50
-200 -200 -200
50 50 50
Top fl. Top fl. Top fl.
1 2 3
S235 S235 S235
R=1910mm 0 R=2546mm 0 R=3820mm 0
Bot. fl. Bot. fl. Bot. fl.

-50 -50 -50
400 400
-300
-150
0
150
300
-300
-150
0
150
300
400
-300
-150
0
150
300
200 200 200
0 0 0
-50 0 50 -50 0 50 -50 0 50
-200 -200 -200
200 200 200

100 100 100
0 0 0
-100 -50 0 50 -100 -50 0 50 -100 -50 0 50
-200 -200 -200
50 50 50
Top fl. Top fl. Top fl.
4 5 6
S355 S355 S355
R=1910mm 0 R=2546mm 0 R=3820mm 0
Bot. fl. Bot. fl. Bot. fl.

-50 -50 -50
600 600 600
-400
-200
0
200
400
-400
-200
0
200
400
-400
-200
0
200
400
400 400 400

200 200 200
0 0 0
-200 -50 0 50 -200 -50 0 50 -200 -50 0 50
Outside, left Inside, right Average Theory
Figure 6 Residual stress distributions after roller bending of HE 100B sections in N/mm2.
584
5 DISCUSSION
The residual stresses as shown in Figure 6 display the following characteristics. High tensile residual
stresses were observed at the web-to-flange junction in the bottom flange. The web of the roller bent
specimens is primarily under compression. Small residual stresses, either in compression or tension, were
found in the top flange. The results show a symmetrical stress pattern with respect to the minor axis of
bending.
The net effect of the roller bending process on the residual stresses can be observed by comparing
Figure 5 with Figure 6. It can be seen that the roller bending process results in a residual stress pattern
that is entirely different from the hot-rolled pattern prior to bending. In particular, the maximum residual
stress of the roller bent sections is much larger compared to the maximum residual stress of the straight
hot-rolled sections.
Bending a beam into a smaller radius requires an increase in cold work and hence an expected
increase in residual stress. However, it can be observed that the bending radius has small influence on the
residual stress distribution.
The effect of the steel grade on the residual stress distributions in roller bent sections for the HE 100B
series can be observed by comparing the results of specimens 1 to 3 (Figure 6) with those of specimens 4
to 6. The effect of the steel grade is significant since the residual stresses of the specimens 1 to 3 (S235)
are much smaller than those of specimens 4 to 6 (S355).
The measured residual stresses of the roller bent specimens are generally below the yield stress of the
straight material, although the yield stress was exceeded by the residual stress values in the bottom flange.
A higher residual stress than the yield stress can be expected as a result of cold working the material
during the roller bending process. The additional tensile tests on coupons taken from curved sections
support this theory as they showed an increased yield stress (Figure 3). Recent findings as reported in
[17] have shown a similar phenomenon for residual stresses in stainless steel sections.
The experimental results are quite different from the theoretically obtained residual stresses in cold-
bent sections as proposed in [12]. The theoretical residual stress distribution does not have a stress
gradient along the flange width, which was clearly observed in all experimental results. An antisymmetric
stress pattern with respect to the major axis of bending postulated by theory has not been measured.
6 CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents experimental results of residual stress measurements carried out on straight and
roller bent HE 100B sections. The results are part of a larger experimental and numerical study on
residual stresses due to roller bending of wide flange steel sections. The sectioning method in conjunction
with electrical strain gauges was employed to measure the residual stresses. The experimental results for
the roller bent specimens showed a significantly different residual stress distribution when compared to
the residual stress distributions in their straight counterparts. In the roller bent specimen, high
compressive and high tensile stresses were observed in the web and in the bottom flange respectively. The
observations clearly indicate that a hot rolled residual stress pattern is not applicable to a roller bent
specimen. Also it can be stated that the theoretical solution for residual stresses in cold-bent members as
proposed by Timoshenko is not suitable for roller bent wide flange steel sections. The large deviations
between the theory and the experiments show that the roller bending process of wide flange steel sections
cannot be simplified by a beam subjected to loading and unloading in uniform bending.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was carried out under the project number MC1.06262 in the framework of the Research
Program of the Materials innovation institute M2i (www.m2i.nl). The majority of the experiments were
585
carried out by H.L.M Wijen and T.J. van de Loo in the Pieter van Musschenbroek Laboratory and their
help is greatly acknowledged. The specimens were supplied and bent by Deltastaal BV and Kersten
Europe BV respectively.
REFERENCES
[1] Beedle L.S. and Tall L. "Basic Column Strength". Transactions of the ASCE, 127, 138-179, 1962.
[2] Mas E. and Massonet Ch. "Part prise par la belgique dans les recherches experimentales de la
convention europeenne des associations de la construction metallique sur le flambement centriques
des barres en acier doux". Acier-Stahl-Steel, 9, 393-400, 1966.
[3] Lay M.G. and Ward R. "Residual stresses in steel sections". Journal of the Australian Institute of
Steel Construction, 3(3), 2-21, 1969.
[4] Young B.W. "Residual stresses in hot rolled members". IABSE reports of the working commissions,
23, 25-38, 1975.
[5] ECCS. Manual on stability of steel structures - ECCS Committee 8 Stability. 1976.
[6] Ballio G. and Mazzolani F.M. Theory and Design of Steel Structures. Chapman & Hall, Oxford,
1983.
[7] Galambos T.V. Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Structures. John Wiley & Sons inc.,
New York, 1998.
[8] Kato B. and Aoki H. "Residual Stresses in Cold-formed Tubes". Journal of Strain Analysis, 13(4),
193-204, 1978.
[9] Weng C.C. and White R.N. "Residual Stresses in Cold-bent Thick Steel Plates". Journal of
Structural Engineering ASCE, 116(1), 24-39, 1990.
[10] Weng C.C. and Pekoz T. "Residual Stresses in Cold-Formed Steel Members". Journal of Structural
Engineering ASCE, 116(6), 1611-1625, 1990.
[11] Tan Z., Li B., Persson B. "On Analysis and Measurement of Residual Stresses in the Bending of
Sheet Metals". International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 36(5), 483-491, 1994.
[12] Timoshenko S.P. Strength of Materials. Part II Advanced Theory and Problems. D. Van Nostrand
Company, Inc., New York, 1940.
[13] King C. and Brown D. Design of Curved Steel. The Steel Construction Institute, Berkshire, 2001.
[14] Spoorenberg R.C., Snijder H.H., Hoenderkamp J.C.D. "Experimental investigation of residual
stresses in roller bent wide flange steel sections". Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 2010
doi: 10.1016/j.jcsr.2010.01.017.
[15] Bjorhovde R. "Cold Bending of Wide-Flange Shapes for Construction". Engineering Journal,
43(4), 271-286, 2006.
[16] Daddi I. and Mazzolani F.M. Determinazione sperimentale delle imperfezioni strutturali nei
profilati di acciaio. Universita degli studi di Napoli istituto di tecnica delle costruzioni, Bari, 1971.
[17] Cruise R.B. and Gardner L. "Residual stress analysis of structural stainless steel sections". Journal
of Constructional Steel Research, 64(3), 352-366, 2008.
586
LATERAL TORSIONAL BUCKLING OF SPACE STRUCTURES WITH

,-BEAMS - STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOR AND CALCULATION
Richard Stroetmann
Richard.Stroetmann@TU-Dresden.de
Keywords: Lateral torsional buckling, space structures, couple effects, calculation methods.
Abstract. The structural behavior of space structures with ,-beams subject of lateral torsional buckling
can often be described only insufficiently by plane subsystems. This is caused e. g. by couple effects of
stabilizing and destabilizing beams or transmissions of rotations and displacements from cross girders at
the connecting points. By means of special finite elements, which are designed for ,-beams in space
structures, an efficient calculation will be possible. Beam systems with cross-connected structural mem-
bers, like cross girders or trapezoid sheets will allow a derivation of approximate solutions for standard
applications. The intended paper deals with calculation methods for space structures with ,-beams and
demonstrates structural behavior as well as applications on the basis of typical examples.
1 INTRODUCTION
Methods for analyzing space structures with beams subject to lateral torsional buckling are mainly re-
stricted to plane systems. Usually, the effect of adjacent structural elements is taken into account by
definition of bearings, discrete and continuous translational or rotational restraints. In many cases these
simplifications describe the structural behavior of such beams with sufficient accuracy.
Problems may occur when adjacent members do not have a stabilizing, but a destabilizing effect. Of-
ten deformations (displacements, angular rotations) are transferred to the beams to be stabilized. In con-
sequence, bearings, discrete and continuous restraints cannot describe the stiffening effect entirely. The
following examples will document the difficulties mentioned above.
Figure 1 shows two transversely loaded beams that are connected by a lattice bar at the midspan. In
case of lateral torsional buckling with different loading conditions qz,1 and qz,2 stabilizing forces will be
transmitted by the joining member. The more loaded beam will be restrained by the less loaded beam.
The interaction can only be recorded considering the entire global system.
plan view section
qz,1 qz,2
y y
x z
Figure 1: Lateral torsional buckling of cross-connected ,-beams
587
Richard Stroetmann
plan view section

longitudinal girder
qz
cross girder
y y
x z
Figure 2: Crossing ,-beams with uniformly distributed load
The system in Figure 2 shows a cross girder with uniformly distributed load that is supported by a
longitudinal girder. The deformation of both girders at the connecting point can be assumed to be identi-
cal. The angular rotation at the end of the cross girder and the vertical deflection of the longitudinal
girder result in a three-dimensional deformation shape. In the longitudinal girder bending moments Mz
and torsional action effects will occur. They depend on the load level, the stiffness ratio and the dimen-
sions of the system. Connections without stiffeners lead to additional distortions of the cross-section in
the area of the connecting point.
Figure 3 shows a roof structure consisting of purlins, trusses and a roof bracing. Lateral displace-
ments of the trusses and the roof bracing are linked by means of the purlins. On the one hand the bracing
has a stabilizing effect on the trusses. On the other hand deformation, caused e. g. by wind loads, is trans-
ferred into the trusses. This causes deflecting forces in the trusses that lead to additional loadings in the
bracing. The assumption that purlins connected to the roof bracing act as rigid supports for the top flange
of the trusses is inaccurate. Especially when diagonal bracings are realized as round steel tension bars and
the bracings have to span large distances the influence of the deformation may become important.
The preceding examples demonstrate that the structural behavior of space structures with I-beams
subject to lateral torsional buckling can often only insufficiently be described by a division into plane
subsystems. Although known there is a lack of practical calculation tools that consider the interaction of
the involved components with reasonable effort.
plan view
section
q
purlin
w
truss
bracing
trusses
Figure 3: Roof structure with vertical and horizontal loads
2 FINITE ELEMENT MODELING OF SPACE STRUCTURES WITH ,-BEAMS

Applying the finite element method the structural system is idealized by the arrangement of structural
finite elements. Suitable elements must be available to describe the fundamental mechanical properties of
the members and their connections. Multifarious structures can be modeled by continuum elements such
588
Richard Stroetmann
as membrane, solid or shell elements. Decisive disadvantages of the analysis of ,-beam structures subject
to lateral torsional buckling are:
x The input of the structural systems including the definition of load and boundary conditions as well
as geometrical imperfections such as initial bow or sway imperfections is very complex and time con-
suming.
x Generating the numerical model requires a comparatively large number of elements. The resulting
meshes have a large number of nodes. To calculate the response of the structure a large system of
equations needs to be solved.
x The analysis of the huge data output requires a graphical post processor. The transparency of results
is partially lost since action effects are only presented as stresses, bending moments and in-plane
forces per unit length.
In practice such calculations remain restricted to special cases, e. g. when manufacturing a large num-
ber of identical girders justifies these efforts. However, it is more efficient to use “macro-elements” with
modified mechanical properties that represent the essential properties of the components to be modeled.
The effort needed for modeling, calculation and analysis can be minimized by using such elements, so
that FEM calculations can more widely be used for applications as described here.
Within the framework of the research project [1] tools for the calculation of structural systems with ,-
beams subject to lateral torsional buckling were developed based on the finite element method. Among
other aspects the research aimed at providing a design tool for space structures and thus to remove limita-
tions to plane systems such as single span or continuous I-beams and I-columns. It was intended to find a
possibility to describe the impact of adjacent structural members directly by means of suitable elements
and not only indirectly through the definition of discrete or continuous restraints and bearings. In addi-
tion, it was important to eliminate the assumption that there no change in cross-section shape during
buckling, because some section designs with thin webs and support conditions of beam flanges require
that web distortions need to be taken into account. The concept was to limit the mechanical properties of
the elements that are essential for the modeling of members and connections. Effects such as transverse
shear or membrane strains of ,-beams were neglected. In a first step, the development of finite elements
was limited to linear-elastic material properties and linearized distortion-translation relationship (second
order analysis).
For the modeling of beams and columns with double-symmetric ,-sections a “macro-“ or “super ele-
ment” composed of a group of element types (figure 4) was developed. The structural behavior in the
plane of web is idealized by a beam element. Perpendicular to the plane of web the ,-section consists of
two flange members and a web plate.
x,
ˆ uˆ x,
ˆ uˆ
internal forces and moments
he
y,
ˆ vˆ ˆ wˆ
z,
le
ˆ wˆ
z,
element loads continuous restraints
qz,o cxx,o
qy,o cy,o tfl czz,o
mx,o s s
he/2
qz,m r, f r tw
S
s, f s cxx,u
he/2
qy,u cy,u tfl czz,u

mx,u s s
qz,u
b
Figure 4: ,-Profile-Element – reference system, loads, bedding, internal forces and moments
589
Richard Stroetmann
The splitting of ,-sections into different elements has the advantage that web distortions can be de-
scribed with two-dimensional buckling shapes. The separation of the cross section eased the application
of eccentric forces and moments, the modeling of practical supporting conditions and the attachment of
further structural elements to the flanges of the beams and columns. A frequently discussed issue in the
beam theory is how to model geometric and/or static coupling conditions (keyword transmission of warp-
ing deformations) especially in cases when the beams are attached perpendicularly or in a random angle
to each other or if they consist of stepped cross sections. The modeling with this type of element elimi-
nates such kind of problems.
Compared to the modeling of ,-profiles with shell elements the advantage of the proposed concept is
that a relatively small number of elements is required for discretization. This leads to a significant reduc-
tion in computing time. Generating the model is very practicable and the numerical results are easier to
analyze and interpret. The influence of cross-section fillets in rolled sections that significantly increase
torsional stiffness can easily be defined by means of modifying the stiffness values. Modeling with solid
elements requires a large number of elements, thus further increasing the effort for calculation and
evaluation of the results.
Besides the ,-profile element additional elements were developed. A stiffening element can be used
for the modeling of stiffeners at load applications and of end plates; a trapezoidal profile element, a beam
element for the modeling of bracings and lattice bars as well as different spring elements for the consid-
eration of connection flexibility.
mx
ˆ uˆ
x, ˆ uˆ
x,
ˆ vˆ
y, ˆ vˆ
y, cxx
ˆ wˆ
z, ˆ wˆ
z, q
ˆ uˆ
x,
ˆ uˆ
x,
ˆ vˆ
y, ˆ wˆ
z,
ˆ wˆ
z,
Figure 5: Assembly of the finite elements for trapezoidal sheeting, connection springs and ,-beams
3 APPROXIMATION METHODS FOR THE CALCULATION OF CROSS-

CONNECTED BEAMS
3.1 Introduction to and survey of calculation methods

In practice the level of utilization of the single beams in structural systems differs often significantly.
This is for example the case, when beams with various loads for practical reasons are designed with the
same cross-section. Due to varying live loads the level of utilization can be different at a certain point of
time.
If different loaded beams are cross-connected, they act together at lateral torsional buckling. The less
stressed beams will restrain the more stressed ones (figure 1).
In steel structures often girders with cross connections are used. Trusses, for example, can be coupled
by purlins or secondary girders. Roof, wall and ceiling coverings provide a more or less continuous cou-
590
Richard Stroetmann
pling of beams or columns. Due to the structural detailing diaphragm actions cannot always be taken into
account.
The following description will briefly present different methods of calculating buckling loads of lat-
eral coupled beam systems. Knowing the ideal buckling load a simplified verification of buckling resis-
tance, e.g. according to EN 1993-1-1 [3], is possible.
One option to perform the structural analysis of coupled beam systems is to derive stiffness matrices
of the beams separately (based on second order analysis) and use suitable coupling conditions to obtain
the matrix formulation for the overall structure. Rigid couplings can be described by kinematic con-
straints and semi-rigid ones by coupling matrices. Connections can be at discrete points or in closely
spaced intervals along the beams. The influence of constraining effects against twist rotations at the
connecting areas can be considered by discrete or continuous torsional restraints.
For simple structures approximation formulas and diagrams can be derived to determine the buckling
load of coupled beams. Moreover, making use of programs for the calculation of single-span and con-
tinuous beams the lateral torsional buckling load of rigid coupled beam systems may by determined
according to second order analysis of lateral torsional buckling and non-linear spring characteristics of
the beams. A detailed description of the methods is given in [4].
3.2 Approximation formulas for rigid coupled ,-beams
In case of simply supported beams with uniform distributed and single loads the assumption of buck-
ling shapes in the form of half sinus waves for twist rotations - and lateral displacements vM of shear
centre axis leads to an acceptable approximation for the buckling load. When the beams are rigidly cou-
pled, the kinematic constraints provide the transformation rules of the stiffness matrices. In case of two
coupled beams the degrees of freedom will be reduced from four to three. The assembly of beam stiffness
matrices to the global stiffness matrix and the derivation of the determinantal equation result in a charac-
teristic cubic polynomial with three eigenvalue. A closed-form solution is possible.
The approximation formulas given in figure 6 provide buckling load values that in most cases deviate
by less than 5 % compared to calculations using more significant buckling shapes. Systems with a high
stiffness of discrete and continuous torsional restraints show larger differences. If four, six or more
a0 2 c1 c2 ( f 2 c1 c2 )
a0 a1 K a2 K2 a3 K3 0 o KKi
a1 2 c1 c2 [ f ( g1 g3 ) g2 g4 ] ( f c1 )2 ( g2 g4 )
qz a2 ( f 2 c1 c2 ) ( g12 g32 ) 2 c1 [ f ( g1 g4 g2 g3 ) g2 g4 ]
a3 2 f g1 g3 ( g1 g3 ) g12 g4 g2 g32
C-
qz ,i L2 Fz ,i L 1 2 2
M q ,i M F ,i rM y ³ ( y z ) z dA 2 z M
8 4 Iy A
Fz
x
EIz S 4 ECM S 4 GIT S 2 L
L/2 L/2 c1 c2 c- C- f ZK ZM
2 L3 2 L3 2 L 2
z Mq,1 S2 MF ,1 S2
g1 (1 ) (1 )
qz,1 qz,2 L 3 L 4
c- c-
Mq,1 rM y S2 qz ,1 L MF ,1 rM y S2
g2 ( 1 ) ( zq,1 zM ) (1 ) Fz ,1 ( zF ,1 zM )
L 3 2 L 4
y S S Mq,2 S2 MF ,2 S2
ZK ZM g3 ( 1 ) ( 1 )
M M L 3 L 4
f
EA=f Mq,2 rM y S2 qz ,2 L MF ,2 rM y S2
Fz,1 Fz,2 g4 (1 ) ( zq,2 zM ) ( 1 ) Fz ,2 ( zF ,2 zM )
L 3 2 L 4
Figure 6: Approximation formulas for calculation of cross-connected Beams
591
Richard Stroetmann
beams are rigidly coupled and respectively half of them have the same load intensity the buckling load of
these systems can obviously be calculated as well using the formulas given in figure 6.
3.3 Diagrams for calculation of lateral torsional buckling moments
Using the program PROFIL [2] diagrams were created for the determination of lateral torsional buck-
ling moments of girder systems with discrete and continuous rigid couplings (see figure 7). The diagrams
are valid for systems of simply supported rolled ,-beams. The double-symmetric cross sections of the
respective I-beams are identical. The application points of the uniformly distributed loads and the level of
couplings are placed to the centroid from the top flanges of the beams. At the determination of the dia-
grams web distortions were excluded. The application is as follows:
The number of coupled beams determines the type of diagram to be used. Curve parameters are given by
the moment distribution My and the load relation q2/q1. Depending on torsion coefficient F (see equation
(1)) the diagram provides the coefficient k to determine the lateral torsional buckling moment of the
whole system (equation (2)). The value My,Ki refers to the total maximum moment My, that means either
the span or support moment. Lateral torsional buckling moments of single beams j will be determined
with equation (3) by the relation of beam load and system load.
ǼI W (1)
Ȥ
Gǿ ȉ L2
k (2)
M y ,Ki GIT EI z
L
18 q2 26 q2
q1 q1
q1 q2
k q2 q1 q2
k -M q 1
-
24 +
-M q
- 1
16 + 5
0,5
L 22 L f
0,2
Mq = q·L² / 8 5 M q = q·L² / 8 0,2
0,1
14
20
0 0,1
1
1
18 0
12 0,5 1
5
1 5
0,5 f
0,25 0,1
0,1 f
0,25
15,7
16 0
0
10,5
10,1 0,1 0,2
10 14,5
9,3
0
13,7
14
0,1
13,1
8,7 12,8
8,2
8,1 12
8 11,7
11,5
0
7,4 10,9
-0,67· M q
- -
6,8 + 10
9,7
6,5
6,3 9,1
6 8,6 -0,67· M q
- -
5,5 +
8
5,1 7,5
Mq + 7,3 Mq +
6,4
4 6
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5
a) F b) F
Figure 7: Coefficients k for the calculation of lateral torsional buckling moments
592
Richard Stroetmann
qj (3)
M y , j ,Ki M y ,Ki
¦q
The coefficient k is nearly independent on section series and size. The diagrams in figure 7 are based
on minimum values of the IPE series. In good approximation the application is possible for other rolled
beams with doubly symmetric ,-section. In the diagrams for three coupled beams it has to be considered
that the coefficient k increases from load relationships of zero to one and thereafter k decreases again.
Under certain conditions the diagrams may also be used for determining lateral torsional buckling mo-
ments of systems of more than three beams. This requires that only two different values of transverse
load are present and that the relation between the number of beams with the same load is n1:n2 = 1:1 or
1:2.
4 EXAMPLES
In order to estimate the buckling loads of discrete coupled beam systems an iterative determination
can be performed. The aim of such determination is to find the load level KKi at which the sum of stabiliz-
ing and destabilizing forces that are transferred to the coupling beams reach equilibrium. Figure 8 dem-
onstrates the principle by an example. Three differently loaded beams are rigidly connected at midspan to
the top flange. If the spring characteristic Cy for lateral displacement of the I-beams at the connecting
point is known from a previous calculation performed according to second order analysis the iteration can
be carried out by using the diagram presented.
Figure 9 shows a girder grillage consisting of purlins and trusses, respectively with same cross-
section, on which a uniformly distributed load of q=5.00 kN/m2 acts. Lateral torsional buckling of the
purlins is prevented by restraints, e. g. due to trapezoidal sheeting. Caused by the structural system, the
load transfer of the inner trusses is approximately 2.75 times higher than that of the outer trusses. By the
connection with the purlins the trusses are torsionally restrained and coupled in transverse direction at the
top flanges.
qz
250
130,3
Cy [kN/m]
31,6
0
3000 3000
-161,9
-250
qz,1 = 2,0 qz,2 = 5,0 qz,3 = 10,0
-500
q [kN/m]
(1) (2) 290 x 7 (3) 0 10 20 30 z 40
0
150 x 10
1
Cy C y ,B 1
vk
qz qz
Cy,B 1 2
K Ki = 2,44
1 y,v Beam 3
S 3
Cy,B Beam 2
K Beam 1
3000 3000
4
z
Figure 8: Determination of buckling load with spring characteristic (loads [kN/m], dimensions [mm])
593
Richard Stroetmann
The stability of the structural system was calculated by the program PROFIL [2] and various ap-
proximation methods as documented in [4]. Moreover, various effects were investigated by means of
different calculations. Disregarding the coupling effect to the outer trusses and the torsional restraints
from the purlins the buckling load factor of the inner trusses is KKi=0.39. With torsional restraints this
factor increases to KKi=1.24. Additionally, the consideration of the coupling effect to the outer trusses
results in a buckling load factor of KKi=1.71. In this particular case it is necessary to consider both effects,
to verify the structural safety of the inner trusses.
6.000 6.000 6.000 q=5,00 kN/m2
IPE220
IPE600 IPE600
8 1,71
purlins IPE220
5x2.500=12.500
1,71
trusses IPE600
4 without 1,24
1,24
2 torsional
restraints with with
1
and couple torsional torsional
8
effects restraints restraints
6 but and
0,39
0,39 without couple
4
couple effects
2
effects
0
1 2 3
safety factor of the ideal buckling load
Figure 9: Girder grillage with trusses and purlins – influence of different stabilization effects
5 CONCLUSION
The stability of space structures is often only insufficiently assessed by the analysis of plane subsys-
tems. Specific finite element formulations allow system analyses that include essential effects with regard
to the overall structural behavior. Besides the possibility to consider the transmission of deformation of
adjacent structural members, stabilizing forces of bracing systems can be directly determined. By restric-
tion to the effects that are essential for the structural behavior the efforts for modeling, calculation and
interpretation are minimized. In this way, the finite element method can economically be applied to space
structures in practice.
REFERENCES
[1] Stroetmann, R., “Zur Stabilitätsberechnung räumlicher Tragsysteme mit I-Profilen nach der Me-
thode der finiten Elemente“, Veröffentlichung des Instituts für Stahlbau und Werkstoffmechanik
der Technischen Universität Darmstadt, Heft 61, 1999.
[2] Stroetmann, R., “PROFIL FEM-Program for the structural analysis of space structures with I-
Profiles“, Fachgebiet Stahlbau und Werkstoffmechanik, TU-Darmstadt, 1999.
[3] EN 1993-1-1: “Eurocode 3 – Design of steel structures, Part 1-1 – General rules and rules for
buildings“, 2005.
[4] Stroetmann R., “Zur Stabilität von in Querrichtung gekoppelten Biegeträgern“, Der Stahlbau
69, Verlag Ernst & Sohn, Berlin, 391-408, 2000.
594
ANALYTICAL DERIVATION OF A GENERALIZED-SLENDERNESS

FORMULA FOR IN-PLANE BEAM-COLUMN DESIGN AND COMPARISON
WITH INTERACTION-CONCEPT FORMULAE
Andreas Taras*, Richard Greiner*
* Graz University of Technology – Institute for Steel Structures and Shell Structures
e-mails: taras@TUGraz.at, r.greiner@TUGraz.at
Keywords: Beam-Columns, In-Plane Buckling, Interaction Factors, Generalized Slenderness.
Abstract. This paper presents a new formulation for the design of beam-columns against in-plane
buckling that makes use of an -increasingly popular- generalized slenderness definition and an “overall”
formulation of the buckling reduction factor for combined load cases. Thereby, great care is placed on
accurately describing the specific behavior of each studied cross-sectional type. The result is a
“generalized slenderness” formulation that is as accurate, safe and mechanically consistent as the
familiar and thoroughly studied interaction-concept formulae.
1 INTRODUCTION
Beam-columns are characterized by the presence of compressive axial forces N and bending
moments M. The resistance of a steel member against either N or M is commonly determined in design
codes by the use of buckling reduction factors F=f( O ), whereby the plot of the function F over the
normalized slenderness O is a so-called buckling curve. The (usually) detrimental effect of the combined
action of N and M is taken into account in design codes by formulae that are based on one of the
following two concepts, see figure 1:
- The interaction concept, found e.g. in clause 6.3.3 of Eurocode 3 [1], makes use of the
information contained in the utilizations nFB and mLT of the buckling checks for flexural
buckling under N alone and LT-buckling under M alone. The combined effect of N and M is
then taken into account by an interaction factor k.
M INTERACTION CONCEPT GENERALIZED SLENDERNESS CONCEPTS
N ("overall slenderness"; "general method"; ...)
My N N
My
My N N
My
My My LEA/MNA GMNIA
N N geometric residual
imperfections stresses
LPFMNA
OGS h/b>1.2
Npl Mpl LPFLBA
O oF OLT o FLT 0.3 fy - + -
Ncr Mcr Rpl e0
=
Rcr h/b<1.2
NRk Npl F MRk Mpl FLT
0.5 fy
"nFB " RGMNIA

"mLT " Rk Rpl FGS FGS ?
N Rpl
NEd MEd
M k d 1.0 Rk
NRk / JM1 MRk / JM1 t 1.0
JM1
Figure 1: Concepts for beam-column design
595
- In the second group of concepts, a generalized definition of the (normalized) slenderness is used;
they are therefore called generalized slenderness concepts in the following. Specifically, these
concepts encompass the “overall load case method” used for the design of plates and shells (see
e.g. [2]) and the so-called “general method” for the design of beam-columns of clause 6.3.4 in
Eurocode 3. These methods have in common that they consider total utilizations for the
combined case as basis for the calculation of the normalized slenderness and of the (overall)
buckling reduction factor. As is illustrated in figure 1, the slenderness O GS is defined in a
generalized form as the square root of the total load proportionality factor LPF for the plastic
collapse load (LPFMNA=Rpl) over the pertinent buckling eigenvalue LPFLBA=Rcr. The buckling
strength is then defined as follows:
FGS R pl
Rb,d t 1.0 (1)
JM1
Thereby, Rb,d is the design buckling resistance (in terms of maximum LPF) of the component or
structure against the studied buckling mode for a given load combination.
Even though the current debate over these two concepts might seem to indicate otherwise, the
concepts are best thought of as two different forms of representation of the same information, with no
basis for attributing an (inexistent) higher degree of mechanical consistency to any of the two. In the case
of the interaction concept as found in the Eurocode, mechanical accuracy and safety/reliability have been
ensured by extensive theoretical, numerical and statistical studies, summarized in [3]. On the other hand,
one could argue that the “generalized slenderness” formulation according to (1) is more “consistent” with
the design checks for the single load cases, in the sense that it also implicitly contains the buckling
checks used for only N or only M. (In the case of the “general method” this is only true for M, since for
N it is based on Fy.Npl instead of on Npl alone). However, the reduction factor FGS must account for the
exact same effects as the interaction factor k. As is indicated by the question mark in figure 1, the values
to be adopted for FGS are not clear and still up for debate, with a common opinion being that they must be
studied and calibrated by means of GMNIA calculations, see e.g. [4].
The following figure 2 illustrates factors FGS obtained from such GMNIA calculations for the in-
plane buckling behavior of a beam-column under N+M with uniform moment diagram and different
values of the ratio K0=(M/Mpl)/(N/Npl)=m0/n0. Two different definitions of F and O are used. Figure 2a
makes use of Fip and O ip, which are based on the definitions of Rpl and Rcr valid for the overall load case
N+M and in-plane buckling behavior.
K0=0.00
1.0 1.0
IPE 500 K0=m0/n0 GMNIA
1 1
2 M K0=0.25 2
Oip My/N=const. Oy
0.8 0.8
K0=0.50
0.3 fy
=Nb/Npl [-]
- + - 0.6 K =1.00
F =R /R [-]
0.6
0
b,ip pl
K0=0.00
0.4 0.4 K0=2.00
y, K 0
K0=0.25
ip
K0=0.50
K0=1.00 K0=4.00
K0=2.00
0.2 K0=4.00 0.2
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
O ip a) Oy b)
Figure 2: GMNIA buckling reduction factors Fip (a) and Fy,K0 (b) for in-plane buckling of an IPE 500.
596
In figure 2b, the familiar definition of the in-plane flexural buckling slenderness O y is used, as well
as a representation of the buckling strength for the combined, proportional load case solely in terms of
the achievable axial load Nb. Both types of representation yield the same curve for the case of K0=0.0,
representing the (imperfect) column, and result in distinctly different curves for varying values of K0.
As was mentioned above, any application of a generalized slenderness concept requires a
definition/formulation of the buckling reduction factor FGS that reproduces the same type of information
contained in an interaction factor k, thereby achieving high accuracy when compared to more
sophisticated GMNIA calculations. This paper presents an analytical formulation for the buckling
reduction factors Fip and Fy,K0 (i.e. FGS for the in-plane buckling phenomenon of beam-columns) that
fulfils this requirement.
2 DEFINITIONS AND ANALYTICAL FORMULATION

This section presents the mentioned proposal for a “generalized slenderness concept” formulation for
in-plane beam-column buckling design, focusing on compact class 1 or 2 sections. The full derivation is
too lengthy to be included in this paper; thus, the reader is referred to the original source in [5]. However,
the basic concepts of the derivation are briefly discussed in the following, making reference to figure 3.
The first and essential step of the derivation consists of determining the generalized slenderness for the
in-plane buckling case under N+M. Thereby, it is found convenient to do so on the basis of a
linearization -with i=1, 2, … linear segments- of the cross-sectional interaction curve, see figure 3a. By
introducing the parameters kni and kmi, the cross-sectional resistance of a section in terms of obtainable
values of m=M/Mpl and n=N/Npl can be described as follows, for the applicable segment i:
kni n kmi m d 1.0 (2)
Table 1 contains coefficients kni and kmi that were derived for a variety of double-symmetric sections.
Thereby, the factors KSCi indicate the ratios K=m/n at which the applicable linearized segment of the N/M
cross-sectional interaction curve changes; e.g., if K<KSC1 o kni=kn1; kmi=km1.
1 2
Rpl Rcr 1/ §¨ n0 O y ·¸
n0 k n1 K0 km1 © ¹
1
Oip Oy
kn1 K0 km1
1.6 1.0
failure criterion:
1.4 kni * F y,K0 k mi * mII 1.0
0.8
1.2 1/kn1*
strong-axis buckling =1.0
1.0 N+My
K0=m0/n0 0.6
n=N/Npl [-]
[-]
1/kn2 1/kn2*
pl
0.8 mII
n=N/N
0.6
0.4 m0 Oip
m0 1/kn1=1
0.4 F y,K0
1/km1 0.2
K0 n0 1/km2*
0.2 Ksc1
n0 1/km2=1
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
m=M/M pl [-] a) m=M/Mpl [-] b)
1/km1*
Figure 3: Linearization of the cross-sectional interaction and generalized slenderness definition (a);
definition of a second-order failure criterion (b).
597
Table 1: Ccoefficients used for the description of the cross-sectional N+M interaction behaviour.
Type of section, loading, underlying
# Parameters of the N-M interaction linearization J
residual stress distributions
I-section, strong
1 axis buckling 0.8 0.8
- + - kn1=1.0; km1= 1 0.5 a t 0.75 ; KSC1
N+My 1 0.8 k m1
0.3-0.5 fy
+
0.2
Rectangular - -0.2
kn2= ; km2=1.0; KSC2 f
fy
2 hollow section 1 0.8 k m1 0.4
+
RHS, N+My -
+ + +0.5 fy
Circular Hollow kn1=1.0 ; km1=0.74; KSC1=0.8/(1-0.8 km1)=1.95

3 Section CHS, + + 0.6
- - kn2=0.2/(1-0.8 km1) =0.49; km2=1.0; KSC 2 f
N+M 0.15 fy
kn1=1.0; km1=(1-a)/1.45; KSC1=0.8/(1-0.8 km1)
- + -
I-section, weak
4 axis buckling kn2=0.8/(1.81-a) ; km2=(1-a)/(1-0.55a); KSC2=1/a 0.6
0.3-0.5 fy
N+Mz kn3=0.0; km3=1.0; KSC3 f
A 2 b tf Aw
a
A A
Since the “generalized slenderness” concept operates with load amplification factors R, a reference
load level m0/n0 is proportionally increased in the following, meaning that the ratio K0=m0/n0=K0 is kept
constant. Taking this into account, the following expressions can be found for the cross-sectional (plastic)
amplification factor Rpl and the buckling eigenvalue Rcr pertaining to the in-plane mode:
1 K0
R pl (3)
n0 c0 m0 c0
1
Rcr 2
(4)
n0 O j
2
With c0 k ni K0 k mi ; O j N pl / N cr, j ; j = axis y or z, depending on the case. The
generalized in-plane buckling slenderness can now be written as
O ip O j / c0 (5)
The next step consists of a definition of a (second-order) failure criterion. The basic concept behind
the adopted criterion is illustrated in figure 3b: the buckling load of the member is reached when at one
cross-section the following condition is fulfilled:
N M II
kni * kmi * 1.0 (5)
N pl M pl
Thereby, MII is the total, second-order bending moment in the critical cross-section at failure, while
kni* and kmi* are factors derived –once again- from a linearization of the cross-sectional interaction
diagram (see kni and kmi), but taking into account the transition from the applicability of the plastic and
elastic cross-sectional interaction curve with increasing slenderness. This transitional behavior, discussed
e.g. in [3] and [5], is caused by the detrimental effect of extreme-fiber (e.g. flange) yielding on the
obtainable buckling strength observed in tests or realistic GMNIA calculations. Accordingly, the
following expressions (6) and (7) for kni* and kmi* reproduce a transition from the values kni and kmi valid
for the plastic cross-sectional capacity to the values of kni*=1.0 and kmi*=Wpl/Wel=w applicable for the
elastic cross-sectional resistance at higher slenderness.
598
kni* kni ( 1 kni ) U O ip CmS d 1 (6)

kmi* kmi ( w kmi ) U O ip CmS d w (7)
The factor J in (6) and (7) is a numerically calibrated, section-specific value that accounts for the
sensitivity to extreme-fiber yielding and is given in table 1 for the different studied types of cross-section.
CmS is the equivalent, sinusoidal moment coefficient for in-plane buckling.
For an imperfect beam-column with sinusoidal geometric imperfection of amplitude e0 and an in-
plane bending moment diagram, the total, second-order bending moment MII in equation (5) can be
calculated as follows:
1
M II
CmS M N e0
1 N / N cr
(8)
The use of (8) in (5) leads to
kni *
N
kmi *
CmS M N e0

1
1.0 (9)
N pl M pl 1 N / N cr
The next step, explained in detail in [5], consists of replacing the geometric imperfection amplitude
e0 by the generalized, Ayrton-Perry imperfection amplitude that leads to the EC3 column buckling
curves for the studied cross-section and the case where m0 = K0 = 0.0.
M pl
e0
N pl kmi *
Kimp ; Kimp D O 0.2 (10)
The introduction of the normalized terms Fj,K0=N/Npl and O j N pl / N cr , as well as some

simplifying and re-writing, then leads to the following expression:
F j,K 0

kni * F j ,K 0 kmi * CmS K0 Kimp 2
1.0 (11)
1 F j,K 0 O j
Expression (11) is mathematically equivalent to the Ayrton-Perry type failure criterion used by
Maquoi & Rondal [6] to establish and calibrate the well-known column buckling formulae in the
Eurocode; this statement is actually only true if the equivalent sinusoidal moment coefficient CmS is
expressed independently of the level of the (yet unknown) axial force N at failure. In [5], it is shown how
this can be achieved by a very accurate approximation, thereby simply replacing all terms N/Ncr in
published expressions for CmS by O j ²/(c0+ O j ²). By doing so, (11) can be solved explicitly for Fj,K0 ,
leading to the following, familiar-looking expression:
1
F j,K 0 d 1.0 (12)
2
) ip ) ip 2 kni * O j
1 § 2
with ) ip ¨ kni * Ktot O j ·¸ ; Ktot kmi * CmS K0 Kimp (13)
2 © ¹
Expressions (12) and (13) allow for a calculation of buckling reduction factors Fj,K0 as exemplified in
figure 2b. The “overall”, in-plane buckling reduction factor Fip ,shown in figure 2a, can also be be
expressed equivalently, as a function of Oip , by considering (5) and the following relationship:
Rb,ip F y,K 0 / no
Fip F y,K 0 c0 (14)
R pl 1 / n0 c0
This finally leads to the explicit buckling design formula for in-plane beam-column buckling using
the “overall” reduction factor Fip:
c0
Fip d 1.0 (15)
2 2
) ip ) ip kni * O ip c0
599
3 COMPARISON WITH GMNIA RESULTS AND EUROCODE CLAUSES

In this section, the developed expressions (15) and (12) are compared to results of GMNIA
calculations, whereby the latter use the common assumptions for geometry and imperfections already
used by Beer & Schulz [7] during their elaboration of the numerical & theoretical foundation of the
current Eurocode column buckling curves. This ensures consistency with this essential benchmark case.
The first type of comparison is shown in figure 4. In this figure, the evaluations of (15) and (12) are
shown in the same type of representation already used for figure 2. Figure 4a shows the “overall”
reduction factor Fip, while figure 4b illustrates the reduction factor Fy.K0 for the obtainable axial load, both
for a circular hollow section, proportional loading and different values of K0. The figure shows that the
differences between numerical and analytical curves are very small, and approximately equal for the pure
column buckling case (K0=0.0) and the actual beam-column cases (K00.0). It can be shown that the type
of representation used in figure 4a convergences to a lower-bound curve, while the value of Fy,K0 in
fugure 4b of course tends towards zero with increasing values of K0. Both phenomena are very well
represented by the proposed formulation.
1.0 1.0
K0=0.00 K0=m0/n0 GMNIA
1 CHS178/10 1
2 M 2 EQU
Oip Oy
0.8 0.8
K0=0.50
0.15 fy
=Nb/Npl [-]
0.6 K0=1.00
F =R /R [-]
0.6
b,ip pl
K0=0.00 K0=2.00
0.4 0.4
y, K 0
K0=0.50
ip
K0=1.00
K0=2.00 K0=4.00
K0=4.00
0.2 0.2
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
a) Oy d) b)
O ip
Figure 4: Comparison of newly developed analytical and numerical GMNIA buckling reduction factors
Fip (a) and Fy,K0 (b) for a CHS section.
A different type of comparison is shown in figure 5. In this figure, a spectrum of obtainable
combinations of the external loads N+M is plotted for two sections loaded by N + My or Mz, whereby
three different member lengths and a uniform moment diagram are considered. Figures a) and b) compare
the GMNIA results with the current Eurocode “interaction concept” formulae of clause 6.3.3, see [1] and
[3]. Figures c) and d) compare the numerical results with the evaluation of the newly developed “overall”
expression (15). The accuracy of both the two interaction-concept formulae found in the Eurocode
(Annex A and B) and the new formula can generally be said to be excellent.
Some advantages of the new formula can be mentioned here: the fact that expression (15) builds upon
an accurate (linearized) description of the actual, section-specific cross-sectional N+M interaction
diagram causes it to be “automatically” accurate at very low slenderness, and to lead to a consistent and
“correct” transition from the buckling to the (plastic) cross-sectional design check. The latter point is not
the case for the two sets of Eurocode interaction factors, which make use of approximations of the cross-
sectional interaction for the buckling check and usually don’t lead to the exact interaction at zero
slenderness. Another advantage of (15) appears in cases with non-equal end-moments, where failure can
be dominated by the cross-sectional check at one of the ends instead of by proper buckling. In the
interaction concept, this must be checked specifically, while (15) simply “includes” this check by being
limited by 1.0.
600
1.0 1.0 N/M

N N Oz=0.5 HEA 500z
N/
M M IPE 240 z CS
-int
M era Oz=1.0 M
M K0=m0/n0
CS c tion
- + -
-in Oz=1.5
0.8 Oy=0.5 0.8
t er
ac Oy=1.0
tio
n Oy=1.5 0.3 fy
- + - 0.3 fy
0.6 0.6
n=N/Npl [-]
n=N/Npl [-]
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
GMNIA
EC3-A
EC3-B
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
m=M/Mpl [-] a) m=M/Mpl [-] b)
1.0 1.0 N/M
IPE 240 z C Oz=0.5 HEA 500z
N/ line S-in M
M M ariz tera Oz=1.0
lin C atio ctio
- + -
ea S- n n Oz=1.5
0.8 riz inte Oy=0.5 0.8
at
ion rac Oy=1.0
tio
n Oy=1.5 0.3 fy
- + - 0.3 fy
0.6 0.6
n=N/Npl [-]
n=N/Npl [-]
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
GMNIA
EQU
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
m=M/Mpl [-] c) m=M/Mpl [-] d)
Figure 5: N+M buckling interaction curves according to Annex A & B of Eurocode 3 (a-b) and the
analytical formulation (c-d), compared with GMNIA results
In the final figure 6, the numerical GMNIA results, code formulae and the evaluation results of (15)
are compared on the level of interaction factors kj, computed so that they fulfill the following equation:
M N
nj kj 1.0 ; nj (16)
M pl F j N pl
The top three diagrams in figure 6 compare the values of kj (kyy or kzz) as defined in Annex A and B
of the Eurocode with GMNIA results, while in the bottom three diagrams GMNIA results are compared
with (iteratively determined) results of (15) that fulfill (16). Again, the proposed formulation follows the
GMNIA values of kj quite well, especially qualitatively. The curves obtained from (15) appear to have a
similar course as the ones of the EC3- Annex A formulae, but with some advantages in accuracy
particularly in the case of the circular cross-section, for which the cross-sectional interaction is poorly
represented by the Eurocode formulae. It should be noted that the accuracy of the kj values gives a rather
misleading representation of the accuracy of the formulation itself, particularly for higher values of ny or
nz. Even errors of some 20-30% in terms of kj only lead to total errors of only a few percentage points at
values of nj beyond 0.5. In this sense, it is a welcome observation that the accuracy of the proposed
formulation in terms of kj is highest for low values of nj, and mostly conservative in all other cases.
601
2.0 2.5 2.5

IPE 240 CHS178/10 HEA 500z
M M M
- + -
2.0 2.0
kzz [-]
ky [-]
1.5 0.3 fy
- + -
ky [-]
0.15 fy
0.3 fy 1.5 1.5
1.0
GMNIA 1.0 1.0
ny=0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 EC3-A ny=0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 nz=0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8
EC3-B
0.5 0.5 0.5
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Oy a) Oy b) Oz c)
2.0 2.5 2.5
IPE 240 CHS178/10 HEA 500z
M M M
- + -
2.0 2.0
ky [-]
1.5
kz [-]
0.3 fy
- + -
ky [-]
0.15 fy
0.3 fy 1.5 1.5
kz [-]
1.0
1.0 1.0
GMNIA
ny=0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 EQU ny=0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 nz=0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8
0.5 0.5 0.5

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Oy Oy Oz
Figure 6: Comparison of interaction factors kj; top: Eurocode Annex A & B; bottom: new proposal.
4 CONCLUSION
The design proposal in this paper combines the advantages of the “interaction” and “generalized
slenderness” concepts for the case of in-plane beam-column buckling. The comparison with numerical
results and current Eurocode rules (with many more examples given in [5]) showed the new proposal to
have a consistent level of accuracy and safety. The proposal could serve as a procedural blue-print for the
expansion of “generalized slenderness” concepts to other member-buckling cases.
REFERENCES
[1] EN 1993-1-1, Eurocode 3. Design of steel structures. General rules and rules for buildings, CEN,
Brussels, 2005.
[2] Rotter, J.M., Shell Buckling and Collapse Analysis for Structural Design: The New Framework of
the European Standard, Festschrift for Prof. Calladine, Cambridge, 2002.
[3] Boissonade, N., Greiner, R., Jaspart, J.P., Lindner, J., Rules for Member Stability in EN 1993-1-1,
Background documentation and design guidelines, ECCS TC 8 – Stability, Brussels, 2006.
[4] Greiner, R., Taras, A., On the variety of buckling curves, Proc. of “Stability and Ductility of Steel
Structures”, Lisbon (PT), Sept. 6-9, 1101-1108, 2006.
[5] Taras, A., Contributions to the Development of Consistent Stability Design Rules for Steel
Members, PhD Thesis, Graz University of Technology, 2010.
[6] Rondal, J., Maquoi, R., Formulations d’Ayrton-Perry pour le Flambement des Barres Métalliques,
Construction Metallique, 4, 41-53, 1979
[7] Beer, H., Schulz, G., Bases Théoriques des Courbes Européennes de Flambement, Construction
Métallique, 3, 37-57, 1970.
602
LOAD BEARING CAPACITY OF BRACING MEMBERS

WITH ALMOST CENTRIC JOINTS
Harald Unterweger*
* Institute of Steel Structures, Graz University of Technology, Austria

e-mail: h.unterweger@tugraz.at
Keywords: Connections, Stability.
Abstract. In building constructions for bracing members often hollow sections are used with slotted
gusset plates at the ends. These plates are attached to non-stiffened plates of the adjacent construction. In
practice sometimes a nearly centered joint is designed, by arranging the slotted gusset plate with an
eccentricity of half the plate thickness to the member axis, so that the member eccentricity is minimised.
In the paper the load bearing behaviour of such members under compression and tension is discussed
based on numerical analysis with nonlinear FE – models including imperfections. The geometric
parameters and boundary conditions are varied in such a way that practical cases are covered and that
the typical load bearing behaviour can be seen. Based on these results an engineering model for the
design in practice is represented.
1 INTRODUCTION
Bracing members and truss members are often designed with hollow sections and slotted gusset plates
at the ends. These plates are attached to non-stiffened plates of the adjacent construction, using welds or
bolts. In Fig. 1a some typical joints of this type are represented, including also joints with concrete
foundation. In Fig 1b the representative and idealized joint configuration for these joints - limited to
rectangular hollow sections (RHS) - is shown. The vertical plate (KB2) is restrained in axis I. Here, the
two different border cases related to boundary conditions are considered: - pinned (BC1) or, – fixed
(BC2, e.g. “concrete joint” in Fig. 1a). The slotted gusset plate of the member is joined by a fillet weld
(a1), passed around. An alternative solution with two bolt rows is possible, in accordance with the as-
sumptions of the numerical analysis (fixed connection between plate KB1 and KB2 along their borders).
A special feature of the studied joint is the eccentric position of the slotted gusset plate with an
eccentricity of half the plate thickness tKB1, as shown in Fig. 1b. In doing so, the eccentricity of the RHS -
member for the buckling check – relevant is member buckling out of plane (about the z – axis) - is
minimised (e* = 0,5·tKB2). The bending moment along the member-length is constant.
Based on the minimised eccentricity for the RHS - member, the opinion of practitioners is that only a
buckling check for the member under axial load is necessary to get the load carrying capacity of the
member. The results of this study will show that this approach would lead to high overestimations of the
load carrying capacity, especially for low slenderness ratios of the member. The reason for this, are high
bending moments in the gusset plate out of plane.
The loading of the RHS - member in this study is restricted to axial forces with bending moments
only due to eccentricities of the joints. This paper summarizes the results in [1].
2 LOAD BEARING BEHAVIOUR OF THE MEMBER IN COMPRESSION

In the following the load bearing behaviour of the member in compression, influenced by the specific
type of joint, is represented.
603
Harald Unterweger
First of all the finite element (FE) – model and the executed nonlinear numerical analysis are
presented. Afterwards the studied band width of the varied geometric parameters is summed up. At the
end the results of the numerical nonlinear calculations for an example of a rectangular hollow section are
presented, for different member slenderness and boundary condition.
Figure 1: Studied RHS - member joints: a.) different types in practice, b.) geometry and restraint
conditions of the studied representative joint.
2.1 FE model and calculation procedure

The numerical FE – model, based on the Software ABAQUS [2], consists of continuum (solid) and
beam elements and is represented in Fig. 2a. The linear continuum elements were used within the joint
and for the following parts of the hollow section (over a length of about 0,5 m). For the vertical gusset
plates eight elements over the thickness were considered, because the localized plastification in this
region affects highly the load bearing behaviour of the member. The continuation of the RHS - member
was modeled with linear beam elements only to the section at midspan, because symmetric or
antisymmetric boundary conditions there were sufficient to capture the real member behaviour. The
boundary conditions at the end of the gusset plate (axis I) were chosen adjusted on the two studied
configurations, pinned or fixed out of plane (see Fig. 1b). The two gusset plates were joined using contact
elements along the axis of the weld in between. The sealing plates were omitted.
a.) b.)
Figure 2: a.) FE – model of the joint, b.) relevant first eigenmode, L0 = 2 m, for a pinned (above) and
fixed gusset plate (below).
604
Harald Unterweger
In the study a squared, hot finished, RHS - profile with 100 / 100 / 5 mm was used, leading to gusset
plate dimensions of 250 / 130 mm (KB 1) and 100 / 330 mm (KB 2). The calculations were done for total
member lengths L0 = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 m. The corner radii of the hollow section were omitted, leading
to an area A0 = 1900 mm2 and a radius of gyration iz,0 = 38,84 mm.
In the calculations an ideal elastic – perfectly plastic material behaviour was considered with a
characteristic yield strength of fy = 235 N / mm2. A modulus of elasticity E = 210000 N/mm2 and a
Poisson ratio of Q = 0,3 were used.
First of all an LBA – analysis (linear buckling analysis) was made, leading to the capacity NLBA of
the member. Based on these results, on the one hand the “real” buckling lengths of the members were
determined (using the formula for the Euler buckling load for the RHS - member section). Due to the
limited bending stiffness of the gusset plates, the buckling length Lcr,0 of the idealized RHS - member
within the end – restraint in axis I (Lcr,0 = L0 for BC 1, Lcr,0 = 0,5 L0 for BC 2) is too small.
Afterwards the results are either based on the idealised slenderness തതതതതߣ௭ǡ଴ (Equ.1), with Lcr = L0 , or on
the slenderness based on the LBA – analyses തതതതതതߣ௅஻஺ (Equ. 2).
f y L0 1 L0 1
O z ,0 (1)
V cr ,0 iz ,0 S E f y iz ,0 93,9
N pl ,0 A0 f y
O LBA (2)
N LBA N LBA
On the other hand the eigenmodes of the LBA – analyses, scaled to a maximum value of wmax= L0 /
1000 were used for a GMNIA – analyses (geometric and material nonlinear analyses with imperfections).
This was done with care, considering different eigenmodes (not only the one for the minimum ideal
buckling load), to get a minimum for the load carrying capacity NR of the member. In Fig. 2b the relevant
eigenmodes for a member with small length L0 is shown for the two different boundary conditions.
Additional GMNA – calculations were used to check the GMNIA – results. Residual stresses were
ignored, because they affect the buckling capacity of RHS – members not significantly (e.g. [4]).
Also for cold formed RHS - members the presented results mainly are valid, only for high slenderness
ratios – where the overall buckling of the member is relevant – the appropriate buckling curve should be
used (e.g. curve c instead of a, using Eurocode 3 [3]).
2.2 Studied joint parameters
The numerical study was limited to rolled RHS – members. The joint geometry is restricted to the
dimensions of Fig. 1b. Very important is the slotted length Ls 1,5·h in the RHS – member. Otherwise
sometimes significant smaller load bearing capacities would occur. The overlapping length of the two
gusset plates was fixed with 0,75·h. The distance between member end and restraint axis I is limited to
L1 = 1,25·h.
The thickness of the two gusset plates was varied in such a way that the area ratio AKB1 / A0 = 0,8 to
1,4 and tKB2 = (0,5 to 1,0 )·tKB1.
2.3 Results of the nonlinear calculations
The results of the nonlinear calculations for different member length (i.e. different member
slenderness) and gusset plate thicknesses are presented in Fig. 3, based on an effective width of beff =
3,3·h = 330 mm of gusset plate KB2. The load carrying capacity NR is related to the section capacity of
the RHS - member Npl,0 = A0·fy =19,0·23,5 = 446,5 kN. The slenderness ratio തതതതതത
ߣ௅஻஺ (Equ. 2) is based on
the results of the LBA–analysis - that means based on the “real” buckling length.
In Fig. 3a the overall carrying behaviour is shown, based on the GMNA – results, without geometric
imperfections. The effect of these geometric imperfections is quantified in Fig. 3b, where the results with
and without imperfections are visible. It can be seen that the reduction of load carrying capacity is
comparatively small.
605
Haraldd Unterweger
Inn Fig. 3 also thhe buckling currve a, relevant for the bucklinng load capacity y of a hot finishhed, RHS –
membber under onlyy axial load in Eurocode
E 3 [3]] is plotted (dotted line). It caan be seen that the special
featurre of the studieed joint – minimmising of the member
m eccentriicity – is only usable
u for high slenderness
ratioss and thick gussset plates. For example
e with a gusset plate thiickness of tKB1 = tKB2 = 12 mm m, leading to
a ratiio AKB1 / A0 = 0,82 a dramatiic reduction of the load carryiing capacity occcurs in case off the pinned
gusseet plate KB2, also
a for very low w slenderness ratios
r (NR § 0,16·Npl,0 ). A fix xed gusset platee, however,
increases the load carrying capacitty significantly,, but also for veery low slenderrness ratios thee capacity is
far beelow the sectioon capacity of thhe RHS - mem mber (NR § 0,544·Npl,0 ). Not beefore the plate thickness
t is
increased significanntly (t KB1 = tKB22 = 20 mm, leaading to a ratio AKB1 / A0 = 1,37) and the gussset plate is
fixedd (BC2 in Fig. 1b) nearly about 80 % of thhe section capacity Npl,0 for small slendernness ratio is
availaable.
curve a
curve a
slenderneess slendern
ness
Fiigure 3: a.) GM
MNA - results deepending on thee slenderness raatio, b.) GMNA - results in com
mparison
with GMMNIA - results, for pinned (RB1=BC1) and fixxed (RB2=BC2 2) gusset plates.
T
The significant reduction of thhe load carryingg capacity – alsso related to the buckling capacity of the
RHS––member (see Fig.F 3) – is caussed by the locall bending momeents in the gussset plate, particuularly at the
end oof the RHS – member.
m This caan be seen in Fiig. 4 for a very short member with the thin gusset
g plates
mentiioned before. In
I Fig 4a the pinned
p and in Fig.
F 4b the fixeed ended gusseet plate can be seen at the
ultim
mate limit state. The gusset plaate section at thhe member endd reaches its seection capacity under axial
forcee and bending moment.
m
Figgure 4: Short meember (L0 = 2 m)

m at ultimate liimit state (GMN NA-analysis) with
w tKB1 = tKB2 = 12 mm;
a.) pinned gussset plate – NGM
MNA / Npl,0 = 0,1
173, b.) fixed guusset plate – NGMNA
G / Npl,0 = 0,543.
606
Harald Unterweger
Summing up, the load carrying capacity of the RHS - member with the specific joint configuration of
Fig. 1b has an upper limit – also for very low slenderness ratios – which primarily is influenced by the
gusset plate thickness tKB1 and the boundary condition of the gusset plate (pinned or fixed). The influence
of the effective width beff of the gusset plate is significant smaller.
These correlations are presented in Table 1. The tabulated load carrying capacities are calculated with
the engineering model presented in chapter 4.
Table 1: Ratios of maximum compression capacities N1,Rd / Npl,0 of the member –

influence of gusset plate thickness tKB1 and boundary condition (tKB2 = 12 mm).
boundary tKB1 = 12 tKB1 = 20 t KB1 = 25 t KB1 = 30
condition A KB1/A0=0,82 A KB1/A0=1,37 A KB1/A0=1,71 A KB1/A0=2,05
BC 1, beff = 3,3h 0,172 0,373 0,506 0,642
BC 2, beff = 1,6h 0,351 0,469 0,576 0,695
BC 2, beff = 3,3h 0,458 0,545 0,631 0,736
3 LOAD BEARING BEHAVIOUR OF THE MEMBER IN TENSION

The load bearing behaviour of the member in tension was also studied. Now the tension axial force
reduces the bending moment in the relevant gusset plate section at the member end significantly (2nd
order effect). The influence of the boundary condition (BC1 or BC2) disappears nearly complete and for
the studied gusset plate thicknesses the following member capacities in tension were calculated (L0 = 2 m,
beff = 330 mm):
- tKB1 = tKB1 = 12 mm: NGMNA / Npl,0 = 0,87
- tKB1 = tKB1 = 20 mm: NGMNA / Npl,0 = 0,94
- tKB1 = 20, tKB2 = 12 mm: NGMNA / Npl,0 = 0,94
4 ENGINEERING MODEL FOR COMPRESSION CAPACITY OF THE MEMBER

Based on the results of the numerical study, an engineering model was developed to calculate the
compression load-bearing capacity of the RHS - member with the specific joint configuration of Fig 1b. It
includes the following variations of the relevant parameter: - pinned (BC1) or fixed (BC2) end of the
gusset plate, - beff = 1,6·h to 3,3·h, - a “free” length of gusset plate L1 also longer than 1,25·h, - varying
thicknesses, but tKB1 tKB2 .
The engineering model includes on the one hand a conventional member buckling check with the
specifications given in chapter 4.1 – relevant for high slenderness ratios – leading to N2,Rd.
On the other hand the calculated capacity N2,Rd is limited by an upper limit N1,Rd – independent of the
member slenderness – characterising the plateau of the load bearing capacity for small and medium
slenderness (see Fig. 3). The resulting compression load bearing capacity NRd is the minimum of both
values.
As stated in Eurocode 3 [3], a partial safety factor Jf = 1,0 is considered, leading to the design yield
strength fyd = fy and the load capacity NRd.
4.1 Buckling member capacity N2,Rd
Although the “real” buckling length LLBA of the member is influenced by the smaller bending stiffness
of the gusset plates, the following simplifications are possible. For the buckling check about the z – axis
only the member section is relevant (A0, iz0) and the relevant buckling curves of the international codes
can be used (e.g. for hot finished, RHS – profiles, curve a in Eurocode 3 [3]).
607
Harald Unterweger
For pinned gusset plates (BC1) simplified LLBA = L0 , as long as L1 < 1,5·h. In addition the constant
moment M = N2,Rd·e* = N2,Rd·(tKB2 / 2) (see Fig. 1b) should be used in the buckling check. For higher
slenderness ratios the influence of the moment decreases and it can be omitted.
For fixed (BC2) gusset plates the eccentricity e* can be omitted, if LLBA = L0 is used. This
simplification leads to conservative results, mainly for high thicknesses tKB1 (see Table 2). Otherwise the
moment should be included (LLBA§ 0,85·L0 , as long as N2,Rd is relevant for design).
4.2 Upper limit for the member capacity – N1,Rd
The engineering model for the upper limit capacity N1,Rd of the member is defined by the load
carrying capacity of the gusset plate – section at the end of the member (axis II), considering 2nd order
effects. The model is summed up in Fig. 5.
The load bearing capacity N1,Rd is based on the full utilization of the plastic section capacity, due to
axial force and bending moment. As defined in Eurocode 3 [3], the acting axial force is considered by a
reduced moment capacity MN,Rd, given in Equ. 3 (fyd is the design yield strength).
2
§ § N · · hKB t 2 KB1 § N 21, Rd ·
¨
M N , Rd M pl , KB1 1 ¨ 1, Rd
¸ ¸ f yd ¨1 2 ¸ (3)
¨ ¨ N pl , KB1 ¸ ¸ 4 ¨ h KB t 2 KB1 f 2 yd ¸
© © ¹ ¹ © ¹
To calculate N1,Rd an iterative approach is necessary, until Equ. 4 is fulfilled.
M II d M N , Rd (4)
The acting bending moment MII in the gusset plate, depends on the axial force N1,Rd and the actual
boundary condition. For pinned gusset plates (BC1) the full eccentricity e0 is relevant in section II (see
Fig. 5), leading to Equ. 5. The 2nd order effect, is covered by the factor fII in form of a so called
“Dischingerfaktor”, including the Euler buckling load Ncr,BC1 for the gusset plate (Equ. 6), based on the
relevant buckling length lcr = 2·L1.
§t t · 1
M II N1, Rd e0 f II N1, Rd ¨ KB1 KB 2 ¸ (5)
© 2 N
¹ 1 1, Rd
N cr , BC1
S 2 E I z , KB1 S 2 E hKB t 3 KB1

N cr , BC1 (6)
l 2cr 48 L21
For fixed gusset plates (BC2) the bending moment due to the full eccentricity e0 is reduced, because
also section I gets a part of this moment, leading to Equ. 7.
M I M II N1, Rd e0 (7)
For the two parts in Equ. 7 the bending stiffness of the two gusset plates is relevant (identical bending
deformations). This gives: MI / MII = Iz,KB2 / Iz,KB1 , where Ii are the moment of inertias. Based on Equ. (7),
finally we get MII using Equ. (8b). But now the Euler buckling load Ncr,BC2 (Equ. 9) is based on the
reduced buckling length lcr = L1 (see Fig. 5).
1 §t t · 1
M II N1, Rd f M e0 f II N1, Rd ¨ KB1 KB 2 ¸ (8a)
I z , KB 2 © 2 ¹ 1 N1, Rd
1
I z , KB1 N cr , BC 2
1 §t t · 1
M II N1, Rd ¨ KB1 KB 2 ¸ (8b)
beff t 3 KB 2 © 2 ¹ 1 N1, Rd
1
hKB t 3 KB1 N cr , BC 2
608
Harald Unterweger
S 2 E I z , KB1 S 2 E hKB t 3 KB1

N cr , BC 2 2
(9)
l cr 12 L21
Figure 5: Engineering model for the determination of the compression load capacity N1,Rd,;
a.) actual situation, b.) determination of N1,Rd for BC1 (above) and BC2 (below).
4.3 Accuracy of the engineering model

The accuracy of the engineering model is presented in Table 2, in comparison of the results for
different slenderness, boundary conditions and gusset plate variants with the results of the GMNIA –
calculation.
For the load bearing capacity N2,Rd, relevant for higher member slenderness, the buckling check was
based on Eurocode 3 [3] with buckling curve a. Always the simplified buckling length Lcr = L0 was used.
Only for the pinned gusset plate the moment due to the eccentricity (M=N2,Rd·e*) was considered thereby.
This simplified approach would lead to very conservative results for fixed gusset plates (BC2).
Only for very thin gusset plates with pinned ends the engineering model for the upper load bearing
capacity N1,Rd (relevant for small and medium member slenderness) is on the unsafe side. But due to the
very limited capacities in those cases (N1,Rd § 0,2·Npl,0) these variants are not relevant in practice.
5 ENGINEERING MODEL FOR THE TENSION CAPACITY OF THE MEMBER

Based on the results of the numerical study, also for RHS - members in tension an engineering model
was developed. Now the 2nd order effects significantly reduce the maximum bending moments in the
relevant gusset plate section (in axis II, as in compression). The tension load bearing capacity Nt,Rd is
calculated, by using Equ. 4, based on MN,Rd in Equ. 3 (replace N1,Rd by Nt,Rd), and the reduced bending
moment MII in Equ. 10 (with tKB1 in mm). The latter is developed for a gusset plate thickness of tKB1 = 20
mm and the moment is approximately proportional to the bending stiffness, but nearly not influenced by
the boundary conditions of the gusset plate (pinned or fixed).
609
Harald Unterweger
3
t KB1 § t KB1 ·
M II Nt , Rd et N t , Rd ¨ ¸ (10)
5,14 © 20 ¹
Table 2: Compression load capacity ratios NRd / Npl,0 (RHS - profile 100/100/5, beff = 330mm), with
imperfections as well as based on an engineering model for 3 variants:
- tKB1 = tKB2 = 12 mm (V1), - tKB1 = tKB2 = 20 mm (V2), - tKB1 = 20 / tKB2 = 12 mm (V3).
boun- തതതത
slenderness ߣ ௭଴
dary calcu- 0,548 1,097 1,645 2,194
cond. lation
V1 V2 V3 V1 V2 V3 V1 V2 V3 V1 V2 V3
BC 1 GMNIA 0,161 0,309 0,367 0,163 0,302 0,357 0,160 0,272 0,295 0,148 0,177 0,183
Eng. 0,172 0,309 0,373 0,172 0,309 0,373 0,172 0,276 0,291 0,172 0,172 0,178
model +6,8% +0,0% +1,6% +5,5% +2,3% +4,5% +7,5% +1,5% -1,4% +16% -2,8% -2,7%
BC 2 GMNIA 0,526 0,825 0,643 0,525 0,654 0,643 0,361 0,425 0,424 0,219 0,286 0,275
Eng. 0,458 0,786 0,545 0,458 - 0,598 0,545 - 0,318 - 0,318 0,318 0,188 0,188 0,188
model -13% -4,7% -15% 13% -8,6% 15% 12% -25% -25% -14% -34% -31%
6 CONCLUSION
The almost centric joint in Fig. 1 only for RHS - members in tension gives a load bearing capacity
comparable with the section capacity Npl,0 (about 90 % of Npl,0 ). However, thick gusset plates are
necessary, leading to an area ratio of AKB1 / A0 > 1,25.
Also for such thick gusset plates with pinned ends the load bearing capacity in compression is limited
to about 50 % of the section capacity Npl,0 , independent of the member slenderness. The reason for that
is the high additional bending moment in the gusset plate at the member end (axis II in Fig. 5).
In case of a fixed gusset plate a maximum of about 70÷80 % of the section capacity Npl,0 is available.
Only for very high member slenderness (ߣ തതതതത
௭ǡ଴ > 1,5 / 1,0 for pinned / fixed gusset plates) the buckling
check of the member is relevant for design.
It should be noted that the studied joint configuration of Fig. 1 is nearly not usable, if fatigue loads are
relevant (stress cycles due to axial force). The reason for this, are very high stress peaks near the welds,
relevant for the fatigue check.
REFERENCES
[1] Unterweger, H. and Ofner, R., “Traglast von Verbandsstäben aus Hohlprofilen mit quasi-
zentrischem Knotenblechanschluss“, Stahlbau, 78(6), 425-436, 2009.
[2] ABAQUS, Software package, Version 6.7, 2007.
[3] Eurocode 3, European Standard, Design of steel structures – Part 1-1: General rules and rules for
buildings, 2006.
[4] Wilkinson, T., “The plastic behaviour of cold – formed rectangular hollow sections”, Doctoral
Thesis, University of Sydney, 1999.
610
FINITE ELEMENT MODELING OF ANGLE BRACING MEMBER

BEHAVIOR IN EXPERIMENTALLY TESTED SUB-FRAME SPECIMENS
Anna M. Barszcz*, Marian A. Gizejowski* and Wael A. Salah Khalil**
* Department of Building Structures, Warsaw University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland

e-mails: A.Barszcz@il.pw.edu.pl, M.Gizejowski@il.pw.edu.pl
** Department of Civil Engineering, Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt
e-mail: waelcivil@hotmail.com
Keywords: Steel Frame, Angle Bracing, Bolted Connection, Welded Connection, Numerical Modeling.
Abstract. This paper summarizes experimental and numerical investigations on the behavior of steel sub-
frame specimens braced with use of a diagonal angle member. The laboratory tests were designed to
investigate the effect of bracing member end connections (bolted asymmetric and welded symmetric) and
the effect of bracing member slenderness on the frame behavior in the whole range of frame load-
displacement characteristics. An advanced finite element numerical model is developed with use of
commercial ABAQUS code. Elastic buckling modes are evaluated. Displacement controlled Riks
geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis is carried out for the reproduction of the behavior of
specimens tested in laboratory. Numerical frame load-displacement characteristics are compared with
experimental ones. A simple analytical model of the compression member behavior developed elsewhere
is compared with experimental angle brace characteristics. Practical recommendations are formulated.
1 INTRODUCTION
Steel truss bracing systems are commonly used for the enhancement of sway performance of
structural frames in multi-storey buildings. Vertical truss bracings are composed of diagonals made of
rolled profiles, single or compound. In typical braced frames of moderate height, diagonals are made of
single angles connected through bolted asymmetric joints or welded symmetric joints to continuous
columns, or columns and beams, of the primary load bearing frame.
The behavior of structural members is usually examined experimentally as isolated elements; see
Gizejowski et al. [1]. This type of experiments is helpful in predicting the effect of member slenderness
on the buckling strength but is not adequate to model the member performance as an element of structural
systems, especially with reference to the influence of real end conditions of bracing members on their
buckling strength and force-deformation characteristic. The behavior of members acting integrally as
elements of braced frame structures has been less investigated.
Analytical models, one based on tangent modulus theory and the second - on the evaluation of overall
member force-deformation characteristic, have been developed by Barszcz and Gizejowski in [2] for the
prediction of buckling strength according to Eurocode 3. Model based on the evaluation of overall
member force-deformation characteristic for the assessment of load-displacement characteristic of more
complex structures was presented in [3]. The above mentioned analytical model of the member behavior
is further verified in this paper for angle bracing members tested as components of sub-frame specimens.
A summary of experimental work concerned with the behavior of angle member as an element of
braced sub-frame portal specimens is presented hereafter. The experimental load-displacement behavior
of tested specimens is compared with the FE results obtained with use of commercial ABAQUS code.
Experimental force-deformation characteristics of the brace angle are compared with the analytical model
611
Anna M. Barszcz et al.
dealt with in [2] and [3]. Conclusions directed towards the practical application of developed analytical
model for modeling of the behavior of bolted and welded angle braces are drawn.
2 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS
Tests were designed to examine experimentally the behavior of two sets of braced sub-frames that are
presented in figure 1. Figure 1a illustrates the general layout of sub-frame specimens BL with the angle
brace jointed to gusset plates with use of high-strength bolts though close tolerance holes, and figure 1b –
specimens WL with the angle brace welded to gusset plates. Details of both types of the connection are
given in figure 2a and b, respectively.
a) b)
Figure 1: Geometry of tested sub-frame specimens; a) BL specimens, b) WL specimens.
a) b)
Figure 2: Details of angle bracing connection; a) specimens BL, b) specimens WL.
Each set of tested specimens consists of three subsets characterized by different beam length L and
the diagonal distance Ld. Notation for each subset of specimens is given in table 1. In each subset of BL
and WL specimens, three specimens were tested.
Table 1: Description of tested specimen subsets.

Characteristic BL 1320 BL 1520 BL 1925
subset parameter WL 1320 WL 1520 WL 1925
L 1320 1520 1925
Ld 1405 1595 1985
Tests were conducted for sub-frames mounted in an upside-down position. In the upper left node, the
bracing member axis coincided with the left column axis and the node was held in position but allowed
for the in-plane rotation. The same boundary conditions were applied to the upper right node of the right
column end. The upper left node was loaded with a horizontal load F and the upper right node was
subjected to a reactive force. The beam of sub-frame specimens was restrained in the out-of-plane
direction in order to ensure that the frame deflects primarily in-plane. The incremental displacement
612
controlled loading program, corresponding to the horizontal load F, was applied. Details of test rig,
testing procedure and measurement devices were described in [4].
3 INVESTIGATIONS OF THE FRAME BEHAVIOR

Numerical investigations are conducted with use of commercial software ABAQUS. All the rolled
double tee and angle section walls are modeled with use of thin shell four node finite elements S4R5 from
the ABAQUS library. This element is only suitable for thin elements with small strain using the thin shell
theory, however, large displacements are allowed for. The S4R5 elements are significantly less expensive
since they use the reduced integration rule (Gauss integration). They are also cost-effective for large
models with small strain and have good hourglass control. The aspect ratio of the mesh was kept close to
1.0 throughout.
a) BL 1320: Fcr=203,1 kN d) WL 1320: Fcr=211,9 kN
b) BL 1520: Fcr=178,0 kN e) WL 1520: Fcr=202,8 kN
c) BL 1925: Fcr=129,4 kN f) WL 1925: Fcr=171,2 kN
Figure 3: Frame critical loads and buckling modes from numerical simulations.
The multi point constraints option (MPCs) available in ABAQUS code is used to model the bolts in
the braced sub-frame specimens BL. For each bolt MPC, rigid beam like constrains are created at
matching nodes of two mid-surfaces of the angle brace leg and the gusset plate around the bolt shank
613
circumference approximated by a square in order to simplify capturing the behavior of two plate elements
jointed with high-strength close tolerance bolts. This helps also to avoid early analysis termination in case
of excessive plastic deformations in concentrated bearing zones, between the bolt shank and connecting
plate elements. Such a modeling technique seems to be accurate from engineering point of view.
The angle brace welded to gusset plates is modeled with connecting the angle brace to gusset plate
directly via common nodes along the intersection line between the angle brace and the gusset plate. It is
strongly believed that this modeling technique is quite accurate for the welded joint as long as no fracture
is developed in the area of weld material or its neighborhood.
In order to estimate the elastic failure loads and to find the sensitivity of tested specimens to buckling
effects, eigenproblems are solved. Critical loads Fcr and buckling modes are evaluated. Figure 3 illustrates
the buckling modes and the values of critical loads. It is observed that for the short-beam specimens a
distortional form of bracing member buckling governs while for the longest beam specimens - an overall
buckling mode is detected. It is clear that buckling is associated primarily with the bracing member
deformations and rather a negligible contribution of the frame beam and column deformations to the
buckling profile is observed.
a) WL 1320: Fult=124,6 kN
b) WL 1520: Fult=124,4 kN
c) WL 1925: Fult=115,3 kN
Figure 4: Frame deformation of welded brace specimens from tests and numerical simulations.
Finally, ultimate loads and deflected profiles are evaluated from fully nonlinear Riks analysis using
ABAQUS code. Figure 4 gives the values of the frame ultimate loads Fult and illustrates the deformed
profiles of inelastic WL sub-frames at failure, comparing them with those recorded during tests. One can
614
observe that the deflected frame profile is characterized by localized plastic deformations of the lower
node of the right column. Since bracing members in these specimen subsets are connected concentrically,
their deflected profile is associated with buckling deformations. The maximum coordinate of buckling
profile shifts from the lower joint for a shorter brace length to the mid-length for a longer brace length.
Figure 5 gives the values of the frame ultimate loads Fult and illustrates deformed profiles of inelastic
BL sub-frames at failure, comparing them with those recorded during tests. One can observe that the
deflected frame profile of BL specimens is similar to that of WL sub-frames. Since bracing members in
all BL subsets of tested specimens are connected eccentrically, their deflected profile is associated with
bending and torsion, without distinguished buckling in-plane deformations.
a) BL 1320: Fult=113,1 kN
b) BL 1520: Fult=109,3 kN
c) BL 1925: Fult=105,8 kN
Figure 5: Frame deformation of bolted brace specimens from tests and numerical simulations.
The most stressed joint in all the tests appeared to be the right lower frame joint at which three
elements are connected – the frame beam and column, and the bracing member. The detailed deformation
of this joint obtained from laboratory tests and from numerical modeling is shown in figure 6.
Figure 6: Details of WL 1320 column-beam-bracing joint deformations from tests and simulations.
615
Frame load-displacements characteristics from laboratory tests and from numerical modeling are
presented in figure 7. All six frame experimental characteristics are evaluated as average curves from
three tests of each subset. Since numerical modeling is carried out for initially perfect specimens, the
accuracy of computer simulations is of a different degree depending on the sensitivity to imperfections
and type of bracing member connections.
a) BL 1320 d) WL 1320
b) BL 1520 e) WL 1520
c) BL 1925 f) WL 1925
Figure 7: Frame load-displacement characteristics from tests and numerical simulations.
The following observations are made:

a) For frame specimens BL with eccentric connections of the bracing member, computer simulations
lead to a higher initial stiffness and a noticeably lower ultimate loads as well as a lower placement of the
616
post-limit branch of equilibrium path if compared with those obtained experimentally. Effect of geometric
imperfections of the bracing member does not play important role in this case since the member is under
combined bending, torsion and compression from the beginning of loading process.
b) For frame specimens WL with concentric connections of the bracing member, computer
simulations lead to a very close estimation of the initial stiffness but a higher ultimate loads and a lower
placement of the post-limit branch of equilibrium path if compared with those obtained experimentally.
Higher values of the ultimate load from computer simulations can be attributed to the effect of geometric
imperfections of the bracing member that is not accounted for in analysis. Since the bracing member is
concentrically connected with regard to out-of-plane deformations, it is predominantly axially loaded
almost up to the attainment of the frame buckling strength. A sharp drop in the value of applied load is
observed in the post-limit range. A more close estimation could be expected if the effect of geometric
imperfections is accounted for in computer simulations.
3 INVESTIGATIONS OF THE BRACE BEHAVIOR

a) BL 1320 d) WL 1320
b) BL 1520 e) WL 1520
c) BL 1925 f) WL 1925
Figure 8: Bracing member force-deformation characteristics from tests and analytical model.
617
Finally, the behavior of bracing member assessed on the basis of test results is compared with simple
modeling of force-deformation characteristic developed in [2]. Force-deformation characteristics
presented in figure 8 are constructed in terms of the member axial force and member generalized strain
(shortening due to compression and bending divided by the length). Results of three experimental curves
are plotted for each subset of tested frame specimens. The upper bound of analytical solution is
constructed for the effective length factor ȝ=0.5 while the lower bound it corresponds to the effective
length factor ȝ=1.0.
The following observations are made:
a) The evaluation of welded connection bracing member behavior is reasonable enough using the
upper bound analytical solution. It indicates that that the force-deformation characteristic of the welded
type of member connection may be evaluated with the effective length factor equal 0.5.
b) The bolted connection bracing member behavior can not be evaluated so accurately using the cited
analytical formulation. The values of experimental initial stiffness are lower than those from analytical
solution for both values of the effective length factor. The experimental buckling strength is placed
between those corresponding to two extreme values of the effective length factor, i.e. for two different
types of boundary conditions assumed for the connection of brace member. This clearly indicates that the
strut model developed in [2] has to be refined in case of bolted connections in order to account for the
effect of connection eccentricity.
4 CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents experimental, numerical and analytical results of investigations aiming at the
development of a simple and yet reliable model for the angle member behavior in bracing systems of
structural frame structures. Welded brace angle force-deformation characteristics may be evaluated using
directly the analytical formulation presented in [2] for the effective length factor equal 0.5. Bolted brace
angle force-deformation characteristics can not be evaluated so accurately using the formulation
presented in [2]. The refinement is needed with regard to the effect of connection eccentricity and
inclusion of corresponding bending deformations in the evaluation of member generalized strain. This
would affect predominantly the region of pre-buckling deformations and the level of buckling strength,
resulting in lowering of the member force-deformation curve and bringing the analytical curves closer to
the experimental ones. A more accurate model would therefore be developed and the effective length
factor suggested accordingly.
The development of a refined model of the angle strut behavior in case of bolted connections is being
underway, and better prediction of the bolted brace force-deformation characteristic is expected.
REFERENCES
[1] Gizejowski M.A., Barszcz A.M., Foster J.D.G., Uziak J., Kanyeto O.J., “Experimental
investigations of the behaviour of angle struts”, Proc. of ICMS2006 XIth International Conference
on Metal Structures, M. A. Gizejowski, A. Kozlowski, L. Sleczka and J. Ziolko (eds.), Taylor &
Francis, London / Leiden / New York / Philadelphia / Singapore, 152-153, 2006.
[2] Barszcz, A.M., Gizejowski, M.A. “An equivalent stiffness approach for modelling the behaviour of
compression members according to Eurocode 3”. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 63(1),
55-70, 2007.
[3] Gizejowski M.A., Barszcz A.M., “Advanced analysis of inelastic steel truss and frame structures: a
unified approach”, Proc. of SDSS2006 International Colloquium on Stability and Ductility of Steel
Structures, D. Camotim, N. Silvestre and P.B. Dinis (eds.), IST Press, Lisbon, 431-438, 2006.
[4] Barszcz A.M., “Modelling and experimental investigations of the behaviour of angle bracing strut
in steel frames”, Proc. of Local Seminar of IASS Polish Chapter on Lightweight Structures in Civil
Engineering: Contemporary Problems, J. Obrebski (ed), Micro-Publisher, Warsaw, 106-113, 2007.
618
INFLUENCE OF SPLICES ON THE STABILITY BEHAVIOUR OF

COLUMNS AND FRAMES
Pedro D. Simão*, **, Ana M. Girão Coelho*, *** and Frans S. K. Bijlaard***
* Institute of Computers and Systems Engineering of Coimbra, Portugal (INESC-Coimbra)

e-mail: pedro@dec.uc.pt, a.m.girao@clix.pt
** Department of Civil Engineering, University of Coimbra, Portugal
*** Department of Structural and Building Engineering, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands
e-mail: f.s.k.bijlaard@tudelft.nl
Keywords: Column Stability, GBT, Lagrange Multipliers, Rayleigh-Ritz method, Spliced Columns.
Abstract. The paper presents a study on the influence of splice connections on the stability behaviour of
compressed steel columns. The column is modelled as two independent prismatic parts connected by a
rotational spring at the splice location and rotational and extensional springs at the column ends to
represent the effect of the adjacent structure. The general behaviour is characterized using a polynomial
Rayleigh-Ritz approximation substituted into the potential energy function, in combination with the La-
grange’s method of undetermined multipliers, and based on this model the critical load is found. The
load-carrying capacity is analysed with respect to the following variables: (i) location and rotational
stiffness of the splice, (ii) change in the column section serial size and (iii) column end-restraints stiffness
coefficients. A nonlinear regression model is developed to predict simple relationships between the criti-
cal load and the relevant column characteristics.
1 INTRODUCTION
In structural engineering practice and due to manufacturing, transportation and/or handling restraints,
individual steel elements are usually fabricated with a maximum length of 12 meters. During erection of
a steel frame and where the element length is insufficient, splices are provided to form a single and
longer element. Designers often use the splices for changing cross-sections, in view of a more economical
and rational design.
In steelwork construction, column splices are located at a convenient distance for erection and con-
struction above floor beam level and have to be designed (i) to join lengths in line, (ii) to transmit forces
and moments between the connected member parts and (iii) to maintain continuity of strength and stiff-
ness through the splice to safeguard the robustness of the structure [1]. Column splices are usually disre-
garded in determining the distribution of moments and forces in the structure and when the design of the
columns itself is being considered, assuming that the splice is providing full continuity in stiffness and
strength of the column. This practice is questionable as the splices most times do not provide this conti-
nuity. So, the splices may adversely affect the overall frame behaviour, from a stiffness and strength
point of view.
Previous research pertaining to the load-carrying capacity of spliced columns includes investigations
by Lindner [2], Snijder and Hoenderkamp [3] and Girão Coelho et al. [4,5,6]. Lindner [2] carried out
experimental and numerical tests on different column splice types and highlighted the existence of eccen-
tricities at the splice. An adjusted buckling curve for columns having contact splices at column mid-
height was later proposed Lindner [2]. Snijder and Hoenderkamp [3] conducted a series of experimental
tests to analyse the influence of end plate splices on the load-carrying capacity of slender columns. These
619
Pedro D. Simão et al.
tests were used to make design recommendations for column splices. Girão Coelho and co-authors [4,5]
further extended this work to produce a relatively simple yet reasonably accurate engineering method for
predicting the critical behaviour of spliced columns in steel frames. This paper is a follow-up study to
this research.
The current work presents a generalized energy formulation of a framed spliced column in sway and
non-sway frames (Figure 1). For analytical modelling, a framed column is represented by means of ex-
tensional and rotational restraints at the ends A and B. The splice is modelled as a rotational spring at
point C. The potential energy functional of this system uses a Rayleigh-Ritz approximation of the rele-
vant deformation modes of the column. This formulation is presented together with the method of La-
grange multipliers to deal with the constraints at the column splice. Elastic buckling analysis is carried
out to find the critical load of the system. The concept of end fixity factor C [7] is successfully applied
and the significance of this factor in simplifying the analysis of results is emphasized. Simple relation-
ships between C and the relevant characteristics of the column and splice are derived to a point where the
critical load can be readily determined by hand or by computer.
x,u
NEd
B
LII Member II:
E, III
C
L
LI Member I:
E, II
z, w
A
Figure 1: The framed spliced column system.
2 ENERGY FORMULATION
2.1 Bending and axial strain energy

The deformation of a prismatic member under the action of loads is characterized by axial elongation
(mode 1) and bending deformations (mode 2). In the context of a simplified Generalized Beam Theory
(GBT) strategy [8,9], the displacement functions are assumed to be as follows:
ª1 z1 º
2 « »
Axial displacements: u x, y, z ¦ u y, z u f x
i i
u and u 1
¬ª u
2
u ¼º «# # » (1)
i 1
« »
«¬1 zn »¼
ª0 1º
« »
>w @
2
Transverse displacements: w x, y, z ¦ w y, z u f x
i i
w and w 1 2
w « # #» (2)
i 1 « »
«¬0 1»¼
620
whereby zj is the distance between point j and the neutral axis, iu(y, z) and iw(y, z) are pre-established
modal displacement patterns defined along the member cross-section, and ifu(x) and ifw(x) are modal
amplitude functions for warping and transverse displacements, respectively. For any mode of deforma-
tion the amplitude functions for axial and transverse displacements are related in the form [8,9]:
d ª¬ i f w x º¼ i
i
fu x f wc x i f c (3)
dx
The extensional strain of a column segment of length dx is readily defined as:
2 2
§ wu · § ww ·
Hx¨1 wx ¸ ¨ wx ¸ 1 (4)
© ¹ © ¹
Expansion in Taylor series, neglecting higher-order terms, yields the following kinematic relation:
22
wu 1 § ww · 1 2 2 k l k l
Hx | ¨
wx 2 © wx ¹ k 1

¸ ¦ u f cc ¦¦ w w f c f c
k k
2k 1l 1
(5)
From Hooke’s law (constitutive relation), the longitudinal stress is then given by:
ª 2 1 2 2 º

V x EH x E «¦ i u i f cc ¦¦ i w j w i f c j f c »
2i1j1
(6)
¬i 1 ¼
The internal strain energy of the member, Um, is then equal to [5]:
1 EA 1 2 EI 2 2 EA 2 21 EA 2 4
Um ³ V x H x d:
2 2 ³
f cc d x
2 ³
f cc d x
2 ³ f c f cc d x
8 ³L
fc dx (7)
: L L L
where ȍ denotes the member’s volume, A the cross sectional area and I the moment of inertia.
2.2 Strain energy stored in the springs
The energy stored in the linear springs (Figure 1) is given by the following expressions:
1 E I II 2
Rotational spring at end A: U șa
2
K șa T a2
2L
kșa 2 f Ic
x 0
(8)

2
1 E I II
Rotational spring at end B: U șb K șb T b2 kșb 2 f IIc (9)
2 2L x LII

2
1 E I II
Rotational spring at splice: U șc K șc T c2 kșc 2 f IIc 2 f Ic (10)
2 2L x 0 x L I

2
1 E I II
Extensional spring at end B: U 'b K 'b ' b2 k 'b
2
f II (11)
2 2 L3 x LII
where KT and K' are rotational and extensional spring constants, respectively, and k are spring coeffi-
cients that are defined in non-dimensional form.
2.3 Work done by load
The final component of energy to be identified is the work done by the load. For a centrally loaded
column, the potential energy of the external loading is given by:
3 N Ed u 1 f IIc (12)
x LII
2.4 Potential energy functional

The total potential energy of the complete structure is a summation of Um (for each individual mem-
ber I and II), UTa, UTb, UTc, U'b minus 3:
V U m,I U m,II U șa U șb U șc U 'b 3 (13)
This functional is subjected to the following kinematic constraints that ensure continuity at the splice:
621
§ ·
uI,C uII,C 0 1 i
f Ic
¨¨ G1 a j , N Ed 0 ¸¸
x LI
1 f IIc
x 0
0
© ¹
(14)
§ ·
wI,C wII,C 0 2
fI
x LI
2
f II
x 0
i
0 ¨ G2 a j , N Ed 0 ¸
¨ ¸
© ¹
We now wish to find a stationary value of a functional subjected to some subsidiary conditions or con-
straints Gk(iaj,NEd). The problem is easily tackled by using the approach proposed by Lagrange [10]. The
technique is to form a modified potential energy expression:
m

V i a j , Ok , N Ed
V i a j , N Ed ¦ Ok Gk i a j , N Ed
k 1
(15)
where Ok are the Lagrange multipliers. For the spliced column, the modified potential energy functional
may be written as:
V U m U șa U șb U șc U 'b 3 O1 fc
1
I x L
I
1 f IIc
x 0 O f 2
2
I x L
I
1 f II
x 0 (16)
2.5 Critical buckling load

Eq. (16) is a functional representing the total potential energy of the physical system. The advantage
of this method lies in the fact that the problem with constraints can be treated in exactly the same manner
as though it was free. Thus, for the system to satisfy equilibrium V has to be stationary. The calculus of
variations is then used to find the stationary point of the functional. Exact solutions can be obtained using
the method of eigenvalue analysis. This is not a practical method to solve the characteristic equations of
the differential equations. Approximate methods such as the Rayleigh-Ritz method seem a very attractive
alternative to an otherwise complex problem. Essentially, in this method, the modes of deformation of the
system are defined by means of assumed displacement functions that satisfy the geometric boundary
conditions of the system. As a result, the total potential energy reduces from a functional to a gradient
potential function that depends on a finite set of discrete generalized coordinates iaj and Ok and the scaling
factor NEd. Thus, ordinary calculus can be used to obtain solutions directly.
In the context of the Rayleigh-Ritz method, the amplitude functions are approximated by polynomials
in the form:
ni
i
f | ¦ i a j iM j (17)
j 1
These polynomials form a set of coordinate functions that satisfy the kinetic boundary conditions of the
problem and are orthonormal functions that enable fast convergence of the method [9]. The coordinate
functions are given by:
Member I:
1
M1,I 5 LI x 2 LI
2
M1,I 3 LI x
2
M 2,I
5 LI 3 x 4 x 2 LI
2
M3,I
7 LI 6 x 20 x LI 15 x3 LI 2 2
(18)
2
M4,I
9 LI 10 x 60 x LI 105 x LI 56 x 4 LI3
2 3 2

2
M5,I
11 LI 15 x 140 x 2 LI 420 x3 LI 2 504 x 4 LI3 210 x5 LI 4
2
M6,I
13 LI 21x 280 x 2 LI 1260 x3 LI 2 2520 x 4 LI 3 2310 x5 LI 4 792 x 6 LI5
2
M7,I
15 LI 28 x 504 x LI 3150 x LI 9240 x LI 13860 x LI 10296 x LI 3003 x 7 LI 6
2 3 2 4 3 5 4 6 5

622
Member II:
1
M1,II x LII
1
M 2,II 3 LII 1 x LII
2
M1,II LII
2
M2,II 3 LII LII 2 x
(19)
2
M3,II
5 LII LII 6 x 6 x 2 LII
2
M4,II
7 LII LII 12 x 30 x 2 LII 20 x 3 LII 2
2
M5,II
9 LII LII 20 x 90 x LII 140 x LII 70 x 4 LII 3
2 3 2

2
M6,II 2
11 LII LII 30 x 210 x LII 560 x LII 630 x LII 252 x 5 LII 4 3 2 4 3

2
M7,II
15 LII LII 42 x 420 x LII 1680 x LII 3150 x LII 2772 x LII 924 x 6 LII5
2 3 2 4 3 5 4

Equilibrium of the system is obtained by rendering stationary the total potential function with respect
to the generalized coordinates iaj and Ok. The solution that emerges from the unloaded state, the funda-
mental path (FP) is a function of NEd. A sliding set of incremental coordinates iqj and qk is then defined by
the following equations [11]:
i
a j i a j FP N Ed i q j and Ok Ok FP N Ed qk (20)
A new energy function W is now introduced [11]:

W i q j , qk , N Ed
V i a j FP i q j , Ok FP qk , N Ed (21)
i
A global numbering for coordinates qj and qk (ql) can now be adopted. The equilibrium and stability
conditions hold good for this transformed energy function W. In this new NEd – ql space, the fundamental
path is defined trivially by ql = 0.The critical points along the fundamental path are now those points that
render zero the determinant of the total potential energy Hessian matrix along the fundamental path:
H FP H FP,0 N Ed H FP,1 (22)
The relevant states of critical equilibrium are identified via a local linear eigenvalue equation
HFP q = 0, q representing the local eigenvector [11]. By substituting the forms in Eq. (22), we thus obtain
the critical state identity:
H FPq H FP,0 N Ed H FP,1 q 0 (23)
This analysis yields the critical buckling load of the spliced column, Ncr that can be expressed in terms of
an end fixity factor C [7]:
N cr CS 2 EI II L2 (24)
3 NUMERICAL RESULTS
The purpose of this numerical study is to ascertain the effect of the following variables on the general
equilibrium response: (i) splice location (LI = DL), (ii) ratio between second moment of area of lower and
upper column members (E = II/III), (iii) splice rotational stiffness (kTc) and (iv) end-restraints stiffness
coefficients (kTa, kTb and k'b). Results are independent from the column length L. These properties are
varied parametrically as shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Parameters for regression analysis

Parameter Range of parameter selected
Splice location D 0.1 to 0.9, i = 0.2
Ratio between second moment of areaE 1 to 3, i = 0.5
Non-dimensional stiffness coefficients o0, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 3, 5, 7.5,10, 15, 20, 35, 50, 75, 100
623
These results form a comprehensive analytical database. We can now generate a continuous function
that approximates the values of the end fixity factor within the domain of analyses and with a minimum
error. The analysis results are then used to develop a multiple regression model to approximate the end
fixity factor C { Cfit(Į, ȕ, kșa, kșb, kșc, kǻb) from the data in the database, by means of piecewise approxi-
mations. In developing the regression model, the relationship between the dependent variable and each
independent variable is studied separately, while all other independent variables are kept constant. The
dependent variable is approximated by a continuous function that is linear in terms of a set of regression
coefficients, which are determined by enforcing the method of least squares that minimizes the sum of
the squares of the residuals. Approximating (or coordinate) functions are then selected for each inde-
pendent variable. The multiple regression model is formed as the product of the individual coordinate
functions.
kTa = 0.01, kTb = 100, kǻb = 5 kTa = 100, kTb = 100, kǻb = 0.01
kTc = 0.01, 1, 5, 10, 20, 100 kTc = 0.01, 1, 5, 10, 20, 100
ȕ = 2, Į = 0.5, kǻb = 0.01 ȕ = 1, Į = 0.1, kǻb = 5

kTc = 0.01, 1, 5, 10, 20, 100 kTc = 0.01, 1, 5, 10, 20, 100
ȕ = 1, kTa = 100, kTb = 100 ȕ = 1, kTa = 0.01, kTb = 100

Į = 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, 0.9 Į = 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, 0.9
Figure 2: Variation of C with the relevant properties.
624
Forming the regression model as a product allows the effect of each independent variable to be exam-
ined separately and facilitates the process of selecting suitable coordinate functions for the individual
independent variables. Some key results are illustrated graphically in Figure 2. The graphics suggest that:
1. The response C vs. D can be approximated by a quadratic function.
2. Typical C vs. Ebehaviour is characterized by a monotonic increasing function that can be gener-
ally approximated by a simple linear relationship.
3. The degree of rotational and extensional end restraint is an essential parameter for the computation
of C. The shape of the curves C vs. k (k { kTa, kTb), C vs. kTc and C vs. k'b is best described by an arctan-
gent function.
The end fixity factor is then predicted by means of an expression in the form:
ª § k ·º

Cfit D , E , k'b , kșa , kșb , kșc C1 1 C2D C3D 2 1 C4 E «1 C5 arctan ¨¨ 'b ¸¸ » u
¬« © C6 ¹ ¼»
(25)
ª § kșa · º ª § kșb · º ª § kșc · º
u «1 C7 arctan ¨¨ ¸¸ » «1 C9 arctan ¨¨ C ¸¸ » «1 C11 arctan ¨ C ¸ »
¬« © C8 ¹ ¼» ¬« © 10 ¹ ¼» ¬« © 12 ¹ ¼»
where Ci are regression coefficients.
As expected in developing a predictive regression model, many models were tried, analysed and as-
sessed for accuracy and effectiveness. The final model presented here evolved out of several attempts to
develop conventional (nonlinear) regression models by means of simple mathematical functions. The
overall character of the response is well captured and the number of regression coefficients is kept small
in order to provide a compact procedure for the simplified method. The accuracy of the model is meas-
ured by means of the R-Squared value (R2). The R-Squared gives the fraction of the variation of the
response that is predicted by the model. A good model fit yields values of R-squared close to unity.
Nonlinear regression analysis is performed with the Mathematica software [12]. Regression coeffi-
cients are determined for the spliced column using piecewise approximations depending on the nature of
the segments that comprise the above relationship. The domain of analyses of the spring coefficients is
divided into three intervals: G1 for k ]0,3], G2 for k ]3,15] and G3 for k ]15,100]. Table 2 sets out
the computed regression coefficients and values for the R-Squared factor are also given.
4 CONCLUDING REMARKS AND SCOPE FOR FURTHER WORK

The paper has presented an application of the total potential energy method to the buckling behaviour
of a spliced column in sway and non-sway frames. This is a variational problem, i.e. the finding of thesta-
tionary point of a functional, with additional conditions at the splice that is solved by means of the La-
grange’s method of undetermined multipliers. The Rayleigh-Ritz procedure has been used to reduce this
variational problem with constraints to a mere differentiation that form a set of algebraic equations of
equilibrium. These equations are solved by using an algebraic manipulator >12@ and the critical load is
calculated. The buckling response was found to be particularly sensitive to the following variables: (i)
splice location, (ii) ratio between second moment of area of lower and upper column members, (iii) splice
rotational stiffness and (iv) end-restraints stiffness coefficients. The significance of each of these vari-
ables has been assessed. A parametric study was devised and the results were then used to develop re-
gression equations for predicting the critical load of the system via the concept of end fixity factor C.
The work outlined above affords some basis to produce design guidance on column splices. The au-
thors attempt to set up sound design criteria regarding the requirements for stiffness and strength of col-
umn splices. Experimental and numerical finite element studies focusing on the buckling response are
also necessary in order to validate the predictive expressions.
It should be noted that the investigated configuration was rather limited to a particular case. The deriva-
tion has been carried for two-dimensional frames and only uniaxial bending behaviour has been considered.
Future work will incorporate bi-axial bending and torsion effects in the design of splices. In addition to this,
the influence of splices on the overall stability behaviour of frames will also be investigated.
625
Table 2: Parameter table.

kTa G1 kTa G1 kTa G1 kTa G2 kTa G2 kTa G2 kTa G3 kTa G3 kTa G3
Range
kTb G1 kTb G2 kTb G3 kTb G1 kTb G2 kTb G3 kTb G1 kTb G2 kTb G3
C1 0.0188 0.0536 0.0621 0.0605 0.0890 0.1005 0.0685 0.0865 0.0995
C2 -1.0746 -0.8905 -0.5538 -0.9201 -0.6922 -0.4441 -0.6239 -0.3152 -0.0097
C3 1.6481 1.5441 1.2462 1.2899 1.1190 0.8795 1.0100 0.7906 0.4993
C4 0.2417 0.2390 0.2456 0.1874 0.1860 0.1934 0.2202 0.2304 0.2437
C5 8.5978 4.9043 4.7424 3.6457 2.7180 2.7107 3.2346 2.4620 2.4769
C6 8.1153 13.0053 16.9895 11.4866 15.2379 19.5321 16.3117 20.9021 26.3750
C7 0.2736 0.3294 0.3289 0.4854 0.6565 0.7675 0.5434 0.6613 0.7640
C8 1.5 1.5 1.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
C9 0.3438 0.4419 0.3667 0.4213 0.5721 0.3987 0.4304 0.6923 0.4497
C 10 1.5 3.0 5.0 1.5 3.0 5.0 1.5 3.0 5.0
C 11 1.5929 0.6725 0.6498 0.9489 0.5607 0.5687 0.8628 0.5690 0.5945
C 12 1.3821 1.6983 1.8891 1.5744 1.9524 2.3116 1.7536 2.1201 2.6502
R2 0.9043 0.8986 0.9115 0.9115 0.9311 0.9447 0.9057 0.9381 0.8874
REFERENCES
[1] CEN (European Committee for Standardization), EN 1993-1-8 – Eurocode 3: Design of steel struc-
tures – Part 1-8: Design of joints, Brussels, 2005.
[2] Lindner, J., “Old and new solutions for contact splices in columns”. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research, 64, 833-844, 2008.
[3] Snijder, H.H., Hoenderkamp, J.C.D., “Influence of end plate splices on the load carrying capacity
of columns”. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 64, 845-853, 2008.
[4] Girão Coelho A.M., Bijlaard F.S.K., “Requirements for the design of column splices”, Stevin Re-
port 6-08-3, Delft University of Technology, 2008.
[5] Girão Coelho A.M., Simão P.D., Bijlaard F.S.K., “Stability design criteria for steel column
splices”. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 66, 1261-1277, 2010.
[6] Girão Coelho A.M., Bijlaard F.S.K., Simão P.D., “Stability design criteria for steel column splices
in non-sway frames”. Proceedings of the fourth international conference on structural engineering,
mechanics and computation SEMC 2010, (accepted for publication).
[7] Simitses, G.J., An introduction to the elastic stability of structures, Krieger Publishing Company,
Malabar, 1986.
[8] Schardt, R., Verallgemeinerte Technische Biegetheorie, Springer, Berlin-Heidelberg, Germany,
1989.
[9] Simão, P.D., Post-buckling bifurcational analysis of thin-walled prismatic members in the context
of the Generalized Beam Theory, Ph.D. thesis, University of Coimbra, Portugal, 2007
(www.inescc.pt/documentos/dissertations/PDSimao_PhDthesis.pdf).
[10] Richards, T.H., Energy methods in stress analysis, Ellis Horwood, Chichester, UK, 1977.
[11] Thompson J.M.T., Hunt G.W., A General Theory of Elastic Stability, John Wiley & Sons, London,
UK, 1973.
[12] Mathematica 6, Wolfram Corp., Champaign, USA, 2007.
626
FURTHER RESULTS ON THE APPLICATION OF THE

EXTRAPOLATION TECHNIQUES
Tadeh Zirakian
Ph.D. Student, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering

University of California, Los Angeles
E-mail: tzirakian@ucla.edu
Keywords: Buckling, Elasticity, Extrapolation Techniques.
Abstract. The experimental determination of critical buckling load of structures undergoing lateral
buckling has usually been accompanied by the application of certain and just a few deformation
characteristics such as lateral displacement and/or twist. This paper explores the possibility of
application of various deformation variables such as web transverse and longitudinal strains, vertical
deflection, and angles of twist of top and bottom flanges for experimental determination of the critical
buckling load of I-beams with different initial geometrical imperfections undergoing elastic lateral-
distortional buckling. After demonstrating the linear relationship between lateral displacement and the
various aforementioned deformation variables, the four Southwell, Massey, Modified, and Meck
extrapolation techniques are applied on these various deformation variables, and consequently
satisfactory estimates are acquired for the critical buckling loads.
1 INTRODUCTION
The extrapolation or plotting techniques are experimental methods developed for determining
experimentally the critical buckling load of structures, without having to test them to failure. By plotting
the results of a structure test in a certain manner, it would be possible to determine the structure’s
buckling load.
Southwell [1] initially proposed a plotting method for a concentrically loaded pin-ended column with
a sinusoidal initial imperfection. Later on, Massey [2], Trahair [3], and Meck [4] successfully applied this
method and variations of it to predict buckling loads for beams.
A search of the literature shows that the extrapolation techniques have mostly been used on certain
and just a few deformation characteristics such as lateral displacement and/or twist, and also Mandal and
Calladine [5] demonstrated that lateral displacement tends to be proportional to rotation as deformations
increase in lateral-torsional buckling mode. In a recent research work reported by the author [6], it was
demonstrated that lateral displacement in I-beams undergoing lateral-distortional mode of buckling tends
to be directly coupled with the web transverse strains developed as a result of occurrence of web
distortion, and accordingly the application of the extrapolation techniques on the web transverse strains
yielded good predictions for the critical buckling load.
Based on findings of the previous studies, the possibility of application of various deformation
variables for experimental determination of the critical buckling load is explored in this paper. Initially,
the relationship between lateral displacement and the various considered deformation variables including
web transverse and longitudinal strains, vertical deflection, and angles of twist of top and bottom flanges
of I-beams with different initial geometrical imperfections is investigated, and subsequently the
applicability of the Southwell, Massey, Modified, and Meck Plots on the aforementioned deformation
variables is studied.
627
Tadeh Zirakian
Four finite element lateral-distortional buckling solutions are developed using the ABAQUS software
system [7]. All of the solutions are of simply-supported steel I-beams subjected to uniform bending
moment with identical cross-section dimensions hw=900 mm, bf=240 mm, tw=5 mm, tf=20 mm, and
L=7000 mm. The material properties adopted for the beams are E=200 GPa, v=0.3, Fy=345 MPa, and
G=0.385E. The beam cross-section components, i.e. flanges and the web, were modeled using a four-
node shell element S4R5. Finally, the details of various geometrical imperfection forms of the beams are
provided in Table 1.
Table 1: Details of various geometrical imperfection forms of the beams

Initial imperfections at center of beam
Beam number Initial imperfection form
Crookedness (mm) Twist (rad)
1 - - -
2 Half-sine wave along the length - 0.04363
20 (lateral displacement)
3 Half-sine wave along the length -
20 (vertical displacement)
20 (lateral displacement)
4 Half-sine wave along the length 0.04363
20 (vertical displacement)
2 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LATERAL DISPLACEMENT AND OTHER

DEFORMATION VARIABLES
Before applying the various deformation variables for experimental determination of the critical
buckling load, the relationship between lateral displacement and the considered deformation variables is
explored. It should be noted that the lateral displacement of the top flange is applied in this study.
Lateral displacement vs. web transverse strain: In this case, the relationship between lateral
displacement and web transverse strain representing web distortion and measured at midspan and
midheight is investigated. The acquired data are plotted straightforwardly as lateral displacement against
web transverse strain, as shown in Figure 1. The linear equations obtained using the least squares method
and the respective R-squared values are displayed in the figures. As seen in the figures, it is evident that
after the initial stages of loading the two deformation characteristics become proportional to each other.
Lateral displacement vs. web longitudinal strain: In addition to the web transverse strain, the
relationship between lateral displacement and web longitudinal strain is investigated as well. As seen in
Figure 2, lateral displacement is plotted against web longitudinal strain (measured at midspan and
midheight), and the obtained linear equations as well as the R-squared values are displayed on the chart.
It is clearly observed that after the initial loading stages, the data points align with the linear portion near
the latter loading stages and the direct coupling of the two deformation characteristics becomes evident.
628
Tadeh Zirakian
400 400
350 350
į L = -132388İ T + 310.46 300 į L = -126881İ T + 309.21 300

2 2
R = 0.9962 250 R = 0.9964
250
įL (mm)
įL (mm)
200 200
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 0
-0.0003 -0.0002 -0.0001 0 0.0001 0.0002 0.0003 -0.0004 -0.0002 0 0.0002 0.0004
İT İT
(a) No imperfection (b) Initial twist

400 400
350 350
300 300
į L = -139884İ T + 282.27 į L = -127840İ T + 284.66
250 2 250
2
R = 0.9977 R = 0.9971
įL (mm)
įL (mm)
200 200
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 0
-0.0006 -0.0004 -0.0002 0 0.0002 0.0004 -0.0006 -0.0004 -0.0002 0 0.0002 0.0004
İT İT
(c) Initial crookedness (d) Initial twist and crookedness

Figure 1: Plot of lateral displacement against web transverse strain
400 400
350 350
300 300
į L = 87525İ L + 253.42
į L = 92964İ L + 247.77
250 250 2
2 R = 0.9979
R = 0.9978
įL (mm)
įL (mm)
200 200
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 0
-0.0005 0 0.0005 0.001 0.0015 -0.0005 0 0.0005 0.001 0.0015
İL İL

400 400
350 350
300 300
250 250 į L = 93404İ L + 219.34

į L = 103760İ L + 206.15
įL (mm)
įL (mm)
2
200 2 200 R = 0.9983
R = 0.9987
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 0
-0.0005 0 0.0005 0.001 0.0015 -0.0005 0 0.0005 0.001 0.0015
İL İL

Figure 2: Plot of lateral displacement against web longitudinal strain
629
Tadeh Zirakian
Lateral displacement vs. vertical deflection: The proportionality between the lateral displacement
and vertical or in-plane deflection at midspan and midheight of the analyzed I-beams undergoing lateral-
distortional buckling is investigated in here. The plots of lateral displacement against vertical deflection
are shown in Figure 3. The linear equations and R-squared values are displayed in the figures as well. To
a fair approximation, lateral displacement and vertical deflection seem to be proportional to each other
and the linearity range is comparatively large in this case.
400 400
350 350
300 300
250 250
į L = 3.0863į V + 113.9
įL (mm)
įL (mm)
200 2 200
R = 0.9979
į L = 4.1982į V + 15.085
150 150 2
R = 0.9807
100 100
50 50
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80 100
į V (mm) į V (mm)
400 400
350 350
300 300
250 250
įL (mm)
įL (mm)
200 200
į L = 4.41į V + 6.6499
150 į L = 4.8986į V - 3.5458 150
2
R = 0.9922
R 2 = 0.992
100 100
50 50
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80 100
į V (mm) į V (mm)
Figure 3: Plot of lateral displacement against vertical deflection
Lateral displacement vs. angle of twist: Lastly, the relationship between the lateral displacement and
angles of twist of top and bottom flanges of the I-beams is examined. Unlike the lateral-torsional mode of
buckling, in lateral-distortional buckling mode top and bottom flanges have different angles of twist,
hence the two angles of twist are taken into consideration in this study. Plots of lateral displacement
against angles of twist of top and bottom flanges are made and shown in Figure 4. It is evident that lateral
displacement and angles of twist of the two flanges are directly coupled.
630
Tadeh Zirakian
400 400
350 į L = -375.69ș TF + 322.61 350 į L = -341.54ș TF + 320.67

2
R = 0.9954 R 2 = 0.9959
300 300
250 250
įL (mm)
įL (mm)
200 200
150 į L = 1377.3ș BF + 2.9492 150 į L = 1372.5ș BF + 11.653

2
R = 0.9993 R 2 = 0.9984
100 100
50 50
0 0
-0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
ș (rad.) ș (rad.)
400 400
350 350
300 300
į L = -410.34ș TF + 278.89 į L = -361.52ș TF + 281.38
2 250 250
R = 0.9981 2
R = 0.9965
įL (mm)
200
įL (mm)
200
150 150
100 į L = 1287ș BF - 3.0457 100
R 2 = 0.9999 į L = 1292.1ș BF + 4.0579
50
50 2
R = 0.9996
0
0
-0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
-50 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
ș (rad.) ș (rad.)
Figure 4: Plot of lateral displacement against angle of twist
3 APPLICATION
Based on the linear relationship between lateral displacement and the other considered deformation
variables, it seems logical to obtain straight lines by applying the extrapolation techniques on the various
deformation variables, and also acquire favorable predictions for the buckling load. To prove this, the
following five case studies are performed.
Lateral displacement: In this case, Southwell, Massey, and Modified Plots are applied on the lateral
displacement of the top flange at midspan. As an example, the Southwell, Massey, and Modified Plots for
beam 4 are shown in Figure 5. The extrapolated-to-ultimate failure moment ratios for the three methods
are also given in Table 2.
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Tadeh Zirakian
0.35 8.00E-04 400000
0.3 7.00E-04 350000
6.00E-04 300000
0.25
5.00E-04 250000
0.2
įL / M2
įL * M
įL / M
4.00E-04 200000
0.15
3.00E-04 150000
0.1
2.00E-04 100000
0.05 1.00E-04 50000
0 0.00E+00 0
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400
įL įL įL
(a) Southwell Plot (b) Massey Plot (c) Modified Plot
Figure 5: Southwell, Massey, and Modified Plots (beam 4)
Table 2: Comparison of the ultimate failure moments with the extrapolated moments for the case of
lateral displacement
Beam number MSouthwell/Mu MMassey/Mu MModified/Mu
1 1.038 0.992 1.025
2 1.069 1.352 1.051
3 1.137 1.174 1.189
4 1.165 1.474 1.232
Average Discrepancy (%) 9.07 18.44 10.50
In spite of some scatter in the results, it can be seen from the table that the extrapolated moments are
generally in good agreement with the ultimate failure moments. Moreover, as it is seen, the lowest
average discrepancy is found in the case of the Southwell Plot.
Web transverse strain: The four Southwell, Massey, Modified, and Meck Plot methods are applied
on the web transverse strains captured at the mid-height and midspan of the analyzed beams. The
extrapolated-to-ultimate failure moment ratios for the plotting methods are given in Table 3.
Table 3: Comparison of the ultimate failure moments with the extrapolated moments for the case of web
transverse strain
Beam number MSouthwell/Mu MMassey/Mu MModified/Mu MMeck/Mu a
1 1.038 0.992 0.995 1.040
2 0.950 1.022 1.003 1.033
3 1.010 1.017 1.002 1.009
4 1.036 1.042 1.008 0.992
Average Discrepancy (%) 3.29 2.15 0.45 2.18
a
MMeck is obtained as a result of the use of Meck Plot method on lateral displacement and web transverse
strain.
632
Tadeh Zirakian
As it is seen in Table 3, some scatter in the results is present in this case as well. In general, the
agreement between the extrapolated and the ultimate failure moments is satisfactory in all cases. Lastly, in
this case, the lowest average discrepancy is found in the case of the Modified Plot.
Web longitudinal strain: In this case, the use of Southwell, Massey, Modified, and Meck Plots on
the web longitudinal strains captured at the mid-height and midspan of the considered I-beams, is
investigated. The extrapolated-to-ultimate failure moment ratios for the four considered Plot methods are
presented in Table 4.
Table 4: Comparison of the ultimate failure moments with the extrapolated moments for the case of web
longitudinal strain
1 1.038 0.992 1.044 1.014
2 1.069 1.022 1.051 1.092
3 1.010 1.087 1.044 1.018
4 1.036 1.114 1.059 1.091
a
MMeck is obtained as a result of the use of Meck Plot method on lateral displacement and web
longitudinal strain.
As can be seen from the results in Table 4, despite some scatter, the agreement between the
extrapolated and the ultimate failure moments is satisfactory. Furthermore, in this case, the lowest
average discrepancy is found in the case of the Southwell Plot.
Vertical deflection: The applicability of the extrapolation techniques on the beam midspan vertical
deflection is studied in this case. The extrapolated-to-ultimate failure moment ratios for the four applied
plotting methods are given in Table 5.
Table 5: Comparison of the ultimate failure moments with the extrapolated moments for the case of
vertical deflection
1 1.038 1.072 1.025 1.022
2 1.069 1.209 1.040 1.104
3 1.137 1.174 1.126 1.010
4 1.165 1.318 1.154 1.077
a
MMeck is obtained as a result of the use of Meck Plot method on lateral displacement and vertical
deflection.
In spite of the scatter in the results, it may be concluded that the extrapolated and the ultimate failure
moments are generally in good agreement in all cases. Also, the lowest average discrepancy in the present
case study is interestingly found in the case of the modified Meck Plot.
Angle of twist: In the last case study, the four considered extrapolation techniques are applied on the
angles of twist of both top and bottom flanges captured at midspan of the analyzed beams. The
extrapolated-to-ultimate failure moment ratios for the Southwell, Massey, Modified, and Meck Plot
methods are presented in Table 6.
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Tadeh Zirakian
Table 6: Comparison of the ultimate failure moments with the extrapolated moments for the case of angle
of twist
Beam number Locationa MSouthwell/Mu MMassey/Mu MModified/Mu MMeck/Mu b
TF 1.038 0.992 1.001 0.948
1
BF 1.038 0.992 1.022 1.007
TF 0.950 1.022 1.002 1.037
2
BF 1.069 1.209 1.042 1.046
TF 1.010 1.017 1.007 0.956
3
BF 1.137 1.286 1.181 1.043
TF 1.036 1.042 1.011 1.025
4
BF 1.165 1.474 1.209 1.066
TF 3.29 2.15 0.50 3.92
Average Discrepancy (%)
BF 9.07 18.11 9.72 3.86
a
TF and BF stand for “top flange” and “bottom flange”, respectively.
b
MMeck is obtained as a result of the use of Meck Plot method on lateral displacement and angle of twist.
As it is seen in Table 6, despite some scatter in the results, the agreement between the extrapolated
and the ultimate failure moments is generally satisfactory in both cases. Finally, in this case study, the
lowest average discrepancies for the cases of angles of twist of top and bottom flanges are found in the
cases of Modified and Meck Plots, respectively.
4 CONCLUSION
Based on the key findings regarding the proportionality between lateral displacement and other
considered deformation variables including web transverse and longitudinal strains, vertical deflection,
and angles of twist of top and bottom flanges of the I-beams undergoing elastic lateral-distortional
buckling, the applicability of the Southwell, Massey, Modified, and Meck extrapolation techniques on the
various deformation variables was investigated in this paper and generally satisfactory and reliable results
were obtained. The results of this study may be considered as an indication of a great extension in the
application of the extrapolation techniques.
REFERENCES
[1] Southwell, R.V. “On the analysis of experimental observations in the problems of elastic stability”.
Proc. of the Royal Philosophical Society of London, 135(A), 601, 1932.
[2] Massey, C. “Elastic and inelastic lateral instability of I-beams”. The Engineer, 216, 672-674, 1963.
[3] Trahair, N.S. “Deformations of geometrically imperfect beams”. Proc. of ASCE, Journal of the
Structural Division, 95(ST7), 1475-1496, 1969.
[4] Meck, H.R. “Experimental evaluation of lateral buckling loads”. Proc. of ASCE, Journal of the
Engineering Mechanics Division, 103, 331-337, 1977.
[5] Mandal, P. and Calladine, C.R. “Lateral-torsional buckling of beams and the Southwell Plot”.
International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 44, 2557-2571, 2002.
[6] Zirakian, T. “Lateral-distortional buckling of I-beams and the extrapolation techniques”. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research, 64(1), 1-11, 2008.
[7] ABAQUS analysis user’s manual, Version 6.5. ABAQUS, Inc., 2005.
634
ELASTIC LATERAL-DISTORTIONAL BUCKLING OF SINGLY

SYMMETRIC I-BEAMS: THE 2005 AISC SPECIFICATION
Tadeh Zirakian* and Jian Zhang
* Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles

E-mail: tzirakian@ucla.edu
Keywords: Lateral-Distortional Buckling, Elasticity, Singly Symmetric I-Beams, AISC Code.
Abstract. It is clear from prior research studies that the web distortional flexibility can lead to a
substantial reduction relative to the beam theory lateral-torsional buckling resistance for I-sections with
stocky flanges and slender webs. Hence, the 2005 AISC Specification gives specific rules for controlling
the unconservative errors due to the neglect of web distortion effects. The accuracy of the 2005 AISC
code predictions in case of elastic lateral-distortional buckling of singly symmetric I-beams is
investigated in this paper through comparison with the accurate finite strip analysis distortional buckling
solutions as well as the theoretical predictions of two elastic distortional buckling design equations
proposed by other researchers. The code predictions in case of lateral-distortional buckling of slender-
web singly symmetric I-beams are found to be by and large conservative, and even overconservative in
some cases.
1 INTRODUCTION
For the slender-web I-sections, the 2005 AISC Specification [1] bases the lateral-torsional buckling
resistance on Eq. (1), but the St. Venant torsional constant J is taken equal to zero.
CbS 2 E J (1)
Fcr 1 0.078 Lb rt 2
Lb rt 2 S x ho
In fact, the implicit use of J = 0 in Section F5 of the 2005 AISC Specification is intended to account
for the influence of web distortional flexibility on the lateral-torsional buckling resistance for slender-web
I-section members [2].
In addition to the destabilizing effect of web distortion in a slender-web singly symmetric I-beam
which results in lowering of the torsional rigidity of the beam, this may be coupled with the influence of
the Wagner effect to reduce significantly the buckling strength of the singly symmetric beam [3].
This paper focuses on distortional buckling of singly symmetric I-shaped flexural members with
slender webs, and evaluates the effectiveness of the 2005 AISC code rules by comparing the code
predictions with finite strip analysis (FSA) distortional buckling solutions developed using the finite strip
analysis software CUFSM [4] as well as the theoretical predictions of Bradford’s (Eq. (2)) [5] and Wang
et al.’s (Eq. (3)) [6] proposed distortional buckling design equations in the elastic range of structural
response.
635
Fcrd 490t f b ft t f t w 1 0.560b fc b ft (2)

1
Fcr E Fcr
J f<>)D 101 D @ (3)
1 d 1.0
Jo D[) 2
2 CONSIDERED I-BEAMS
All of the I-beams in this study have compact flanges and slender webs in accordance with the
compact-flange and noncompact-web limits specified in the AISC Specification [1]. The cross-sectional
dimensions, lengths, and yield strengths of the I-beams considered for each case study are summarized in
Table 1.
Table 1: Summary of beam dimensions and yield strengths of the I-beams

ho tw bfc tfc bft tft Lb Fy
Case Section
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (MPa)
750 4.5 varies 20 105 20 3,000 345
1 750 4.5 105 20 105 20 3,000 345
750 4.5 105 20 varies 20 3,000 345
625 4.0 90 15 110 15 varies 345
2
625 4.0 110 15 90 15 varies 345
890 varies 85 12 120 12 4,000 345
3
890 varies 120 12 85 12 4,000 345
670 4.0 60 varies 100 varies 3,000 345
4
670 4.0 100 varies 60 varies 3,000 345
800 4.0 70 20 110 20 3,500 varies
5
800 4.0 110 20 70 20 3,500 varies
3 EFFECT OF SECTION MONOSYMMETRY (CASE 1)

Based on the findings of the previous studies, for a beam whose compression flange is the smaller
flange, the reductions in the elastic critical stress due to web distortion increase as the degree of
monosymmetry increases, while when the larger flange is the compression flange, the reductions in the
elastic critical stress decrease as the degree of monosymmetry increases. The formula for the coefficient
of monosymmetry (ȕx) for a general I-shaped singly symmetric beam is provided by Galambos [7]. The
elastic distortional buckling results are summarized in Table 2.
636
Table 2: Distortional buckling results (Case 1)

Section Beam ȕx MnAISC/MnLTB MnFSA/MnLTB MnBradford/MnLTB MnWangetal./MnLTB
B1-1 -591.71 0.58 0.81 0.90 0.76
B1-2 -466.66 0.66 0.82 0.88 0.76
B1-3 -331.87 0.73 0.84 0.86 0.76
B1-4 -195.08 0.78 0.86 0.84 0.77
B1-5 -62.87 0.82 0.87 0.83 0.77
B1-6 0.00 0.83 0.88 0.82 0.77
B1-7 62.87 0.84 0.88 0.82 0.78
B1-8 195.08 0.85 0.89 0.84 0.78
B1-9 331.87 0.85 0.89 0.86 0.78
B1-10 466.66 0.86 0.90 0.90 0.79
B1-11 591.71 0.87 0.91 0.99 0.80
As it is seen in the table, the AISC code predictions seem to be remarkably conservative relative to
the FSA solutions particularly in sections as the section monosymmetry increases.
4 VARIATION OF LENGTH (CASE 2)

In this case, the code predictions are evaluated as a result of variation of length, while the cross-
sectional dimensions of the beams are all kept constant. The summary of the elastic distortional buckling
results is presented in Table 3.

Lb
Section Beam MnAISC/MnLTB MnFSA/MnLTB MnBradford/MnLTB MnWangetal./MnLTB
(mm)
B2-1 3,000 0.81 0.90 0.90 0.87
B2-2 3,500 0.76 0.91 0.93 0.90
B2-3 4,000 0.72 0.92 0.94 0.91
B2-4 4,500 0.68 0.93 0.95 0.93
B2-5 5,000 0.65 0.94 0.96 0.94
B2-6 6,000 0.58 0.96 0.97 0.96
B2-7 8,000 0.47 0.99 0.98 1.00
B2-8 3,000 0.89 0.93 0.90 0.86
B2-9 3,500 0.85 0.93 0.92 0.88
B2-10 4,000 0.82 0.93 0.94 0.89
B2-11 4,500 0.79 0.93 0.95 0.90
B2-12 5,000 0.76 0.94 0.96 0.90
B2-13 6,000 0.70 0.94 0.97 0.91
B2-14 8,000 0.59 0.94 0.98 0.92
It is generally accepted that the distortional effects are smaller in longer beams. This fact is clearly
demonstrated by the FSA as well as the theoretical predictions of other two design equations, as shown in
637
Table 3. However, the AISC code predictions demonstrate a distinct trend by providing reductions
increasing from 19% to 53% for sections, and 11% to 41% for sections, as the beam length increases.
It is quite obvious that the 2005 AISC code [1] equations provide remarkably conservative results relative
to the FSA and the other considered theoretical predictions especially in longer beams.
5 VARIATION OF WEB THICKNESS (CASE 3)

The elastic distortional buckling code predictions are assessed in this case as a result of variation of
web thickness, while the other beam dimensions are kept constant. The results of this case study are
tabulated in Table 4.

Section Beam ho/tw MnAISC/MnLTB MnFSA/MnLTB MnBradford/MnLTB MnWangetal./MnLTB
B3-1 296.67 0.66 0.91 0.96 0.90
B3-2 254.29 0.70 0.93 0.97 0.92
B3-3 222.50 0.73 0.95 0.98 0.94
B3-4 197.78 0.75 0.96 0.98 0.95
B3-5 178.00 0.78 0.97 0.98 0.96
B3-6 161.82 0.79 0.98 0.98 0.97
B3-7 148.33 0.80 0.99 0.99 0.98
B3-8 296.67 0.82 0.94 0.96 0.87
B3-9 254.29 0.85 0.95 0.97 0.89
B3-10 222.50 0.87 0.96 0.97 0.91
B3-11 197.78 0.88 0.96 0.98 0.92
B3-12 178.00 0.90 0.97 0.98 0.93
B3-13 161.82 0.91 0.97 0.98 0.94
B3-14 148.33 0.92 0.98 0.98 0.94
As it is seen in Table 4, the difference between the results of the distortional and lateral-torsional
solutions in both monosymmetry cases tends to increase as the web becomes more slender. However, the
code reductions in case of singly symmetric beams with smaller compression flange are relatively larger
than those of singly symmetric beams with larger compression flange. It is notable that both sets of
reductions are comparatively larger than the respective reductions of the FSA as well as the other
theoretical solutions.
6 VARIATION OF FLANGE THICKNESS (CASE 4)

The effects of web distortion may also vary as a result of variation of flange thickness in I-beams.
Hence, in this case, the accuracy of the code predictions is investigated for varying flange slenderness
ratios in singly symmetric I-beams. Table 5 summarizes the elastic distortional buckling results for both
orientations of the I-beam.
638

Section Beam bfc/tfc MnAISC/MnLTB MnFSA/MnLTB MnBradford/MnLTB MnWangetal./MnLTB
B4-1 7.50 0.77 0.99 0.99 0.99
B4-2 6.00 0.74 0.97 0.98 0.97
B4-3 5.00 0.70 0.95 0.97 0.95
B4-4 4.29 0.66 0.91 0.95 0.91
B4-5 3.75 0.63 0.87 0.93 0.86
B4-6 3.33 0.59 0.82 0.90 0.80
B4-7 12.50 0.93 0.97 0.99 0.93
B4-8 10.00 0.93 0.97 0.99 0.91
B4-9 8.33 0.91 0.96 0.98 0.89
B4-10 7.14 0.90 0.94 0.98 0.87
B4-11 6.25 0.88 0.93 0.97 0.84
B4-12 5.56 0.86 0.91 0.96 0.81
From the table, it is found that the predictions of the AISC code equation are by and large below the
predictions of the FSA as well as the two proposed design equations, and the amount of conservatism of
the code predictions seems to be relatively high in sections with smaller compression flange.
7 VARIATION OF YIELD STRENGTH (CASE 5)

The effect of variation of yield strength on distortional buckling of singly symmetric I-beams is
investigated in this study, which is believed to provide us with a better understanding of the implications
of web distortion as a result of variation of yield strength. A wide range of yield strengths, i.e. from 250
MPa to 690 MPa, are considered in this study, which are tabulated in Table 6. Distortional buckling
results of this case study are given in Table 6.

Fy
Section Beam MnAISC/MnLTB MnFSA/MnLTB MnBradford/MnLTB MnWangetal./MnLTB
(MPa)
B5-1 250 0.62 0.80 0.90 0.74
B5-2 290 0.61 0.80 0.90 0.74
B5-3 345 0.60 0.80 0.90 0.74
B5-4 415 0.59 0.80 0.90 0.74
B5-5 485 0.58 0.80 0.90 0.74
B5-6 550 0.57 0.80 0.90 0.74
B5-7 620 0.57 0.80 0.90 0.74
B5-8 690 0.56 0.80 0.90 0.74
B5-9 250 0.77 0.89 0.93 0.78
B5-10 290 0.85 0.89 0.93 0.78
B5-11 345 0.84 0.89 0.93 0.78
B5-12 415 0.83 0.89 0.93 0.78
B5-13 485 0.82 0.89 0.93 0.78
B5-14 550 0.82 0.89 0.93 0.78
B5-15 620 0.82 0.89 0.93 0.78
B5-16 690 0.81 0.89 0.93 0.78
639
From the table, it is evident that the predictions of the FSA as well as the other proposed equations
are not affected by the variation of the yield strength in both and cases, while the reductions induced
by the AISC code equations are found to increase slightly in case of sections, and also initially decrease
and then increase gradually in case of sections, with the increasing of the yield strength. In any case,
the AISC code equations seem to yield conservative predictions relative to the FSA results, and the
conservatism in case of sections with smaller compression flange is considerably high.
8 CONCLUSION
The evaluation of effectiveness of the 2005 AISC code design rules in case of distortional buckling of
singly symmetric I-beams demonstrates that the 2005 AISC code equations generally provide
conservative strength estimates for elastic distortional buckling. Even the amount of this conservatism is
found to be relatively high in case of singly symmetric I-beams with smaller compression flange. This
indicates that the assumption of J = 0, which is used in Section F5 of the 2005 AISC Specification with
the aim of controlling the unconservative errors due to the neglect of web distortion effects, may not be
an appropriate approach to the problem, since it may impose economic burden in some cases.
REFERENCES
[1] American Institute of Steel Construction. Specification for structural steel buildings, Chicago, IL,
AISC, 2005.
[2] American Institute of Steel Construction. Commentary on the specification for structural steel
buildings, Chicago, IL, AISC, 2005.
[3] Bradford, M.A. and Waters, S.W. “Distortional instability of fabricated monosymmetric I-beams”.
Computers & Structures, 29(4), 715-724, 1988.
[4] Schafer, B.W. CUFSM 3.12, Elastic buckling analysis of thin-walled members by finite strip
analysis, 2006. (http://www.ce.jhu.edu/bschafer/cufsm)
[5] Bradford, M.A. “Distortional buckling of monosymmetric I-beams”. Journal of Constructional
Steel Research, 5(2), 123-136, 1985.
[6] Wang, C.M., Chin, C.K., and Kitipornchai, S. “Parametric study on distortional buckling of
monosymmetric beam-columns”. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 18(2), 89-110, 1991.
[7] Galambos, T.V., Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Structures, 5th Ed., John Wiley &
Sons, New York, 1998.
640
SYSTEM STABILITY DESIGN CRITERIA FOR ALUMINUM STRUCTURES
Ronald D. Ziemian* and J. Randolph Kissell **
* Bucknell University, Lewisburg, PA, USA

e-mail: ziemian@bucknell.edu
** The TGB Partnership, Hillsborough, NC, USA
e-mail: randy.kissell@tgbpartnership.com
Keywords: Aluminum structures; Second-order effects, Stability, Direct analysis.
Abstract. The 2010 Aluminum Association Specification for Aluminum Structures has been significantly
revised to include more transparent stability provisions. Second-order effects, including P- and P-
moments, and factors known to accentuate these effects, such as geometric imperfections and member
inelasticity, will need to be considered in determining required strengths. This paper provides an
overview of these provisions and describes experimental and analytical studies that investigated their
effectiveness.
1 INTRODUCTION
Widely used in the US since its first publication in 1967, the Aluminum Association’s (AA)
Specification for Aluminum Structures [1] has always addressed the stability of individual structural
members. With regard to beams and columns, the Specification provides equations for determining the
strength of beams and columns that account for local buckling of elements such as flanges or webs, and
flexural, flexural-torsional, and lateral-torsional buckling of members. Prior to the 2010 Specification, a
moment-amplification factor was used to address the P- effect, which is the effect of axial load acting on
the deflected shape of a member between its ends, on the stability of beam-columns.
Although it addressed the stability of individual members, earlier editions of the Specification have
not directly considered the stability of structural systems as a whole. The Specification has never
required engineers to design for the P- effect, which is the effect of loads acting on the displaced
location of joints in a structure, and only in more recent editions of the Specification was system response
included through the use of the effective length concept. As a result, the strength of a structural system
designed by previous editions of the Specification can be significantly less than the strength of its weakest
member.
With some collapses of aluminum structures attributed to system instability, the AA decided to
provide more comprehensive and transparent stability provisions in the 2010 edition of the Specification.
Recognizing that accurately determining the effective length of members is complicated by the wide
variety of non-orthogonal structural geometries used in aluminum structures, the AA has abandoned the
use of effective length. In an effort to be more consistent with other US design specifications, the AA
adopted stability provisions similar to those that appear in the 2010 American Institute of Steel
Construction’s (AISC) Specification for Structural Steel Buildings [2]. Because of differences in (1) the
stiffness and strength of steel and aluminum, in particular that the E/y ratio for steel is approximately
twice that of aluminum, and (2) the manufacturing processes of aluminum profiles and hot-rolled steel
sections, a study that includes experimental and analytical components was conducted to confirm the
adequacy of adopting the AISC provisions. A summary of this study is presented below.
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2 STABILITY PROVISIONS - 2010 AA SPECIFICATION

In Chapter C: Design for Stability, the AA Specification provides analysis requirements (calculation
of required strengths) and design requirements (calculation of available strengths) for the entire structural
system and for each of its components. With respect to the latter, available strengths shall be based on the
actual unbraced length of the member (i.e., an effective length factor of k = 1). Required strengths are to
be determined from an analysis that considers:
1. All member and connection deformation;
2. Second-order effects, including both P- and P- moments;
3. Geometric imperfections, such as frame out-of-plumbness and member out-of-straightness, that
reflect the tolerances permitted in contract documents;
4. Reductions in member stiffness due to:
a. inelasticity or partial yielding of members
b. uncertainty in defining the stiffness and strength of components.
As a means for reducing member stiffness due to inelasticity, the AA Specification requires that the
flexural stiffness of all members be reduced by , where
Pr
= 1.0 for 0.5
Py
(1)
P P Pr
= 4 r 1 r for 0.5 < 1.0
Py Py Py
in which Pr is the required axial compressive strength (i.e., axial force in member) and Py is the axial
yield or squash load (i.e., Py = Agy).
Because of uncertainty in the stiffness and strength of the structural system, there exists the potential
for larger deflections (due to less than expected lateral stiffness) and correspondingly increased second-
order moments. To account for this, a factor of 0.8 must be applied to all axial, flexural, and shear
stiffnesses in the structure. One simple method for achieving this is to employ 80% of the actual modulus
of elasticity in the analysis model.
In addition to the above analysis requirements, the Specification requires that all gravity loads must
be included in the analysis of lateral load-resisting systems. For example, additional lateral load may
result from columns that support only gravity loads but attain their sidesway stability by leaning on the
structure’s lateral system.
3 BASIS FOR STUDY

In general, the above analysis requirements should apply to any metal structure in which there is
significance in formulating the equations of equilibrium on the deformed, and perhaps partially yielded,
geometry of the structural system. Because the details in accounting for member inelasticity (-factor of
equation 1) and uncertainty in stiffness (stiffness reduction factor of 0.8) were specifically developed for
steel buildings, their applicability to aluminum structures deserves to be investigated.
A good starting point is to provide a background to the AISC approach. The AISC Specification has
long recognized the impact of residual stresses on the performance of hot rolled sections. Compressive
axial stresses on the order of 30 to 50 percent of the material yield strength can result from the steel
fabrication process and such stresses can obviously accentuate the partial yielding of a cross section as a
member reaches a strength limit state (e.g., inelastic flexural buckling of a column). Based on an
extensive calibration study [3], the AISC determined that the relatively simple parabolic expression
provided by equation 1, which was originally developed by Bleich [4], and the stiffness reduction factor
0.8 adequately account for the loss in bending stiffness of members subject to high axial compressive
loads. For frames with slender members, where the limit state is governed by elastic stability (i.e., = 1.0
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with P/Py < 0.5), the same 0.8 factor can be employed because it is approximately equal to the product of
the AISC resistance factor of 0.9 and the 0.877 reduction factor used in the AISC column curve to
account for member out-of-straightness.
In contrast, many aluminum sections are typically extruded and upon cooling are then pulled to
straighten or remove any initial out-of-straightness. This stretching process requires axially straining the
material beyond yield and as a result typically relieves the residual stresses that may have developed from
an uneven cooling process. On the other hand, some aluminum sections are fabricated by welding several
profiles together; a fabrication process that may result in significant residual stresses.
Differences in the stress-strain relationships for each material may also be a factor in determining the
appropriateness of adopting the AISC provisions. Hot-rolled steels typically have a fairly linear
constitutive relationship with a pronounced yield point. In contrast, the stress-stain relationships for most
aluminum alloys are inherently nonlinear and without pronounced yield points [5]; as a result, “yield” for
most aluminum alloys is defined by the stress at a 0.2% strain offset. Hence, the above reasons (e.g.,
absence of residual stresses) for not employing the parabolic form of equation 1 may be offset by the need
to model a nonlinear material.
4 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
As an initial study, a series of stub-column tests were performed according to the Structural Stability
Research Council’s Technical Memorandum No. 3: Stub-Column Test Procedure [6]. Using the
experimental setup shown in figure 1(a), three I-shape sections and three hollow-rectangular shapes were
compression tested. The dimensions for the I-shape are shown in figure 2 and the rectangular shape was
203.2 101.6 mm with a wall thickness of 12.7 mm. In all tests, the stub-columns were 6061-T6
aluminum of length 0.61 m. In each test, the compression force and longitudinal deformation at two
locations (mid-flange) over a gauge length of 254 mm were recorded. The force was converted to an
axial stress and the deformations were averaged and then converted to axial strain. Stress-strain plots
were then prepared for each of the specimens for the two shapes. For each shape, the stress-strain data
was averaged to produce a single curve.
An untested fourth specimen for each shape was sectioned and tensile coupons were machined from
material at two locations, including the flange tip and the flange-web intersection. Tensile tests were
performed on these coupons according to ASTM B557 [7]. The two resulting stress-strain curves for the
tension tests of each shape were averaged using the same procedure as that employed in the above
compression tests.
(a) (b)
Figure 1: Experimental setup and results of stub-column axial compressive tests.
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For each shape, the resulting tensile and compressive stress-strain curves were used to determine a
stiffness reduction relationship equivalent to that provided in equation 1. This was done by first
determining the stress 0.2% corresponding to a 0.2% offset strain and the modulus of elasticity Eo at low
stress values (taken as the slope of line “best-fit” to stress-strain curve between 0.150.2% and 0.650.2%).
The stress normalized by 0.2% and the corresponding tangent modulus E (slope of stress-strain curve)
normalized by Eo are then plotted as shown in figure 1(b). Although this figure only includes the
resulting tension and stub-column curves for the I-shape, similar results were obtained for the hollow-
rectangular section.
A review of the three curves plotted in figure 1(b) indicate:
1. The stiffness relationship for tension confirms that the material has a significantly nonlinear
response. A material with a linear stress-strain relationship and a pronounced yield point
would closely match the grey bi-linear curve shown in the upper right of the figure.
2. In comparison to the tension response, the compression relationship indicates that the
material stiffness degrades noticeably faster with increased levels of axial compression.
Unfortunately, it is not clear how much of this difference can be attributed to the loading
direction on material response versus that which may be attributed to the existence of
residual stresses.
3. The stiffness reduction -factor defined by equation 1 is conservative (but in the authors’
opinion not necessarily overly-conservative) in estimating the loss of axial stiffness due to
increased levels of compressive force.
5 COMPUTATIONAL STUDY
Using one of the frames appearing in the original AISC calibration studies mentioned above, a
computational study was performed to investigate the impact of adopting the AISC - and 0.8 factors
within the AA provisions. The symmetrical portal frame used in this study is shown in figure 2. Two
ratios of beam-to-column stiffness were considered, one of which included assuming rigid beams with
(EI/L)c/(EI/L)b = 0, and the other with moderately flexible beams (EI/L)c/(EI/L)b = 3. Using the cross-
section geometry of the bi-symmetrical I-shape used in the above experimental study, both major- and
minor-axis bending behavior of the columns was investigated. In all cases, members were assumed fully
braced out-of-plane.
Figure 2: Symmetrical portal frame used in computational study.
For each of the four models investigated, two nonlinear finite element programs were employed to
determine system strengths and obtain interaction curves for a wide range of resulting combinations of
axial force and bending in the columns.
A more refined and commercially available finite element program ADINA [8] was employed to
obtain a theoretically “exact” solution. Three-dimensional models of the I-shape were created using fully
integrated, 4-node shell elements (MITC4). The cross section was modeled with a mesh density of 10
elements across the flange width and 10 elements through web depth. The number of elements along the
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length of the member was varied to maintain an element aspect ratio of approximately one. A typical
model included approximately 6000 shell elements. All models considered both geometric (large
rotation/small strain) and material (multi-linear plasticity) nonlinear effects. A nonlinear stress-strain
response (figure 4) for aluminum was explicitly incorporated. Initial imperfections, including member
out-of-straightness and frame out-of-plumb, were included by distorting the original finite element mesh.
Because the focus of the study was to determine the impact of partially yielded compressive members on
system stability, beam elements were always modeled as elastic and column elements were permitted to
yield by using the constitutive relationship shown in figure 3.
Figure 3: Stress-strain relationship used in ADINA analyses.
Each ADINA analysis was performed until a strength limit state was detected. Such limit states were
typically defined by an instability resulting from a combination of yielding in the columns and second-
order effects.
The frame analysis software MASTAN2 [9] was employed to obtain results that meet the above AA
Specification’s stability requirements. MASTAN2 models second-order effects through the use of
element geometric stiffness matrices and an incremental solution scheme based on an updated Lagrangian
formulation [10]. Equation 1 is directly included in the analysis, which results in the flexural stiffness
being reduced according to the axial force in each element during every load increment.
Strength limit states for the MASTAN2 analyses were defined by the combination of axial force and
bending moment in the columns that just satisfied the AA Specification’s interaction equation:
Pr M r
+ 1.0 (2)
Pc M c
where, Pr and Mr are the axial force and bending moment from the MASTAN2 analysis, Pc the design
compressive strength determined in accordance with the AA Specification’s column curve with kL = L,
and Mc the design strength determined in accordance with the AA Specification’s requirements for
flexure (which for this fully braced compact section column, Mr = bSy with b = 0.9 and S is the elastic
section modulus). Frame out-of-plumbness of H/500 was included in these analyses but member out-of-
straightness was not. The latter is assumed to be included in the AA Specification’s equation for column
strength Pc.
6 RESULTS
Using the same validation approach employed in the AISC studies, the AA Specification stability
requirements can be assessed by comparing P-M interaction plots of the limiting strengths from the AA-
MASTAN2 approach to the “exact” strength determined from sophisticated geometric and material
nonlinear ADINA analyses.
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Figure 4: Interaction curves for major-axis bending of column.
Results for major-axis and minor-axis bending cases are contained in Figures 4 and 5, respectively.
Two plots are presented in each figure, including one for rigid beams with (EI/L)c/(EI/L)b = 0 and one for
a moderate degree of flexibility in the beams with (EI/L)c/(EI/L)b = 3. Two sets of AA-MASTAN2 and
ADINA curves are provided in each plot.
The first set allows for a comparison of the ratios of the first-order moment in the column to its plastic
moment (WLc/Mp, with W and Lc defined in figure 2, and Mp = Zy where Z is the plastic section
modulus). The second set can be used to compare ratios of the total moment (including first- and second-
order effects) in the column to its plastic moment (Mc/Mp). Each point on the curves represents the results
of an analysis for specific combination of gravity load Q and lateral load W. In total, just under 50
separate ADINA and MASTAN2 analyses were performed in this study.
Based on Figures 4 and 5, several observations can be made:
1. For each analysis type (AA-MASTAN2 and ADINA), a comparison of the first-order moment
ratio WLc/Mp to the total moment ratio Mc/Mp at various values of P/Py indicates that second-
order effects are significant for this example. At loads as small as P/Py = 0.1, the second-order
moments are on the order of 10 to 15 percent larger than the first-order moments. As expected,
this moment amplification increases significantly for larger values of P/Py. The reason the
ADINA second-order effects are larger is because this analysis includes material nonlinear
behavior, which tends to reduce lateral stiffness and increase deflections.
2. By comparing the AA-MASTAN2 and ADINA total moment ratios Mc/Mp at various values of
P/Py, it is clear that the “exact” bending moment capacity of the column in the presence of any
amount of axial force always exceeds the moment capacity defined by the AA Specification’s
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Figure 5: Interaction curves for minor-axis bending of column.
beam-column interaction equation (see equation 2). A significant factor contributing to this is
that the AA Specification moment capacity of the member bSy is less than the actual (ADINA)
upper limit capacity of byZ. Another cause for this is that the AA Specification uses a single
linear interaction equation to represent the strength of beam-columns; in most other
specifications (e.g., AISC) a bilinear curve is used, which permits larger strengths at low- to
intermediate values of axial force, ranging from approximately P/Py = 0.1 to P/Py = 0.5.
3. The WLc/Mp curves also provide a direct indication of the ultimate strength of the frame
predicted by the AA-MASTAN2 and ADINA approaches. For example, the coordinate pair
(WLc/Mp, P/Py) = (0.2, 0.4) represents failure at gravity and lateral load combination of Q = 0.4Py
and W = 0.2Mp/Lc. In all major-axis bending cases, the strength predicted by the AA-MASTAN2
approach is less than the “exact” strength predicted by ADINA. This conservatism is repeated
for all minor-axis bending conditions with the exception of the high axial load case (P/Py > 0.5)
in the frame with a moderately flexible beam of (EI/L)c/(EI/L)b = 3. The over-predicted AA-
MASTAN2 strength, however, is quite small (see lower plot in figure 4). For a column-to-beam
stiffness of (EI/L)c/(EI/L)b = 3, a design method based on effective length would use an effective
length factor of approximately k = 2.5, where as the AA stability provisions permit the use of k =
1.0.
4. The largest P/Py values observed in each AA-MASTAN2 case are between 0.6 and 0.7.
Substituting these values into equation 1 results in relatively inconsequential -factors of 0.96
and 0.84, respectively. Given that fairly stocky columns (L/r = 20 with r = I A ) were
investigated in this study, it should be noted that larger slenderness L/r values more common to
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design would result in smaller column strengths (i.e. lower P/Py values) and hence, even larger
(closer to 1.0) and less consequential -factors.
7 SUMMARY/CONCLUSION
The new stability provisions that appear in the 2010 Aluminum Association’s Specification for
Aluminum Structures have been investigated by a study that contains experimental and analytical
components. Experimental stub-column tests were performed on I- and hollow-rectangular shapes in an
effort to better understand the reduction in axial stiffness in the presence of compressive force.
Computational analyses were then performed on a portal frame that is similar to one used in part to
validate the AISC stability provisions. In this work, various combinations of lateral and gravity loads
were examined as well as varying degrees of frame flexibility.
Insight from this study indicates that use of the AA stability provisions in conjunction with the AA
single linear interaction equation for designing beam-columns provides moderate to fairly conservative
results. The AA use of the same stiffness reduction factors and 0.8 that appear in the AISC
Specification does not appear to be unreasonable, although it is unclear if the -factor is necessary.
The study presents several cases where the AA stability provisions are adequate for allowing the
routine use of an effective length factor of k = 1, even in cases where an effective length design method
requires using two to three times that value. Just as importantly, the research further justifies the need to
consider second-order effects in the design of aluminum structures.
It is recommended that additional studies be made to determine if the AA could avoid the use of a -
factor in future editions to their specification. Such studies should also explore cases that include built-up
sections, where the effects of welding may result in substantial residual stresses and may justify using the
-factor.
8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors thank the Aluminum Association for their support of this research under grant number
547.
REFERENCES
[1] Aluminum Association, Specification for Aluminum Structures, Arlington, VA, 2010.
[2] American Institute of Steel Construction, Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, Chicago, IL,
2010.
[3] Surovek-Maleck, A., White, D.W. and Ziemian, R.D., Validation of the Direct Analysis Method,
Structural Engineering, Mechanics and Materials Report No. 35, School of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 2003.
[4] Bleich, F., Buckling Strength of Metal Structures, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1952.
[5] Kissell, J.R. and Ferry, R.L., Aluminum Structures: A Guide to Their Specifications and Design,
Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, 2002.
[6] Ziemian, R.D. (Ed.), Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Structures, 6th edition, Wiley,
Hoboken, NJ, 2010.
[7] ASTM Standard B557, Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing Wrought and Cast Aluminum-
and Magnesium-Alloy Products, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2006.
[8] ADINA, Theory Manual, ADINA Research and Development, Inc., Watertown, MA, 2009.
[9] MASTAN2, developed by R.D. Ziemian and W. McGuire, version 3.2, www.mastan2.com, 2009.
[10] McGuire, W., Gallagher, R.H., and Ziemian, R.D., Matrix Structural Analysis, Wiley, Hoboken,
NJ, 2000.
648
ADVANCED NONLINEAR INVESTIGATIONS OF A 50 M SPAN FRAME

CASE STUDY: THE STEEL STRUCTURE OF THE ICE RINK, CITY OF
TARGU-MURES, ROMANIA
Zsolt Nagy*, I. Mircea Cristutiu**
* Technical University of Cluj-Napoca-400027, Romania

e-mail: zsolt.nagy@bmt.utcluj.ro
** “Politehnica” University of Timisoara-300224, Romania

e-mail: mircea.cristutiu@arh.upt.ro
Keywords: Nonlinear analysis, large span frame, hunched rafter, tapered column.
Abstract. The article describes the applied technological solutions to transform an existing ice rink into
an indoor arena in the city of Târgu Mureú, Romania. The new indoor arena will have a capacity of 1800
fixed seats. Using a large free span (50 m) structure will overcome the in situ technological constraints
due to the position of the existing building. There is limited access due to the fact that the ice rink is
situated between two buildings and the river Mureú which flows alongside the third side. Also, the
existing refrigeration system makes access impossible within the ice pad structure area. Taking into
account the above mentioned restrictions, the article describes the applied structural solutions which will
make the structural steel work erection possible. The structural solution using steel will ensure fast and
easy erection of the structural steel framework without causing damage to any of the existing buildings
and installations. The paper summarizes the results of the numerical study performed by the authors on
the frame structure. The frames were designed to withstand horizontal and vertical loads and also to
satisfy the ULS and SLS criteria. The frames have fixed base connections, tapered columns, hunched and
king-post truss rafters and a pitch roof angle of 30.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 About the scope of works

To find a technological solution to transform an existing ice rink into an indoor arena in the city of
Târgu Mureú with a capacity of 1800 fixed seats imposed to use a large free span (50 meter) steel
structure. With the condition of a clear height of 9,00 m over the ice pad area, the geometrical dimensions
of the proposed building resulted 58,60x 67,00 x13.00 m (width x length x height) . The building on the
ground floor consists of the ice pad area - 1800 m2 (60 x 30 m) and the necessary annexes (public area,
offices and dressing rooms etc.) of 2200 m2. The scope of works included the following main
requirements:
-To cover the existing ice rink in order to extend the usage lifetime;
-To have a capacity of 1800 fixed seats;
-To ensure 90 min fire rating of the steel structure;
-To ensure the specific internal micro climate.
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Nagy Zsolt et al.
1.2 Constrains
Due to the destination and the particular position of the building - limited access due to the fact that
the ice rink is situated between two buildings and the river Mureú flows alongside the third side, there
were the following constrains:
-Access for erection only from one side, without the access on ice pad structure due to the
existing refrigeration system;
-To keep the existing buildings;
-To control the designed assemblies self weight, in order to facilitate the erection.
-Also the pressure of a short deadline acted as constraint. The site conditions and the proposed
architecture should be seen in Figure 1.
Figure 1. The site conditions and the architecture of the building (view from access side)
2 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE BUILDING
2.1 Steel structure

The primary load-bearing structure of the building uses a simple steel portal frame shape based on a
6.00 m grid (Figure 2), combined with a king post truss rafter. The clear span of the frame is 50 m, with
additional 4 m extension on both sides. The frames have fixed base connections, tapered columns,
hunched and king-post truss rafters and a pitch roof angle of 30. The rafter was extended over the two
lateral extensions and fixed at the top level of the columns from the extremities. In that way instead of
having a simple frame, we have transformed the rafter in a continuous beam, increasing both its strength
and stiffness. The supporting structure of the tribune is fixed to the frame column in the transverse plane,
increasing in that way the lateral stiffness of the whole transverse frame. In order to prevent lateral-
torsional buckling of the rafter, its lower flange was braced laterally to the roof purlins (see Figure 3
a&b). Supplementary lateral restraints were provided by means of longitudinal beams, stiffened together
by the roof bracings. At the mid span, king post truss was laterally restrained in order to prevent its lateral
displacement in case of horizontal actions (e.g. seismic action-see Figure 3a). All the assemblies
(excluding longitudinal beam, bracings) are made from welded steel sections. A structural steel with
S355 steel grade (fy=355 N/mm2) have been used.
For the first and second floor slab in situ reinforced concrete solution was applied. For the composite
action of steel and concrete, mechanically fixed shear studs have been used on floor beams. Precast
concrete elements were designed for the tribune. A central skylight cut out of the roof to bring daylight
down to the ice rink.
The 90 min fire resistance of the structural steel columns and 60 min for rafters and floor beams is
assured by intumescent coating of the steelwork.
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Nagy Zsolt et al.
Figure 2. Characteristic section of the structure
a) lateral restraining of the king post truss b) rafter-to-column detail

Figure 3. Connections detail
2.2 The building envelope
The insulated building envelope makes it possible to control the indoor climate regardless of the
outdoor climate. In the case of this type of buildings, air tightness is a more important feature of the
envelope than thermal insulation. Large glazing of the facade has been avoided due to energy costs by
operating the facility. Windows are placed mainly on facility area, because the most optimized ice rink
can be done by a fully closed casing.
The wall cladding is made of 120 mm thick horizontal sandwich panels. On the roof 200 mm thick
rock wool insulation is laid down on the supporting trapezoidal steel profiles, waterproofing is assured by
a protective membrane.
The supporting structure of the facade is a steel framework of rectangular hollow sections.
3 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF THE BUILDING
3.1 Loading of the main structure

In order to evaluate the structural response, in the design process were considered the following loads
(characteristic values):
-Roof loads (EN1991-1-1): dead load + technological load qk = 1.0 kN / m2
-Live loads on floors (EN1991-1-1) uk= 5.0 kN / m2
-Snow loads on the roof according to CR 1-1-3-2005 (EN1991-1-3), s0,k=1.5 kN/m2
-Wind loads on building envelope according to NP-082-04 (EN1991-1-4), qref=0.4 kN/m2
-Fire loads of 120 MJ/m2
-Seismic action according to P100-2006 (EN1998-1), with peak ground acceleration ag=0.12g
and control period of seismic motion Tc=0.7 sec
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-Load combination for ultimate limit state (ULS) and serviceability limit state (SLS) according
to CR-0-2005 (EN 1990).
3.2 Design of the main structure-linear elastic analysis (LEA)
The design of the steel structure was performed following the Romanian code STAS 10108/0-78 [6].
For strength, stability and stiffness requirements of the structural elements the prescription of SR-
EN1993-1-1[4], SR-EN1993-1-8[5] and P100/2006 [3] were also used.
In the case of large spanned structures, the vertical deflection under gravitational loads represents one
of the major constraints in the design process. In order to keep under control the deformations of the
frames, fixed base connections, tapered columns and hunched king-post truss rafter solution were chosen
[6]. The rafters were extended on both sides over the annexes, increasing both the vertical and horizontal
stiffness of the frame. A suitable horizontal and vertical bracing system were provided in order to control
structural flexibility, eigen values and deflections of the main structure. Fly braces were provided at the
inner flange of the rafter in order to improve the flexural-torsional buckling resistance of these elements.
Having class 3 section of the structural elements, linear elastic structural analysis was performed,
using a seismic behavior factor of q=1 according to P100-2006 [3]. Even with q=1, the combinations of
actions for seismic design situations were not the dominant load combinations. The design checks of the
structural elements for ULS include persistent or transient design situations (fundamental combinations)
where snow loads play the key role.
For SLS design checks of the structural elements fundamental and exceptional load combinations
were used. Performing a dynamic 3D analysis of the structure, with the structural masses concentrated on
joints, first longitudinal eigen period of Tlong=0.588 sec and first transversal eigen period of Ttransv=0.448
sec were obtained (see Figure 4).
First longitudinal vibration mode T=0.588 sec First transversal vibration mode T=0.448 sec
Figure 4. Eigen vibration modes and periods
The maximum transversal and longitudinal sway displacement for SLS check under seismic loads
according to P100-2006 are:
d rSLS 0,005 h
d rSLS
,x 0.014 d ,a
112.5 mm (1)
Q q 0.4 1.0
d rSLS 0,005 h
d rSLS
,y 0.047 d ,a
137.5 mm (2)
Q q 0.4 1.0
The maximum vertical deflection of the rafter for SLS check under snow load is:
L
f 161.4mm d f a 166.7 mm (3)
300
652
Nagy Zsolt et al.
In order to have an overview about the real behavior of the structure, a finite element linear elastic
analysis (FEM) of the transverse frame has been performed with Ansys computer program. The elements
of the frame were modeled using shell finite elements (Shell 43- see Figure 5). The forces on the rafter
were applied as point loads (points where purlins are fixed on the frame). The connections between
structural elements rafter-to-column, beam-to-column, rafter-to-rafter, column base connections were
considered fully rigid. The results of the detailed linear-elastic analysis (LEA) confirmed the previously
evaluated ULS and SLS results. The recorded vertical displacement in case of FEM linear elastic analysis
was 152 mm (instead of 203 mm –linear elastic analysis). It might be emphasized that the resulted
structure is more rigid in case of FEM analysis, explained by the shift of the neutral axis along the
elements with variable cross sections (i.e. tapered column, and hunched rafter). Figure 6 shows the stress
distribution along the transverse frame, where we can observe the maximum stress concentration around
the joint of the king post rafter and the hunched frame rafter.
Figure 5. FEM model of the transverse frame
Figure 6. Stress distribution along the transverse frame under gravity load combinations-linear elastic
analysis
653
Nagy Zsolt et al.
The resulted maximum stress does not exceed 252 N/mm2. There were many concerns about the
stress distribution in the connection of the king post truss with the rafter. As it can be observed from
Figure 6 the distribution of the stresses does not exceed the maximum allowable yield limit.
3.3 Design of the main structure- non linear elastic-plastic analysis
In Figure 8, it is illustrated the way in which the initial bow (out of plane) imperfection is considered
in the nonlinear-elastic analysis (GMNIA). Three types of lateral restraints of the rafter were considered
separately in the analyses (see Figure 7 [7],[8]). Types 2 simulate the purlin/sheeting effect, when the
purlin can be connected with one or two bolts, respectively. Type 3 is the same with type 2 with an
additional fly brace. Type 1, the reference case, actually means no lateral restrains introduced by purlins
and side rails.
(a) restraint type 1 (b) restraint type 2 (c) restraint type 3

Figure 7. Types of lateral restraints considered in the analysis
a) global view b) lateral view

Figure 8. Manufacturing imperfections considered in non-linear elastic-plastic analysis [6]
Figure 9. Stress distribution along the transverse frame under gravity load combinations-non linear
elastic-plastic analysis
To simplify the computational model, in the analysis the lateral restraints were considered axially
rigid. The values of the applied imperfection is 167 mm (50 m span frame) for initial bow imperfection
(er), l/150 corresponding to curve c, for plastic analysis, according to clause 5.3.2 (3)-a) of EN1993-1.1
[1]. The material behavior was introduced by a bilinear elastic-perfectly plastic model, with a yielding
limit of 355 N/mm2. In Figure 10 are illustrated the capacity curves for different type of analysis. As it
654
Nagy Zsolt et al.
was expected the lateral restrains of the rafter played an important role in the total capacity of the main
frame. Also it must be emphasized that there is more than 25% structural capacity reserve.
Figure 10. Capacity curves for different type of analyses
4 CONCLUSION
The paper illustrates the successful application of the steel structure for a large span using a simple
portal frame shape, combined with a king post truss rafter. A wide range of design parameters are briefly
summarized. The paper emphasizes the whole design process, assisted by FE analysis - in order to
perform supplementary stability checks of the framed structure. Due to the unusual shape of the
transverse frame, there were many concerns about its real behavior under gravitational load, the most
important ones in this particular case. For this purpose a linear elastic analysis (LEA) followed by a
nonlinear elastic-plastic analysis (GMNIA) were performed in order to determine the real behavior of the
frames. From structural point of view a good agreement between 3D structural analysis and LEA-FEM
has been found. GMNIA analysis confirm at least 25% overstrenght of the structure by applying the
chosen structural solution and lateral restraints of the main rafter.
Even with behavior factor q=1, the combinations of actions for earthquake design situations were not
the dominant load combinations. In the design checks of the structural elements, gravity loads played the
key role.
Figure 11. The whole structural model and the actual stage of the building
655
Nagy Zsolt et al.
REFERENCES
[1] EN 1993-1-1 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings;
[2] CR-0-2005: Cod de proiectare pentru bazele proiectarii structurilor in constructii (Design Code.
Basis of design. Romanian design code).
[3] P100-2006: Cod de proiectare seismica P100. Partea I-Prevederi de proiectare pentru cladiri
(EN1998-1).
[4] SR-EN 1993-1-1: Eurocod 3: Proiectarea structurilor de oĠel Partea 1-1: Reguli generale úi reguli
pentru clădiri
[5] SR-EN1993-1-8:Eurocod 3: Proiectarea structurilor de oĠel. Partea 1-8: Proiectarea îmbinărilor
[6] H. C. Schulitz, W. Sobek, K. J. Habermann - Steel Construction Manual, Birkhauser Verlag 2000,
ISBN no. 3-7643-6181-6
[7] D. Dubina, I. M. Cristutiu, V. Ungureanu, Zs. Nagy: Stability and ductility performances of
light steel industrial building portal frames, 3-rd European Conference of Steel Structures,
Eurosteel 2002, Coimbra-Portugal, sept. 2002, pp 635-643 (2002);
[8] D. Dubina, I. M. Cristutiu: Buckling strength of pitched-roof portal frames of Class 3 and
Class 4 tapered sections, International Conference on Steel and Composite Structures - Eurosteel
2005, Maastricth-Holland, 7-11 june 2005, pp 635-643 (2005);
656
LOCAL POST-BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR OF ELLIPTICAL TUBES
Nuno Silvestre* and Leroy Gardner**
* Department of Civil Engineering, IST-ICIST, Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal

nuno.silvestre@civil.ist.utl.pt
** Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College London, United Kingdom
leroy.gardner@imperial.ac.uk
Keywords: Buckling, Elliptical Hollow Sections, Oval Hollow Sections, Post-buckling, Steel Structures.
Abstract. The local post-buckling behaviour of elliptical hollow section (EHS) tubes under compression
is analysed in this paper. It is found that EHS tubes with low to moderate aspect ratios can support loads
up to their limit loads but are imperfection sensitive (shell-type behaviour), while EHS tubes with
moderate to high aspect ratios can carry loads higher than their limits loads (plate-type behaviour) and
are imperfection insensitive. For increasing EHS aspect ratio, it is found that the compressive stresses
accumulate near the zones of minimum radius of curvature while the zones of maximum radius of
curvature experience a relatively low compressive stress level. Thus, it is likely to apply the effective
width concept to EHS tubes with moderate to high aspect ratio.
1 INTRODUCTION
EHS steel tubes are now available as hot-rolled structural products [1,2] and represent an interesting
solution for many visible applications in steel construction, particularly for glass facades. These shapes
are included in the new edition of EN 10210 [3] and are available in a standard range of dimensions. In
response to the emergence and commercial availability of EHS tubes, several recent investigations on
their buckling behaviour and strength have been published. Gardner and Chan [4] and Chan and Gardner
[5,6] assessed the non-linear behaviour of hot-rolled EHS tubes by means of experimental and numerical
analyses and proposed structural design rules. They found that the slenderness limits for pure
compression set out in EC3 for circular hollow section (CHS) classification can be safely adopted for
EHS, based on the equivalent diameter of the point of the EHS with maximum radius. Zhu and Wilkinson
[7] also performed shell finite element analyses to evaluate the buckling and post-buckling behaviour of
EHS in compression. Silvestre [8] developed a formulation of Generalised Beam Theory (GBT) to
analyse the elastic buckling behaviour of members with non-circular hollow sections (NCHS) and applied
it to study the behaviour of EHS shells and tubes under compression, particularly the variation of the
critical buckling stress with the member length and cross-section geometry. Ruiz-Teran and Gardner [9]
have also examined the buckling response of EHS tubes in compression and proposed analytical formulae
to accurately predict the critical stress. Thus, the main objective of this paper is to unveil the mechanics
of the elastic local post-buckling behaviour of EHS tubes and to explain in a detailed fashion the
transition between the shell-type (imperfection sensitive) behaviour of EHS tubes with low eccentricity
and the plate-type (imperfection insensitive) behaviour of EHS tubes with high eccentricity.
2 PARAMETRIC STUDY
An in-depth study on the influence of the EHS aspect ratio on the variation and nature of the post-
buckling equilibrium path, ensuing stress distributions and imperfection sensitivity is presented. A
reference EHS stub column with length L = 300 mm, thickness t = 4 mm and fully fixed supports is
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considered. The EHS geometry is characterised by the major axis width 2a and minor axis width 2b,
which are considered here as the dimensions of the EHS mid-line (i.e., 2a + t and 2b + t are the outer
dimensions). Based on a commercially available [1,2] reference geometry (2a = 150 mm, 2b = 75 mm, a/b
= 2.0), five further EHS configurations were generated and studied. These were obtained by (i) keeping
the cross-section perimeter unaltered (P = 363 mm) and (ii) varying the aspect ratio a/b from 1.10 to 5.0.
The six EHS geometries considered in this paper are represented in figure 1 and are characterised by an
equal cross-section area A=1450 mm2 and thus an equal amount of steel in each column.
a/b=1.10 a/b=1.25 a/b=1.50 a/b=2.00 a/b=3.00 a/b=5.00
2a=121.0mm 2a=128.0mm 2a=137.4mm 2a=150.0mm 2a=163.0mm 2a=173.0mm

2b=110.0mm 2b=102.4mm 2b=91.6mm 2b=75.0mm 2b=54.4mm 2b=34.6mm
Figure 1: Selected EHS geometries and corresponding aspect ratio a/b.
3 SHELL FINITE ELEMENT MODEL

The local post-buckling behaviour of EHS tubes under compression is investigated numerically using
the finite element code ABAQUS [10]. In order to analyse the local behaviour of a given thin-walled
member, one must adopt a two-dimensional model to discretise its mid-surface, a task that can be
adequately performed by means of 4-node isoparametric shell elements with reduced integration (S4R
elements in the ABAQUS nomenclature). In the case of the EHS tubes dealt with in this work,
discretisation of the cross-section into 36 finite elements was found to be sufficient − this corresponds
roughly to adopting 10 mm wide elements. A mesh size of 5 mm in the length direction was used, leading
to a total of 2160 elements and 2196 nodes. In order to ensure adequate modelling of the fixed end
support conditions, rigid plates were attached to the stub column end sections, thus preventing all local
and global displacements and rotations, including (i) rigid-body motions (with the exception of the axial
translation of the loaded end section), (ii) warping and (iii) in-plane deformation. These rigid end plates
were modelled by means of 3-node R3D3 finite elements (again ABAQUS nomenclature). The compressive
load was applied through the centroid of the axially free end section and, in order to obtain the load
versus axial shortening equilibrium path, the corresponding axial displacement was assessed by using an
ABAQUS command termed “MONITOR”.
a/b=1.10 a/b=1.25 a/b=1.50 a/b=2.00 a/b=3.00 a/b=5.00
σcr=7938 σcr=6843 σcr=5535 σcr=4004 σcr=2600 σcr=1508
Figure 2: Critical buckling modes and corresponding critical stresses σcr (in N/mm2)
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The material behaviour of the steel tube was assumed to be homogeneous, isotropic and linear elastic, which
is fully characterised by the values of Young’s modulus (E = 210000 N/mm2) and Poisson’s ratio (ν = 0.3).
Initial geometrical imperfections were included in the models in the form of the most relevant (critical) local
buckling mode shapes, incorporated into the tube initial geometry by means the initial conditions ABAQUS
command. Therefore, preliminary buckling (eigenvalue) analyses were carried out for all the six columns in order
to obtain the local buckling stress values and the corresponding buckling mode configurations, which are
depicted in figure 2. For the initial studies, a small imperfection amplitude equal to 0.1 mm (2.5% of EHS
thickness) was adopted, while imperfection sensitivity is investigated further in Section 6 of this paper. No
residual stresses were incorporated into the numerical analyses, since they were deemed to be of very low
magnitude in hot-finished elliptical tubes [5].
4 NON-LINEAR EQUILIBRIUM PATHS

Before introducing the study on the influence of the EHS aspect ratio on the variation and nature of the
post-buckling equilibrium path and ensuing stress distributions, the variation of the local critical buckling
stress with the EHS aspect ratio a/b is first assessed. For the six different aspect ratios considered herein, the
values of the critical buckling stress σcr (N/mm2) are given in table 1. As expected, it may be seen that the
critical stress decreases with increasing aspect ratio, almost inversely. Having examined the elastic critical
buckling behaviour of EHS, subsequent studies of the elastic post-buckling behaviour were then performed.
The non-linear equilibrium paths (applied stress σ versus axial shortening u) obtained from the post-buckling
analyses are plotted in figure 3(a)). The same results are presented in a normalised format – critical stress
ratio σ/σcr versus critical strain ratio ε/εcr – in figure 4.
Table 1: Critical stresses and limit stresses obtained from FE models
a/b σcr (N/mm2) σlim (N/mm2) σlim/ҏσcr
1.10 7938 6810 0.86
1.25 6843 5988 0.88
1.50 5535 4600 0.83
2.00 4004 3555 0.89
3.00 2600 2130 0.82
5.00 1508 1202 0.80
Stress σ (N/mm2) σ/σcr
8000 1.0
a/b=5.00
a/b=3.00
7000 6810 N/mm
2 a/b=2.00
a/b=1.50
a/b=1.25
a/b=1.10 0.8
2
6000 5988 N/mm
5000
4600 N/mm
2 0.6
4000
2
3555 N/mm
0.4
3000 Imperfection amplitude:
1% thickness
2130 2.5% thickness
2000 10% thickness
0.2 25% thickness
1202
50% thickness
1000 100% thickness
E/L
1
0 0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0
Axial shortening u (mm) Axial shortening u (mm)
Figure 3: (a) Applied stress σ vs. axial shortening u for several a/b ratios (imperfection = 2.5% thickness)
and (b) critical stress ratio σ/σcr vs. axial shortening u for a range of imperfections (a/b=2).
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σ /σcr
2.0
a/b=5.00
1.8 a/b=3.00
a/b=2.00
1.6 a/b=1.50
a/b=1.25
a/b=1.10
1.4
Limit point of the Bifurcation point of
1.2 imperfect tube the perfect tube
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2 1
1
0 ε /εcr
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Figure 4: Relationship between the critical stress (σ/σcr) and strain (ε/εcr) ratio for varying a/b.
From careful observation of figures 3(a) and 4 the following comments can be made:
(i) The six tubes possess an equal cross-section area and, therefore, the slope of the primary path is given
by E/L and is equal for all six tubes; the primary paths are also perfectly linear until the limit stress
σlim is reached. As expected, the limit stress σlim is lower than the corresponding critical stress σcr due
to the influence of the imperfections. The variation of limit stress σlim with aspect ratio is shown in
table 1. In fact, the ratio between the limit stress and the critical stress (σlim/σcr) shows little variation
with a/b and remains around 0.85 for the adopted imperfection amplitude of 2.5% of the EHS
thickness. This suggests that the imperfection sensitivity of EHS tubes is not strongly dependent on
the aspect ratio a/b of the cross-section, within the examined range of 1.10 < a/b < 5.00.
(ii) After reaching the limit stress σlim, the six non-linear paths show very distinct responses. The
descending branch (decrease of both applied stress and axial shortening) is much more pronounced
for tubes with lower aspect ratio a/b, as shown in the graph of σ/σcr versus ε/εcr given in figure 4.
(iii) Figure 3(a) shows that all the tubes are associated with post-critical curves that possess local minima, which
move horizontally towards the linear primary path as the aspect ratio increases. Beyond the local minima the
post-buckling paths (for a/b ≥ 1.10) exhibit a positive slope (increase in applied stress and axial shortening)
and are stable. It may be observed that the maximum slope of the ascending post-buckling branch increases
with aspect ratio a/b, this increase being more substantial for low to moderate aspect ratios (a/b ≤ 2) and less
pronounced for moderate to high aspect ratio (a/b ≥ 2). Furthermore, the slope of the ascending post-
buckling path can reach values up to 40% of the initial slope of the linear primary path; a value similar to that
for flat simply-supported plates with unrestrained edges.
(iv) From points (i) to (iii), it may be concluded that the maximum applied stress σmax that an elastic EHS tube
with low to moderate aspect ratio (a/b ≤ 1.5) can support is its limit stress σlim whereas, the maximum applied
stress σmax that an elastic EHS tube with moderate to high aspect ratio (a/b ≥ 2.0) can carry is higher than its
limit stress σlim (see figure 3(a)). The initially unstable post-buckling response exhibited by all six tubes
investigated (with an imperfection of 2.5% of the section thickness), means that snap-through behaviour is
experienced at the limit stress. However, figure 3(a) shows that the snap-through reduces with increasing
aspect ratio a/b. For instance, the very eccentric tube with a/b = 5.0 experiences, at the limit stress level
σlim=1202 N/mm2, a very small snap between u = 1.86 mm and u = 2.22 mm. Conversely, the moderately
eccentric tube with a/b = 2.0 experiences, at the limit stress level σlim=3555 N/mm2, a larger snap between u
= 4.98 mm and u = 12.85 mm.
The deformed configurations of the EHS tubes in the post-buckling regimes are shown in figure 5,
where deformation may be seen to be concentrated towards the mid-height of the specimens. Initial
geometrical imperfections were imposed with an inward deformation of the flatter region (i.e. maximum
local radius of curvature) of the EHS at mid-height (see figure 2). From figure 5, it may be seen that the
660
post-buckling deformed configurations are characterised by a pronounced flattening of the cross-section

at its mid-height; this flattening is associated with high tensile normal stresses that develop in the
transverse (circumferential) direction.
a/b=1.10 a/b=1.25 a/b=1.50 a/b=2.00 a/b=3.00 a/b=5.00
Fig. 5: Deformed configurations of the EHS tubes in the post-buckling regime.
5 NORMAL STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS

In order to explain the distinct post-critical behaviour exhibited by EHS tubes and its dependency on
the aspect ratio a/b, the normal stress distributions in the weakest (most deformed) zone of the tube, (i.e.,
at mid height) are examined. Figure 6 comprises six graphs (for the six different aspect ratios
investigated), each one showing the evolution of normal stress distributions σ(θ) for several load levels
(σ/σcr), i.e., for several points travelling along the equilibrium path. In the key to each figure, the values
of σ/σcr initially increase up to the limit stress, after which they decrease to the local minimum and then
increase again; compressive stresses are positive. The normal stress σ(θ) is measured along the mid-line
of the EHS and associated with membrane behaviour and θ is the angle to the centre of the EHS; (θ=0°
and180° correspond to the points of minimum radius of curvature rmin = b2/a, coincident with the EHS
major axis, and θ=90° and 270° correspond to the points of maximum radius of curvature rmax = a2/b,
coincident with the EHS minor axis). The solid curves correspond to the limit stress ratio σlim/σcr. To aid
comparison between the six diagrams, the normal stress σ(θ) axes have the same vertical scale. From
observation of figure 6 the following remarks can be made:
(i) For σ < σlim and independently of the aspect ratio a/b, the normal stress is essentially uniform along
the EHS mid-line (i.e. σ is almost independent of θ). Further, as also seen in table 1, the stress level
corresponding to σ = σlim decreases with increasing aspect ratio a/b. From this observation, it could be
interpreted that it is preferable to design EHS with lower aspect ratios – the CHS being the limit
configuration. However, as will be seen later, such an approach does not truly corresponds to
optimum EHS design.
(ii) For σ > σlim and independently of the aspect ratio a/b, the normal stress ceases to remain uniform
along the EHS mid-line (i.e. σ varies with θ). However, it should be highlighted that the non-linear
distribution of σ(θ) varies markedly with aspect ratio a/b. The zones of maximum EHS radius of
curvature (θ = 90° and 270°) are always in compression (σ(θ) > 0) but the normal stress decreases
continuously for increasing applied stress ratio (σ/σcr). The points of minimum EHS radius of curvature
(θ = 0° and 180°) may be in compression or in tension, and this fact has far reaching implications for
the stability of the post-buckling branches. Immediately after the peak (σlim), the normal stress in the
θ=0° and 180° regions decreases for all a/b values; this decrease being much more pronounced for
moderate to low aspect ratios (a/b ≤ 1.5) than for moderate to high aspect ratios (a/b ≥ 2.0).
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σ (N/mm2) σ (N/mm2)
25000 25000
σ/σcr σ/σcr
0.408 0.511
a/b=1.10 0.858 a/b=1.25 0.875
20000 0.807 20000 0.746
0.659 0.659
0.557 0.567
0.487 0.503
15000 0.436 15000 0.457
0.393 0.415
0.350 0.412
0.371 0.462
10000 10000
5000 5000
0 0
0 90 180 270 360 0 90 180 270 360
θ (°) θ (°)
-5000 -5000
σ (N/mm2) σ (N/mm2)
25000 25000
σ/σcr σ/σcr
a/b=1.50 0.508 a/b=2.00
0.403
20000 0.831 20000 0.888
0.681 0.670
θ
0.584 0.589
0.508 0.532
15000 0.466 15000 0.514
0.485 0.568
0.542 0.693
0.723 0.859
10000 10000 1.220
5000 5000
0 0
0 90 180 270 360 0 90 180 270 360
θ (°) θ (°)
-5000 -5000
σ (N/mm ) 2
σ (N/mm2)
25000 25000
a/b=5.00
20000 a/b=3.00 σ/σcr 20000 σ/σcr
0.401 0.400
0.819 0.797
0.612 0.732
15000 0.658 0.862
0.956
15000
1.200
1.300 1.760
1.630 2.510
2.020 3.370
10000 2.250 10000 3.840
5000 5000
0 0
0 90 180 270 360 0 90 180 270 360
θ (°) θ (°)
-5000 -5000
Figure 6: Evolution of normal stresses σ(θ) with σ/σcr for the six different aspect ratios a/b.
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For a/b = 1.10, the stress decreases and changes sign, with the points of minimum EHS radius of
curvature (θ = 0° and 180°) being in tension at the maximum axial shortening (black line). For 1.25 ≤
a/b ≤ 2.0, the stress decreases and changes sign, but then tends to increase again with increasing
displacement. For 3.0 ≤ a/b ≤ 5.0, the stress slightly decreases after the peak but then increases
significantly, and the points θ = 0° and 180° are never in tension. The points of maximum
compressive stress are not at the minimum EHS radius of curvature (θ = 0°, 180°) but are
immediately adjacent to these points at θ = 10-30°, 150-170°, 190-210° and 330-350°.
(iii) As noted above, non-linear distributions of σ(θ) vary markedly with aspect ratio a/b. For low to
moderate aspect ratios (a/b ≤ 1.5), the stress distribution in the zones of minimum EHS radius of
curvature (θ < 60°, 120° < θ < 240°, θ > 300°) is distinctly non-linear with θ, with compressive and
tensile stresses occurring over different ranges of θ. For increasing aspect ratio (a/b ≥ 1.5), the stress
distribution in the zones of minimum EHS radius of curvature (θ < 60°, 120° < θ < 240°, θ > 300°)
becomes more uniform. This may be seen most clearly for the EHS tube with a/b = 5, where the
compressive stresses are almost uniform inside the ranges θ < 60°, 120° < θ < 240° and θ > 300°, for
the maximum axial shortening (black line).
(iv) For EHS tubes with low aspect ratio a/b, the development of tension stresses in the zones of minimum
EHS radius of curvature lead to a “softening effect” in behaviour of the tube, since the average stress
along the EHS mid-line reduces as the tensile stresses grow. This is the reason for the almost horizontal
post-buckling branches following the initial drop in load (see figure 3(a)) exhibited by the EHS tubes
with a/b = 1.1 and 1.25; their post-buckling behaviour is similar to that exhibited by circular shells and
they do not possess any post-critical stiffness. Conversely, for EHS tubes with moderate to high
eccentricity (or aspect ratio a/b), the development of high compressive stresses in the zones of minimum
EHS radius of curvature lead to a “hardening effect” in behaviour of the tube, since the average stress
along the EHS mid-line now tends to increase as the compressive stresses grow. This is the reason for the
ascending and stable post-buckling branches (see figure 3(a)) exhibited by the of EHS tube with a/b =
1.5, 2.0, 3.0 and 5.0. Consequently, their post-buckling behaviour is closer to that exhibited by flat plates
and they do possess notable post-critical stiffness.
(v) On the basis of the above findings, it may be concluded that an approach based on the “effective
width concept”, widely used for the strength analysis of flat plates, may be adapted to the design of
EHS tubes with moderate to high aspect ratios. This procedure is outside of the scope of the present
paper, but is the subject of ongoing research.
6 IMPERFECTION SENSITIVITY
In previous sections, a constant imperfection amplitude of 2.5% of the section thickness has been
adopted. In this section, the imperfection sensitivity of EHS tubes under compression is examined. Each
of the six tubes was analysed for six imperfection amplitudes: ξ = 0.04 mm (1% of the thickness), ξ =
0.10 mm (2.5% of the thickness), ξ = 0.4 mm (10% of the thickness), ξ = 1.0 mm (25% of the thickness),
ξ = 2.0 mm (50% of the thickness) and ξ = 4.0 mm (100% of the thickness). For the tube with a/b = 2,
figure 3(b) shows the equilibrium paths (critical stress ratio σ/σcr versus axial shortening u) obtained for
the several imperfection amplitudes. It is clear that, for imperfection amplitudes lower than 25% of the
thickness, the equilibrium paths possess a limit point, and the limit stress σlim decreases significantly with
increasing imperfection amplitude. Conversely, for imperfection amplitudes higher than 50% of the tube
thickness, (i) the equilibrium paths always ascend and (ii) there is no limit stress. This behavioural aspect
has far reaching implications for the imperfection sensitivity of EHS tubes: due to its stable and
ascending post-buckling branch, a moderately (or highly) eccentric EHS tube may or may not be
imperfection sensitive depending on the range of imperfections being considered. For a given aspect ratio a/b,
there is always a “bound imperfection amplitude” (ξb) that separates the ranges of imperfection amplitude where
the tube is imperfection sensitive (ξ < ξb) and insensitive (ξ > ξb). From figure 3(b), for the EHS tube with a/b =
2, this ξb value should lie between 25% and 50% of the thickness. Using a trial-and-error procedure, the exact
value of the “bound imperfection amplitude” was found to be ξb = 1.2mm = 30% of the thickness.
663
7 CONCLUSIONS
The elastic local post-buckling behaviour of tubes with elliptical hollow sections (EHS) under
compression was analysed in this paper. The obtained numerical results were then presented and
analysed; the following conclusions are drawn:
(i) Non-linear equilibrium paths - The maximum applied stress that an elastic EHS tube with low to
moderate aspect ratio (a/b ≤ 1.5) can support is its limit stress σlim, while the maximum applied stress
that an elastic EHS tube with moderate to high aspect ratio (a/b ≥ 2.0) can carry is higher than its
limit stress σlim. It was observed that the slope of the ascending branch increases with aspect ratio a/b
and can reach values up to 40% of the initial slope of the linear primary path.
(ii) Normal stress distributions - For increasing aspect ratio a/b, the compressive stresses grow and
accumulate near the zones of minimum radius of curvature while the zones of maximum radius of
curvature possess an approximately uniform and relatively low compressive stress level. Therefore, it
is expected that an approach based on the “effective width concept” widely used for the strength
analysis of flat plates may be adapted to the design of EHS tubes with moderate to high aspect ratios.
(iii) Imperfection sensitivity - For a given aspect ratio a/b, there is a “bound imperfection amplitude” ξb
that separates the ranges of imperfection amplitude where the EHS tube is imperfection sensitive (ξ <
ξb) and insensitive (ξ > ξb). Moreover, it was shown that the imperfection sensitivity of EHS tubes
significantly drops for increasing aspect ratio a/b, ranging between shell-type behaviour (strongly
imperfection sensitive) and plate-type behaviour (imperfection insensitive).
REFERENCES
[1] Corus. Celsius 355s Ovals. Internet: http://www.corusgroup.com, 2006.
[2] Interpipe – The Hollow Section Company. Elliptical Hollow Sections to S355 J2H, Internet:
http://www.interpipe.co.uk/, 2007.
[3] CEN – Comité Européen de Normalisation. EN 10210-2: Hot finished structural hollow sections of
non-alloy and fine grain steels – Part 2: Tolerances, dimensions and sectional properties, 2006.
[4] Gardner, L., Chan, T.M., “Cross-section classification of elliptical hollow sections”, Steel and Composite
Structures, 7(3), 185-200, 2007.
[5] Chan, T.M., Gardner, L., “Compressive resistance of hot-rolled elliptical hollow sections”, Engineering
Structures, 30(2), 522-532, 2008.
[6] Chan, T.M., Gardner, L., “Flexural buckling of elliptical hollow section columns”, Journal of
Structural Engineering-ASCE, 135(5), 546-557, 2009.
[7] Zhu, Y., Wilkinson, T., “Finite element analysis of structural steel elliptical hollow sections in
compression”, Research Report No R874, Centre for Advanced Structural Engineering, The University of
Sydney, 2007.
[8] Silvestre, N., “Buckling behaviour of elliptical cylindrical shells and tubes under compression”,
International Journal of Solids and Structures, 45(16), 4427-4447, 2008.
[9] Ruiz-Teran, A.M., Gardner, L., “Elastic buckling of elliptical tubes”, Thin-Walled Structures, 46(11),
1304-1318, 2008.
[10] DS Simulia Inc. ABAQUS Standard (version 6.7), 2007.
664
PLASTIC DESIGN OF STAINLESS STEEL STRUCTURES
Marios Theofanous* and Leroy Gardner*
* Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ
e-mails: marios.theofanous@imperial.ac.uk, leroy.gardner@imperial.ac.uk
Keywords: Stainless Steel Structures, Continuous Beams, Plastic Design, Continuous Strength Method.
Abstract. Despite the high material ductility of structural stainless steels and the existence of a Class 1
limit in the European structural stainless steel design code EN 1993-1-4 [1], plastic design is not
permitted for stainless steel structures, which leads to uneconomic design. The present paper investigates
the applicability of inelastic design procedures to indeterminate stainless steel structures. Five three-
point bending tests and ten two-span continuous beam tests on stainless steel square and rectangular
hollow sections are reported herein. Analysis of the results reveals that current design provisions are
overly conservative and significant moment redistribution and hence material savings can be achieved if
inelastic design procedures are followed at both cross-sectional level and system level.
1 INTRODUCTION
The need for metallic structures to resist high loads that have a small probability of occurrence in an
economic way necessitates the exploitation of the inelastic range of the material’s stress-strain curve,
provided that they possess sufficient ductility. Modern structural design guidance specifies the extent to
which the exploitation of the material’s inelastic range is allowed, following the cross-section
classification procedure. The European structural design codes for stainless steel EN 1993-1-4 [1] and
carbon steel EN 1993-1-1 [2] specify four behavioural classes of cross-sections according to their
susceptibility to local buckling. Indeterminate structures employing carbon steel cross-sections classified
as Class 1 may be plastically designed. Despite the high material ductility of structural stainless steels [3]
and the existence of a Class 1 limit in [1], plastic design is not permitted for stainless steel structures,
which leads to uneconomic design.
In this paper the applicability of inelastic design procedures to stainless steel indeterminate structures
is investigated. Five three-point bending tests and ten two-span continuous beam tests on stainless steel
SHS and RHS are reported. The experimental response of both the simply supported beams and the
continuous beams is then compared with the predictions of EN 1993-1-4 [1]. Analysis of the results
reveals that current design provisions are overly conservative, since they do not account for material
strain-hardening and the significant moment redistribution (in the case of the continuous beams) taking
place before collapse occurs. Hence material savings can be achieved if inelastic design procedures are
followed at both cross-section level and system level. To this end, the continuous strength method
(CSM), outlined in [4]-[6], which allows for the actual material response at cross-sectional level, is
adapted to stainless steel indeterminate structures, resulting in more favourable strength predictions.
2 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
An experimental investigation into the structural response of stainless steel simple and continuous
beams has been carried out in the Structures Laboratory at Imperial College London. The employed
cross-sections were SHS and RHS in grade EN 1.4301/1.4307 stainless steel with nominal sizes of
50×50×3, 60×60×3, 100×100×3 and 60×40×3. The specimens were extracted from the same lengths as
665
the ones utilised in the experimental study reported in [7]. The tensile coupon test data reported in [7] are
utilised herein, as no further material coupon tests were conducted. The obtained tensile flat material
properties are shown in Table 1, where E0 is the Young’s modulus, V0.2 and V1.0 are the proof stresses at
0.2% and 1% offset strains, respectively, and n and n'0.2,1.0 are strain hardening exponents, utilised in the
two stage Ramberg-Osgood model [8]-[10]. The 0.2% proof stress ı0.2, obtained from tensile flat
coupons, is utilized to obtain the elastic and plastic moment resistances (Mel and Mpl respectively).
Table 1: Tensile flat material properties.

E ı0.2 ı1.0 ıu
Cross-section n n0.2,1.0
(N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2)
SHS 50×50×3 198000 552 608 798 5.50 2.90
SHS 60×60×3 197730 483 546 745 5.25 2.90
SHS 100×100×3 201300 419 470 725 5.25 2.25
RHS 60×40×3 191690 538 592 753 5.00 3.50
Five three-point bending tests were initially performed, to provide fundamental flexural performance
data, which were utilised to assess the suitability of current design provisions codified in EN 1993-1-4
(2006). Subsequently ten two-span continuous beam tests (five-point bending) were conducted, which
enabled the study of stainless steel indeterminate structures and an assessment of the current codified
provisions. Performing both simply supported and continuous beam tests on the same cross-sections
enables the assessment of the effect of moment redistribution on ultimate capacity.
2.1 Simply supported beam tests
Five simply supported beam tests have been conducted in the three-point bending configuration. One
test was conducted for each of the three SHS employed, whilst two tests were conducted for the RHS
60×40×3 specimen, one about the major axis and one about the minor axis. All beams had a total length
of 1200 mm and were simply supported between rollers, which allowed axial displacement of the beams’
ends. The rollers were placed 50 mm inward from each beam end. Wooden blocks were placed within the
tubes at the loading point to prevent web crippling. The applied crosshead movement rate was 3 mm/min.
Prior to testing, measurements of the geometry of the specimens were taken, which are summarised
in Table 2, where the experimentally obtained ultimate moment Mu and the Mu/Mel and the Mu/Mpl ratios
are also included. In Table 2, B and D are the outside width and depth of the cross-section respectively, t
is the mean section thickness and ri is the internal corner radius. A typical failure mode, exhibiting local
buckling of the compression flange and the upper part of the web, is shown in Figure 1.
Table 2: Measured dimensions and test results from 3-point bending tests.
Axis of B D t ri Mu
Specimen Mu/Mel Mu/Mpl
bending (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (kNm)
SHS 50×50×3 Major 50.18 50.24 2.76 1.53 7.00 1.68 1.41
SHS 60×60×3 Major 60.37 60.63 2.79 3.50 8.74 1.62 1.36
SHS 100×100×3 Major 99.85 99.93 2.78 2.13 18.77 1.35 1.16
RHS 60×40×3-MA Major 40.00 60.11 2.75 1.88 7.99 1.84 1.49
RHS 60×40×3-MI Minor 60.10 39.95 2.75 1.88 5.69 1.66 1.41
Figure 1: Failure mode of the RHS 60×40×3-MA specimen.
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2.2 Continuous beam tests

Ten continuous beam tests were conducted on the same section sizes employed for the simply
supported beam tests; two tests were conducted for each cross-section. As before, the RHS 60×40×3 was
tested about both its major and minor axes. All beams had a total length of 2400 mm and were resting on
three roller supports; the end rollers allowed free axial displacements, while the central roller was fixed
against axial displacement. The clear span distance between the roller supports was 1100 mm and a
further 100 mm were provided at each specimen end. The measured geometric properties are shown in
Table 3, where the symbols are as previously defined.
Table 3: Measured dimensions of continuous beam specimens.

Axis of B D t ri
Specimen Configuration
bending (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
SHS 50×50×3-1 Major 1/2 span 50.22 50.26 2.76 1.38
SHS 50×50×3-2 Major 1/3 span 50.28 50.23 2.76 1.69
SHS 60×60×3-1 Major 1/2 span 60.38 60.68 2.79 3.50
SHS 60×60×3-2 Major 1/2 span 60.36 60.66 2.79 3.50
SHS 100×100×3-1 Major 1/2 span 99.94 99.79 2.78 2.13
SHS 100×100×3-2 Major 1/2 span 99.87 99.85 2.78 2.13
RHS 60×40×3-MA-1 Major 1/2 span 40.05 60.14 2.75 1.88
RHS 60×40×3-MA-2 Major 1/2 span 39.90 60.12 2.75 1.88
RHS 60×40×3-MI-1 Minor 1/2 span 60.10 39.90 2.75 1.88
RHS 60×40×3-MI-2 Minor 1/3 span 60.15 39.90 2.75 1.88
All tests were displacement-controlled with a loading rate of 3mm/min in terms of vertical crosshead
movement. Two symmetrical loading configurations were employed to vary the required rotation
capacity and moment redistribution before collapse. In the first configuration, denoted ‘1/2 span’ in Table
3, the loads were applied at midspan, whilst in the second configuration, ‘denoted 1/3 span’, the loads
were applied at a distance equal to 366.7 mm (1/3 of the clear span length) from the central support. The
1/3 span configuration is shown in Figure 2, where the employed instrumentation is also depicted.
Wooden blocks were inserted at the supports and at the loading points of each specimen and the loads
and reactions were applied through a steel block of thickness 15 mm and width 30 mm, to prevent local
bearing failure.
Loading jack
Spreader beam
Beam specimen
Strain gauge LVDT5 200 LVDT6
LVDT1 LVDT3
LVDT2 LVDT4
LVDT7 LVDT8
Load Cell
100 733.3 366.7 366.7 733.3 100
Figure 2: Test configuration ‘1/3 span’ - loads applied at 366.7 mm from central support.
The employed instrumentation consisted of a load cell at the central support, eight LVDTs and six
strain gauges, as shown in Figure 3. The load cell was utilised to measure the reaction force at the central
667
support, which is necessary to determine the stress condition of each specimen, due to their static
indeterminacy. The strain gauges were affixed at the mid-width of the top and bottom flanges at a
distance of 60 mm from each loading point and from the central support point. Their readings verified
that no net axial load occurred in the specimens and hence the end rollers did not provide any axial
restraint. Six LVDTs were employed in pairs at the ends of the specimens and the central support, as
shown in Figure 2, to measure the end rotations and the rotation of the plastic hinge at the central support,
whilst two additional LVDTs were employed at the loading points to measure the vertical displacement.
The applied load and crosshead movement were also recorded. All readings were taken at 2 second
intervals.
The key experimental results are summarised in Table 4, including the ultimate load Fu and the
plastic rotation at ultimate load normalised by the corresponding elastic rotation at ultimate load,
șpl,max/șel,max. The load corresponding to the formation of the first plastic hinge at the central support,
denoted Fh1, and the theoretical collapse load Fcoll are also included. The load Fh1 was determined based
on elastic calculations, whereas Fcoll was determined by classical plastic analysis procedures, assuming
rigid-plastic material (and moment-rotation) response. All specimens failed by developing three distinct
plastic hinges, one at the central support and one at each loading point. A typical failure mode for the 1/2
span arrangement is displayed in Figure 3.
Figure 3: Failure mode of SHS 50×50×3-1 - configuration: 1/2 span.
Table 4: Summary of test results from continuous beam tests.

Fu Fh1 Fcoll
Specimen Configuration șpl,max/șel,max
(kN) (kN) (kN)
SHS 50×50×3-1 1/2 span 80.24 48.3 54.35 0.95
SHS 50×50×3-2 1/3 span 98.87 48.8 67.67 1.35
SHS 60×60×3-1 1/2 span 97.08 62.2 70.00 0.70
SHS 60×60×3-2 1/2 span 92.47 62.2 69.94 0.79
SHS 100×100×3-1 1/2 span 173.86 156.3 175.83 0.45
SHS 100×100×3-2 1/2 span 172.21 156.3 175.89 0.20
RHS 60×40×3-MA-1 1/2 span 92.99 52.0 58.54 1.10
RHS 60×40×3-MA-2 1/2 span 91.92 51.9 58.37 1.10
RHS 60×40×3-MI-1 1/2 span 63.94 39.0 43.84 1.00
RHS 60×40×3-MI-2 1/3 span 77.57 39.5 54.84 1.70
3 ANALYSIS OF TEST RESULTS AND DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS

In this section, the reported test data are analysed and discussed. Various design methods are outlined
and their accuracy is assessed on the basis of the test data. These include the design provisions specified
in EN 1993-1-4 [1], the continuous strength method [4]-[6] and conventional plastic design, assuming
rigid-plastic material behaviour. For the simply supported beams, discrepancies between the actual
resistance and code predictions are due to the effect of material nonlinearity (i.e. strain-hardening) at
cross-sectional level, whilst for the continuous beams (indeterminate structures), nonlinearity affects both
individual cross-sections, due to material strain-hardening, and the whole structure, due to statical
indeterminacy and the corresponding moment redistribution. A method for plastic design of steel
structures, which takes into account strain-hardening, was recently proposed [11] and its applicability to
stainless steel indeterminate structures is assessed herein.
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3.1 European codified design predictions

No distinct difference in the treatment of Class 1 and Class 2 sections exists in EN 1993-1-4 [1], since
plastic design of stainless steel indeterminate structures is not currently allowed, despite the existence of a
Class 1 slenderness limit. On average, EN 1993-1-4 [1] underestimates the capacity of the three-point bending
specimens by 33% with a coefficient of variation (COV) of 8%. Improved results in terms of consistency are
obtained when the calculation is based on the revised slenderness limits and effective width formulae,
proposed in [6], as shown in Table 5. The continuous beams are treated similarly to the simply supported ones.
Hence failure is assumed to occur when the most heavily stressed cross-section reaches its codified resistance,
as determined through cross-section classification. The codified resistance is compared to the actual capacity in
Table 6, where the predictions based on the revised slenderness limits are also included. Measured material
properties and geometries have been used throughout the comparisons.
Table 5: Codified and proposed classification and effective width formulae for simply supported beams.
EN 1993-1-4 [1] Revised slenderness limits [6]
Specimen
Class Mpred/Mu Class Mpred/Mu
SHS 50×50×3 1 0.71 1 0.71
SHS 60×60×3 1 0.73 1 0.73
SHS 100×100×3 4 0.65 4 0.68
RHS 60×40×3-MA 1 0.67 1 0.67
RHS 60×40×3-MI 3 0.60 1 0.71
MEAN 0.67 0.70
COV 0.08 0.04
Table 6: Codified and proposed classification and effective width formulae for continuous beams.

Specimen
Class Fpred/Fu Class Fpred/Fu
SHS 50×50×3-1 1 0.60 1 0.60
SHS 50×50×3-2 1 0.49 1 0.49
SHS 60×60×3-1 1 0.64 1 0.64
SHS 60×60×3-2 1 0.67 1 0.67
SHS 100×100×3-1 4 0.68 4 0.71
SHS 100×100×3-2 4 0.68 4 0.72
RHS 60×40×3-MA-1 1 0.56 1 0.56
RHS 60×40×3-MA-2 1 0.56 1 0.56
RHS 60×40×3-MI-1 3 0.52 1 0.61
RHS 60×40×3-MI-2 3 0.43 1 0.51
MEAN 0.58 0.61
COV 0.15 0.13
3.2 Continuous strength method

The continuous strength method (CSM) explicitly accounts for material strain-hardening at cross-
sectional level [4]-[6]. Hence, more favourable ultimate capacity predictions can be achieved for both
simply supported and continuous beams if the cross-section failure is based on the CSM rather than on
cross-section classification, as shown in Table 7. As expected, the ultimate capacity of the simply
669
supported beams is very well-predicted and a low COV is observed. For the continuous beams, the CSM
gives more favourable strength predictions compared to the classification procedure, but failure to
account for moment redistribution results in excessive conservatism. Moreover, a relatively large COV is
observed, due to the dependency of the effect of moment redistribution on the cross-section slenderness.
Table 7: Assessment of the CSM for simply supported and continuous beams.
Fpred/Fu
Specimen
Simply supported beams Continuous beams
SHS 50×50×3-1 0.90 0.68
SHS 50×50×3-2 - 0.56
SHS 60×60×3-1 0.95 0.73
SHS 60×60×3-2 - 0.77
SHS 100×100×3-1 0.91 0.89
SHS 100×100×3-2 - 0.90
RHS 60×40×3-MA-1 0.87 0.64
RHS 60×40×3-MA-2 - 0.64
RHS 60×40×3-MI-1 0.87 0.67
RHS 60×40×3-MI-2 - 0.56
MEAN 0.90 0.71
COV 0.04 0.17
3.3 Conventional plastic analysis

Allowing for the effects of moment redistribution is the key feature of plastic analysis. Despite the
deviation of stainless steel’s material response from the assumed bilinear elastic, perfectly-plastic model,
application of plastic design to stainless steel indeterminate structures is attempted herein. The theoretical
collapse load Fcoll has been calculated for all continuous beam specimens and is given in Table 4. In
Table 8, the classification procedure codified in EN 1993-1-4 [1] and that proposed in [6] are once again
assessed; in this case the capacity of the specimens with Class 1 cross-sections is calculated by means of
plastic design, the resistance of the Class 3 beams is calculated using elastic design and for Class 4
beams, elastic design and effective section properties are used. The revised classification approach seems
to offer more consistent ultimate capacity predictions than the one codified in EN 1993-1-4 [1]. However
the embedded conservatism remains significant.
3.4 Continuous strength method for indeterminate structures

Both the CSM and plastic analysis offer significant improvements in terms both design efficiency
compared to the current design approach. However, plastic analysis seems superior to the CSM in terms
of consistency of the predictions. This is due to the fact that, when applying the CSM, the effect of
moment redistribution has been ignored, thereby reducing the failure of a structural assembly to the
failure of a single cross-section.
A method combining the merits of both is desirable, since both strain-hardening at cross-sectional
level and moment redistribution affect the structural response of stainless steel indeterminate structures.
Gardner and Wang [11] recently proposed a modification to the plastic analysis procedure currently
applied to carbon steel structures. The proposed method, called the CSM for indeterminate structures,
allows for moment redistribution in a similar fashion to traditional plastic analysis and for full
exploitation of material strain-hardening at the location of the first plastic hinge; strain-hardening at
subsequent hinges is partly accounted for.
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Table 8: Assessment of codified and proposed classification for continuous beams allowing for plastic design.
Specimen
Class Fpred/Fu Class Fpred/Fu
SHS 50×50×3-1 1 0.68 1 0.68
SHS 50×50×3-2 1 0.68 1 0.68
SHS 60×60×3-1 1 0.72 1 0.72
SHS 60×60×3-2 1 0.76 1 0.76
SHS 100×100×3-1 4 0.68 4 0.71
SHS 100×100×3-2 4 0.68 4 0.72
RHS 60×40×3-MA-1 1 0.63 1 0.63
RHS 60×40×3-MA-2 1 0.63 1 0.63
RHS 60×40×3-MI-1 3 0.52 1 0.69
RHS 60×40×3-MI-2 3 0.43 1 0.71
MEAN 0.64 0.69
COV 0.15 0.06
The novelty of the method lies in departing from the traditional rigid-plastic material response and
assuming that the ultimate moment capacity of the first plastic hinge can be fully exploited. In essence,
the method utilises the upper bound theorem of limit analysis and relies on the determination of a suitable
collapse mechanism. The moment capacity at the location of the plastic hinges is calculated by means of
the CSM; for the first plastic hinge the full deformation capacity is exploited, whilst for subsequent
plastic hinges, the deformation capacity is a fraction of the deformation capacity at the first hinge,
proportional to the plastic rotation ratio as determined from kinematics.
Table 9: Assessment of the CSM for indeterminate structures.

CSM for indeterminate
Specimen structures
Class Fpred/Fu
SHS 50×50×3-1 1 0.85
SHS 50×50×3-2 1 0.86
SHS 60×60×3-1 1 0.92
SHS 60×60×3-2 1 0.96
SHS 100×100×3-1 4 0.89
SHS 100×100×3-2 4 0.90
RHS 60×40×3-MA-1 1 0.80
RHS 60×40×3-MA-2 1 0.80
RHS 60×40×3-MI-1 1 0.84
RHS 60×40×3-MI-2 1 0.86
MEAN 0.87
COV 0.06
The accuracy of the CSM for indeterminate structures is assessed in Table 9, where all cross-sections
classified as Class 1 according to the revised slenderness limits proposed in [6] have been treated with
this method. The SHS 100×100×3 specimens, which have a slender (Class 4) cross-section, have been
treated with the conventional CSM; hence the effect of moment redistribution has not been considered for
these sections. Overall, significant enhancement in design efficiency and good agreement with the test
671
results is observed as evidenced by the low COV of 0.06. Further research into the topic is underway to
determine the slenderness range within which the proposed method can be safely applied.
4 CONCLUSIONS
An experimental study comprising five three-point bending tests and ten two-span continuous beam
tests (five-point bending) has been conducted and the conservatism embedded in the provisions for
stainless steel indeterminate structures codified in EN 1993-1-4 [1] has been highlighted. The application
of conventional plastic analysis to stainless steel indeterminate structures and the accuracy of the CSM
have been investigated. It was concluded that both material strain-hardening at cross-sectional level (at
the location of the plastic hinges) and moment redistribution occurring in indeterminate structures,
comprising sections with sufficient deformation capacity, are significant and should therefore be
accounted for in design. A recently proposed adaptation of the CSM for carbon steel indeterminate
structures [11] has been further investigated and applied to stainless steel indeterminate structures,
yielding excellent results for stocky cross-sections. Hence CSM for indeterminate structures emerges as a
promising design approach for stainless steel continuous beams.
REFERENCES
[1] EN 1993-1-4. Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 1.4: General rules – Supplementary
rules for stainless steel. CEN, 2006.
[2] EN 1993-1-1. Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 1.1: General rules – General rules and
rules for buildings. CEN, 2005.
[3] Gardner, L. “The use of stainless steel in structures”. Progress in Structural Engineering and
Materials, 7 (2), 45-55, 2005.
[4] Gardner, L. and Ashraf, M. “Structural design for non-linear metallic materials”. Engineering
Structures, 28 (6), 926-934, 2006.
[5] Ashraf, M., Gardner, L. and Nethercot, D. A. “Structural stainless steel design: Resistance based on
deformation capacity”. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 134 (3), 402-411, 2008.
[6] Gardner, L. and Theofanous, M. “Discrete and continuous treatment of local buckling in stainless
steel elements”. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 64 (11), 1207-1216, 2008.
[7] Nip, K.H., Gardner, L. and Elghazouli, A.Y. “Cyclic testing and numerical modelling of carbon
steel and stainless steel tubular bracing members”. Engineering Structures, 32 (2), 424-441, 2010.
[8] Mirambell, E. and Real, E. “On the calculation of deflections in structural stainless steel beams: an
experimental and numerical investigation”. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 54 (1), 109-
133, 2000.
[9] Rasmussen, K.J.R. “Full-range stress-strain curves for stainless steel alloys”. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research, 59 (1), 47-61, 2003.
[10] Gardner, L. and Nethercot, D.A. “Experiments on stainless steel hollow sections - Part 1: Material
and cross-sectional behaviour”. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 60 (9), 1291-1318, 2004.
[11] Gardner, L. and Wang, F. “Influence of strain hardening on the behaviour and design of steel
structures”. International Journal of Structural Stability and Dynamics, (submitted).
672
INELASTIC BEHAVIOUR OF PARTIALLY RESTRAINED STEEL FRAMES
Renata G. L. da Silva*, Armando C. C. Lavall*
* Departamento de Engenharia de Estruturas da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais

e-mails: rglsilva@dees.ufmg.br, lavall@dees.ufmg.br
Keywords: Inelastic Behaviour, Partially Restrained Connections, Spread of Plasticity.
Abstract. The behaviour of beam-column connections for conventional analysis of a structure is

simplified to the two idealized extremes of either rigid-joint or pinned-joint behaviour. However most of
the connections used in steel frames actually exhibits semi-rigid deformation which influences the global
behaviour of structures. This paper presents the development of a finite element for use in second-order
inelastic analysis of partially and fully restrained planar steel frames. The finite element considers the
spread of plasticity within the cross section and along the member length, several residual stresses
distributions, shear deformation of members through the Timoshenko theory and P-G and P-' effects.
Nonlinear spring elements are used to include connections. The behaviour of connections is modelled
using multilinearized moment-rotation curves. A computer program associated with the finite element
model is developed for Advanced Analysis of planar steel frames. Numerical examples are presented.
1 INTRODUCTION
Conventional analyses of steel frame structures are usually carried out under the assumption that the
beam-column connections are either fully rigid or ideally pinned. However, most of the connections used
in current practice are semi-rigid type whose behaviour lies between these two extreme cases. The
predicted response of the idealized structure may be quite unrealistic compared to that of the actual
structure if connection stiffness is ignored in the analysis and design procedures.
The semi-rigid connections have important function in structural steel design, because influence
substantially the moment distribution in beams and columns and negatively affect the stability of the
frame, since they increase the drift of the frame and cause a decrease in effective stiffness of the member.
So, the disregard of the actual behaviour of the connections can lead to unrealistic predictions of response
and resistance of structures.
The important attributes that affect the behaviour of semi-rigid steel frames structures are connection,
geometric and material nonlinearities. The connection nonlinearity is given by the nonlinear moment-
rotation relationship of semi-rigid connections. The geometric nonlinearity includes second-order effects
associated with the P-G and P-' effects and geometric imperfections. And finally, material nonlinearity
includes spread of yielding or plasticity associated with the influence of residual stresses. The realistic
modelling of a steel frame requires the use of these attributes if an accurate response is to be obtained.
One way to account for all these effects in semi-rigid frame design is through the use of an advanced
analysis. Advanced Analysis is a method that can sufficiently capture the limit state of strength and
stability of a structural system and its individual members, so that separate checks of the capacity of
members are not required. With technological advances in computational area has been possible to
employ advanced analysis techniques directly in the offices of engineering design.
During the past 20 years, researches efforts have been devoted to the development and validation of
several nonlinear inelastic analysis methods for steel frames with semi-rigid connections, as the studies
presented by [1]-[9]. The behaviour of semi-rigid connections has been progressively incorporated in
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R. da Silva, A. Lavall
structural analyses, resulting in more realistic analysis of the response global of structures, allowing a
design accurate and certainly more economical.
This paper presents the development of a finite element for use in the second-order inelastic analysis
of partially (PR) and fully (FR) restrained planar steel frames. The finite element considers the spread of
plasticity within the cross section and along the member length, several residual stresses distributions,
shear deformation of members, P-G and P-' effects. Nonlinear spring elements are used to include
partially restrained connections. The behaviour of the connections is modelled using multilinearized
moment-rotation curves. The formulation considering Timoshenko theory and self equilibrated residual
stresses is based on updated Lagrangian formulation. The Corotacional technique is used to obtain the
element’s tangent stiffness matrix. A computer program associated with the finite element model is
developed. Numerical examples are presented and the results are compared with those previously
published by others researchers with the objective to validate the finite element model for the Advanced
Inelastic Analysis.
2 BEHAVIOUR OF THE NONLINEAR CONNECTIONS

The knowledge of connections behavior between structural elements is essential for the analysis and
design of a structure. Efforts transmitted through the beam-column connections consist of axial force,
shear force, bending moment and torsion. The effect of axial and shear forces can be negligible when
their deformations are small compared to the rotational deformation of connections. The effect of torsion
is excluded of in-plane study. So in this work, only the effect of bending moment in the rotational
deformation of the connections will be considered.
The moment-rotation relationship, M-Tr, depends on the connection type. The rotational deformation
is expressed as a function of the moment in the connection. The angle Tr corresponds to the relative
rotation between beam and column at the connection.
Most experiments have shown that the curve M-Tr is nonlinear in the whole domain and for all
connections types. May be observed that a flexible connection has a smaller ultimate moment capacity
and a larger rotation, and vice versa for a rigid connection. The behaviour of a simple connection is
represented by Tr-axis with M=0 and the behaviour of a fully-rigid connection is represented by the M-
axis with Tr=0. All semi-rigid connections are represented by curves lying between these two extremes,
allowing some moment to be transferred and some rotation to occur in a connection.
Experimental works on connections have been performed, and a large body of moment-rotation data
has been collected, as researches of [10]-[11]. Using these databases, researchers have developed several
connection models. The main are: linear; bilinear, trilinear, multilinear; polynomial; b-spline; three-
parameter power and exponential models.
The multilinear model is proposed in this work to represent moment-rotation curves of partially
restrained connections. This model is simple and able to describe the M-Tr curve with higher precision
than the bi and trilinear models. The values of the pair bending moment and rotation are inserted directly
as input in the program and the stiffness values for each segment are automatically calculated for a given
connection. Unloading and reloading of the connection are assumed to follow the initial stiffness. A
representation with five linear segments of the moment-rotation curve is shown in figure 1.
Figure 1: Multilinear moment-rotation curve for partially restrained connections
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3 FINITE ELEMENT MODEL

This paper outlines the development of a finite element for use in the second-order inelastic analysis
of partially (PR) and fully (FR) restrained planar steel frames. This finite element is shown in figure 2.
The structural nodes have three degrees of freedom, namely, the displacements u and v along the x and y
axes, respectively, and the rotation T, positive when counter-clockwise. In the reference configuration,
the chord between elements nodes has the length lr. On the chord a local reference coordinate system
(xr,yr) is placed, with the origin at the center. The angle between the axis x and the chord is denoted by
Ir. At current configuration the chord between element nodes has length lc. A corotational coordinate
system (xc,yc) is defined on this chord, with the origin at the center, as indicated in the figure 2. The angle
between the axis x and the chord is now Ic while the angle between the chord and the axis of the bar is
denoted by D.
Figure 2: Finite element deformation
The natural and Cartesian degrees of freedom of the element are defined, respectively, by:
qDT ^q1 lc l r ; q 2 D a ; q3 D b ` ; p ^u a ; va ;T a ; ub ; vb ;T b ` (1)
The relations between natural and Cartesian degrees of freedom are important and listed below:
q1 lc lr
°
® q2 D a T a T c p3 M c M r (2)
°q D T T p6 Mc M r
¯ 3 b b c
Longitudinal and shear deformations are, respectively:

du du dT
Hx yr H x yr D ' (3)
dx dx dx
du dv
J xy T D J (4)
dy dx
The virtual power theorem is used in the development of the finite-element stiffness:
³ V GH dVr ³ W GJ dVr Pi Gpi (5)

Vr Vr
where dVr is the volume element in the reference configuration, ı the normal stress, W the shear stress, įİ
virtual longitudinal deformation and įJ virtual distortion of a fiber.
The virtual longitudinal deformation and virtual distortion are respectively:
GH H ,D qD ,iGpi ; GJ J ,D qD ,iGpi (6)
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Therefore, the equilibrium equation of the element is given by:
§ ·
Pi ¨ ³ V H ,D dVr ³ W J ,D dVr ¸qD ,i QD qD ,i
¨V ¸ (7)
© r Vr ¹
Considering an incremental formulation of equilibrium, differentiation of P at time can be given by:
dP wP dp dp
kt (8)
dt wp dt dt
where, kt is the tangential stiffness matrix of element in Cartesian coordinates. The components kij are
obtained through differentiation of Pi with respect to Cartesian coordinate’s pj:
wPi
kij qD ,i QD ,E qE , j QD qD ,ij (9)
wpi
§ dV dW ·
QD ,E ³Vr ¨¨ H ,D H ,E VH ,DE J ,D J ,E W J ,DE ¸¸ dVr (10)
© dH dJ ¹
The tangent stiffness matrix is given by:
§ § dV dW · · § ·
k ij qD ,i ¨¨ ³ ¨¨ H ,D
d H
H ,E J ,D
d J

J ,E ¸¸dVr ¸¸ q E , j qD ,i ¨¨ ³ V H ,DE W J ,DE dVr ¸¸q E , j QD qD ,ij (11)
© Vr © ¹ ¹ © Vr ¹
The first term of the equation represents the constitutive part, the second and third parts represent the
P-G and P-' effects, respectively.
4 IMPLEMENTATION WITH RESTRAINED CONNECTION

The matrices obtained from the formulation were implemented in the program developed by [12].
The program, written in FORTRAN 90, employs Newton-Raphson method and the displacement control
to obtain the nonlinear equilibrium path and to allow the correct determination of the collapse load.
The program considers P-G and P-' effects, partially restrained connections, shear deformations
through the Timoshenko theory and spread of plasticity. The frame element, made up of layers, enables
to identify the plastic region through the cross section and along the member length and to consider any
kind of residual stresses distribution.
The connection behaviour is characterized by moment-rotation curve. Nonlinear spring elements are
used for an approximation of the actual connection behaviour. The spring elements have three degrees of
freedom, namely, the displacements u and v along the x and y axes, respectively, and the rotation T,
positive when counter-clockwise. Stiffness is given in terms of relative displacements. In this study, the
rotational stiffness KT is obtained by linearized curves of different types of connections available in the
literature. Unloading and reloading can be considered in any segment of the curve.
5 NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
5.1 Portal Frame

This example aims to study the loading and unloading behaviour of the connections of a portal frame,
when it’s subjected to a lateral force after the total vertical loading to be applied in the structure, as
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shown in figure 3. The uniformly distributed load is modelled as a set of equivalent nodal loads. The
frame is analyzed in second-order elastic theory. Beam and columns are made of profiles I. The area and
the moment of inertia of the beam are, respectively, equals to 43 cm2 and 2770 cm4. The area and the
moment of inertia of columns are equals to 33,4 cm2 and 1510 cm4, respectively. The lengths and
numbering of bars are also shown in figure 3. The Young’s modulus is 21000 kN/cm². Beam and
columns were modelled, respectively, with ten and four finite elements and the cross sections were
divided into twenty layers.
1 kN/cm
30 kN
2 3 4 5
400 cm
1 6
600 cm
Figure 3: Portal frame with semi-rigid connections
The top and seat angle with double web angle connections, C23 and C45, are identical at the ends of
the beam. The behaviour and data of the connections are presented by [11], considering the three-
parameter model. At this paper, the behaviour of the semi-rigid connections is represented by multilinear
curves, according figure 1, with data shown in table 1.
Table 1: Parameters connection

Segments (i) 1 2 3 4 5
Mi (kNcm) 2316 4632 6176 6948 7566
Tri (rad) 0,00097 0,00366 0,01046 0,02510 0,15745
Figure 4 shows the graphic of moment versus relative rotation for the windward connection (C23)
and leeward connection (C45), for all loading increments. It is observed that, when the frame is subjected
firstly to uniformly distributed load, the connections presented same behaviour. The bending moment is
equal to 7245 kNcm and the relative rotation is equal to 0,08880 rad, for total vertical loading. When
lateral load is applied, the windward connection (C23) unloads, showing a linear behaviour with slope
equal to the initial stiffness and the leeward connection (C45) continues load, ie, continues to rotate in the
same direction, with slope based on tangent stiffness, as shown in Figure 4. For the structure completely
loaded, the connection C45 presents moment equal to 7437 kNcm and relative rotation equal to
0,12982 rad. The connection C23, due to the unloading caused by the lateral force, presents moment
equal to 2395 kNcm and relative rotation of 0,08676 rad. It can be concluded that, the loading
characteristics are very different from the unloading characteristics of the connections. The connection
behaviour is very much affected by the history and direction of the loads applied sequentially.
8000
7000
6000
Moment (kNcm)
5000
4000 Windward
3000 connection
2000 Leeward
1000 connection
0
0,00 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,10 0,12 0,14
Relative Rotation (rad)
Figure 4: Behaviour of partially restrained connection under loading and unloading
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5.2 Ten-story and two bay frame

Consider the ten-story and two-bay frame with endplate connections shown in figure 5. The frame
has been analyzed and designed previously by [13], for loads and dimensions shown in figure. The nodes
of structural model have the same semi-rigid connection type. The frame is investigated to demonstrate
the effect of semi-rigid connections on structural response up to failure. The second-order inelastic
analysis, by the plastic-zone method is performed. Two cases are analyzed: semi-rigid and fully-rigid
frames.
113,43 kN
56,71 kN
21,00 kN
41,19 kN
39,90 kN
38,61 kN
10 @ 457,2 cm = 4572 cm
37,28 kN
35,76 kN
33,27 kN
32,34 kN
29,40 kN
26,69 kN Beams: W 530x123

Columns: W 530x300
914,4 cm 914,4 cm
Figure 5: Ten-story and two-bay frame with endplate connections

The vertical and lateral loadings were considered incrementally in the numerical analysis until the
failure. The yielding strength and Young’s modulus of the steel are assumed equals to 25 kN/cm2 and
20000 kN/cm2, respectively, in the elastic-perfectly plastic behaviour. The initial geometric imperfections
and the residual stresses are not considered in the analysis. Beams and columns were modelled with four
finite elements in the structural model and the cross sections were divided into twenty layers. Three
endplate connections types are considered, whose parameters can be found in [13]. At this paper, the
connections behaviour is represented by multilinear curves with data shown in table 2, according
figure 1.
Table 2: Parameters connections

C1 Connection C2 Connection C3 Connection
Segments M (kNcm) Tr (rad) M (kNcm) Tr (rad) M (kNcm) Tr (rad)
1 19108 0,00092 24996 0,00085 36635 0,00070
2 57325 0,00703 49991 0,00284 73269 0,00245
3 76433 0,01490 74987 0,00688 109904 0,00613
4 95542 0,03083 99982 0,01496 146538 0,01375
5 107771 0,04979 124978 0,03177 183173 0,03015
The figure 6 shows the load-deflection behaviour of the frame with endplate connections, with
different rigidity and moment capacity, namely C1, C2 and C3 connections, until the failure. In graphics
of this figure, the abscissa axis represents the maximum lateral sway of the top of the frame and the
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ordinate axis denotes the load level. It is observed that, the load originally proposed, according figure 5,
was gradually expanded until the strain of steel reached the limit of 21Hy. Results of the load-deflection
behaviour, obtained by the developed program, are compared with results of [13], obtained by a computer
program able of performing a second-order inelastic analysis of planar steel structures based on the
refined plastic hinge method. It can be noted that the results of the program, developed based on the
plastic-zone method, showed a good correlation with the results obtained by [13]. A difference less than
5% in the ultimate load between the analyses was obtained for all structural models.
Frame with C1 connection Frame with C2 connection Frame with C3 connection
2,5 (2,35) 2,5 (2,44) 2,60 (2,51)
2,0 (2,30) (2,35) (2,40)
2,0 2,08
Load Factor
Load Factor
Load Factor
1,5 1,5 1,56
1,0 1,0 1,04
Zhou Zhou Zhou
0,5 Program 0,5 Program 0,52 Program
0,0 0,0 0,00
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Lateral Deflection (cm) Lateral Deflection (cm) Lateral Deflection (cm)
Figure 6: Load-displacement behaviour at the top of the frame
Figure 7 shows, comparatively, the load-deflection behaviour at the top of frame, obtained by the
program developed, considering conventional rigid connections and the C1, C2 and C3 connections. The
results show that the frame with the C1 connection has larger deflection, resulting in the more flexible
structure between models analyzed. The frame with the C3 connection presents deflection and load factor
values very close to the conventional model with perfectly rigid connections. It can be concluded that the
properties of connections have significant influence on the strength, stiffness, and ductility of the frame.
2,7
2,4
2,1
1,8
Load Factor
1,5
1,2 Frame with C1 connection
0,3 Rigid Frame
0,0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Lateral Deflection (cm)
Figure 7: Load-displacement behaviour at the top of frame obtained by the program developed
It can be noted that, when connections in a frame become stiffer, the response of the semi-rigid frame
get close to the rigid frame. So, endplate connections can be regarded semi-rigid or rigid depending on
their rigidity. A frame with endplate connections can be regarded as a rigid frame if its connections are
rigid enough.
6 CONCLUSION
A computer program for Advanced Inelastic Analysis of partially (PR) and fully (FR) restrained
planar steel frames, considering the geometric, material and connections nonlinearities, is developed. The
finite element considers P-G and P-' effects, shear deformations of members through the Timoshenko
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theory and spread of plasticity. The frame element, made up of layers, enables to identify the plastic
region through the cross section and along member length and to consider any kind of residual stresses
distribution.
The method of advanced analysis showed to be very efficient in the analysis of the behaviour of steel
structures involving semi-rigid connections from the initial stage of loading until the final stage of
collapse. The results indicate that semi-rigid connections in steel structures have fundamental importance,
since greatly affect the behaviour of the structure. The developed method considering the nonlinear
behaviour of the connections through M-Tr multilinear curve showed to be suitable for these analyses.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grateful to FAPEMIG – Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais,
for its support to carry out this research.
REFERENCES
[1] Liew, J.Y.R., White, D.W., Chen, W. F. “Second-Order Refined Plastic Hinge Analysis of Frame
Design: Part I”. Journal of Structural Engineering, 119(11), 3196-3216, 1993.
[2] Chen, W.F. and Toma, S. Advanced Analysis of Steel Frames: Theory, Software, and Applications.
CRC-Press, Boca Raton, 1994.
[3] Kruger, T. S., van Rensburg, B. W. J., du Plessis, G. M. “Non-linear Analysis of Structural Steel
Frames” Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 34, 1995.
[4] Kim, S.E. and Chen, W.F. “Practical advanced analysis for semi-rigid frame design”. Journal
Engineering. Fourth Quarter, 129-141, 1996.
[5] Chen, W.F., Goto, Y., Liew, J.Y.R. Stability Design of Semi-Rigid Frames. John Wiley e Sons,
Inc., New York, 1996.
[6] Foley, C.M. and Vinnakota, S. “Inelastic Behaviour of Multistory Partially Restrained Steel
Frames. Part I”. Journal of Structural Engineering, 125(8), 854-861, 1999.
[7] Foley, C.M. & Vinnakota, S. “Inelastic Behaviour of Multistory Partially Restrained Steel Frames.
Part II”. Journal of Structural Engineering, 125(8), 862-869, 1999.
[8] Gizejowski, M.A., Barszcz, A.M., Branicki, C.J., Uzoegbo, H.C. “Review of analysis methods for
inelastic design of steel semi-continuous frames”. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 62, 81-
92, 2006.
[9] Liu, Y., Xu, L., Grierson, D.E. “Compound-element modeling accounting for semi-rigid
connections and member plasticity”. Engineering Structures, 30, 1292–1307, 2008.
[10] Chen, W.F and Kishi, N. “Semi-Rigid Steel Beam-to-Column Connections: Data Base and
Modeling”. Journal of Structural Engineering, 115(7), 105-119, 1989.
[11] Kishi N., Ahmed, A., Yabuki, N., Chen, W.F. “Nonlinear Finite element Analysis of Top-and Seat-
Angle with Double Web-Angle Connections”. Journal of Structural Engineering and Mechanics,
12(2),201-214, 2001.
[12] Lavall, A.C.C. Uma Formulação Teórica Consistente para a Análise Não-linear de Pórticos Planos
pelo Método dos Elementos Finitos Considerando Barras com Imperfeições Iniciais e Tensões
Residuais nas Seções Transversais. Ph.D.Thesis. School of Civil Engineering, São Carlos, 1996.
[13] Zhou, F. Model-Based Simulation of Steel Frames with Endplate Connections. Ph.D. Thesis,
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Ohio, p. 133, 2005.
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ROBUST DESIGN –ALTERNATE LOAD PATH METHOD AS DESIGN

STRATEGY
Lars Rölle* and Ulrike Kuhlmann*
* Institute for Structural Design, University of Stuttgart, Germany

e-mail: sekretariat@ke.uni-stuttgart.de
Keywords: Robustness, robust design, alternate load paths, ductility, composite joints, catenary action
Abstract. The paper highlights the ductility demand of beam-to-column connections in the frame of
progressive collapse assessment of steel or composite structures considering sudden column loss. For
progressive collapse mitigation different design strategies are available to increase the collapse
resistance of a building. A very effective design strategy in buildings is the provision of alternate load
paths. Besides strengthening the structural system alternate load paths could be also realized by allowing
change of bearing mechanism within the structural elements. Therefore the structural system has to
undergo large deformations resulting in high demands on ductility of members and joints. The ductile
joint configurations, presented within this paper, allow for redistribution of internal forces within the
structural system by enabling large deformations. So they are contributing to the redundancy of steel or
composite frame structures due to their beneficial properties concerning ductility supply, the possibility
to activate plastic reserves as well as energy absorption capacity.
1 INTRODUCTION
Depending on the public or commercial relevance of a building today it is no longer sufficient for
engineers to consider only basic design criteria for planning of structural framework. Engineers are
increasingly required to consider progressive collapse mitigation as additional design criteria. For
building structures the design strategy of alternate load path is therefore quite effective. The alternate load
path method is realized for that matter by activating plastic system reserves and by transition from
flexural loading to membrane tensile action in the members and joints initiating of catenary action.
Therefore the joints have to be designed in detail and all single joint components have to be adjusted in
such a manner that under bending and tensile loading at each time of loading the weakest component has
to be always ductile. This is feasible with only small additional effort by using the inherent plastic
reserves of the material steel.
2 ALTERNATE LOAD PATH METHOD

2.1 General
The definition of robustness as given in EN1991-1-7 [2] refers to limiting local failure to such an
extent that no disproportionate collapse occurs. Such a general statement of robustness is very close to the
definition of the concept of collapse resistance. Collapse resistance has to be provided to ensure the
mitigation of progressive collapse. Robustness as characteristic of the load-bearing structure is thereby of
special importance. A robust structure is at the same time collapse resistant [12].
Increasing the redundancy of the structure by well designed alternate load paths is advantageous if
local failure is accepted and limitation of the collapse of the remaining structure is required. Therefore the
structure has to be designed to be able to redistribute the loads from the damaged part into the undamaged
part by avoiding at the same time a propagation of the collapse disproportional to the initial failure.
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Ulrike Kuhlmann and Lars Rölle
Particularly in cases in which collapsing parts cause impact loading on key elements. Designing for such
high impact loads is, in most cases, not possible. Such conditions are particularly found in structures of
primarily vertical alignment, such as buildings structures.
2.2 Redundancy as robustness measure
In order to be effective as robustness measure alternate load paths have to be designed sufficiently
strong to transfer the actual occurring forces, including e.g. over-strength effects. An alternate load path
may on the one hand be formed within the structural system (global level) by e.g. strengthening of
transfer girders or by bracing a full floor level to suspend the loads above the damaged part like an
outrigger, see Figure 1a. On the other hand redundancy can be achieved by allowing force redistribution
within a structural member (local level). Structural steel and composite buildings with inherent
sufficiently ductile material behavior allow large deformations when local failure occurs. Large
deformations result in large plastic strain rates of material which enables the activation of additional
plastic material reserves. So on local level the material steel has the capability to form plastic hinges
which all activating also plastic system reserves by redistributing. On global level the redundancy of steel
structures for progressive collapse mitigation may form alternate load paths. e.g. by activation of catenary
action in the horizontal members that means by transition from flexural loading to membrane tensile
acting in the members and joints, see Figure 1b. Therefore a highly ductile behavior of all structural
members combined with sufficient strength is necessary. In framed structures the joints are in general the
weakest link and therefore special focus is on the joint design to avoid a premature failure of the
connections during the procedure of force redistribution.
a) b)
Figure 1: Alternate load paths by a) strong transfer girders or b) catenary action
Steel and composite members benefit from the ductile material behavior of structural steel. So steel
has the capability to combine strength, ductility and energy absorption capacity which are basic properties
for designing robust and redundant buildings.
Plastic material reserves of steel depend on the distance between the level of the nominal values and the
actual values as well as on the ratio of fu/fy. In a structural robustness analysis the actual material
properties are of main interest. Information about actual material resistance of steel is e.g. available in the
probabilistic model code of the Joint Committee of Structural Safety [6].
2.4 Ductility demands for members and joints
For common steel profiles in structural engineering depending on the rotation capacity of the cross-
section diverse categories of ductility classes exist. So the capability of the cross-section to undergo
locally a total plastification i.e. to develop a plastic hinge and to assure additionally sufficient rotation
capacity without premature stability failure (class 1 cross-section) is ensured by slenderness limits of
cross-sectional parts. Therefore for plastic analysis of a steel structure including redistribution the
requirements according the various codes are to use only those cross-sections with sufficient moment
bearing capacity as well as rotation capacity. If rigid and full-strength joints are used the plastic hinges
are located in the beams. So the total required deformation and rotation capacity to activate the membrane
effect in the direct affected part of the structure has to be offered by the beam members. But full-strength
joints cause much additional effort and they are costly.
Ductility demands for joints are decisive for partial-strength joints which have less resistance than the
beams but also reduced fabrication costs compared to full-strength joints. Using partial-strength joint
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configurations the plastic hinges are developing initially in the joint which requires high rotation
capacities of the joints. Therefore a detailed joint design is necessary considering the interaction of all
joint components including over-strength effects to ensure that for the whole loading sequence of the joint
the decisive weakest component is always ductile, see also chapter 4.
For bolted connections there is interplay of hardening or over-strength effects and the various
deformation capacities of the single components. By ensuring that especially the components “endplate in
bending” and “column flange in bending” have a certain ductility additional membrane effects on local
level (in the T-Stub) may be activated leading to a further increase of the resistance provided there is
sufficient bearing capacity of the bolts.
3 REDUNDANCY OF DIFFERENT SLAB SYSTEMS

In steel-concrete-composite structures the choice of the slab system not only influences the erection
time and building costs but also the redundancy of the global structure or the structural robustness as
characteristic of the structural system. Depending on the slab design, for exceptional load cases like
column loss either 3D-behavior or only 2D-behavior is available.
Figure 2: Composite frame under the event column loss with a) 2D-effect and b) 3D-effect
For framed composite structures without a continuous slab (floor system as single spans with only
minimum reinforcement) the single slabs are not transversely tied together. For this reason in case of
column loss the membrane action may only be activated in plane of the directly affected frame. So only
the composite main beam system is able to redistribute forces and offer alternate load paths.
The slab in this case is unable to activate additional membrane effects transversally to the frame
plane. So only 2D-behavior may be assumed within a large displacement analysis, see Figure 2a.
Having a continuous RC slab in the composite structure including a uniform amount of reinforcement
the slab is connecting the single frames transversally. Consequently for the event of column loss the slab
is not only contributing to the resistance of the composite beam in the plane of the directly affected frame
but also acting as a tie in transversal direction. The RC slab provides ties in two horizontal directions and
enables therefore 3D-behavior for the case of column loss (see Figure 2b). However, for effective opera-
tion the continuity and anchorage of the ties is obligatory. Activating membrane action in longitudinal
direction within the composite beams and joints and additionally in transversal direction within the RC
slab the redundancy of the composite frame is clearly increased in comparison to 2D systems.
4 STRUCTURAL JOINT DESIGN

4.1 General
For partial-strength joint solutions highly ductile joint behavior is especially important due to the fact
that the plastic hinge is located in the joint and all global deformations have to be realized mainly by joint
rotation/deformation. Therefore the joints are the decisive link in the structure and their resistance and
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deformability define the global redundancy of the structure. In comparison to nominally pinned joints
there are only small extra costs (material + labor) but much more redundancy of the structure, so by only
small additional efforts the effectiveness concerning progressive collapse mitigation is improved [10].
4.2 Design of the steel elements of the joint
For the design of pure steel joints or for the steel elements of composite joints the adjustment of the
single joint components is of high importance in order to design highly ductile joint configurations.
Therefore the parameters mainly influencing the joint behavior have to be treated with special care. Table
1 describes the qualitative degree of influence concerning the rotation capacity as well as the bearing
capacity of the various parameters investigated for the joint components. So small changes of some of
these parameters might positively influence the ductility of the joint in a significant way whereas at the
same time the bearing capacity is only decreasing marginally. The listed parameters are mainly
influencing the components “endplate in bending” and “column flange in bending” which are able to
activate additional local membrane effects under large deformations. So local additional bearing effects
may compensate the decrease of the joint bending capacity when reducing e.g. the endplate thickness or
the steel grade.
Table 1: Qualitative influences of main steel joint parameters
Parameter influence on rotation capacity Influence on bearing capacity
ratio dbolt/tendplate + -
bolt arrangement + -
steel grade endplate + -
ratio tendplate/tcolumn flange o n.n
+ disproportionate high o proportionate - little
4.3 Design of the concrete slab in a composite joint

By adding a reinforced concrete slab and shear connectors to the pure steel joint a composite joint is
obtained. To get also a highly ductile behavior for the composite joints the tension bar in the slab in the
hogging moment region should be designed with high deformation capacity. Thus the reinforcement
within the joint region should be able to undergo high plastic strains. As meshed reinforcement has a
negative influence on the deformation capacity only steel rods should be used. Furthermore the following
parameters are influencing significantly the available extension in the slab:
- class of reinforcement
- reinforcement ratio
- and arrangement of shear connectors
According to EN 1992-1-1 [3], Annex C there are three classes of reinforcement A, B and C in which
class C (seismic steel) is the most ductile one in terms of maximal available strain and high ratio of fu/fy.
For class C the ratio fu/fy is higher than 1.11, which is relevant for high available strains of the reinforced
slab under tension resulting in a high deformation capacity as visible in Figure 3a.
a) b)
Figure 3: a) Influence of ratio fu/fy for the available ultimate strain of a reinforced concrete bar in tension,
b) Influence of stud and reinforcement arrangement in the hogging moment zone of the slab [11].
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The reinforcement ratio is influencing the moment resistance and the deformation/rotation capacity of the
joint. By increasing the amount of reinforcement the deformation capacity is also increased. The reason is
that the reinforcement ratio is significantly influencing the steel stress Vsr1 of the rebar when a first crack
has formed. The ratio of Vsr1/fyk is important for the available plastic strain Hsmu of the reinforced concrete
slab under tension, where fyk is the yield strength of the rebars. For high deformation capacities of the slab
a higher reinforcement ratio is advantageous because a rising ratio causes steel stresses Vsr1 when a first
crack has formed which are well below the yield strength.
Beside the reinforcement ratio and class the arrangement of the shear studs in the hogging moment
region are influencing the deformation capacity of the slab. More precisely the distance of the first shear
stud to the column profile is decisive for the available expansion length of the rebars. By increasing the
distance of the first stud the length for activating plastic strain in the reinforcement is clearly increased
resulting in increase of deformation capacity. It is pointed out that also a discontinuous amount of
reinforcement within the “tension bar” in the joint region should be provided to profit from the modified
stud arrangement, see Figure 3b.
4.4 Over-strength effects
According to the basic design criteria (ULS + SLS) members and joints are designed assuming
nominal material values. This is justified by the present safety concept. However for large displacement
analysis considering only nominal values may lead to results which are non-conservative.
So aside of the plastic behavior of the material and the stability sensitivity of the sections which
dominate the ductility of the members the joint behavior is decisive. Composed of various components
the aim should be that only ductile components control the overall joint behavior. For this not only the
component behavior itself is of importance but the interplay of the various components considering also
possible over-strength effects play an important role.
Figure 4 gives the example of a joint composed of a ductile and a brittle component, e.g. the endplate
in bending acting together with bolts which usually fail in a brittle manner. The design according to the
nominal values of strength leads to a moment rotation curve of the joint also acting ductile, see case a).
However the actual values of strength may exceed the nominal values (over-strength effects) so that no
longer the ductile component dominates the failure load, but the brittle one, see case b). As a consequence
the overall behavior of the joint shows a very limited rotation capacity. Disregarding over-strength effects
the joint may lead to only limited ductility as shown and as consequence no redistribution of forces can
take place that means the structure has only reduced redundancy.
Figure 4: Influence of over-strength effects on the rotation capacity
5 EXPERIMENTAL AND NUMERICAL INVESTIGATIONS ON JOINTS

5.1 General
The European RFCS research project Robustness [8] recently finished has carried out extensive
experimental and theoretical investigations on the behavior of steel-composite joints under biaxial
loading, especially concerning the joint ductility to create robust structures which are able for load
redistribution under exceptional loading and are insensitive to progressive collapse. It has demonstrated
that the former concept to strengthen the joints in order to achieve that the plastic hinges appear in the
beams is not a necessary condition for activation of catenary action in a frame structure for the design
strategy of alternate load path method, but that it is also possible to place the plastic hinges into the joints
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by designing partial-strength joints with sufficient ductility. Within a national research project [9]
parameters influencing the ductility of bolted beam-to-column connections were investigated.
Furthermore the influence of over-strength effects on the resistance and rotation capacity of the joint was
analyzed. In a current diploma thesis [7] a composite structure is analyzed for the event column loss.
5.2 Experimental investigations
Within the two mentioned research projects the joint deformability and ductility as well as the
combined bending and tensile resistance have been investigated.
The performed steel joint tests mainly aimed at the investigations of increasing the joint ductility by
varying different parameters. The main parameters influencing the deformability in the tension zone of
the joint are the ratio of the endplate thickness and the bolt diameter (under consideration of the individu-
al material strength) and the arrangement of the bolts depending on the distance to the web, see Table 1.
By decreasing the ratio of the bolt diameter and the endplate thickness the rotation capacity is in-
creased. By modifying the bolt arrangement particular by increasing the distance of the bolts to the beam
web and beam flange the rotation capacity is also increased. A test series in [9] examined the influence of
the steel strength and the simultaneous activation of the components endplate and column flange in
bending. The resulting moment-rotation curves are given in Figure 5a. By reducing the steel grade of the
endplate and the column flange the rotation capacity is also increased accompanied by only small
decrease of the resistance as, see e.g. test curves Z6 and Z3 in Figure 5a.
a) b)
Figure 5: a) Influence of the steel grade to the rotation capacity and b) measured M-N-interaction of the
composite joint tests
The objective of the composite joint tests was the determination of the simultaneous moment-tensile-
resistance within the joint. The tests simulated the loading procedure from pure bending state to a mixed
bending and tensile state up to a pure tensile state at the end. The tests were successfully following the
whole theoretical M-N-curve (as shown in Figure 5b). The failure of the joints always occurred under
mainly pure tensile exposure. From the results of the composite joint tests under combined bending and
tension exposure it can be concluded that having a highly ductile joint behavior due to well-advised
adjustment of the single components the transition from pure bending state up to a membrane state in the
joint is feasible. The design of the joint specimens considered already over-strength effects and the bolts
were intentionally oversized to exclude premature brittle failure of the connection. The results of the
joints tests have been also con-firmed by a substructure tests executed by the project partner ULg (Liége,
Belgium). Within this substructure test the activation of catenary action, after the event column loss
happened, was possible due to the highly ductile performance of the joints [8]. Failure was mainly
induced by the concrete slab: for the hogging moment joints by increased cracks and final rupture of the
reinforcement, for the sagging moment joints by crushing of the concrete. In addition a remarkable
residual resistance and ductility remained when the concrete slab had already failed.
5.3 Numerical investigations
The numerical simulations were executed by the Finite Element software ANSYS [1]. First
recalculations were made to verify the FE-Model at the tests results and afterwards parametrical studies
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followed to extend the range of parameters as well as investigate the actual influence of material over-
strength effects on the joint behavior. The influence of the material properties on the joint behavior
(ductility and bearing capacity) depending on stochastic distribution of the material strength was
investigated in a first step by considering various combinations of characteristic, see Figure 6a-c [9].
Numerical simulations were used due to the fact that the local membrane effect in the T-stub of the
components “endplate in bending” or “column flange in bending” is not yet implemented in the analytical
approach of the component method acc. to EN 1993-1-8 [1][4].
a) b) c)
Figure 6: Deformed shape of steel joint considering a) nominal material values and b) over-strength
effects and c) Moment–rotation curves for varied material strengths
In terms of resistance the over-strength effects usually cause an additional material reserve which can
be activated in the case of progressive collapse analyses. But considering connections where different
types of steel grade are assembled the over-strength effects may result in unintentional negative effects.
Particular limited ductility is the main phenomena as the distribution of the available joint rotation
depending on the statistical spread of the material properties in the diagram of Figure 6 shows.
Figure 7: Simulation of column loss in a composite frame
Within a current diploma thesis numerical simulations on global level at steel and composite
structures have been performed to analyze the collapse resistance of the structure as well as requirements
for the implemented partial-strength joint configurations. Another aspect is also to determine the
additional positive contribution of the continuous RC slab in two horizontal directions, see Figure 7. [7]
First results showed that such a composite beam-column structure is able to resist the event of a
column loss under the accidental load combination for about 70-80% utilization of ULS loading. The
identified requirements for the partial-strength joints concerning ductility and M-N-resistance are also
feasible and within the range of the available rotation capacity and strength determined by the
experimental investigation.
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6 CONCLUSIONS AND ACKNOWLEDGMENT

As terrorist attacks become more and more frequent the demand of building safety has been raised.
Under such exceptional loading situations, the ability of a structure to survive largely depends on the
performance of key structural elements and their connections, preventing progressive collapse. But until
now, aside of some theoretical concepts there are only very few and/or insufficient recommendations in
the codes. Whereas heavy reinforced concrete buildings are generally regarded as safe, light steel framed
structures have to provide evidence of a sufficient robustness against impact or blast in order to be
accepted.
However, former and ongoing research projects have shown that intelligent robust design concepts
such as the alternate load path method achieved by ductile joints solutions lead to advantages of steel and
composite structures. In comparison to RC structures, steel and composite structures combine the
characteristics high strength, ductility, great plastic reserves, high residual strength and energy
dissipation. Furthermore the own research activity showed that obviously intelligent and highly ductile
joint design is increasing the robustness of the structure. So by only small additional effort in joint de-sign
additional resistance for exceptional loadings such as column loss may be activated.
Part of the work presented here is carried out, as a joint research project by different European
partners, with a financial grant from the Research Fund for Coal and Steel (RFCS) of the European
Community. The authors like to thank their partners for co-operation and gratefully acknowledge the
financial support, also from the German funding of AiF.
REFERENCES
[1] ANSYS User’s manual. ANSYS Mechanical Solutions Release 11.0. 2007.
[2] EN 1991-1-1: Eurocode 1 – Actions on structures – Part 1-7: General Actions - Accidental actions
due to impact and explosions, CEN, 2002
[3] EN 1992-1-1 Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures - Part 1-1: General rules and rules for
buildings. CEN, 2005
[4] EN 1993-1-8: Eurocode 3. Design of Steel Structures – Part 1-8: Design of Joints, CEN, 2005
[5] GSA 2003: US General Services Administration: Progressive Collapse Analysis and Design
Guidelines for New Federal Office Buildings and Major Modernization Projects, GSA. 2003
[6] JCSS: Probabilistic Model Code: Part III Resistance Models – Steel. Joint Committee on Structural
Safety, 2001.
[7] Kleiner, A. Untersuchung der Robustheit und Kollapsresistenz von Stahl- und
Verbundrahmentragwerken – Numerische Simulation eines Stützenausfalls. Universität Stuttgart,
Mitteilung des Instituts für Konstruktion und Entwurf Nr. 2009-43X, 2009
[8] Kuhlmann, U. et al. (2008): Robust structures by joint ductility. Publishable Report. Contract-No.
RFS-CR-04046, 2008.
[9] Kuhlmann, U., Rölle, L. (2008): Duktilitätskriterien für typisierte Stirnplattenverbindungen,
Schlussbericht. DASt-Forschungsvorhaben im Auftrag der AiF. AiF-Vorhaben Nr. 14627,
Dezember 2008.
[10] Rölle, L.; Kuhlmann, U. (2009): Alternate load path method for robust design by ductile steel and
composite joints. Proceedings of IABSE Symposium Bangkok. September 2009
[11] Schäfer, M. (2005): Zum Rotationsnachweis teiltragfähiger Verbundknoten in verschieblichen
Verbundrahmen. Dissertation. Universität Stuttgart, Mitteilung des Instituts für Konstruktion und
Entwurf Nr. 2005-1, 2005.
[12] Starossek, U., Wolff, M.: Progressive Collapse - Design Strategies. Proceedings of the IABSE
Symposium Lisbon, 2005.
688
USE OF EIGENVALUE ANALYSIS FOR DIFFERENT LEVELS OF

STABILITY DESIGN
József Szalai*
* ConSteel Solutions Ltd., Hungary

e-mail: szalaija@gmail.com
Keywords: stability design, eigenvalue analysis, buckling, slenderness.
Abstract. Stability analysis and design has always played a key role in the process of verification of steel
structures. The possible analysis methods and design procedures have long history with a plentiful
literature providing various proposals for the engineers. This paper concentrates on the use of different
types of eigenvalue analysis as a simple and powerful tool for stability design. Nowadays almost all the
engineering software products have some kind of eigenvalue analysis options so these tools are easily
available for the practicing engineers providing them a deeper look on the structural behavior. Various
types of application possibilities are reviewed and new methods are proposed supporting the most up-to-
date standard procedures of different levels from the isolated member design to the partial or global
structural stability design. The suitable theoretical (both mathematical and mechanical) background is
developed and the numerical procedure is implemented. The technique is applicable for a wide range of
structural types and stability problems making the automatic effective length calculation possible in
general without the use of any iterative process or tabulated values for certain cases. An application
example is presented showing the comprehensiveness of the methods, and special efficiency indicators
are presented in order to supply information about the adequacy of the applied design method.
1 INTRODUCTION
There are two available methods for stability design of steel structures provided by the EN 1993-1-1
[1]:
isolated member approach: Sections 6.3.1, 6.3.2, 6.3.3
general method: Section 6.3.4
The first one is valid for uniform members only and based on structural member isolation and
buckling mode separation. The main difficulties of this method arise from these two simplifications, the
member isolation is usually handled by applying suitable effective length factors – considering the
appropriate support and restraint conditions – while the mode separation is solved by special interaction
factors creating the connection between the pure loading and buckling cases. There are a great number of
papers on both topics including some theoretical investigations about the mechanical basics [2, 3] and
several proposals for the practical application [4, 5]. The EN 1993-1-1 regularizes only the calculation of
interaction factors the problems coming up from the member isolation are not dealt with in the standard.
In the general method these two simplifications are eliminated by examining a complete structural part
and calculating only one slenderness belonging to the real, compound loading and buckling situation.
Although in the recent version of EN 1993-1-1 there are several restrictions on the application field of
this method however on the other hand there are heavy research and development efforts on extending its
applicability [6, 7] and this method is expected to cover much larger area of practical problems then the
isolated member based conventional procedures. It is also important to note that in case of the general
method the calculation of the generalized structural slenderness requires more complicated analysis which
can usually provided only by application of some software package. It seems evident is that in both
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methods the key question is the determination of the slenderness values and especially the calculation of
the appropriate elastic critical values (critical forces or critical load levels). This aspect is very poorly
treated in the structural standards and accordingly the practicing engineer is fully responsible for it.
Moreover the calculated elastic critical values are usually very important and have a significant influence
on the final result of stability design.
In this paper the possibilities of eigenvalue analysis for the calculation of elastic critical values are
examined from the point of view of standard stability design according to the recent version of EN 1993-
1-1. Different application methods are introduced adapted to the different design approaches, and special
indicator factors are developed highlighting the relevance of the used type of eigenvalue analysis. An
application example is presented to show the practical working of the different methods.
2 METHODS OF EIGENVALUE ANALYSIS

For a usual steel structure composed of beam-column elements the general loss of elastic stability can
be quite accurately described by bifurcation analysis. In a standard finite element environment this
problem can be formulated as a linear eigenvalue analysis with the following basic form:
K E DKG U 0 (1)
where KE is the elastic stiffness matrix, KG is the second order geometric stiffness matrix, D is the
eigenvalue and U is the corresponding eigenvector. In the mechanical interpretation the eigenvalue
denotes the elastic critical load level and the eigenvector shows the eigenshape (eigenmode) or buckling
shape (buckling mode). It is important to note that the mechanical meaning and accuracy of the calculated
eigenmodes and eigenvalues highly depend on the definition of stiffness matrices. In this paper special
decomposition techniques are applied for the compiled geometric stiffness matrix – while the elastic
stiffness matrix is always formed on the complete structural model – to suitably calculate the elastic
critical load levels necessary for the certain design approaches. Upon these techniques the following
eigenvalue analysis are proposed:
Complete Eigenvalue Analysis (CEA) – the geometric stiffness matrix is compiled on the whole
structural model
Partial Eigenvalue Analysis (PEA) – the geometric stiffness matrix is compiled only on a
separated part of the structural model
Selected Eigenmode Analysis (SEA) – the geometric stiffness matrix is compiled only on
selected displacement degree-of-freedoms
The CEA is the mostly known and commonly used analysis technique, the resulted critical load levels
and corresponding buckling modes apply to the whole global structural model – even it is apparently
restricted to a part of it – and consider the compound loading case. In the further text we write the CEA in
the following form:
K E D cr
C

K GC U cr
C
0 (2)
The CEA method is applicable for the critical load level calculation for the general stability design
method.
If a part of the complete model is examined and intended to design for stability the PEA can be used.
In this method the structural model is divided into two parts: (P1) a relevant part and (P2) a remaining
part. Accordingly the complete geometric stiffness matrix can be decomposed:
K GC K GP1 K GP 2 (3)
One can obtain an eigenvalue solution for the relevant part by solving the following equation:
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K E
D crP1 K GP1 U crP1 0 (4)
In a mechanical interpretation this calculation yields special buckling shapes which are induced by the
internal forces acting only in the members which are part of the relevant substructure while the initial
stiffness of the whole structure is considered (as a restraint condition for the examined substructure). In
that sense this solution is similar to the ones applying fictitious springs at the joining parts of the relevant
substructure modeling the restraints from the remainder of the whole structure. The PEA method also
provides global type solution for the real, combined buckling situation so it is also applicable for the
general stability design.
The third proposed method (SEA) is directly developed for the isolated member approach since it is
able to calculate the separated buckling modes. In this case the geometric stiffness matrix is compiled in
such a way that the rows and columns associated with the displacement degree-of-freedom necessary for
the relevant buckling mode are considered and the rest of the matrix is neglected. For example if the
subject of the analysis is the lateral buckling about the minor axis (axis ‘z’ according to EN 1993-1-1)
then those terms are kept only in the geometric stiffness which contain the second order compression
effect for the selected displacements (uy and Iz). Further if this buckling mode is required only on an
isolated member then this reduced compilation is done only on this element. Consequently the second
order effects of the system are concentrated so as to be able to experience only the relevant buckling
mode. Considering however the complete first order elastic stiffness matrix of the whole structure the
appropriate restraints (and accordingly the necessary effective lengths) of the isolated member can be
calculated quite accurately. The SEA method for the selected i-th buckling mode (for instance Ncr,z) is
written as follows:
K E
D crNcr,z K GNcr,z U crNcr,z 0 (5)
3 DEVELOPMENT OF EIGENMODE RELEVANCE INDICATOR (ERI)

After introducing the proposed possibilities for the determination of elastic critical load levels by
applying certain eigenvalue analysis methods the next important issue is the selection of the most
appropriate method for the current structural problem examined. It is very important to detect the most
relevant buckling modes of the structure and the associated most proper design method. The introduced
eigenvalue analysis methods can yield various results and solution possibilities but it is the decision of
the engineer which method and buckling mode is the most relevant for the problem. In order to help this
decision special indicator factors are developed showing the relevance of the calculated buckling modes
(eigenmode relevance indicator – ERI). The ERIs are formulated on energy base, this approach was
introduced to the interpretation of stability calculations in [8], however, for different purposes; in this
paper the ERIs are developed so as to supply appropriate information about the described issues. The
basic formula of all the possible ERIs is the internal (and the corresponding external) energy induced by
the i-th eigenmode; this can be written using Eq. (2):
1 T 1
Ei U cr ,i K E U cr ,i D cr ,i U cr
T
,i K G U cr ,i (6)
2 2
The next sections present the ERIs in case of the different eigenvalue analysis methods based on Eq. (6).
3.1 CEA
When analyzing the complete structure for stability the following questions may arise regarding the
obtained eigenmodes:
(1) for a certain eigenmode what are the relevant members (relevant model portion)?
(2) for certain members (certain model portion) which is the most relevant eigenmode?
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József Szalai
For the problem (1) let the energy be calculated for members or model portions (k denotes the relevant
member or model portion):
1 C k C
Eik U cr ,i K E U cr ,i (7)
2
In this case the elastic stiffness of the relevant model part is considered only. Obviously the sum of all the
energy values of model parts gives the total energy of the complete model, i.e. (having m number of
model parts):
m
Ei ¦ Eik (8)
k 1
Accordingly an ERI can be constructed so as to show the relevance of the separated model portions
considering the i-th eigenmode as a percentage:
C k C
Eik U cr ,i K E U cr ,i
ERI1ik 100 100 C C
(9)
Ei U cr ,i K E U cr ,i
Problem (2) is more complicated but also more significant, since in the case of a complex structural
model it is usual, that different eigenmodes describe the buckling behavior of distinct parts of the model.
For that reason a scaling procedure is necessary in order to select the appropriate eigenmode for the
stability design. To develop a proper scaling factor let us examine the basis of the stability design
approach of the EN 1993-1-1 which is the buckling curve based reduction factor. The mechanical model
for the buckling reduction factors is the Ayrton-Perry formula. In this model the failure is associated with
the load level at which the second order maximum elastic stress of the geometrically imperfect member
reaches the yield stress. Consequently the reduction factor depends mainly on the amplified imperfection
which has usually a shape equal to an appropriate eigenmode or a combination of them. The scaling
factor should therefore consider this effect to show the importance of the eigenmodes in accordance with
the mechanics of the buckling reduction factors. Firstly the basic amplitudes for the eigenmodes are
determined by normalizing using the elastic stiffness matrix:
1 N U crN , j K GC U crN , j D cr
C
1
,i
Ei U cr ,i K E U crN ,i (10)
2 U crN ,i K GC U crN ,i D cr
C
,j
As a result the greater the critical factor the less the amplitude of the eigenmode is, this is realistic when
considering the eigenmodes as geometric imperfection. It is known [6] that the geometrical imperfections
having the shape of an eigenmode cause the following additional amplified second order displacements:
1
U add U imp (11)
D cr 1
If the normalized eigenmodes of Eq. (10) are considered as imperfections in Eq. (11) then a further
scaling factor can be created by calculating the energy of this amplified imperfection in the k-th model
portion:
T
1 §¨ 1 · § 1 ·
E ik U crN ,i ¸ K Ek ¨ U crN ,i ¸ (12)
¨
2 © D cr ,i 1 ¸ ¨ ¸
¹ © D cr ,i 1 ¹
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József Szalai
Finally if it is considered that enough number (m) of eigenmodes is calculated (i.e. the last eigenvalue –
what is the highest elastic critical load level – is sufficiently high) then the following ERI can be
constructed showing the relative significance of the i-th eigenmode for the k-th model portion:
2
§ 1 · N k N
¨ ¸ U K U
Eik ¨ D 1 ¸ cr ,i E cr ,i
ERI2ik 100 100 © cr ,i ¹ (13)
m 2
m § · N k N
¦ Eik ¦ ¨ D 1 ¸ U cr,i K E U cr,i
¨ 1 ¸
i 1 © cr ,i ¹
i 1
3.2 PEA and SEA

In this case the determination of the relevant model portion is not examined since the preliminary
selection of model part (or isolated member) aims at concentrating the buckling mode to this part. What is
important however that how accurate the calculated partial buckling mode is compared to the possible
complete modes. Let us write the eigenvalue equation for the complete structure (Eq. (2)) using the
partial eigenmode and eigenvalue yielded by the solution of Eq. (4):
K E D cr
P1 C
P1
,i K G U cr ,i K E
D crP1,i K GP1 U cr
P1
,i D cr ,i K G U cr ,i
P1 P 2 P1
D cr
P1 P 2 P1
,i K G U cr ,i (14)
Eq. (14) expresses an error force vector generated by the partial buckling mode on the remaining model
portion (P2). Obviously if this term is significant then the partial buckling mode is possibly irrelevant
which shows that the current model portion has no distinct buckling problem. On the other hand if this
force approaches zero then the buckling mode is dominant and accurate for the selected model portion.
To develop a straightforward indicator we use again an energy format for Eq. (14):
§ U P1 K P 2 U P1 · U crP1,i K GP1U crP1,i

ERI3iP1 100¨ 1 crP,1i GC Pcr1,i ¸ 100 (15)
¨ U cr ,i K G U cr ,i ¸ U crP1,i K GC U crP1,i
© ¹
4 APPLICATION EXAMPLE
In the following example the CEA method is used and the ERI1 and ERI2 factors are examined.
B1
C2
C1
Figure 1: Model of the example (made in ConSteel [10]).
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József Szalai
In Fig. 1 the structural model is illustrated, which consists of two columns (C1 and C2) of HEA200
and a beam (B1) of HEA220 loaded by a 30 kN/m line load. According to the support condition four
cases are evaluated (the beam is always simply supported) summarized by Table 1.
Table 1: Evaluated support conditions.

C1 C2
Case1 Pinned Pinned
Case2 Fixed Pinned
Case3 Pinned Fixed
Case4 Fixed Fixed
All the eigenvalue analysis are calculated by ConSteel software [9], [10] using a 7 degree-of-freedom
finite element model. Figs. 2-5 show the calculated eigenmodes and elastic critical factors for Case1-
Case4 – all buckling modes form some kind of out-of plane buckling –, and Tables 2-5 contain the ERI1
and ERI2 factors evaluated for the beam and the two columns (for ERI1 the columns and for ERI2 the
rows give the 100% value).
Dcr1 = 3,43 Dcr2 = 8,03 Dcr3 = 13,39 Dcr4 = 26,27
Figure 2: Case1 – first four eigenmode and eigenvalue.
Table 2: Case1 – ERI1 and ERI2 factors

ERI1 ERI2
Dcr1 Dcr2 Dcr3 Dcr4 Dcr1 Dcr2 Dcr3 Dcr4
B1 99,6 2,4 95,4 7,6 96,1 0,3 3,5 0,1
C1 0,1 97,5 4,4 12,9 0,5 97,1 1,4 1,0
C2 0,3 0,1 0,2 79,5 26,9 0,4 0,6 72,1
Dcr1 = 4,18 Dcr2 = 13,29 Dcr3 = 17,1 Dcr4 = 26,34

ERI1 ERI2
B1 73,1 91,7 10,1 5,2 91,7 7,7 0,5 0,1
C1 26,7 8,2 89,6 0,2 86,8 1,8 11,4 0,0
C2 0,2 0,1 0,3 94,6 13,9 0,4 0,5 85,2
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József Szalai
Dcr1 = 6,51 Dcr2 = 8,04 Dcr3 = 13,60 Dcr4 = 26,93

ERI1 ERI2
B1 54,1 2,4 91,5 9,4 73,6 2,0 23,8 0,6
C1 0,0 97,5 4,5 90,4 0,1 92,3 1,3 6,3
C2 45,9 0,1 4,0 0,2 98,3 0,0 1,6 0,1
Dcr1 = 6,82 Dcr2 = 13,63 Dcr3 = 17,28 Dcr4 = 34,04

ERI1 ERI2
B1 43,3 89,0 8,1 76,0 66,0 28,8 1,6 3,6
C1 20,0 5,4 89,9 19,8 60,1 3,4 34,6 1,9
C2 36,7 5,6 1,9 4,2 95,9 3,1 0,7 0,3
It can be seen that the first and dominant buckling mode is always the lateral-torsional buckling of the
B1 beam coupled with some form of flexural buckling of the columns. The corresponding critical load
factors increases from Case1 to Case4 denoting the significance of the applied additional restraints for the
supports of the columns however from the ERI factors it becomes clear that the contribution of the
columns to the certain buckling modes is significantly different. From the ERI1 values it can be
concluded that in the first buckling mode the B1 beam is always dominant and for the other modes the
dominant member is also highlighted in the tables. Looking at however the ERI2 values the followings
can be determined for a certain member:
which is the most relevant buckling mode;
which is the appropriate critical load factor for the calculation of member slenderness in the
stability design.
In Case1 the ERI2 values show the strong dominance of the member B1 in the first mode, C1 in the
second mode and C2 in the fourth mode. This is a consequence of the pure shape of the buckling modes,
since the columns have pinned supports. In Case2 the fix support of the column C1 has a considerable
restraining effect on the beam increasing the first critical load factor accordingly in this case the first
mode is more dominant for the column C1 than the third one which show an isolated buckling mode for
this member. The column C2 is not really effected by the additional restraint, so the dominant mode
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József Szalai
remains the fourth one with almost the same critical load factor value. In Case3 the situation is quite the
same, the column C1 has the dominant isolated buckling mode with same critical load factor as in Case1,
and for column C2 the first mode is the most relevant. In Case4 from the ERI1 factors it is clear that the
complete model contributes to the first buckling mode and the ERI2 values are explicitly show that this
mode is the most relevant for all the members. Naturally the meaning of the ERI2 values can be refined
by increasing the number of calculated eigenmodes which is usually necessary in case of larger structural
models. This simple and straightforward example is intended to show the mechanical meaning of the
different indicator factors.
5 CONCLUSIONS
One of the most important issues in stability design which is out of the field of standard regulations is
the calculation of elastic critical forces or load levels for the determination of slenderness values. In this
paper several methods are presented for this problem using the eigenvalue analysis based approaches. For
different structural arrangements different types of buckling modes can be dominant and moreover the
modern structural standards provide several different possibilities for the stability design. To yield
appropriate slenderness for the different problems and design methods three approaches are proposed: the
complete eigenvalue analysis, the partial eigenvalue analysis and the selected eigenmode analysis. Further
supporting the selection of the relevant approach and eigenmode special indicator factors are developed.
In an application example the practical working with the proposed eigenvalue analysis approaches and
indicator factors are presented.
REFERENCES
[1] European Standard, EuroCode 3. Design of Steel Structures – Part1-1: General rules and rules for
buildings, EN 1993-1-1, 2005.
[2] Boissonade, N., Jaspart, J.P., Muzeau, J.P., Villette, M., “Improvement of the interaction formulae
for beam columns in Eurocode 3”. Computers and Structures, 80, 2375-2385, 2002.
[3] Greiner, R., Lindner, J. “Interaction formulae for members subjected to bending and axial
compression in EUROCODE 3—the Method 2 approach”, Journal of Constructional Steel
Research, 62, 757-770, 2006.
[4] Serna, M.A., López, A., Puente, I., Yong, D.J. “Equvivalent uniform moment factors for lateral-
torsional buckling of steel members”, Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 62, 566-580, 2006.
[5] Dong-Ho C., Hoon Y., “Iterative system buckling analysis, considering a fictitious axial force to
determine effective length factors for multi-story frames”. Engineering Structures, 30, 560-570,
2009.
[6] Szalai, J., Papp, F. “On the theoretical background of the generalization of Ayrton-Perry type
resistance formulas”. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 66(5), 670-679, 2010.
[7] Sedlacek, G., Müller, C. “Zur Vereinheitlichung der Stabilitatsregeln im Eurocode 3“. Stahlbau,
73, 733-744, 2004.
[8] Perelmuter, A.V., Slivker, V.I. “The problem of interpretations of the stability analysis results”,
European Conference of Computational Mechanics, Cracow, Poland, 26-29 June, 2001.
[9] Papp, F., Iványi, M. “ConSteel as the prototype of a CAD/CAM oriented program for concurrent
design of beam-column structrures”. Proc. 5th International Conference on Computational Steel
Structures Technology, Leuven, Belgium, 2000.
[10] Website: www.consteel.hu
696
THE NON-DESTRUCTIVE MEASUREMENT OF RESIDUAL STRESSES IN

STAINLESS STEEL ROLL FORMED SECTIONS
Rachel B. Cruise* and Anna M. Paradowska**
* The School of Architecture, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 1FL.

e-mail: R.Cruise@sheffield.ac.uk
** ISIS Facility, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Science and Technology Facility Council, Didcot, UK,
OX11 0QX.
e-mail: anna.paradowska@stfc.ac.uk
Keywords: Stainless steel structures, Residual stress, Roll forming, Neutron diffraction.
Abstract. During the manufacture of roll formed structural members the production and storage of sheet
materials, as well as their subsequent forming causes plastic deformation in varying degrees around the
resulting cross section. Plastic deformation causes both an increase in material strength in the section
material through cold working and it also affects the residual or internal stress distribution present
throughout the resulting structural section. Both the material strength and the residual stress distribution
influence the structural behavior of the cross section, therefore it is important to map both these
properties in order to achieve efficient structural design. Destructive techniques have commonly been
used to map residual stresses in structural sections. To achieve a high resolution of measurements these
techniques are extremely labor intensive and sensitive to the measurement technique and it is almost
impossible to measure the strain relaxation that occurs in three orthogonal components by this process.
Non-destructive residual stress measurements are relatively infrequently used for structural engineering
applications. The presented experimental program demonstrates the applicability of the non-destructive
technique of neutron diffraction for mapping residual stresses in structural members at four locations
through the thickness of a roll formed stainless steel section. The measurements were made using the
ENGIN-X instrument at the UK’s pulsed neutron source: ISIS in Oxford.
1 INTRODUCTION
Cold formed structural sections are a comparatively novel type of structural section that started to be
more widely used for construction in the 1940s. They now comprise 15% and 13% of all new structures
in the housing market in the USA and Australia respectively [1] and expansion in the UK markets is
being actively encouraged for both environmental and economic reasons [2]. Since cold formed sections
are produced by plastically deforming metal sheets at room temperature the thickness of the sections can
be less than the minimum thickness required to retain the high temperatures essential to manufacture the
more conventional hot rolled sections. Hence cold formed sections which are used to carry light loads and
span short distances can be lighter and structurally more efficient than the hot rolled alternatives.
Roll formed sections are the most prevalent type of cold formed section. During the manufacture of
roll formed sections plastic deformation can occur at several stages and plastic deformation will have
been experienced to varying degrees around the resulting cross section. Through a process termed cold
working the regions of the section that have experienced plastic deformation exhibit an increase in
material strength and a decrease in ductility [3]-[4]. The resulting distribution of material strength around
roll formed sections has been mapped and used in structural design codes of both carbon steel and
stainless steel roll formed sections to increase the material efficiency [5]-[6]. However the plastic
deformation which causes the increase in material strength also influences the distribution of residual or
697
internal stresses. Residual stresses are stresses that exist within a structural member in its unloaded state
and their magnitude and distribution can affect the structural behaviour of structural cross sections.
Since hot rolled sections have been used in the construction industry for a much longer period of time
than roll formed sections there is a deeper understanding of their structural behaviour. Furthermore the
techniques for measuring factors that can influence structural behaviour, such as residual stresses, have
been developed to capture the significant aspects of the magnitudes and distributions observed in hot
rolled sections. However, these techniques have been shown to give an incomplete picture of the
magnitude and distribution of residual stresses in roll formed sections [7]-[9]. This paper will therefore
present data from a pilot study that used a non-destructive technique, namely neutron diffraction, to
measure residual stress distributions in a roll formed stainless steel box section to demonstrate the
potential of adopting this technique.
2 STAINLESS STEEL STRUCTURES

Whilst carbon steel is the most commonly used structural metal in the construction industry one
disadvantage of carbon steel is its potential to corrode. It has been only in relatively recent times that the
use of a non corrosive alternative such as stainless steel as a structural material has been explored. This is
principally because stainless steel as a material is more expensive than carbon steel. Despite its initial
expense stainless steel has been adopted for applications in exposed conditions such as bridges and
offshore structures because the cost saving associated with its ease of maintenance can outweigh the high
initial cost [10]. Due to the expense of stainless steel and the efficiency of the roll forming process most
structural sections currently available are roll formed sections.
There are three different microstructures of stainless steel: austenitic, ferritic and martensitic. The
most commonly used grade of stainless steel for structural applications is 1.4301 which has an austenitic
microstructure. Cold working of austenitic stainless steel causes a significantly larger increase in material
strength than in carbon steel. This offers a relatively larger increase in design efficiency which has clear
benefits to realizing stainless steel as a competitive structural material. However the co-existing residual
stresses can, depending on their magnitude and distribution and on the loading condition of the roll
formed section, have a negative effect on structural behavior by causing a loss of stiffness and early
yielding.
3 ROLL FORMING
Roll forming is a highly automated and therefore efficient production process. There are two types of
sheet material that are commonly used as the starting material for roll forming: hot and cold rolled sheet
material. Stainless steel can be rolled whilst hot to produce hot rolled sheet of a minimum thickness of
approximately 3mm (see stage 1 in figure 1). If thinner sheet material is required, since the sheet will be
too thin to retain the heat needed to allow for hot rolling to occur, the stainless steel is passed through
rollers whilst it is at room temperature, therefore plastically deforming the sheet to reduce its thickness.
This process produces cold rolled sheet material.
For reasons of efficient storage and to enable the sheet material to be used as the starting material of
this completely automated section forming route both hot and cold rolled sheet material are wound into
coils as shown in stage 2 of figure 1. To manufacture roll formed sections the coil material is unwound
(see stage 3 in figure 1) and then fed into shaping rollers which plastically deform the sheet material into
the required cross sectional shape. To roll form a box section the sheet is rolled into a circular cross
section, welded closed and then this tube is crushed into a rectangular cross section as shown in stages 4-
6 in figure 1.
Roll formed structural sections can therefore experience plastic deformation at three stages in their
manufacture. Firstly plastic deformation can be experienced in cold rolled sheet production, secondly
during the coiling and uncoiling of the sheet material and finally during the forming of the cross section.
698
1: Sheet 2: Sheet 3: Sheet 4: Forming a 5: Seam 6: Crushing into

production coiling uncoiling circular tube welding a box section
Figure 1: Manufacture of a roll formed box section.
4 COLD WORKING
In general cold working, or the increase of material strength through plastic deformation, can be
explained by considering the effect of plastic deformation on the ordered arrangement of atoms in a
metallic lattice. Plastic deformation can be described on the atomic scale as the movement of planes of
atoms with respect to one another in the metallic lattice. In carbon steel and stainless steel this causes an
increase in dislocations in the metallic lattice. The creation of more dislocations in the metallic lattice
increases the number of obstacles to planes of atoms moving. Therefore the cold worked material is
observed on the macro scale to increase its resistance to further plastic deformation and so exhibit an
increase in material strength [11].
For stainless steel with an austenitic microstructure an increase in dislocations is not the only
mechanism that can increase the material strength of the cold worked material. The arrangement of atoms
in an austenitic microstructure, prior to experiencing cold working, can be described by the unit cell
shown in figure 2a. When this unit cell is duplicated and stacked together the arrangement of atoms in the
metallic lattice of an austenitic microstructure is described. This particular unit cell is termed a Face
Centred Cubic (FCC) unit cell.
Top face: Top face:

r
r
Mid section: 2.8r Mid section: 2.3r
Base face: Base face:
a) Face Centred Cubic (FCC) unit cell of b) Body Centred Cubic (BCC) unit cell
the austenitic microstructure. of the martensitic microstructure.
Figure 2: Microstructures in cold worked austenitic stainless steel.
The austenitic microstructure of stainless steel grade 1.4301 is a metastable microstructure which
means that work done to the material through plastic deformation will cause the austenitic microstructure
to, in part, transform into a martensitic microstructure. The unit cell of the martensitic microstructure is
shown in figure 2b and it is termed a Body Centred Cubic (BCC) unit cell. The BCC unit cell is smaller
and has a higher ratio of volume of atom to volume of unit cell compared to the FCC unit cell. This ratio
is commonly termed the Atomic Packing Factor (APF) and it is an indication of the density of the unit
cell. In addition, unlike the FCC unit cell, the BCC unit cell has within its geometry no planes where the
atoms are as tightly packed together as possible. This is of significance because owing to the geometry of
these close packed planes they can easily slide past one another and the lack of these in the BCC unit cell
causes the martensitic microstructure to give the cold worked stainless steel its increase in strength and
reduction in ductility [12]. The relationship between the two microstructures, and therefore the
transformation that occurs during plastic deformation, is shown in figure 3 by identifying the atoms that
699
will create the unit cell of the martensitic microstructure within the metallic lattice of the austenitic
microstructure.
Atoms that will form the x
martensitic unit cell
y
z
A B C D
50 mm Weld
6 mm
Austenitic
microstructure 100 mm
Figure 3: Transformation from an austenitic Figure 4: Test sample.
microstructure to a martensitic microstructure.
5 RESIDUAL STRESSES
Uneven plastic deformation also creates residual or internal stress distributions that equilibrate over
the whole cross section. Residual stresses are defined at three different scales by the distance over which
they equilibrate. Type I residual stresses relate to the macro scale, where equilibrium is achieved over
distances that relate to the scale of the structural cross section. It is this type of residual stress that is
considered to have the greatest importance for structural behavior. Type II and type III residual stresses
relate to the micro scale. Type II residual stresses are defined as equilibrating over several metallic grains
(regions where the metallic lattice is continuous) and type III residual stresses are defined as equilibrating
within metallic grains [13].
Residual stresses ıx, ıy and ız act in three orthogonal directions; normal to the surface of the section,
transverse to the section length and along the section length, respectively. This coordinate system is
defined in figure 4. Because of the influence that residual stresses can have on structural behavior it is
important to measure the magnitude and distribution of residual stresses in cold formed sections and there
are two distinct types of techniques which have been employed to date: destructive and non-destructive.
6 DESTRUCTIVE RESIDUAL STRESS MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

Destructive techniques used to measure residual stresses all involve mechanically removing material
from the test sample in order to disturb the equilibrium of the residual stress distribution, thereby causing
a geometrical relaxation. This geometrical change can be measured in order to quantify the released
stress. Owing to the size of sample required for material to be mechanically removed the destructive
techniques are commonly used by structural engineers because the measurements are made over the
macro scale and therefore result in determining type I residual stresses.
Type I longitudinal residual stresses, ız that exist along the length of a structural member are
considered to be the most significant in determining a member’s structural behaviour and they have been
commonly quantified by a destructive technique termed sectioning. This destructive technique cuts the
cross section into strips, thereby disturbing the equilibrium of residual stresses as illustrated in figure 5.
The strain caused by geometrical relaxation on the surface of each sectioned strip can be measured once
each strip has re-established equilibrium and used to identify two types of residual stress. Uniform tensile
or compressive strain is used to identify the longitudinal membrane residual stress, ız,m and the curvature
of the sectioned material indicates a variation of stresses through the material thickness, which is
commonly assumed to be linear [14] and which is used to quantify the longitudinal bending residual
stress, ız,b. However this measurement technique has disadvantages when used to measure residual
stresses in roll formed sections.
700
x
x
z
ız,m
İz,m
Membrane residual stress, ız,m +
x
x İz,b
z
ız,b
- İz,b Ȝ
Bending residual stress, ız,b =
x
d ș
Combined residual stress, ız ız
Figure 5: Residual stresses released Figure 6: Neutron diffraction.

during sectioning.
Using the sectioning technique, combined with an electrolytic technique to remove layers of section
material, longitudinal residual stresses, ız were measured at different depths through the thickness of a
cold formed carbon steel box section in [7]. From these measurements it was observed that the
longitudinal residual stress distribution through the thickness of the section was not a linear variation as
commonly assumed [14] and therefore that the membrane and bending residual stresses could not be the
only residual stresses to exist in the section. Through this study [7] a third residual stress component
termed the layering residual stress was identified, which is not released and therefore not measured during
sectioning, since it has no resultant axial force or moment. This unmeasured layering residual stress is
important to quantify to determine peak residual stresses in the section material. Analytical models that
map the coiling, uncoiling and cold forming of stainless steel and carbon steel sheet material into
structural sections [8]-[9] have also determined that the variation of longitudinal residual stresses, ız
through the thickness of a cold formed section does not conform to the assumed linear model.
Longitudinal residual stresses, ız in roll formed stainless steel sections were determined through the
sectioning technique in [15] where both a linear and a rectangular block through thickness distribution
were assumed to calculate the longitudinal bending residual stresses, ız,b. It was observed that for
sectioned material with a rectangular cross section, there was a difference of two thirds in the magnitude
of the bending stresses between the two assumed distributions. This study showed that assuming a linear
through thickness residual stress distribution can cause large errors in determining the longitudinal
residual stresses.
Furthermore residual strains released normal to the surface of the section, İx and transverse to the
length of the section, İy are not easily quantified in the same location as the longitudinal strain, İz through
the use of the sectioning technique. However all strain components contribute to the normal, transverse
and longitudinal residual stresses (ıx, ıy and ız respectively) through the three dimensional definition of
Hookes’ Law, given in equations 1-3. Where E is the Young’s modulus and Ȟ is Possion’s ratio.
σx =
E
(1 +ν )(1 − 2ν )
[ε x (1 −ν ) +ν (ε y + ε z )] (1)
σy =
E
(1 +ν )(1 − 2ν )
[ε (1 −ν ) +ν (ε
y x ]
+εz) (2)
σz =
E
[ (
ε (1 − ν ) + ν ε x + ε y
(1 + ν )(1 − 2ν ) z
)] (3)
701
Using sectioning to measure residual stresses has the disadvantage that the complete residual stress
distribution is not fully released and therefore not measured and the strains in the normal, transverse and
longitudinal directions are hard to measure simultaneously to correctly determine the corresponding
residual stresses. Also the method of removing material can affect the residual stress pattern through
plastic deformation and heating that might occur during mechanical interventions.
7 NON-DESTRUCTIVE RESIDUAL STRESS MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

The alternative way to measure residual stress distributions is with a non-destructive technique where
it is the effect of the test sample on magnetic fields, X-rays or a neutron beam which is used to determine
residual stresses and no material need be removed from the test sample. The use of magnetic techniques
to measure residual stresses is not possible in this case since the austenitic microstructure of stainless
steel is nonmagnetic. However X-ray diffraction techniques have been used to measure through thickness
residual stress distributions in an austenitic stainless steel roll formed section [16] but the depth of
penetration was not sufficient, so electrolytic material removal was used to obtain measurements at
greater depths. Problems were also experienced making measurements by X-ray diffraction due to the
large size of metal grains in cold worked stainless steel [16]. Whilst neutron diffraction does not offer
such a fine resolution as is possible using X-ray diffraction this technique does offer a suitable
penetration depth for roll formed cross sections. In addition the larger volume over which the
measurements are made, compared to X-ray diffraction could reduce the potential problems associated
with diffraction measurements made in a large grain microstructure.
8 NEUTRON DIFFRACTION
Axonometric Plan view:
view:
North The south x The north
collimator collimator y collimator
South collects collects
collimator neutrons that neutrons that
determine determine
atomic atomic
Neutron spacings in the spacings in
source Apertures normal the transverse
Neutron
Sample direction, x. direction, y.
source
a) Sample positioned to measure atomic spacing in the normal and transverse direction.
Axonometric Plan view:
view: North
The south The north
collimator
collimator x collimator
South z collects
collimator collects
neutrons that neutrons that
determine determine
Sample atomic atomic
Neutron spacings in the spacings in
source Apertures normal the
Neutron
direction, x. longitudinal
source direction, z.
b) Sample positioned to measure atomic spacing in the normal and longitudinal direction.
Figure 7: Test setup.
702
The non-destructive technique of neutron diffraction uses the interaction of a neutron beam and the
specimen’s atomic structure, as governed by Bragg’s law, to measure the spacing between atomic planes,
d. Bragg’s law is given in equation 4 and the variables Ȝ, d and ș, are defined in figure 6.
nλ = 2d sin θ (4)
When n in equation 4 is an integer the diffracted neutrons interfere constructively. This causes the
collimators either side of the test sample to detect a peak of neutrons at atomic spacings characteristic of
the arrangement of atomic planes in the microstructure under observation. Just such neutron diffraction
measurements were performed during a three day pilot study using the ENGIN-X instrument at ISIS.
Through thickness residual stress distributions were measured in four locations A-D around a roll formed
austenitic stainless steel grade 1.4301 box section of dimensions 100×50×6 mm, as shown in figure 4. At
each location, A-D, seven diffraction measurements were made over a 2×2×2mm3 gauge volume at
intervals of 0.5 mm through the thickness of the section. Measurements were made with the test sample
held in two orientations in order to measure atomic spacings in three orthogonal directions, as illustrated
in figure 7. The atomic spacings measured at different locations in the test sample were compared with a
stress free atomic spacing measured in 2×2×2 mm3 cubes, cut using an Electric Discharge Machine from
locations A-D in the same cross section. The atomic strains held in the roll formed cross section were thus
determined and converted to residual stresses using equations 1-3 and material data obtained from tensile
coupon tests performed on material cut from locations A-D in the test sample.
9 RESULTS
Figure 8 shows a longitudinal through thickness residual stress distribution taken from location D
with vertical error bars and horizontal lines indicating the overlapping of each measurement.
Figure 8: Longitudinal residual stress profile from location D.
The atomic spacings measured at locations A-D in the test sample were characteristic of an austenitic
stainless steel microstructure with no detection of the presence of a martensitic microstructure. This could
be because the martensitic microstructure created during cold working is small or it could be very
localized and its presence was not detected due to the use of a large gauge volume.
10 CONCLUSIONS
Despite the significant overlap of the through thickness measurements this pilot study successfully
demonstrates that neutron diffraction can be used to obtain through thickness residual stress data to a
good accuracy and that the variation of longitudinal residual stresses through the thickness of roll formed
stainless steel sections is clearly not linear as conventionally assumed. Further measurements using a
smaller gauge volume are planned to allow the measurement of through thickness residual stress
703
distributions to a higher resolution and thereby reduce any smoothing effect of the overlapping
measurements and also increase the chance of detecting any martensite present.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to acknowledge the hard work and technical expertise of Dr. Shu Yan Zhang
and to thank the Science and Technology Facilities Council for their financial and technical support.
REFERENCES
[1] Way A.G.J., Popo-Ola S.O., Biddle A.R. and Lawson R.M., Durability of Light Steel Framing in
Residential Building, Second Edition, SCI, Silwood Park, Report no: P262, 2009.
[2] National Audit Office, Using modern methods of construction to build homes more quickly and
efficiently, 2005.
[3] Karren K.W., “Corner properties of cold-formed steel shapes”, Journal of the Structural Division,
ASCE, 93(ST1), 401-432, 1967.
[4] Cruise R.B. and Gardner L., “Strength enhancements induced during cold forming of stainless steel
sections”, Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 64 (11), 1310-1316, 2008.
[5] EN 1993-1-4, Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 1.4: General rules. Supplementary
Rules for Stainless steels, European standard, CEN, 2006.
[6] EN 1993-1-3, Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 1.3: General rules. Supplementary
rules for cold-formed members and sheeting, European standard, CEN, 2006.
[7] Key P.W. and Hancock G.J., “A theoretical investigation of the column behaviour of cold-formed
square hollow sections”, Thin-Walled structures, 16(1-4), 31-64, 1993.
[8] Moen C.D., Igusa T. and Schafer B.W., “Prediction of residual stresses and strain in cold-formed
steel members”, Thin-Walled structures, 46(11), 1274-1289, 2008.
[9] Quach W.M., Residual stresses in cold formed steel sections and their effect on column behavior,
PhD Thesis, Dept. of Civil and Structural Engineering, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, 2005.
[10] Gardner L., Cruise R.B., Sok C.P., Krishnan K. and Ministro J., “Life cycle costing of metallic
structures”, Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Engineering Sustainability,
160(ES4), 167-177, 2007.
[11] Edwards L. and Endean M. (eds.), Manufacturing with Materials, Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd.,
1999.
[12] Spencer K., Embury J.D., Conlon K.T., Véron M. and Bréchet Y., “Strengthening via the formation
of strain-induced martensite in stainless steels”, Materials Science and Engineering, A 387-389,
873-881, 2004.
[13] Withers P.J. and Bhadeshia H.K.D.H., “Residual stress: Part 2 - Nature and Origins”, Materials
Science and Technology, 17:4, 366-375, 2001.
[14] Schafer B.W. and Peköz T., “Computational modelling of cold-formed steel”, Journal of
[15] Cruise R.B. and Gardner L., “Residual stress analysis of structural stainless steel sections”, Journal
of Constructional Steel Research, 64 (3), 352-366, 2008.
[16] Jandera M., Gardner L. and Machacek J., “Residual stresses in cold rolled stainless steel hollow
sections”, Journal of Constructional Steel Research. 64(11), 1255-1263, 2008.
[17] Webster G.A. and Wimpory R.C., “Non-destructive measurement of residual stress by neutron
diffraction”, Journal of Material Processing Technology, 117(3), 395-399, 2001.
704
INFLUENCE OF FLANGE-TO-WEB CONNECTION ON THE PATCH LOAD

RESISTANCE OF I BEAMS
László G. Vigh*
* Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Department of Structural Engineering

e-mail: geri@vbt.bme.hu
Keywords: patch load, steel and aluminium I-beams, curved flange-to-web connection, non-linear
numerical simulation, interaction of bending and transverse load resistance, Eurocode.
Abstract. Current design methods for calculating transverse load resistance of web plates neglect the
effect of the flange-to-web connection. This simplification is on the conservative side and in deep plate
girders its influence is practically negligible. However, in case of hot-rolled or extruded profiles, the
fillet corner shaping through its geometry, rigidity and strength may highly increase the patch load
resistance. Using non-linear numerical analysis, the author completed a parametric study on simply
supported girders subjected to transverse load in order to study a) the effect of the connection and b) the
capacity in interaction of transverse load and bending. The study clearly confirms the beneficial
influence of the curved corners. To take this effect into account the author proposes a modification in the
Eurocode formulation. The results of the simulation prove the validity of the proposed method.
1 INTRODUCTION
It is well known that transverse (or patch) load resistance of plate girders is influenced by the load
case (patch load, opposite patch load, end patch load), the web and flange material properties (i.e. yield
limits), the dimensions (a, hw) and thickness (tw) of the unstiffened web panel, and the flange dimensions
(bf, tf). Additionally, the loaded length (ss) has major importance in the resistance, too. These details are
typically considered in the design method as well, just like in current formulations of corresponding
Eurocodes, such as Eurocode 3 Part 1-5 for steel plated structures (EC3 [1]) and Eurocode 9 Part 1-1 for
aluminium structures (EC9 [2]).
However, effect of the connection between the flange and web, thus the effect of the fillet curved
corners is fully neglected. Even though this simplification is on the conservative side and reasonably
accurate for deep slender girders, this type of connection shaping may highly increase the resistance, as it
is confirmed in [3]. Firstly, – similarly to the calculation of local plate buckling under compression – one
may claim to consider the fillet reducing the web height. Secondly, it widens the effective loaded length
of the web. Thirdly, it may highly influence the plastic hinge capacity of the flanges; that is the base of
the mechanism solution model of patch loading originally recommended by Roberts et al [4].
Reviewing the development of the actual code formula, the reason why this effect is out of
consideration can be found. (Note that EC9 applies the same method as given in the steel standard EC3.)
According to Lagerqvist et al [5], the calibration of the semi-empirical design method was completed on
the basis of 388 test specimens made of steel, including 358 welded girders, 11 European and 19
American rolled beams. Most of these tested girders come with high, slender web and only few cases
represent rolled/extruded profiles with stocky webs and relatively large curved corners. Consequently,
the calibration is directly valid for slender webs only. Needless to say, welded connection that has
smaller extent than practically applied curved corners of rolled profiles results in much smaller influence
on the resistance. It can be also stated that the higher and more slender the web is, the less the effect of
705
László G. Vigh
the edge boundary condition is. Note that this effect can be much higher in case of aluminium, because
extruded profile usually comes with larger radius due to fabrication and material reasons.
The author completed a parametric numerical study on various steel and aluminium I-beams
configurations and the corner effect is quantified. Based on the results, the author proposes a simple
modification in the Eurocode method to account for this detail and its beneficial effect.
2 STANDARD EUROCODE METHOD

This section summarizes the current basic procedures for bending and transverse load resistance
calculations according to EC3 and EC9 (referred as standard method hereafter).
In this study, only compact, ductile profiles (classified as Class 1 sections) with I-shape cross-section
(Figure 1) are considered, i.e. local plate buckling due to axial stresses does not affect the static
behaviour of the girder. Accordingly, plastic bending resistance Mc,Rd is calculated. EC9 alternatively
allows to consider strain hardening through the application of Ramberg-Osgood law, [2]. Thus,
fy fo
steel: M c , Rd = W pl aluminium: M c , Rd = α M ,1Wel (1/a,b)
γM0 γ M1
where Wpl and Wel are the elastic and plastic section modulus, respectively; αM,1 stands for the
correction factor to account for the plastic overstrength including strain hardening; fy and fo are the
characteristic yield strength and the proof strength, respectively; while γM is the partial safety factor.
Both EC3 and EC9 prescribe exactly the same mechanism-solution based procedure for the
transverse load resistance calculation. As per EC9, for simple patch load case the method follows:
ª 2
t w3 § h · º t3
critical load: Fcr = 0.9k F E = 0.9 «6 + 2¨ w ¸ » E w (2)
hw «¬ © a ¹ »¼ hw
( )
dimensionless parameters: m1 = f of b f / ( f ow t w ); m2 = 0.02 hw / t f ( )
2
(3/a,b)
(
effective loaded length: l y = s s + 2t f 1 + m1 + m2 ≤ a ) (4)
l y t w f ow
slenderness: λF = (5)
Fcr
reduction factor: χ F = 0.5 / λ F ≤ 1.0 (6)
f ow
transverse load resistance: FRd = χ F l y (7)
γ M1
where E is Young’s modulus; kF is the buckling coefficient; a is the length of the unstiffened web
panel (Figure 1); hw and tw are the web height and thickness; bf and tf are the flange width and thickness;
ss is the stiff bearing length; fof and fow are the proof strength of the flange and the web, respectively.
The interaction of design bending moment MEd and transverse loading FEd shall be checked
through the following interaction formula:
FEd M
+ 0.8 Ed ≤ 1.4 (8)
FRd M c , Rd
For simplicity, this study does not deal with the complex interaction of shear, bending and transverse
load. (Note that influence of shear load on the patch load resistance is currently not covered by the basic
method of Eurocode. A useful method is discussed in [6].) Additionally note that the following results are
corresponding to the simple patch load case; the author did not deal with opposite and end patch loading.
706
László G. Vigh
3 PARAMETRIC NUMERICAL STUDY
3.1 Programme
The author completed a parametric study in order to quantify the effect of the curved corners on
patch load resistance of rolled steel and extruded aluminium girders. Simply supported girders (with I-
shape cross-section shown in Figure 1) subjected to transverse concentrated load at midspan is
considered. Varying parameters are the section geometry, the span a (= length of unstiffened web panel),
the loaded length ss and the radius r of the curved corner. The parametric study programme is
summarized in Table 1. One series of analysis was carried out assuming HEA sections made of steel
grade S235 and one with modified HEA sections made of a specific AlMgSi alloy. In the aluminium
case, profile modification – namely, change of flange width – aimed to obtain ductile sections.
Altogether, the analysis series include more than 150 cases.
The cross-sections are ductile (Class 1) in each case. Varying the span permits of analysing cases of
dominant bending failure, dominant web crippling or their interaction. Three different loaded lengths are
investigated: 0 mm, 50 mm and 200 mm, respectively. The basic radius for the different sections are
12 mm, 18 mm and 27 mm, respectively; these values are multiplied by 0, 1, 1.5 and 2.
For simplification, interaction with shear is not discussed here: cases where the influence of shear on
design bending resistance is larger than 5% are excluded.
bf
tf
h
tw
a/2
a) cross-section b) shell-element model

Figure 1: Parameters and numerical model for the parametric study.
3.2 Numerical modelling technique

For the parametric study, geometrically and materially non-linear analysis is completed using
ANSYS [7]. Figure 1/b shows the shell-element geometrical model. The 4-node SHELL181 element is
suitable to model the curved corner: the element may have linearly varying thickness along its edges.
Bilinear approximation – illustrated in Figure 2/a – is applied in such way that the same joint section area
is provided and thus the resulting transverse plate rigidity is certainly not overestimated.
One-bow geometrical imperfection is applied in the web with a magnitude of h/200. Elastic-perfectly
plastic bilinear material model is adjusted to the steel cases: to overcome numerical problems a fictive
strain hardening with a tangent slope of E/10000 is applied. To the aluminium specimens the elastic-
hardening non-linear model shown in Figure 2/b is adjusted. It is assumed that the profiles are
manufactured as a whole and no welding is necessary. Thus, welding does not influence the material
behaviour of the aluminium specimens.
The numerical model is validated in [3]. Note that according to the Eurocodes, – beside the
standardized procedure – such numerical simulation can be alternatively applied for design purposes.
707
Table 1: Programme and results
"HEA 100" / "HEA 100-75" "HEA 200" / "HEA 200-100" "HEA 300" / "HEA 300-140"
FRd,FEM FRd,FEM FRd,FEM
h bf tf tw r ss a h bf tf tw r ss a h bf tf tw r ss a
Steel Alu Steel Alu Steel Alu
[mm] [k N] [mm] [k N] [mm] [k N]
150 112.9 101.5 500 204.0 158.8 1000 371.8 277.3
300 106.1 93.9 0 1200 180.0 131.6 0 2000 334.5 233.4
0
500 95.2 83.5 2000 149.0 103.6 3000 293.0 195.3
750 81.5 71.9 500 256.1 204.8 1000 441.0 333.2
300 139.3 129.9 0 50 1200 231.0 173.3 0 50 2000 402.0 286.8
0
50 500 123.8 118.6 2000 188.0 122.8 3000 350.6 230.2
750 104.1 91.7 500 391.0 346.3 1000 645.0 ---
300 211.0 209.4 200 1200 325.0 230.7 200 2000 598.8 386.9
200 500 147.0 154.8 2000 212.0 135.5 3000 435.0 262.6
750 124.0 112.4 200 500 245.0 200.7 300 1000 460.1 355.5
150 135.8 130.3 (St) 0 1200 212.0 163.8 (St) 0 2000 404.2 300.0
100
300 125.0 116.7 2000 173.8 124.2 3000 348.1 244.3
(St) 0 190 10 6.5 290 14 8.5
500 109.7 101.9 500 303.4 251.6 1000 537.9 419.0
96 8 5 750 93.0 84.4 100 18 50 1200 269.6 207.9 140 27 50 2000 482.0 355.7
150 189.9 184.2 (Al) 2000 205.2 139.7 (Al) 3000 409.8 270.9
75
(Al) 12 300 155.0 154.7 500 417.0 401.3 1000 691.0 622.3
50
500 134.0 135.3 200 1200 329.0 256.3 200 2000 641.0 441.4
708
750 110.9 99.5 2000 222.0 150.7 3000 463.0 293.9
300 223.0 246.8 500 282.2 240.1 1000 535.7 434.0
László G. Vigh
200 500 148.0 168.2 27 0 1200 243.0 194.5 40.5 0 2000 471.5 362.4
750 127.0 121.9 2000 197.0 142.4 3000 404.1 286.5
500 123.0 116.8 500 331.1 288.4 1000 626.5 529.7
18 0
750 103.2 94.6 36 0 1200 283.7 231.7 54 0 2000 558.0 437.4
150 187.2 190.7 2000 221.0 164.8 3000 465.0 338.1
300 159.0 163.2
24 0
500 137.7 134.7 h – total section height; bf – flange width; tf– flange thickness; tw – web thickness; r – radius of corner;
750 114.2 106.9 ss – loaded length; a – span (= length of unstiffened web panel); FRd,FEM – FEM load capacity
Table 2: Comparison to r = 0.
Steel Alu
r=
% avg % % avg %
r 5 - 24 16 8 - 29 20
1.5 r 27 - 44 36 32 - 57 46
2r 40 - 67 54 49-91 74
László G. Vigh
350 E = 70 GPa; n = 49.5

fo = 249 MPa; fu = 268 MPa
300
250
Stress (MPa)
shell elements 200 E = 210 GPa; Et = 21 MPa
t2 fy = 235 MPa
with varying
150
tw thickness
100 AlMgSi
S235
50
axis of shell
elements 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15
Note: these are not body elements Strain (-)
a) approximation of curved corners b) material models
Figure 2: Modeling details.
3.3 Discussion of results
3.3.1 Results
The load capacities obtained by the analyses are tabulated in Table 1. Utilization factor for bending
moment is calculated as the ratio of the ultimate load FRD (or MRd) computed from the numerical analysis
to the design bending moment resistance Mc,Rd calculated in accordance with Eurocodes. Utilization
factor for transverse load resistance (FRD to Fpatch,RD) is similarly determined. The interaction results are
illustrated by the help of these parameters in Figure 3 where the EC interaction curve is also plotted.
3.3.2 Reliability of the results
The applied non-linear numerical analysis is an alternative design procedure allowed for by both
Eurocodes. In Figure 3/a, the interaction points corresponding to the reference case r = 0 lie in the
vicinity of the standard interaction curve, which in general confirms the validity of the results. On
average the deviation is within 10%. However, in many cases the numerical simulation gives
conservative result compared to the standard procedure. Different interpretations may be given for this
observation:
1) On the one hand, this may indicate that the numerical model is conservative, i.e. especially the
applied geometrical imperfection, or the way of joint discretization, etc. is conservative.
2) Reference comparison perhaps should be done to cases of normal radius, as the calibrated design
method may indirectly include some connection effect.
3) The fact that zero loaded length cannot be kept in experimental environment queries the
reliability of the standard method: it may overestimate the capacity for cases ss = 0. When
excluding these cases, only 5 of the points fall below the standard interaction curve.
As a consequence, further study is required to accurately evaluate the reliability of the alternative
design methods.
Despite the discussed uncertainties, it can be stated that the numerical results are in accordance with
the standardized method and the analysis with different radius and loaded length gives a solid base for the
following comparative study.
3.3.3 Effect of curved corners
The results confirm that the curved corner may highly influence the transverse load resistance as well
as the resistance in interaction with bending. Compared to the reference cases r = 0, even the
consideration of normal radius leads to notable increase in the capacity, as Figure 3/a,b and Table 2
prove. When using double radius, up to 67% and 91% increase can be achieved in case of steel and
aluminium, respectively.
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László G. Vigh
Load vs. deflection curves and deformed shapes of Figure 4 well demonstrate the quantitative and
qualitative change in capacity and in nature of behaviour. For example, compare post-ultimate behaviour
of cases ss = 200 mm in Figure 4/a: in case of no radius web crippling dominates as indicated by the
sudden drop in the post-peak range, while the existence of curved corner leads to governing bending
failure. In the latter case, due to the ductile (Class 1) section, long yield plateau can develop, followed by
the capacity drop due to instability at the very end of the curve.
The larger influence in case of aluminium alloy can be explained by two reasons:
1) The selected aluminium profiles are more sensitive to web crippling than the steel ones, which is
also reflected by the reduction factor χF calculated in accordance with EC: it ranges within
0.9~1.0 for the steel and within 0.53~1.0 for the aluminium cases, respectively.
2) Strain hardening is considered in the aluminium calculations. Note that the manual calculation
also accounts for the strain hardening in the bending moment resistance formulation, but not in
the transverse load resistance.
The results thus promise that improved capacity values in the steel cases can possibly be achieved by
implementing advanced (more accurate and realistic) non-linear simulation.
2 EC 2.5
r= 1 r
r= 0
1.8
r= 1 r r = 1.5 r
1.6 2
r = 1.5 r
r= 2 r
1.4 r= 2 r
FRd / Fpatch,Rd
FRd / FRd,r=0
1.2 1.5
0.8 1
0.6
0.4 0.5
0.2
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
MRd / Mc,Rd MRd / Mc,Rd
a) M-F interaction b) corner effect

Figure 3: Interaction results and corner effect.
700
600
500
Load (kN)
400 ss = 0;
300 ss = 0; r = 0
r = 1.5r
ss = 0; r = 1
200 ss = 0; r = 1.5
ss = 0; r = 2
100 ss = 200; r = 0
ss = 200; r = 1
0
0 5 10 15
ss = 200;
r=0
Deflection (mm)
a) load vs. deflection curves b) deformed web at ultimate load
Figure 4: Typical simulation results – steel, HEA300, a = 2 m.
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László G. Vigh
4 MODIFICATION PROPOSAL FOR RESISTANCE CALCULATION

Based on the previous observations and parametric study results, the author proposes two simple
modifications in the standard design method in order to utilize the advantageous effect of the curved
connection configuration.
On the one hand, the curved configuration results in larger transverse plate bending rigidity of the
web (analogous to the bending capacity of haunched girder – column connection). Consequently, it is
supposed that – similarly to the calculation of the plate buckling due axial stresses – the clear web height
hw between the inner ends of the radius is used instead of the full web depth, as shown in Figure 5/a.
bf
tf
hw R
tw
a) effective web height hw
n.a
tf n.a tf’
Mpl,2
Mpl,1
Mpl,1 = Mpl,2
b1) equal section modulus
tf tf’’
A1 A2
A1 = A2
b2) equal area method
b) effective flange thickness tf or tf’’ ’
Figure 5: Determination of modified section properties.
2 EC
1.8 radius neglected
eq. area
1.6
eq. section mod.
1.4
FRd / Fpatch,Rd
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5
MRd / Mc,Rd
Figure 6: Comparison of methods.
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László G. Vigh
On the other hand, the plastic hinge of the flanges occurring in the ultimate stage (plastic hinge
mechanism) can extend to the curved corner area. Thus, the curved corner can be considered as part of
the flange. Since the resistance against transverse loading is dominated by the flange plastic hinge, one
has to calculate the plastic bending capacity of a fictive section including the flange and the
accompanying corner area. Without rebuilding the existing design formula, this can be easily achieved by
introducing an effective flange thickness providing the same local plastic capacity (Figure 5/b1). This is
referred as equal section modulus method hereafter. As a simplification, the effective thickness can be
conservatively calculated by simply smearing the curved corner area to the flange (Figure 5/b2, referred
as equal area method). This latter method gives smaller effective thickness than the previous, more
accurate one; consequently, it is always on the safe side.
Introducing these two modifications into the design method, the interaction relation shown in
Figure 6 is obtained for the studied configurations. Regardless to the mentioned uncertainties (knife-edge
load, etc.), it is concluded that the proposed modification gives more accurate evaluation of the patch
load resistance.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Parametric study is completed on simply supported girders made of rolled steel or extruded
aluminium profiles, subjected to transverse load. Based on the results, the following conclusions are
found:
Influence of the curved-corner web-to-flange joint on the transverse load resistance can be significant
in case of stocky webs; the increase in capacity may reach 60-90%.
To take this beneficial effect into account, the author proposed a simple modification in the current
Eurocode design method. The modified procedure utilizes the clear web height and effective flange
thickness; thus, more accurately representing the actual connection rigidity and plastic flange strength.
The proposed procedure well estimates the transverse load – bending interaction capacity computed
by non-linear numerical simulation.
Further study is needed on the relation of the basic standardized procedure and the numerical
simulation with respect to reliability. The research shall include study on the role of imperfection, knife-
edge loading case, material modelling.
The method should be validated to other load application cases, as well.
Interaction of transverse load, bending and shear is additionally subject to further research.
REFERENCES
[1] EN 1993-1-5:2005 Eurocode 3 – Design of steel structures – Part 1-5: Plated structural elements,
Final Draft, CEN, Brussels, 2005.
[2] EN 1999-1-1:2007 Eurocode 9 – Design of aluminium structures – Part 1-1: General structural
rules, CEN, Brussels, 2007.
[3] Vigh, L.G., Virtual and real test based analysis and design of non-conventional thin-walled metal
structures, PhD dissertation, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, 2006.
[4] Roberts, T.M., “Slender plate girders subjected to edge loading”, Proc. Inst. Civil Engineers, Part
2, Vol. 71, 805-819, Sept. 1981.
[5] Lagerqvist, O. and Johansson, B., “Resistance of I-girders to Concentrated Loads”, Journal of
Construction Steel Research, 39 (2), 87-119, 1996.
[6] Kövesdi, B., Kuhlmann, U., Dunai, L., “Combined shear and patch loading of girders with
corrugated webs”, Periodica Polytechnica Civil Engineering, 2010. (submitted for publication)
[7] ANSYS Structural Analysis Guide, Online Documentation ANSYS Inc., 2005.
712
FURTHER STUDIES ON THE LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING OF

STEEL WEB-TAPERED BEAM COLUMNS: ANALYTICAL STUDIES
Gabriel A. Jiménez, Ph.D., P.E., S.E.
Principal/Managing Director, Walter P Moore and Associates, Houston, Texas, USA

e-mail: gjimenez@walterpmoore.com
Keywords: Tapered, Stability, Beams, Columns, Beam-columns, Steel Structures.
Abstract. The purpose of this paper is to present solutions for the elastic and inelastic lateral-torsional
buckling of steel web-tapered beam-columns using two different computational procedures and compare
these solutions with the AISC Specification for tapered members.
1 INTRODUCTION
Web-tapered members are structural members commonly used in the typical one-story pre-engineered
building. Appreciable savings in materials and in the cost of structural framing can be assumed by the
use of elements having a tapering depth or flanges.
In the United States of America, the last specification that addressed tapered members is the 1999
American Institute of Steel Construction Specification [1] for web tapered members which was based on
a study performed in 1966. The contributors to the study were the Column Research Council, presently
known as the Structural Stability Research Council, and the Welding Research Council, under the
technical guidance of Lee et al. [3] at the University of New York at Buffalo. The general design
approach used in the 1999 Specification is to apply modification factors to convert the tapered members
into appropriately proportioned prismatic members so that the prismatic AISC equations may be applied.
From the practitioner’s point of view, the 1999 AISC design equations for tapered members represent the
use of existing basic formulas for prismatic members altered with the use of an additional factor.
Furthermore, the additional factor will give the designer an inherent feeling for the increase in strength
over a prismatic section.
At the same time, the “easy to use” 1999 AISC Specification is restricted to doubly symmetric I-
shaped sections. The reason for this limitation was the inability to uncouple the torsional and flexural
deformations due to varying locations of the shear center for singly-symmetric sections during Lee’s
study. The development was also limited to members with small tapering angles. According to Lee et al.
[5], Boley showed that the methods used by Lee and his colleagues to compute normal stresses are
reasonably accurate as long as the tapering angle is less than 15 degrees. For practical considerations, the
limiting tapering ratio has been further restricted to 6. Moreover, the development is limited to members
with flanges of an equal and constant area with webs that are not slender. However, what is of interest is
that the current practice in the low-rise metal building industry is the use of flanges of unequal area and
slender webs. Therefore, the 1999 AISC Specification does not appear to provide equations for web-
tapered I-shaped beam geometries of proportions that are consistent with what has been the industry
standard for metal buildings.
Jimenez et al.[5] and other researchers have performed new studies on the topic of inelastic stability
of tapered members and have shown that the 1999 AISC equations predict unconservative results when
determining the lateral-torsional buckling strength of tapered beams and beam-columns for certain
713
Gabriel A. Jiménez
slenderness values of typical tapered members. The current AISC Specification [2] does not explicitly
define the use of the AISC provisions for tapered members. In 2006 White et al. [6] performed a
prototype study on how to use the current AISC Specification to tapered members. The findings of their
prototype study appeared to generate reasonable solutions; however additional verifications with other
versions of the code as well as experimental results are needed.
The general behavior of a typical beam-column is illustrated in Figure 1, where the relationship
between the applied end-moment Mo and the resulting end-slope θ is shown for a wide-flange member
bent about its strong-axis, in which the length as well as the axial force P is assumed to remain constant
as the moment Mo is increased from zero to its maximum value and past the maximum moment into the
unloading zone.
The optimum performance of the beam-column is reached if failure is due to excessive bending in the
plane of the applied moment, and this behavior is represented by the upper branch of the curve in Figure
1. The corresponding maximum moment is Mo1max. If no lateral bracing is provided, failure will be due to
lateral-torsional buckling and the resulting moment is Mo2max represented by the lower branch of the
curve in Figure 1. The additional incremental moment represented by Mo2max beyond Mocr is small, and,
therefore, the bifurcation point is considered to reasonably determine the buckling limit to the beam-
column. The work described in this paper deals with the determination of the value of Mocr for web-
tapered beam-columns.
Figure 1: M-Θ curves for beam-columns
2 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING

The differential equations governing the lateral-torsional buckling of tapered members subjected to
centroidal axial forces P and to end moments Mo and ρMo are given in Jimenez [4] and are repeated here
for convenience:
d 2v ª zº
B x (z ) + Pv − Mo« ρ + (1 − ρ ) » = 0 (1a)
dz 2
¬ L ¼
d 2u ª z½ º
By + Pu − β «Mo ® ρ + (1 − ρ ) ¾ − P y o (z )» = 0 (1b)
¬ ¯ L¿
2
dz ¼
714
Gabriel A. Jiménez
(1c)
The beam-column prescribed by the above differential equations is shown in Figure 2. It is subjected to
end bending moments Mo at z = L and ρMo at z = 0, where “z” is the coordinate axis along the
undeformed centroidal axis and “L” is the length of the member. The coefficient “ρ” is the ratio of the
end moments. The deformations of the shear center are: “u” in the x-direction, “v” in the y-direction and
the cross-section twists about the shear center an angle “β”. In Figure the smaller end will be denoted as
end A and the larger end as end B.
Figure 2: Loading condition. Figure 3: Stress-strain diagram.

The stress-strain diagram of the material is shown in Figure 3. The coefficients Bx(z), By, CT(z), Cw(z),
yo(z) and K( z) in the differential equations are defined as follows: Bx(z) is the bending stiffness about
the x-axis; By is the bending stiffness about the y-axis; CT(z) is the St. Venant’s torsional stiffness; Cw(z)
is the Warping stiffness; yo(z) is the distance between the centroid “C” and the shear center “S” in the
plane of symmetry; K( z) = ³ σs d A
2
where: σ = is the stress on any cross-sectional element dA
A
(positive in compression) and “s” is the distance of element dA from the shear center. These coefficients
vary with respect to the coordinate “z” to account for the non-uniform variation of the cross-section
properties along the length of the column. Also, when the beam-column is in the inelastic range the
coefficients will vary with the different patterns of the yielding.
3 DESIGN STRENGTH OF TAPERED MEMBERS USING ADVANCED ANALYSIS

Solutions for the elastic and inelastic lateral-torsional buckling of steel web tapered beam-columns
were computed using advanced analyses. The beam-column elements are subjected to an axial force and
to bending moments applied at both ends of the member. A computational procedure based on the finite
difference method using a direct discretization of the differential equations of lateral-torsional buckling
was utilized. The coefficients appearing in the finite difference equations are determined considering the
reductions of the flexural and torsional stiffnesses due to yielding in the inelastic range. The effects of
residual stresses are included. The resulting simultaneous equations are then set up to compute the
buckling determinant which yields the critical load.
The lateral-torsional buckling of tapered beam-columns is determined by using equations (1b) and
(1c) where the cross-section coefficients are variable with respect to “z”. The finite difference equations
corresponding to the equations (1b) and (1c) at each station by first-order central differences becomes:
715
Gabriel A. Jiménez
[ ] [
ui −1[By(i )] + ui Ph 2 − 2By(i ) + ui+1[By(i )] + βi λ (i )h 2 = 0 ] (2b)
[ ] ª 2Mo(1 − ρ )h 2 º
ui−1 − λ (i )h 2 + ui « [ ]
» + ui +1 λ (i )h + βi−2 [− C w (i )] +
2
¬« n ¼»
ª § K (i ) ·¸º ª § K (i ) ·¸½°º
°
βi −1 «2C w (i ) + CT (i )h 2 ¨1 − » + βi +1 «− ®2C w (i ) + CT (i )h 2 ¨1 − »+
¸¾
(2c)
«¬ ¨
© CT (i ) ¹»
¸ « °̄ © CT (i ) ¹°¿»¼
¨
¼ ¬
βi+ 2 [C w (i )] = 0
ª iº
where : λ (i ) = Py o (i ) − M (i ), M (i ) = Mo « ρ + (1 − ρ ) »
¬ n¼
The ends of the beam-column are allowed to rotate, the end sections are free to warp, and the ends of the
member are not permitted to twist or to translate. These boundary conditions can be written as follows:
uo = 0, un = 0, β-1 = -β1 , βn+1 = - βn-1 ,βo = 0,βn = 0.
This leads to a set of simultaneous algebraic equations in the lateral displacement u and the rotation β at a
number of discrete points spaced at h = L/n, in which n is an odd number to which the beam-column is
u ½
divided. This set of simultaneous equations may be written in matrix form: [ A] ® ¾ = 0 . In this equation
¯β ¿
the matrix [A] is a set of the coefficients Aij representing combinations of the cross-section properties (By,
CT(z), Cw(z), yo(z), and K( z) ), the load parameters ( P and Mo) and the length of the member (L). In
order to compute the stiffness of a cross-section it is necessary to know how much of the section is plastic
and how much of the section is elastic, and where the corresponding regions are located on the cross-
section. The non-dimensionalized M/My, φ/φy, P/Py, relationships about the strong-axis for an I-shape
section have been determined by Jimenez [4]. Figure 4 shows these relationships for the following cases
of yielding:
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4
Figure 4: Yielded patterns for wide-flange cross-section.
In outline form, the steps that are used in computing the critical moment Mocr for steel web-tapered beam-
columns are as follows:
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Gabriel A. Jiménez
Given: (L/r), Assume: In-plane analysis:

Compute moment, curvature
(P/Py)A, ρ (Mo/Mp)B
(extent of yielding) By,
CT(i),Cw(i), yo(i), K( i )
Compute determinant
of the coefficient Formulate the finite-difference-
matrix [A] equations (out-of-plane equations: (2b)
and (2c))
This process is repeated for different load levels until a zero value for the determinant is found.
To create the finite element model using ANSYS, a commercially available finite element program,
several steps had to be performed including element selection, laying out the mesh and determining
boundary conditions. The finite element mesh is comprised of BEAM188 elements. BEAM188 elements
are suitable for analyzing slender to moderately stubby/thick structures. This element is based on
Timoshenko beam theory. Shear deformation effects are included. The BEAM188 is a quadratic beam
element in 3-D. This element is well-suited for linear, large rotation, and/or large strain nonlinear
applications. Furthermore, the provided stress stiffness terms enable the elements to analyze flexural,
lateral, and torsional stability. The cross-section associated with the element may be linearly tapered.
Elasticity and plasticity models are supported.
5 DESIGN STRENGTH OF TAPERED MEMBERS USING ADVANCED ANALYSIS

COMPARED WITH THE AISC SPECIFICATIONS
Solutions for the elastic and inelastic lateral-torsional buckling of steel web tapered beam-columns
were computed using both the finite difference method and a commercially available finite element
program. The beam-column elements are subjected to an axial force and to bending moments applied at
both ends of the member. Figure 5 compares the Finite Difference (FD) solution with the ANSYS
solution for a typical tapered beam-column subjected to the forces shown. In this case γ represents the
taper ratio, L/rx represents the slenderness parameter about the x axis, rx is the radius of gyration about the
x axis, and Mp is the plastic moment.
Lateral Torsional Buckling Strength ofTapered Beam- (P/Py)A = 0.2, γ = 1
Columns
1
p
0.9
0.8 M
0.7
0.6
(M/Mp) A
0.5 Finite
Difference M
0.4 Ansys
0.3 p
0.2
0.1
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
(L/rx)A
Figure 5: Comparison Between FD and ANSYS models.
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Gabriel A. Jiménez
It appears that the ANSYS solution produces more conservative results for the slenderness ratios between
40 to 90. This behavior is due to the gradual yielding in the ANSYS model versus the four defined
yielded patterns from Figure 4 utilized in the FD method. Figure 6 corresponds to the overall buckled
shape of the tapered beam-column as depicted by ANSYS. Yielding of both flanges at the smaller end is
evident. A close-up look of the smaller end is depicted in Figure 7.
Figure 6: Overall view of buckled tapered beam-column.
Figure 7: Close up view of yielded flanges/web at the smaller end of a tapered beam-column.
Comparisons were made between the 1999AISC-LRFD code and this study. Figure 8 illustrates a
typical case of a tapered beam-column subjected to compressive axial load and end moments for lateral-
torsional buckling (LTB). The beam-column problem is treated in the 1999 Specification in the form of
an interaction equation. It can be seen that for values of M/Mp greater than about 0.4 the predictions of
the interaction equation are unsafe. The unconservative results predicted by the use of the beam equation
in the AISC Specification are typical for different tapering ratios with unsafe discrepancies up to 25 %
between the advanced analysis and the Specification.
718
Gabriel A. Jiménez
Figure 8: LTB strength of beam-column.
6 CONCLUSION
This paper presents studies for the out-of-plane behavior of tapered beam-columns using ANSYS and
the Finite Difference method. It was shown that the ANSYS solution produces slightly more conservative
results due to the progressive yielding of the flanges and web. It was found that for medium to short
beams and beam-columns, the 1999 Specification [1] predicts strengths on the non-conservative side,
with maximum discrepancies of about 25% between advanced analysis approaches and those given the
specifications. Jimenez and Galambos [5] suggested an alternate set of equations to better predict the
strength capacity of tapered beams and beam-columns.
Furthermore, additional studies are needed to evaluate the use of the 2005 AISC provisions [2] with
previous specifications for tapered members.
REFERENCES
[1] American Institute of Steel Construction, Load and resistance factor design specification for
structural steel buildings, AISC, 1999
[2] American Institute of Steel Construction, Load and resistance factor design specification for
structural steel buildings, AISC, 2005
[3] Lee G. Morrell M. and Ketter R., “Design of tapered members”, Welding Research Council
Bulletin, 173, 1-32, 1972.
[4] Jimenez G., “Inelastic stability of tapered structural members”, Doctoral Dissertation, Minneapolis,
Minnesota, 1998.
[5] Jimenez G., and Galambos T.V., “Inelastic lateral-torsional buckling of tapered beam-columns”,
Proceedings, Annual Technical Session, Structural Stability Research Council, 1998.
[6] White D., and Kim, Y. D., “A prototype application of the AISC (2005) Stability and Design
Provisions to metal building structural systems,” Metal Building Manufacturers Association, 2006.
719
LATERAL BUCKLING OF CONTINUOUS STEEL BEAMS WITH HINGES
Peter Osterrieder*, Stefan Richter*, Matthias Friedrich**
* Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Urban Planning,

Brandenburg Technical University BTU Cottbus, D-03044 Cottbus, FRG,
e-mails: lsud@statik.tu-cottbus.de
** Friedrich+Lochner GmbH, D-01067 Dresden, FRG
Keywords: Lateral torsional buckling, local hinges, first-yield design, warping torsion of open thin-
walled members.
Abstract. Continuous steel beams used for girders, purlins, crane girders, etc. are subjected to lateral
torsion buckling. In many cases construction joints of those beams are carried out as moment hinges
rather than as rigid connections. The study is concerned with the effect of these hinges on the lateral
stability behaviour and their effect on the design. Based on a numerical approach critical lateral
buckling loads are calculated for different hinge locations and moment distributions. Finally load
capacities obtained from equivalent slenderness approach are compared to those from first-yield
criterion with internal forces from theory 2nd order analysis.
1 INTRODUCTION
Figure 1 shows common type of construction joints for continuous I-beams which will be assembled
on the construction site. These joints are able to transfer shear forces but only small fractions of the
bending, torsion and warping moments associated with 3-dimensional loading and nonuniform torsion.
Therefore in the structural analysis it is assumed for the hinge that lateral displacements v and w are
compatible and
My Mz Mx MZ 0 (1)
Figure 1: Examples of common construction joints for continuous beams
721
P. Osterrieder et al.
While moment hinges may be easily considered in any commercial computer program for in-plane
stress analysis the allowance of local static boundary conditions in the eigenvalue calculation required for
lateral buckling design is rather unusual. To account for local boundary conditions within a displacement
based finite element formulation basically two alternatives are available. Applying as usual static
condensation to local element stiffness matrix leads to coupled elastic and geometric element matrices
which are not suitable for numerical eigenvalue solution applying vector iteration. Introducing instead
double nodes and incorporating coupling conditions during assembly of the system stiffness results in
uncoupled elastic and geometric system stiffness matrices. The latter approach has been applied to a FE-
program for nonlinear analysis of 3-D beams with open thin-walled cross sections [1]. Bifurcation loads
from this numerical approach are applied to check for lateral buckling according to Eurocode 3 [2,
paragraph 6.3.2.2]. Design loads from this approach are compared to ultimate loads obtained by an elastic
theory 2nd order analysis considering geometric out-of-plane imperfections according to [2, paragraph
5.3.2].
2 NUMERICAL EIGENVALUE APPROACH

As described above the eigenvalue problem of a continuous beam with a local hinge has been solved
within a geometric nonlinear formulation by introduction of double nodes with subsequent coupling of
dofs during the assembling process of elastic and geometric system stiffness matrices. Two procedures
are available for the numerical solution of the general eigenvalue problem det(A-ȜB) = 0. First a rather
simple algorithm based on a modified inverse iteration with random generated starting vectors and
automatic shifting is started. If no convergence is reached subspace iteration with QZ-Algorithm is
initiated. To verify the procedure bifurcation loads for beams with moment hinge at midspan (fig. 2) have
been compared with closed-form and numerical solutions.
L = 10 m, IPE360 section
q applied at centroid
q cr 58.9 kN/ m ș'x (0) = 0, ș'x (L) = 0

q cr 32.4 kN/ m ș'x (0) z 0, ș'x (L) z 0
B.C. Tx Ty Tz 0 at x 0, x L
Figure 2: Lateral torsional buckling of beam with hinge
Critical loads for a cantilever beams which is equivalent to the structural system in figure 2 with a
span of 5m are calculated from analytical equations in [3, eqns.(9.14), (9.17)] as qcr = 57,2 kN ( ș'x 0 at
both ends) and qcr = 27.9 kN ( ș'x z 0 at both ends) with ș'x as the warping displacement. Numerical
results for the cantilever beam obtained from [1] are identical to those given for the entire beam with the
hinge in figure 2.
Specific attention is required, when the joint design in addition cannot transfer shear forces in y-
direction at all or only with considerable web deflections. In this case the left and the right side of the
beam is essentially uncoupled and so lateral buckling behaviour of the two substructures.
Figure 3: Lateral torsional buckling mode of mono symmetric beam with moment hinge
722
If the cross section is not doubly symmetric as shown in figure 3, displacements v und w in the
direction of the major y- and z-axes are related to the shear centre of the cross section.
3 CRTITICAL LOADS FOR CONTINUOUS BEAMS WITH HINGES
3.1 Structural idealization

To check any continuous beam as shown in figure 4 for lateral torsional buckling applying equivalent
slenderness procedure the associated lowest eigenvalue qcr for the entire structural system is required.
Figure 4: Continuous beam with moment hinge in midspan
Most common qcr is calculated alternatively in engineering practice for a virtually cut out single span
beam only with appropriate geometric and static boundary conditions at the respective supports. The
lateral torsional stability is governed by weakest – the most slender – beam. The interaction between the
single spans depends not only on the major axis bending moments but especially on the boundary
conditions for out-of-plane bending (v, șz) and torsion (șx, ș'x ). While in most real structures lateral
deformations v and torsional rotations șx at the supports will be restrained, boundary conditions for șz and
ș'x depend strongly on the out-of-plane bending and torsional stiffness of the adjacent spans. To illustrate
the sensitivity of the buckling load qcr with respect to the b.c. critical loads are calculated for the three
single spans in fig. 4 with and without warping restraint at the ends and related to the critical value qcr =
24,94 kN/m for the entire system. Results in table 1 are for L1 = L2 = 8m, L = 10m, Į = 0.3 and IPE330
section. To avoid kinematics in the eigenvalue analyses for span II the rotation at the right end about the
major y-axis is completely restrained.
For critical loads in row 2 it is assumed that the rotation șz about the weak z-axis is completely
restrained for all beams at the intermediate supports. Results in row 3 are calculated for unrestrained
rotations șz in a for the left beam, in b for the right beam and the rotation spring stiffness
EI z ª kNm º
kT z 3 620, 6 « » (2)
L1 ¬ rad ¼
at both supports of the beam with hinge. From the results in table 1 it is obvious, that buckling of the
middle span governs the stability problem and further that the middle span is elastically restrained against
out-of-plane bending and warping by both outer spans. More general it can be concluded that for most
practical problems of continuous beams the span containing the hinge will be relevant for stability
723
design. Thus the critical load may be approximated considering only the span with the moment hinge.
Fully warping restraint at both supports leads to the upper bound and free warping to the lower bound for
the critical eigenvalue.
Table 1: Critical loads qcr

span I span II span III
1 T'x,a 0 T'x,a z0
T'x,a 0 T'x,a z 0 T'x,b 0 T'x,b z 0
T'x,b 0 T'x,b z0
2 1.58 1.26 1.22 0.95 1.31 1.11
3 1.55 1.26 1.20 0.95 1.19 1.05
From the smallest critical load the critical moment and the dimensionless lateral torsional buckling
slenderness
Wy f y
OLT (3)
M cr
has to be evaluated for the subsequent design check.

3.2 Critical Loads for single span beams with a moment hinge
Figure 5: Bending moment distribution for single span beam with hinge
For a single span beam with a moment hinge as specified in eqn. (1) at distance ĮL from the left end
(fig. 5) the moment Mb at the right end depends further on the moment Ma and the uniformly distributed
load q
§ qL2 Ma ·
Mb E¨ ¸ (4)
© 2 D ¹
As long as the hinge is close to the centre of the span the left and the right segments will interact in
lateral torsional buckling depending on the bending moment distribution. When the hinge gets closer to
the right or left bearing, the shorter beam segment will support the longer segment in the out-of-plane
behaviour. For a hinge very close to one of the bearings the out-of-plane boundary conditions at the hinge
for the remaining longer segment may be approximated as
v 0 T z z 0 T x z 0 T x' z 0 (5)
Figure 6 shows a comparison of critical loads and associated eigenmodes for a beam with uniformly
distributed load q, a hinge at Į = 0.3 and equivalent bending moment distributions about major y-axis in
724
both systems. The total buckling mode is governed by the weaker beam segment and differs from the
partial mode only slightly with an increase in the critical load for the partial system of 11%.
Bending moment distribution

qcr = 6.87 kN/m
Buckling mode of beam with hinge
Out-of-plane B.C.
qcr = 7.61 kN/m = 1.11·6.87
IPE300
Buckling mode of right beam segment
Figure 6: Buckling modes and buckling loads for total and partial structure
Results in table 2 for a beam with a total span of 10 m, IPE300 section, varying hinge location Į, out-
of-plane b.c. as shown in fig. 6 and bending moment Ma = 0 confirm this observation more generally.
Table 2: Comparison of critical loads

ǹ qcr [kN/m] total beam qcr [kN/m] right segment
0.5 8.30 13.09
0.4 7.42 9.67
0.3 6.87 7.61
0.2 6.10 6.25
0.1 5.29 5.30
In figures 7 to 9 the dimensionless critical buckling loads
qcr L3
qcr (6)
EI z GI t
for beams with hinge b.c. given in eqn. (1) and șz = 0 at both supports are plotted over the stiffness
coefficient
S EIZ
k (7)
L GI t
In [3] and similar in [4] it has been shown, that critical loads presented in this dimensionless form are
applicable to almost any beam with hot-rolled doubly symmetric I-section. From figs. 7b to 9b it follows
that for beams restrained against warping at the ends the relation between the dimensionless stiffness and
the dimensionless critical load is almost linear. For beams with free warping b.c. at both ends the relation
is found to be highly nonlinear with almost asymptotic behaviour for increasing stiffness.
725
Figure 7: Critical loads for beam with hinge at Į = 0.4
726
4 LATERAL TORSIONAL BUCKLING RESISTANCE
4.1 Lateral torsional buckling resistance according to Eurocode 3

The resistance according to EC3 [2, 6.3.2.3] for hot rolled sections is
§ ·M d 1,0
M pl ,y 1 °
EC 3
M R,d F LT
JM1
¨
¨ ) ) 2 EO 2
¸ pl ,y
¸ JM1
®d 1 ) LT 2 º (8)
0,5 ¬ª1 D LT OLT OLT ,0 EOLT ¼
© LT LT LT ¹ ° O2
¯ LT
The following investigation was carried out for beams with variable span L, moment hinges and
IPE300 section (section class 1 [2, table 5.2], buckling curve b [2, table 6.4] and imperfection coefficient
ĮLT = 0,34 [2, table 6.4]). Further it is conservatively assumed that ȕ = 0,75, Ȗ M1 = 1,1, ȜLT,0 = 0, 4 and
f = 1 . For lateral buckling capacities with Į = 0.5 (fig. 10a) Ma = Ma = qL2/8 and for Į = 0.4 (fig. 10b)
and Ma = qL2/12 the moment Mb = 0.175qL2. Again boundary conditions at both ends are such that
rotations about z-axis are restrained and warping unconstrained.
Figure 10: Dimensionless lateral torsional buckling resistance
Figures 10a and 10b show dimensionless load capacities depending on the dimensionless buckling
slenderness O LT . Curves qu,EC3 in fig. 10 are obtained by dividing the ultimate load derived from eqn.
(8) by the load qpl associated with fully plastic moment. They agree with the Ȥ LT -distribution. It is to
notice that eqn. (8) does not take into account the effect of shear forces. Therefore the cross section
resistance has to be checked additionally and will restrict the capacity - specifically for small buckling
slendernesses - with respect to provisions in [2, 6.2.8].
4.2 Lateral torsional buckling resistance based on theory 2nd order analysis
Figure 11: Lateral torsional buckling mode of tapered beam with moment hinge
727
For stability design of more general structures like continuous beams with discrete or continuous
elastic support, arbitrary boundary conditions, intentionally out-of-plane loading and variable cross
section (see fig. 11) a theory 2nd order three-dimensional stress analysis with geometric out-of-plane
imperfections leads to a generally applicable approach.
For class 1 cross sections two criterions [5], [6] are available for definition of the ultimate load
capacity
- theory 2nd order first yield criterion
- theory 2nd order first hinge criterion
For first yield design the von-Mises stress ıv anywhere along the beam axis within the cross section,
obtained from a theory second order analysis of the geometrically imperfect structure with linear elastic
material behaviour must satisfy
fy
max ıVII ( ı xII,d )2 3( Ĳ dII )2 d (9)
ȖM 0
In (9) VIIx,d is the theory 2nd order axial stress due to the combined action an axial force N, bending
moments M y and Mz about principal axis and the warping moment MȦ from nonuniform torsion. The
theory 2nd order shear stress WdII is calculated from shear forces Vy and Vz and the St. Venant’s torsion
moment MTP. Graphs qu,el,v in figs. 10 are obtained by dividing the ultimate load derived from eqn. (9)
by the qpl. From comparison with the qu,el,x curve, which neglects shear stresses in eqn. (9) it is obvious,
that in the stocky slenderness area the capacity is essentially limited by the shear stresses. In the moderate
slender area the first yield criterion leads, depending on the moment distribution, to somewhat higher
capacities than the equivalent slenderness approach of EC3. For very slender structures shear stresses do
not count and capacities are very similar.
5 CONCLUSION
A procedure has been developed for lateral torsional buckling design of continuous beams with
moment hinges. It has been alternatively applied for equivalent slenderness procedure in EC3 and for first
yield criterion on the basis of a geometrically nonlinear theory 2nd order stress analysis including
geometric imperfections.
REFERENCES
[1] BTII-Programm, Biegetorsionstheorie II.Ordnung, Friedrich + Lochner GmbH - Software für Statik
und Tragwerksplanung, Version 03/09, Stuttgart/Dresden.
[2] DIN EN 1993-1-1, Eurocode 3: Bemessung und Konstruktion von Stahlbauten, Teil 1-1:
Allgemeine Bemessungsregeln und Regeln für den Hochbau, 2005.
[3] Trahair, N.S., Flexural-Torsional Buckling of Structures, CRC Press Boca Ration, 1993, ISBN
0849377633.
[4] Lindner, J., Stabilisierung von Trägern durch Trapezbleche, Stahlbau 1/1987, Ernst & Sohn
[5] Osterrieder, P., Voigt, M., Saal, H., Vergleichende Betrachtungen zum Biegedrillknicknachweis
nach DIN 18800 Teil 2 (Ausgabe März 1988), Stahlbau 58 (1989), Heft 11, 341 – 347
[6] Osterrieder, P., Kretzschmar, J., First-hinge analysis for lateral buckling design of open thin-walled
steel members, Journal of Constructional Steel Research 62 (2006), pp. 35-43
728
8. PLATED STRUCTURES AND BOX GIRDERS
THE INTERACTION BEHAVIOUR OF STEEL PLATES UNDER

TRANSVERSE LOADING, BENDING MOMENT AND SHEAR FORCE
Benjamin Braun* and Ulrike Kuhlmann*
* Institute for Structural Design, University of Stuttgart, Germany

e-mail: sekretariat@ke.uni-stuttgart.de
Keywords: Stability, plate buckling, interaction, steel structures
Abstract. This paper focuses on the design of steel plated girders under combinations of transverse
loading, bending moment and shear force. In the member states of the European Union the design of
slender steel plates is covered by EN 1993-1-5:2006. Although conclusions from literature show a rather
significant interaction between transverse loading and shear force (F-V), no consideration of this type of
interaction is made in Section 7.2 of EN 1993-1-5:2006. In order to close that gap experimental and
numerical studies were undertaken to analyse the stability behaviour and to identify the influence of key
parameters. Based on that an F-V proposal is developed which is completed by the consideration of a
bending moment so that finally a fully usable F-M-V interaction equation is proposed.
1 INTRODUCTION
Steel plated structures occur as part of slender structural systems due to their advantageous strength-
to-weight ratio which allows especially aesthetical solutions. Transverse stiffeners are usually provided at
locations where forces are applied locally. However, this is not possible if the position of the load
introduction is transient e.g. in case of bridge girders being incrementally launched or for deep crane
runway beams. In both cases high transverse forces have to be introduced into the slender steel webs of
the girder, often with high bending moment and shear force at the same time, see figure 1.
Although conclusions from literature show a rather significant interaction between transverse loading
and shear force (F-V), no consideration of this type of interaction is made in Section 7.2 of
EN 1993-1-5 [1]. In order to close that gap experimental and numerical studies were undertaken to
analyse the stability behaviour and to identify the influence of key parameters. Based on that an F-V
proposal is developed which is completed by the consideration of a bending moment so that finally a fully
usable F-M-V interaction equation is proposed.
Before current proposals are evaluated and improvements are proposed, considerations on the general
formulation of an interaction equation and on the choice of the verification point are presented in the
following sections.
a) combined loading b) longitudinal stresses c) shear stresses d) transverse stresses

Figure 1: Load combinations of a transversely loaded panel.
731
Ulrike Kuhlmann and Benjamin Braun
2 ON THE GENERAL FORMULATION OF AN INTERACTION EQUATION

In addition to a development of a design method for a single load case, the formulation of an
interaction equation puts additional difficulties which are:
Limited number of available data. In general, there is only a limited number of available data
points particularly from experiments because the ratio of loading is added as an important
parameter so that in order to be able to identify the parameter variation within a given load ratio a
similarly large number of specimens should be tested than for a basic load scenario.
Reference value for basic loading. The reference strength for basic loading coming from
resistance models usually has a variation itself. The interaction equation can therefore only be as
good as the resistance model for the reference strength. It is desirable to know the experimental
ultimate load from basic loading for each interaction test series, otherwise an assumption based on
a resistance model has to be made.
In the following, the interaction between transverse loading and shear force is exemplarily used to
illustrate the aforementioned difficulties and to explain the decisions which were taken in the formulation
of the proposals later on. Figure 2a) shows the F-V interaction with reference strengths based on basic
loadings from experimental and numerical studies in which nothing else than the load parameter was
varied in comparison to the interaction case. In contrast to this figure 2b) shows the same interaction data
but with reference strengths according to EN resistances. It can be shown that the data increasingly
scatters for the EN reference strengths due to the variation of the design model itself. In order to draw a
concise conclusion on the interaction behaviour, it would be necessary to eliminate the effect of the
reference strength's design model. In the F-V study, this was done while studying the effect of parameters
where experimental and numerical reference strengths are also referenced. Thus we can state that a
procedure similar to figure 2a) is better suited to analyse the interaction behaviour.
a) experimental and numerical b) EN reference strengths

reference strengths
Figure 2: Evaluation of interaction data with FR and VR according to experimental and numerical
reference strengths.
Besides that the quality of the reference strength influences the interaction data, so it is not the best
way to evaluate or define an interaction equation based on design models for reference strengths. Imagine
that only the experimental data would be available in figure 2b). In that case only two data points lie in
the quadrant which is relevant for interaction and the interaction equation would be less strict than in the
case when the numerical data are additionally considered. The parameters of the experiments are covered
732
rather by the means and upper fractiles of the resistance models which would lead to an underestimation
of interaction. It can be shown that if parameters are chosen such that they cover the lower tail of the
resistance models variation, as done in the numerical simulation, interaction becomes more severe. Of
course, if the definition of interaction equations is coupled to application ranges which restrict the use e.g.
to the parameters of the experiments, interaction may be defined more loose. However, in view of general
applicability and safety, the reference strengths should be based on corresponding experimental and
numerical basic loadings whenever possible.
3 ON THE CHOICE OF A VERIFICATION POINT

A plate is usually not subjected to constant stresses but rather to stress gradients. Focusing on the
resistance to transverse loading, it is presumed that the worst case is when the patch loading is placed at
the centerline of the plate. At this location also the bending stress induced by the transverse loading
becomes extremal. For the interaction between transverse loading and shear force, however, there are
basically two choices which reference load can be assigned to each axis of an interaction diagram:
The applied patch load F is related to the pure patch loading resistance FR and the maximum
internal shear force Vint,max is related to the pure shear resistance VR.
The applied patch load F is related to the pure patch loading resistance FR and the applied shear
force is corrected by 0.5-times of the applied patch load.
Although the maximum value of the internal shear force can be easily attained from the distribution of
internal forces, its use turned out to be disadvantageous in an interaction diagram because the verification
of the pure patch loading resistance already includes the shear force (=0.5·F) which is induced by the
patch load.
The second approach subdivides the combined loading into the two basic load cases "transverse
loading" and " shear force" which can be composed to create one load combination. Thus, the influence of
shear stresses which are caused by the transverse loading can be better accounted for. Then the
verification point coincides with the one for bending moment. For these reasons the verification point at
the centerline of the transverse loading, i.e. at maximum bending moment and average shear, is taken.
4 EVALUATION OF THE INTERACTION EQUATIONS

The reference strengths are important parameters and a lot of progress has been made for patch load
resistance models as summarised in [2]. Therefore an evaluation of the interaction equations is performed
not only for EN resistances but also for patch load resistance models which have been recently developed.
By doing this it is assured that the newly developed F-M-V interaction equation is applicable to future
developments. The following advanced patch load resistance models which have been mainly developed
in the frame of the COMBRI research project [3] are compared besides current EN resistances:
The proposal for girders without longitudinal stiffeners according to Gozzi [4] which follows the
general procedure of current EN 1993-1-5 but which has been further developed with regard to
the yield load and the reduction function.
The proposal for girders with longitudinal stiffeners according to Davaine [5] which can be used
with current EN 1993-1-5. It has been developed by adding the critical load of the directly loaded
subpanel and by modifiying the reduction curve.
Another proposal for girders with longitudinal stiffeners according to Clarin [6] which is
harmonised with the improved resistance model for girders without longitudinal stiffeners
according to Gozzi. It also uses the critical load of the directly loaded subpanel but here the
reduction curve for unstiffened cases is also used for girders with longitudinal stiffeners.
733
Regardless of girders without and with longitudinal stiffeners the bending moment resistance is
determined according to Section 4 and the shear resistance according to Section 5, both EN 1993-1-5 [1].
In order to evaluate the quality of the proposed interaction equations with regard to the different patch
load resistance models statistical analyses are performed. In the statistical evaluation the test result Re
which can be of experimental or numerical origin is consistently compared to the calculated resistance Rt
of the chosen engineering model under the same load ratio. From a constant load ratio two scalar load
amplification factors can be determined. The quotient of the two scalar load amplification factors
represents a key figure and on that basis a vectorial comparison is carried out for each pair of tested and
calculated resistances.
5 STUDIES ON TRANSVERSE LOADING AND SHEAR FORCE (F-V)

Based on own experimental and numerical investigations in the frame of the COMBRI research
project [3] a Finite Element model has been established with ANSYS® software [7] and verified with a
good agreement between experimental and numerical results. With this model the complex load paths in
the steel plates were followed and the interaction behaviour for varying F-V load ratio could be described.
The investigations showed that the interaction between transverse loading and shear force is significant.
However, current design standards such as EN 1993-1-5 [1] cover only the interaction between transverse
loading and bending moment. The evaluation of proposed interaction equations from literature led to the
conclusion that the proposals made on the basis of cold-formed trapezoidal beams and hot rolled sections
are not applicable to slender steel plates. On the other hand the interaction equation proposed by Roberts
and Shahabian [8] was approved for short loading lengths ss/hw < 0.25. For longer loading lengths,
however, their interaction equation does not lead to safe results. The lack of a F-V interaction equation in
EN 1993-1-5 and the results from the experimental and numerical studies indicated that for the interaction
between transverse loading and shear force the formulation of an appropriate interaction equation is
required. Following the principles which were set up in sections 2 and 3, interaction equation (1) has been
developed.
1.6
F §¨ V 0.5 F ·¸
d 1. 0 (1)
FR ¨© Vb ,R ¸
¹
where
FR is the transverse loading resistance of the cross section according to Section 6, EN 1993-1-
5, or according to the advanced resistance models by Gozzi [4], Davaine [5] and Clarin [6];
Vb,R is the shear resistance of the cross section according to Section 5, EN 1993-1-5.
The evaluation of the different resistance models showed that the proposed interaction equation is
safe sided not only for girders without but also with longitudinal stiffeners. The statistical evaluation is
given in table 1. Detailed results of the study can be found in [9].
Table 1: Statistical evaluation of the F-V interaction equation.

Model Mean value Standard deviation Lower 5%-fractile
Gozzi (2007) 1.309 0.184 1.007
Davaine (2005) 1.574 0.139 1.346
Clarin (2007) 1.556 0.126 1.348
6 ENHANCEMENT OF THE F-V PROPOSAL TO BENDING MOMENT (F-M-V)

Plates under transverse loading are unavoidably subjected to bending moment so that this interaction
has been already addressed in a number of research works which cannot be fully listed here. A
734
comprehensive summary of interaction equations can be found e.g. in [10]. The statistical evaluation of
the different interaction equations based on EN reference strengths is given in table 2. The Roberts
proposal is the most conservative one, whereas the Bergfelt proposal is the most favourable one. However
it can be shown that all proposals perform similar and that the trilinear EN approach is simple though
appropriate. And although the EN interaction equation was determined on the basis of EN reference
strengths, it can be shown that it could be further used for welded sections even if the advanced resistance
model of Gozzi is used. However, the objective to propose a single F-M-V interaction equation led to the
development of a F-M interaction equation which can be consistently merged with the F-V proposal, see
equation (1).
Table 2: Statistical evaluation of F-M interaction equations in chronological order.

Bergfelt (1971) 1.541 0.264 1.107
Roberts (1981) 1.584 0.237 1.193
Elgaaly (1983) 1.552 0.254 1.134
Ungermann (1990) 1.567 0.239 1.174
Johansson & Lagerqvist (1994) 1.544 0.258 1.120
EN 1993-1-5 (2006) 1.548 0.255 1.128
Following the principles which were set up in sections 2 and 3, an interaction equation based on the
general format according to equation (2) has been developed.
c
F § M ·
¨ ¸ d 1.0 (2)
FR ¨© M R ¸¹
Equation (2) is fitted as lower bound curve to a small FE study of Davaine and the F-M database
which has been evaluated with the advanced resistance models of Gozzi and Clarin. The comparison is
shown in figures 4 and 5. The difference between both figures is the reference strength which has been
chosen for the bending moment resistance. Data points inside the interaction curve can be disregarded
since they are close to basic loading cases so that their deviation is considered as inherent to the resistance
models for the reference strengths. In figure 4 the reference strengths for the bending moment resistance
MR is based on the relevant cross-section class, i.e. Mpl or Mel. The parameter c is determined and
rounded off to a single decimal place so that c = 5.0. It can be shown that for high levels of bending
moment the interaction curve hardly catches the distribution of data points. For that reason, in a second
step the plastic moment resistance irrespective of the cross-section class was chosen as reference strength,
as it is similarly used in the M-V interaction of Section 7.1, EN 1993-1-5. The parameter c is determined
and rounded off to a single decimal place so that c = 3.6. The results are shown in figure 5. It can be
shown that the data is slightly more homogenouos though hardly perceptible. The statistical evaluation of
both proposals which is given in tables 4 and 5 supports this. In table 3 the results of current EN rules are
given and a comparison shows that in both cases an improvement exists which can be identified by
comparing especially the standard deviation. However, in terms of statistical quality both proposals are
almost identical.
This consistency and the data scatter which is perceived to be slightly more homogenuous leads to the
adoption of the plastic bending moment resistance as reference value. Thus, the consistent definition of
the F-V and F-M interaction equations as continuous function enables the merging of both criteria. The
full F-M-V interaction equation becomes equation (3). In addition the resistance criteria of the basic
loadings according to section 4.6, 5.5 and 6.6, EN 1993-1-5, should be met. The resulting interaction
surface is illustrated in figure 6.
735
Figure 4: F-M interaction proposal, MR based on relevant cross-section class
Figure 5: F-M interaction proposal, MR = Mpl,R irrespective of the cross-section class

(here: Mel,R/Mpl,R = 0.88)
Table 3: Statistical evaluation of the F-M interaction equation according to EN 1993-1-5.

Girder type Mean value Standard deviation Lower 5%-fractile
with longitudinal stiffeners 1.548 0.255 1.128
without longitudinal stiffeners 1.598 0.315 1.080
Table 4: Statistical evaluation of the F-M interaction equation with MR = MR,EN and c = 5.0.
Gozzi (2007) 1.458 0.229 1.081
Davaine (2005) 1.404 0.204 1.067
Clarin (2007) 1.462 0.243 1.063
736
Table 5: Statistical evaluation of the F-M interaction equation with MR = Mpl,R and c = 3.6.
Gozzi (2007) 1.466 0.229 1.089
Davaine (2005) 1.414 0.204 1.078
Clarin (2007) 1.466 0.242 1.068
3.6 1.6
F §¨ M ·
¸
§ V 0.5 F ·
¨ ¸ d 1.0 (3)
FR ¨© M pl ,R ¸ ¨ V ¸
¹ © b ,R ¹
where
FR is the transverse loading resistance of the cross section according to Section 6, EN 1993-1-
5, or according to the advanced resistance models by Gozzi [4], Davaine [5] and Clarin[6];
Mpl,R is the plastic resistance of the cross section consisting of the effective area of the flanges
and the fully effective web irrespective of its section class;
Vb,R is the shear resistance of the cross section according to Section 5, EN 1993-1-5.
Figure 6: F-M-V interaction surface
7 CONCLUSIONS
Based on the research work of the COMBRI research project [3] and beyond [11], evident and
necessary improvements regarding the interaction criteria of steel plates are reported in this paper. At the
beginning thorough considerations on the formulation of interaction criteria and verification points were
made in general. In detail a new interaction equation for the effective width method in case of transverse
loading, bending moment and shear force has been proposed which is summed up below.
First a comparison of the experimental and numerical F-V results with known tests from literature
showed that the interaction between transverse loading and shear force is not negligible. A comparison
with proposals from literature showed that only few approaches exist which do not appropriately describe
the interaction behaviour e.g. with regard to the influence of the long loading lengths. Especially for
longer loading lengths the formulation of a new interaction equation was required, see equation (1). By
choosing the verification point at the centerline of the transverse loading the part of the shear force which
737
is induced by the transverse loading and which is already included in the resistance model can be
accounted for. As a result not only the smallest data scatter is found but also a conclusive subdivision of
the interaction case into the basic loadings "transverse loading" and "shear force" is possible which makes
an interaction verification for a transverse loading without additional shear force obsolete.
Plates under transverse loading are unavoidably subjected to bending moment so that this interaction
has already been addressed in a number of research works which have been thoroughly evaluated in this
work. The performance of all proposals is similar and it could be shown that the trilinear EN approach is
simple though appropriate. However, the objective to propose a single F-M-V interaction equation led to
the development of a F-M interaction equation which can be consistently merged with the F-V proposal,
see equation (3). The verification point is naturally chosen at the centerline of the transverse loading
which is the location where also the maximum bending moment occurs.
The new formulation is based on the experimental and numerical data set from own work and from
literature and a statistical evaluation proves the applicability of the equation not only to current EN
resistance models but also to the improved resistance models developed by Gozzi, Davaine and Clarin,
for unstiffened and for longitudinally stiffened girders.
REFERENCES
[1] EN 1993-1-5, Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 1-5: Plated structural elements, 2006.
[2] Kuhlmann, U., Johansson, B., Raoul, J., Braun, B., Gozzi, J., Clarin, M., Davaine, L. and Martin,
P.-O., “A Survey on Patch Loading Models for Bridge Launching”, Proc. of the IABSE Symposium,
Weimar, Germany, 2007.
[3] COMBRI, Competitive Steel and Composite Bridges by Improved Steel Plated Structures, Final
Report, RFCS contract no. RFS-CR-03018, 2007.
[4] Gozzi, J., Patch Loading Resistance of Plated Girders - Ultimate and serviceability limit state,
Doctoral thesis 2007:30, Division of Steel Structures, Luleå University of Technology, Sweden,
2007.
[5] Davaine, L., Formulation de la résistance au lancement d’une âme métallique de pont raidie
longitudinalement - Résistance dite de "Patch Loading", Doctoral Thesis, L’Institut National des
Sciences Appliquées de Rennes, France, 2005.
[6] Clarin, M., Plate Buckling Resistance - Patch Loading of Longitudinally Stiffened Webs and Local
Buckling, Doctoral thesis 2007:31, Division of Steel Structures, Luleå University of Technology,
Sweden, 2007.
[7] ANSYS® v10.0, ANSYS Inc., Canonsburg, Pennsylvania, USA.
[8] Roberts, T.M. and Shahabian, F., “Design procedures for combined shear and patch loading”, Proc.
of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Structures & Buildings, 140(August), 219-225, 2005.
[9] Kuhlmann, U., Braun, B. and Johansson, B., “The interaction behaviour of slender plates subjected
to shear force and patch loading”, Proc. of the 5th International Conference on Thin-walled
Structures, Brisbane, Australien, 2008.
[10] Lagerqvist, O., Patch Loading - Resistance of steel girders subjected to concentrated forces,
Doctoral thesis 1994:159 D, Division of Steel Structures, Luleå University of Technology, Sweden,
1994.
[11] Braun, B., Design of steel plates under combined loading, Doctoral thesis, Institute for Structural
Design, University of Stuttgart (in preparation).
738
HYBRID STEEL PLATE GIRDERS SUBJECTED TO PATCH LOADING
Rolando Chacón*, Enrique Mirambell* and Esther Real*
*Construction Engineering Department. Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain

e-mails: rolando.chacon@upc.edu, enrique.mirambell@upc, esther.real@upc.edu
Keywords: Hybrid girders, patch loading, EN1993-1-5.
Abstract. The structural case of hybrid girders subjected to patch loading is treated identically than
the one for homogenous specimens in EN1993-1-5. The EN1993-1-5 formulation is based upon a
theoretical model which consists of a plastic resistance Fy partly reduced by a resistance function χF,
this latter accounting for instability. The EN1993-1-5 formulation predicts that the ultimate load
capacity of steel plate girders subjected to patch loading increases, among others, with the hybrid
grade fyf/fyw. In this work, an appraisal of the theoretical and numerical responses of hybrid and
homogenous specimens subjected to patch loading is presented. Some peculiarities concerning the
treatment of hybrid girders are pinpointed though. It is numerically demonstrated that the moment
capacity of the flanges (and thus, fyf/fyw) does not play any role in the resistance of girders predicted in
EN1993-1-5. Accordingly, a design proposal which enhances the current formulation is provided.
1 INTRODUCTION
A girder is deemed as being hybrid when it is fabricated with different steel strengths for the flange
and web panels. In hybrid design, the nominal yield strength of one or both flanges is larger than the
nominal yield strength of the web. This type of girder is popular as the girder yields a greater flexural
capacity at lower cost and weight compared to a homogeneous girder [1]. On the other hand, patch
loading phenomena has been widely analyzed since the early sixties. Experimental and theoretical
analyses have pinpointed the typical failure mechanisms of girders subjected to patch loading and
consequently ultimate load predictions are nowadays available [2]-[4]. Broadly speaking, two
magnitudes have been given to describe the resistance of members subjected to this sort of loads. The
former defines a plastic resistance Fy of the member whereas the latter, an elastic critical load Fcr. The
former has been generally obtained by limit analysis whereas the latter, by theoretical formulae properly
calibrated with numerical simulations. The factual situations to which these members are subjected lie
inside a blurred transition between yielding and instability. It is well known that the root square of the
ratio between the plastic resistance Fy and the elastic critical load Fcr is commonly referred to as the
slenderness parameter. Admittedly, there exists a direct relation between this slenderness and the actual
failure mode. This relation has been labeled in the European guidelines for the design of plated
structural elements EN1993-1-5 [5] as the resistance function. The patch loading phenomena has been
harmonized to this procedure.
Despite the vast amount of research devoted separately to both hybrid girders and the patch loading
field, the research work that matches both subjects is rather scant [6]-[8]. In this paper, the resistance of
hybrid steel plate girders subjected to patch loading is dealt with simultaneously. Theoretically, it is
demonstrated that the EN1993-1-5 formulation predicts the resistance of plate girders subjected to patch
loading as a monotonic increasing function with, among other parameters, the flange yield strength fyf
(and consequently, with the hybrid grade fyf/fyw). Numerically, a vast study aimed at comparing
numerical and theoretical results is presented. In this study, it is found that the results obtained with the
739
Rolando Chacón et al.
EN1993-1-5 provisions do not reproduce satisfactorily the trends obtained numerically. Alternatively, a
design proposal in accordance with the procedure implemented in EN19931-5 and aimed at correcting
the aforementioned anomaly is proposed.
2 EN1993-1-5. PLATED STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
2.1 Hybrid girders

The European design rules EN1993-1-5 overtly consider the hybrid girder usage. These rules
recommend a maximum value of Φh=fyf/fyw<2,0. The treatment of hybrid girders is identical to one of
homogeneous prototypes except for the following remarks. First, as the resistance to direct stresses of
plate girders is calculated by using the effective area of the cross-section, in the particular case of hybrid
design, fyf must be used in determining the effective area of the web for plate buckling purposes.
Second, for the particular case of hybrid plate girders it is indicated that the potential yielding of the
web must be taken into account in direct stresses verifications.
2.2 Patch loading
Regarding the verification to patch loading, the general approach currently included in EN1993-1-5
is based upon a plastic resistance Fy which is partially reduced by means of the resistance function χF.
The plastic resistance is based upon the mechanical model suggested in [2]. In eq. (1), ly is the yield-
prone effectively loaded length and is calculated from geometrical and mechanical properties of the
girders by using equations (2), being “ly” not greater than the distance between adjacent transverse
stiffeners “a”. χF takes instability into account by means of equations (3) and (4) and can be obtained
with eq. (5). The buckling coefficient kF for longitudinally unstiffened panels is given in (6).
χ F·Fy χ F·f yw ·l y·t w χ F·f yw ·a·t w
FRd = = ≤ (1)
γ M1 γ M1 γ M1
⎛ 2 ⎞
( ) ⎜
l y = s s + 2·t f · 1 + m1 + m2 = ss + 2·t f ·⎜1 +
f yf ·b f ⎛h
+ 0,02⎜⎜ w
⎞ ⎟
⎟ ⎟≤a
⎟ (2)
⎜ f ·
yw w t ⎝ tf ⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
f yw ·l y·t w
λF = (3)
Fcr
t 3w
Fcr = 0,9·k F ·E· (4)
hw
0,5
χF = ≤ 1,0 (5)
λF
2
⎛h ⎞
k F = 6 + 2·⎜⎜ w ⎟⎟ (6)
⎝ a ⎠
In eq. (2), it is observed that ly is an increasing function with the term m1 (which includes the hybrid
ratio Φh=fyf/fyw). As a result, FRd is an increasing function with Φh accordingly.
740
3 NUMERICAL MODEL
3.1 Description
A numerical model implemented in Abaqus [9] was used systematically as a simulation tool. In this work,
fully nonlinear analyses were performed on ideally modeled steel plate girders using quadrilateral shell
elements for the web, flanges and stiffeners. These models were based upon the following numerical features.
Geometrically, S4 shell elements found in Abaqus libraries were employed for the simulations. Materially, an
elastic-perfectly plastic constitutive equation was adopted for all cases. The used nonlinear solution strategy
was the arc-length method (based on the modified Riks algorithm). The used iterative procedure was the
Newton-Raphson method. Eigenvalue extractions were also performed for the sake of obtaining elastic critical
loads as well as the elastic critical shapes typically associated to failure modes.
All numerical simulations were performed by following the current European guidelines EN1993-1-5-
Annex C. In a previous work performed by the authors, the validity of these guidelines when developing
numerical models on plate girders subjected to patch loading was pointed out [10]. The main conclusions
pinpointed in such work are given herein. Firstly, the initial shape of the geometry of the girders can be based
upon the 1st critical eigenmode. Secondly, the largest amplitude w of this critical shape can be scaled to a value
equaling 80% of the fabrication tolerances. Eventually, the structural imperfections must be included in the
form of residual stress patterns. Further information concerning those topics can be found [6]-[8] and [10].
3.2 Numerical database
Numerical simulations were performed on a single panel centrically loaded with a patch. The panel
was locally loaded up to failure. The load was introduced as a pressure on the top flange within the load
length ss. The panels were modeled as simply supported (a beam with support reactions) with additional
restrains in all flange corners. Transverse stiffeners were provided in the bearing sections. The
numerical database was constructed by varying geometrical and material parameters. Table 1
summarizes the set of variations, which resulted in an amount of 192 specimens. Four different groups
form the framework of the sample. Each group consists of a web panel presenting a given value of hw.
Within each group, three different distances between transverse stiffeners “a” were studied. Likewise,
two different values of tw studied for each case leading to varying the web slenderness within each
group. The hybrid parameter Φh=fyf/fyw was varied systematically. The web yield strength was held
constant whereas the flange yield strength was accordingly increased from Φh=fyf/fyw =235/235=1,0
(homogenous girder) to Φh=fyf/fyw =460/235=1,95.
3.3 Numerical results
Numerical results of 192 plate girders subjected to concentrated loads are available for all the
depicted specimens [6]-[7]. Ultimate load capacities Fu,num as well as elastic critical buckling loads
Fcr,num were obtained in all prototypes. In this paper, for the sake of conciseness, these results are
presented only graphically in figure 1. This plot represents the resistance function curve defined in
EN1993-1-5 (Eq. 6) together with the results obtained numerically. These numerical results are plotted
in the form of Fu,num/Fy (being Fu,num the ultimate load obtained with the numerical model and Fy the
theoretically predicted plastic resistance according to Eq. (1).
At first glance, all dots corresponding to numerical results are located above the theoretical
EN1993-1-5 resistance function. This finding is structurally sound and on the safety side. By contrast, in
previous works performed by the authors [6]-[8], it was found that the structural response of girders
subjected to patch loading differ considerably whether the calculated effectively loaded length “ly” is
less than or greater than the distance between transverse stiffeners “a”. The former case is typically
associated with web folding as the failure mode whereas the latter, to a failure mode involving both web
folding and flange yielding. In the developed numerical database, 148 girders belong to the former
category (largely spaced transverse stiffeners, ly<a). This category represents the vast majority of
741
realistic structural cases of steel plate girders subjected to concentrated loading in, for instance, bridge
applications. The conclusions presented in this paper are related to this category only.
Table 1. Numerical database

Group
Numerical database variations
0 I II III
2
Web yield strength fyw (N/mm ) 235 235 235 235
235 235 235 235

275 275 275 275
Flange yield strength fyf (N/mm2) 355 355 355 355
460 460 460 460
h w (mm) 1000 2000 3000 4000
1000 2000 3000 4000
a (mm) 2000 4000 6000 8000
3000 6000 9000 12000
8 12 15 15
tw (mm)
12 20 25 30
250 500 750 1000
s s (mm)
500 1000 1500 2000
2
Flange dimensions (mm ) 800x60 900 x 80 1000 x 80 1200 x 100
Stiffener thickness (mm) 40 60 60 80
Girders per group 48 48 48 48
Total number of numerical simulations 192
Resistance curve. EN1993-1-5 formulation

1,6
1,4
1,2
EN1993-1-5
1
Group 0
χF
Group I
0,8
Group II
0,6 Group III
0,4
0,2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Slenderness λ f
Figure 1. Resistance function and numerical results.
4 ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS

The structural response of hybrid steel plate girders subjected to patch loading is analyzed on a
sample of typical load-displacement plots extracted for 16 girders of the whole numerical database
(namely, only girders with geometrical proportions such as ly<a). All plots are drawn from values of the
actual applied load and, in addition, the vertical displacement of a node located at the mid-span cross-
section of the top flange. Figure 2 displays four different plots. In each one, four curves corresponding to
girders with identical geometry are displayed. Fundamentally, the only varying parameter within each
plot is the nominal yield strength of the flange fyf (and consequently, the Φh=fyf/fyw ratio). Each plot
corresponds to a sample of girders excerpted from each group (0 to III). Three additional remarks
742
feature the selected sample. Firstly, all girders present an aspect ratio a/hw=3,00. Secondly, the web
slenderness is different from one group another. Girders belonging to the group 0 are fairly stocky
(hw/tw=83,33) whereas girders belonging to group III are fairly slender (hw/tw=266,66). Thirdly, iIt is
worth mentioning that the geometric proportions of the girders (web, flange and stiffeners proportions)
are different from one group another. Numerically obtained ultimate loads Fu are indicated for all cases.
Group 0. a/hw=3,00; hw/tw=83,33 Group I. a/hw=3,00, hw/tw=166,66

tw=12mm, hw=1000mm tw=12mm, hw=2000mm
3000 3000
2500 2500
2000
Load (kN)
2000
Load (kN)
1500 1500
235/235. Fu=1679 kN
1000 1000 235/235. Fu=1947kN
275/235. Fu=1679 kN
275/235. Fu=1947kN
355/235. Fu=1679 kN
500 355/235. Fu=1947kN
460/235. Fu=1679 kN 500
460/235. Fu=1947kN
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Displacement (mm) Displacement (mm)
Group II. a/hw=3,00; hw/tw=200 Group III. a/h w=3,00; hw/tw=266,66
tw=15mm, hw=3000mm tw=15mm, h w=4000mm
3000 3000
2500 2500
2000 2000
Load (kN)
Load (kN)
1500 1500
235/235. Fu=2711 kN
1000 275/235. Fu=2712 kN 1000 235/235. Fu=2820 kN
355/235. Fu=2712 kN 275/235. Fu=2820 kN
500 460/235. Fu=2712 kN 355/235. Fu=2820 kN
500
460/235. Fu=2820 kN
0
0
0 5 10 15 20
0 5 10 15 20
Displacement (mm) Displacement (mm)
Figure 2. Structural response of girders subjected to concentrated loads.
All girders present a similar load-deflection plot with a monotonically increasing branch as well as a
peak load at which the load-bearing capacity is exhausted (Fu). Subsequently, a softening branch is
observed in all cases. Surprisingly, the influence of the flange yield strength (and thus, the hybrid ratio
Φh=fyf/fyw) is negligible. For each series of girders in which Φh is varied ranging from Φh=1,00 to
Φh=1,96, the shape of the curves as well as the magnitudes of the ultimate load coincide. This fact is
observable for all groups (insistently, solely in girders with ly<a).
Moreover, an appraisal of EN1993-1-5 formulation when obtaining ultimate loads of hybrid
specimens subjected to patch loading is presented. For the sake of illustration, FRd (theoretical) and Fu
(numerical) values are standardized to the ultimate load obtained with a geometrically equivalent
743
homogeneous prototype (in all cases, the material yield strength in these homogenous prototypes is
fyf=fyw=235 N/mm2). Namely, the plotted ratio is equal to Fhyb / Fhom. This ratio is plotted against the
variation of the flange steel grade Φh=fyf/fyw. Figure 3 shows the evolution of this ratio as long as
Φh=fyf/fyw is increased for both numerical and EN1993-1-5 results. 32 specimens are included in such
appraisal. It is observed that the EN1993-1-5 formulation predicts a considerable increment of ultimate
load capacity of the girders as the yield strength of the flange is increased. Different maximum
increments are observed for each case (Group 0≈15%; Group III≈10%). The numerical model, however,
neither predicts the same results nor the same trend. The ultimate load capacity is maintained constant
as the Φh=fyf/fyw ratio is increased. The present EN1993-1-5 formulation leads to a structural anomaly
and must be evaluated.
Group 0 Group I
1,20 1,20
Num. hw/tw=120 Num. hw/tw=166,66
EN1993-1-5-hw/tw=120 1,15 EN1993-1-5-hw/tw=166,66
1,15
Num. hw/tw=83,33 Num. hw/tw=100
EN1993-1-5-hw/tw=83,33 EN1993-1-5-hw/tw=100
1,10
Fhyb / FHom
1,10
F hyb / F Hom
1,05 1,05
1,00 1,00
0,95 0,95
0,90 0,90
0,80 1,30 1,80 2,30 0,80 1,30 1,80 2,30
fyf/fyw fyf/fyw
Group II Group III
1,20 1,20
Num. hw/tw=200 Num. hw/tw=266,66
1,15 EN1993-1-5-hw/tw=200 1,15 EN1993-1-5-hw/tw=266,66
Num-hw/tw=120 Num-hw/tw=133,33
EN1993-1-5-hw/tw=120 EN1993-1-5-hw/tw=133,33
1,10 1,10
Fhyb / FHom
F hyb / FHom
1,05 1,05
1,00 1,00
0,95 0,95
0,90 0,90
0,80 1,30 1,80 2,30 0,80 1,30 1,80 2,30
fyf/fyw fyf/fyw
Figure 3. Numerical results vs. EN1993-1-5 predictions.
5 DESIGN PROPOSAL
The numerical studies on hybrid steel plate girders subjected to patch loading hitherto presented have
shown that for girders with largely spaced transversal stiffeners (ly<a), the contribution of the flange yield
strength fyf upon the patch loading resistance seems to be negligible. The current formulation of EN1993-1-5
takes this ratio into account in such a way that, the greater the ratio Φh =fyf/fyw, the higher the ultimate load
capacity of the girders. Presently, the term m1 included in Eq. (2) is a linear function of Φh=fyf/fyw. One first
attempt for correcting this anomaly is to take the fyf/fyw ratio equal to 1,0 in the current expression for FRd,
according to EN1993-1-5. This attempt leads to reshaping the effectively loaded length ly into eq. (8), in which
m1 is shifted by m1*. This modification of the formulation has been tested both structurally and statistically in
[6]-[8]. The former verification has permitted to draw limits to the formulation (depicted in eq (8)) and the
744
latter, to evaluate the corresponding enhancement this new formula gives to the safety margin of the
formulation.
⎛ 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎛h ⎞ ⎟ ⎛ ⎛ h w ⎞ ⎛ bf ⎞ ⎞
l y* = s s + 2·t f ·⎛⎜1 + m1* + m 2 ⎞⎟ = s s + 2·t f ·⎜1 +
bf
+ 0,02⎜⎜ w ⎟ ⎟ if ⎜ ⎜ ≥ 12,5 (8)
⎟ t w ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ t f ⎟⎠ ⎟⎠
⎝ ⎠ ⎜ tw ⎝ tf ⎠ ⎟ ⎝⎝
⎝ ⎠
In this paper, the ratio Fu,num / FRd is used for evaluation of the formulation (in this assessment, the partial
factor is treated as γM1=1,00). Fu,num / FRd represents the safety margin of the formulation. Figure 4 (a) shows
the variable Fu,num / FRd as a function of Φh =fyf/fyw. Each value of fyf/fyw includes a number of numerical results
(n=37). All populations fit to a normal distribution. It is noticeable that as long as fyf/fyw is increased, the
scatter gradually moves down (the arrow in the plot shows such trend). Remarkable statistical information
extracted from each sample is presented in Table 2. This information gives hints about the trends observed
within the plots. From Table 2, one can point out significant results. First, for each studied value of fyf/fyw, the
mean value for n=37 decreases with fyf/fyw. Second, the sample standard deviation Sx and the sample variation
Vx remain nearly constant in all cases and third, maxima and minima values of the sample decrease gradually
with fyf/fyw. According to the results obtained, one can observe a certain dependency of the statistics upon the
fyf/fyw ratio (fundamentally, the mean and the extremes). These statistics, which are essentially estimators of the
safety margin, decrease monotonically. This fact may be structurally detrimental and undesirable.
2,00 2,00
1,80 1,80
1,60
Fu,num / Fu,EN1993-1-5
1,60
Fu,num / Fu,m1*
1,40 1,40
1,20 1,20
1,00 1,00
0,80 0,80
0,60 b f · f yf bf
m1 = 0,60 m1* =
0,40 t w · f yw 0,40 tw
0,20 0,20
0,00 0,00
0,80 1,00 1,20 1,40 1,60 1,80 2,00 0,80 1,00 1,20 1,40 1,60 1,80 2,00
f yf/f yw fyf/fyw
Figure 4. Fu,num/FRd vs fyf/fyw. (a) based upon m1 (b) based upon m1*.
Table 2. Statistical values for the safety margin variable Fu,num/FRd. Values based upon m1.
n fyf/fyw X Sx Vx Maximum Minimum
37 1,00 1,42 0,157 0,111 1,73 1,14
37 1,17 1,39 0,155 0,111 1,70 1,11
37 1,51 1,36 0,156 0,115 1,65 1,07
37 1,96 1,32 0,149 0,113 1,59 1,03
Table 3. Statistical values for the safety margin variable Fu,num/FRd. Values based upon m1*.
n fyf/fyw X Sx Vx Maximum Minimum
37 1,00 1,42 0,159 0,112 1,73 1,14
37 1,17 1,42 0,158 0,111 1,74 1,14
37 1,51 1,43 0,162 0,113 1,74 1,14
37 1,96 1,43 0,157 0,110 1,74 1,14
745
Correspondingly, the ratio Fu,num / FRd,m1* is used for evaluation. Figure 4 (b) shows a plot in which the
populations (n=37 for each value of Φh) are plotted against the fyf/fyw ratio. A substantial change in the trend is
observed regarding the influence of fyf/fyw. Table 3 shows similar statistics for the population in which ly is
based upon m1*. In this case, all statistics are nearly constant for all groups. The mean and the extremes in all
cases practically coincide. Accordingly, the aforementioned peculiarities vanish when m1 is shifted by m1*.
According to the results obtained, the term m1* corrects quite satisfactorily the potential overestimation
encountered within the numerical results.
6 CONCLUSIONS
Numerical results presented in this paper have shown some aspects concerning the effect of the
flange yield strength (and thus, the hybrid parameter Φh=fyf/fyw) on the resistance of steel plate girders
subjected to patch loading. Numerically, it is predicted that for girders with largely spaced transverse
stiffeners (ly<a), there is null influence of this ratio upon the ultimate load capacity of patch loaded
girders. The current formulation of EN1993-1-5 takes this ratio into account in such a way that, the
greater the ratio fyf/fyw is, the higher the ultimate load capacity of the girders. For the sake of correcting
this anomaly, a modification on the current EN1993-1-5 formulation that enhances the results quite
satisfactorily is proposed. Readably, it is suggested that m1 be shifted by m1*. This new formula has
been tested both structurally and statistically. The results lead to a satisfactory improvement of the
formulation. The results obtained with the upgraded coefficient m1* are structurally sound and on the
safety side.
7 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided by Spanish Ministerio de
Fomento, as a part of the Research Project 51/07 “Integral bridges”
REFERENCES
[1] Veljkovic, M., Jojansson B. “Design of hybrid steel girders”. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research, 60(3-5), 535-547, 2004.
[2] Lagerqvist, O., Jojansson B. “Resistance of I-girders to concentrated loads”. Journal of
[3] Roberts, R., Rockey, K. “A mechanism solution for predicting the collapse loads of slender plate
girders when subjected to in-plane patch loading”. Proc. Inst. of Civil Eng. 67(2), 155-175, 1979.
[4] Elgaaly, M. “Web design under compressive edge loads”. Eng Journal 20(4) 153-171, 1983
[5] EN1993-1-5. “Design of Steel Structures. Part-1-5. Plated Structural Elements”. CEN2006.
[6] Chacon, R., “Resistance of hybrid steel plate girders to concentrated loads”. Doctoral Thesis.
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya. 2009
[7] Chacon, R., Mirambell, E., Real, E., “Hybrid steel plate girders subjected to patch loading. Part-1
Numerical study”. Journal of Constructional Steel Research. 66(5), 695-708. 2010
[8] Chacon, R., Mirambell, E., Real, E., “Hybrid steel plate girders subjected to patch loading. Part-2
Design proposal”. Journal of Constructional Steel Research. 66(5), 709-715. 2010
[9] Abaqus/Standard V.6.8. Simulia products. Dassault Systemes S.A. 2010
[10] Chacon, R., Mirambell, E., Real, E., “Influence of designer assumed initial conditions of the
numerical modeling of steel plate girders subjected to patch loading”. Thin-Walled Structures.
47(4), 391-402, 2009.
746
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754
SHEAR STRENGTH OF STEEL PLATE WITH REINFORCED OPENING
Bo Chen and K.S. Sivakumaran
Department of Civil Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, CANADA, L8S 4L7
e-mail: siva@mcmaster.ca
Key words: Cold-formed steel, Shear resistance, Finite element analysis, Opening, Reinforcement
Abstract: A cost effective way to mitigate the detrimental effects of large web openings in the floor joists
of cold-formed steel buildings is to fasten reinforcements. This paper presents the details associated with
the finite element analysis of thick/thin-plate, representing the web of a cold-formed steel member, having
a large reinforced opening. The study considered simply-supported rectangular plates with opening
subjected to in-plane shear loadings until failure (including post-buckling behaviour). The plate and the
reinforcements were modelled using geometrically non-linear quadrilateral shell elements, and using
experimentally established non-linear stress-strain relationships. The investigation considered three
reinforcement schemes, namely, flat, lip, and angle reinforcements. This paper discusses the modelling
considerations and presents the results associated with the three reinforcement schemes under
consideration. Where possible the paper compares the analysis results with the experimental results.
1 INTRODUCTION
The floor joists of cold-formed steel buildings often require large web openings. A cost effective way
to mitigate the detrimental effects of web openings in the floor joists is to fasten reinforcements.
Recently, experiments were conducted to establish such reinforcement schemes for web opening in shear
and in flexural zones. Since moment always coexists with the shear, it is impossible to create pure shear
state in experiments, resulting in moment influenced results. However, Finite element analysis can be
conveniently used to investigate the pure shear behaviour of webs including webs with reinforced
opening. This paper presents the details associated with the finite element analysis of thick/thin-web
having a large reinforced opening. The study considered post-buckling behaviour of simply-supported
rectangular plates with reinforced opening subjected to in-plane shear loadings until failure.
Reinforcements for hot-rolled steel member web openings have been studied in detail in the past.
Redwood and Shrivastava [1] studied unreinforced and reinforced web openings in hot-rolled W-shaped
sections. Based on experiments, Narayanan and Der-Avanessian [2] proposed an equilibrium solution to
predict the strength of webs containing reinforced rectangular openings. They considered welded flat
reinforcements placed symmetrically above and below the openings. Very limited research can be found
on shear reinforcements on cold-formed steel webs. Pennock [3] carried out experimental studies on cold-
formed steel joists with reinforced and unreinforced web openings subjected to bending. Both circular and
square openings were considered in that study. Such reinforcement was found to be inadequate for
openings located both in high bending and shearing zones. Acharya [4] performed an experimental
investigation on reinforcement schemes for cold-formed steel joists having large web openings. His
studies considered both flexural and shear zones. Three reinforcement schemes were considered in his
study for the shear reinforcement. Two of the reinforcement schemes were recommended by the AISI [5],
which are a steel plate having the same size and shape of the opening as the main joist and a cold-formed
steel stud section having the same size and shape of the opening as the main joist, respectively. The third
reinforcement scheme considered by Acharya [4] consisted of four channel sections placed around the
opening. His study concluded that only the reinforcement scheme using the channel sections was
adequate to restore the shear strength of cold-formed steel joists having web openings.
755
Bo Chen and K.S.Sivakumaran
2 FINITE ELEMENT MODEL FOR PLATES WITH REINFORCED OPENING

In this section, a general finite element analysis model is proposed to investigate the behavior of
plates with reinforced square openings subjected to pure shear loads. The model consists of two
components, the main plate and the reinforcements. The main plate, representing the web of a cold-
formed steel joist, is taken to have a length of ‘a’, a width of ‘h’ and a thickness of ‘t’, resulting in a
slenderness of (h/t). The plates under consideration had a fixed aspect ratio (a/h=3) and varying
slenderness ratios (h/t). Though the aspect ratio can influence the shear strength of plates, analytical
studies [6] indicated that only a marginal change exists in plates having a/h >3, thus an aspect ratio of a/h
= 3 was used to represent the cold-formed steel joists whose aspect ratio may be substantially higher than
3. The parametric study considered h/t = 50, 100, 150 and 200, representing thick to thin webs. The main
plate is assumed to have a centrally located square opening of side dimensions ‘dc’. This investigation
considered dc/h = 0.6 representing 60% web opening, which is rather large. Available web width for
reinforcement is thus (h-dc).
Figure 1 shows the three reinforcement
schemes, namely, flat reinforcement, lip
reinforcement, and angle reinforcement, under
consideration. Accordingly, all four edges of the
square opening were reinforced with equal size
reinforcements along all four edges. The width of
the reinforcement was taken as ‘hr’. Considering
the flat reinforcement and assuming that the
reinforcement is attached between the opening
edge and web edge, the width of the
reinforcement hr = (h-dc)/2. Thus, the flat
reinforcement consists of flat strips of metal of
width hr and tr along all four edges of the
opening. In the lip reinforcement arrangement all
edges of the square opening were considered to
be reinforced with lip plate of width hr and tr.
The third reinforcement scheme under
consideration consists of equal leg angle fastened
along all edges of the square opening. As shown
in Figure 1, one leg fastened to the web, some
what similar to the flat reinforcement, thus the
other leg acts like the lip reinforcement. The
width of each leg however, was taken as hr/2,
thus the total width of all three reinforcement
schemes is hr. The reinforcements are assumed
to be fully attached to the main plate with no
additional constraints. Thus, though screws are
widely used in construction practice, here, no
Figure 1: The three reinforcement schemes
screw will be modeled. In the ensuing parametric
studies the thickness of the reinforcements tr was taken to be multiple of main plate thickness (tr= n.t).
Finite Elements: The finite element models of the above presented plate and reinforcement schemes
were created and analysed using software ADINA [7]. In the current study the quadrilateral four-node
shell elements for the non-linear analysis, which are capable of representing both flat and curved surfaces,
were used. Each node of the shell element has six degrees of freedoms, namely three displacements and
three rotations. This four-node element is capable of simulating both the membrane and the flexural
behaviors of plates. The default 2 by 2 integration point arrangement for the 4-node element is used in the
r-s element mid-plane. In the through-thickness direction ‘t’ the Newton-Cotes rule for integration points
756
is preferred rather than the default Gauss quadrature rule because, instead of having integration points
only within the thickness of plates, the Newton-Cotes rule also has the integration points lying at both the
top and bottom surfaces. This allows one to capture the gradually yielding response of the plate starting
from the boundaries. Though the program default integration point number for Newton-Cotes rule is 3, in
order to improve the accuracy of the model, a through thickness integration of 7 was used in the analyses.
The quadrilateral four-node shell elements were used for both the main plate and the reinforcements,
since both of them are plated elements.
Mesh Quality: The mesh configurations for the three reinforcement schemes, which are not shown in
this paper, are based on the convergence study [6]. Accordingly, 24-division mesh configuration is
adequate for plates with an aspect ratio of 3 (a/b=3), resulting in 3456 elements for the main plate with an
opening. Flat portions of the reinforcements in flat reinforcement and angle reinforcement also used
similar mesh configuration. Lip reinforcement contained 24 by 24 divisions, which gave a ratio of the
longest element edge to the shortest element edge of 3. However, height of the lips associated with angle
reinforcement was divided into 20 elements resulting in 24 by 20 divisions, which gave a ratio of the
longest element edge to the shortest element edge of 5.
Initial Geometric Imperfections and the Residual Stresses: The models included geometrical initial
imperfections; however, possible residual stresses were ignored in this study, primarily based on the study
by Rondal [8] which concluded that the flexural residual stress has negligible or no effect on the ultimate
strength of cold-formed steel sections. The main plate contained a double sine function imperfection and
the amplitude of the imperfection was taken as w0 = 0.003h, where h is the width of the main plate. The
flat surfaces and the edges of the lips of the reinforcements contained compatible imperfections.
Boundary Conditions and the Loading Conditions: The main plate is assumed to be simply supported
along the four edges and is subjected to uniformly distributed shear loads applied along all four edges.
The edges of the opening are left to move freely. The reinforcements were assumed to be fully attached to
the main plate with no other additional constraints.
Material Model: The von Mises yield criterion is adopted as the yielding criterion for steel.
Sivakumaran and Abdel-Rahman [9] has shown that, instead of a well-defined yield point, cold-formed
steel possesses a gradual yielding behavior followed by a certain level of strain hardening. Within a cold-
formed steel section, the yield strength and ultimate strength differs between the corner area and the flat
area. Since this study focuses only on the flat plates, the stress-strain relationship for the flat area will be
used for all models in this research. For analysis purpose, Sivakumaran and Abdel-Rahman [9] proposed
an idealized multi-linear stress-strain relationship for
cold-formed steel material. Figure 2 shows this stress-
strain relationship, where ‘Fy’ is the yield stress of
steel, which depends on the steel grade selected in the
analysis. In this research, the commonly used 350MPa
yield strength is used as the value of ‘Fy’. The above
idealized multi-linear stress-strain relationship for cold-
formed steel was used for both the main plate and the
reinforcement plate. To simulate the non-linear material
stress-strain relationship discussed above, plastic-multi-
linear isothermal plasticity material models were
chosen for the analysis. It assumes the material to be
elastic–plastic with strain hardening, following the Figure 2: Idealized material model
isotropic hardening rule.
Analysis Technique: The analysis technique must capture the pre-buckling, post-buckling and the
ultimate load level behavior of the models under consideration, as ultimate strength of plates with
reinforced opening is of interest. Though ADINA [7] features included the automatic-time-stepping
(ATS) method and the load-displacement-control (LDC) method, here the ATS was used which requires
prescription of a load and time steps. If no convergence can be obtained through the user-defined load
steps, the ADINA will automatically subdivide the time steps until the convergence is achieved.
757
3 ANALYSIS RESULTS
The plates with reinforced opening under consideration had a length of 300 mm (a=300 mm) and a
width of 100 mm (h=100 mm), which gave an aspect ratio of 3 (a/h=3). Thus, the amplitude of the initial
geometric imperfection used was 0.3 mm. Furthermore, this study considered a 60% square opening with
dc=60 mm. Therefore, the total width of the reinforcement plate hr was taken to be constant as 20mm,
which is the one half of the remaining width of the plate above and below the opening. For the angle-
reinforcement configuration, the reinforcement plates were assumed to be bent into angles with the width
of each leg of the angle equals to (1/2).hr =10 mm. As indicated the slenderness ratios considered in this
investigation are h/t = 50, 100, 150 and 200, which covers from thick plates to the thinnest plates allowed
in the AISI code [5]. In this study, considering the plate with different h/t one by one, reinforcements with
increasing thickness were applied on plates to investigate the influence of the thickness of the
reinforcements on the behavior and the ultimate shear capacity of such plates. Thus, for plates with each
Figure 3: Applied shear stress versus average shear strain for plates with reinforced opening
758
‘h/t’ value, the reinforcement thickness to the main plate thickness ratio (tr/t) increases from zero until the
increase in the ultimate shear strength of plates is less than 1.0%. Generally, (tr/t) was increased at an
incremental step of one for each (h/t) value. However, intermediate steps may also be applied when
needed. The multi-linear material model with Fy = 350 MPa and ν = 0.3 was used as the model material
property of the plate as well as the reinforcements.
Results: The behaviors of the plates considered in this section are illustrated through the shear stress
versus the average shear strain diagrams. The average shear strain shown in the horizontal axis was
obtained by dividing the y-displacement of the lower right corner of the plate by the length of the plate.
Figure 3 shows the applied shear stress versus the average shear strain diagrams for both solid plates and
plates with reinforced openings. In order to be able to compare the behavior of the reinforced plates with
that of solid plates, the behavior of the solid plate is also shown in these diagrams. These figures also
include the behavior of plates with unreinforced openings, which corresponds to the case of (tr/t) = 0.
Essentially, thickness of the reinforcement tr=0 mm indicates no reinforcements. Figure 3 shows the shear
stress-strain diagrams for plates with flat-reinforcements, for plates with lip-reinforcements, and for plates
with angle-reinforcements. For illustration purposes only the two extreme slenderness analyzed (i.e.
h/t=50 and h/t=200) are shown in this figure. Each figure shows the shear stress-strain relationships as the
size of the reinforcement (tr/t) increases. It may be noted that only selected ‘tr/t’ values are plotted in
Figure 3. It can be observed from Figure 3 that solid plates are generally stiffer than plates with both
unreinforced and reinforced openings. As anticipated, openings in plates tend to decrease the stiffness of
plates. Increasing reinforcement thickness tr increases the stiffness as well as the strength of the system.
Also, the ultimate strengths of plates with reinforced opening can be extracted from these graphs.
Table 1 shows the ultimate shear capacities of plates with reinforced openings obtained from the
finite element analysis corresponding to h/t= 100 and 150. The table shows the strengths of corresponding
solid plate, ultimate shear strength of plate with unreinforced opening (row 1, tr/t =0) and the strengths
for the three reinforcement schemes under consideration. The first column indicates the thickness of the
reinforcement (tr/t). As stated before, the ‘tr/t’ values were generally increased at an incremental step of
one, however, in some analyses additional half steps were made in order to obtain enough data points for
the later analysis. The analyses were carried until the percentage increase in the ultimate shear strength of
plates is less than 1.0%, essentially, no further increase in shear strength. At this point, the reinforcement
has recaptured the loss in strength due to opening and any increase in reinforcement thickness increases
the strength of opening region that the member begin to fail in regions outside the opening.
Table 1: Ultimate shear strength of plates with reinforced opening
Ultimate Strength of the Corresponding Solid Plate: W ul(solid ) Ultimate Strength of the Corresponding Solid Plate: W ul(solid )
(h/t=100) (h/t=150)
=113.1 MPa (h/t=100) =74.5 MPa (h/t=150)
Flat-Reinforcement Lip-Reinforcement Angle-Reinforcement Flat-Reinforcement Lip-Reinforcement Angle-Reinforcement
tr / t tr / t W ul ( re inf .) (MPa) W ul ( re inf .) (MPa) W ul ( re inf .) (MPa)
W ul( re inf .) (MPa) W ul( re inf .) (MPa) W ul( re inf .) (MPa)
0.0 23.6 23.6 23.6 0.0 19.3 19.3 19.3
1.0 62.9 39.1 53.9 1.0 58.7 32.0 51.2
1.5 1.5 77.8
2.0 100.0
52.6
75.7 2.0 94.3 42.5
75.7
2.5 2.5 107.0
3.0 128.8
68.8
96.3 3.0 108.1 53.9
96.3
3.5 3.5 108.9
4.0 151.0
85.5 114.3 4.0 66.4
101.2
5.0 152.4 102.9 130.8 5.0 78.1
102.6
6.0 121.3 144.2 6.0 87.3
103.3
7.0 135.1 145.8 7.0 91.1
8.0 140.1
146.6 8.0 94.3
9.0 140.6 9.0 95.0
Figure 4 shows the deformed shapes (magnified by 10%) of plates at the failure load levels. The figures
are for plates with h/t=200 (thin plate), however, Figure 4 [A] shows the plate with unreinforced opening,
and Figures 4[B], 4[C], and 4[D] are plates with adequate flat, lip and angle reinforcements, respectively,
to restore the shear strength reduced by the opening. It can be seen from Figure 4 that before
reinforcements are applied, plates with 60% openings (dc/h=0.6) fail at the four corners of the openings.
With adequate reinforcements, plates fail in diagonal shear failure outside of the opening region.
759
A B
No reinforcement Flat reinforcement
C D
Lip reinforcement Angle reinforcement

Figure 4: Deformed shapes of plates containing adequate opening reinforcement
1.6
1.6 h/t=100 [B]
1.4
h/t=50 [A] 1.4
τul(reinforced) / τul (solid)
1.2
1.2
1.0
1.0
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
Flat-Reinforcement Flat-Reinforcement
0.4 Lip-Reinforcement 0.4 Lip-Reinforcement
Angle-Reinforcement Angle-Reinforcement
0.2 0.2
0.0 0.0
0 2 4
tr/t 6 8 10 0 2 4
tr/t 6 8 10
1.6 1.6
1.4
h/t=150 [C] h/t=200 [D]
1.4
1.2 1.2
1.0 1.0
0.8 0.8
Flat-Reinforcement Flat-Reinforcement
0.6 Lip-Reinforcement 0.6 Lip-Reinforcement
Angle-Reinforcement Angle-Reinforcement
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0 0.0
0 2 4
tr/t 6 8 10 0 2 4
tr/t 6 8 10
[A] Figure 5: Relations between ultimate shear strength and reinforcement thickness
760
Figure 5 shows the plots of the ultimate shear strength of plates with reinforced openings normalized by
the ultimate shear strength of the corresponding solid plates versus ‘tr/t’ for plates with flat, lip, and the
angle reinforcement schemes. Normalized strength greater than 1.0 indicates that the reinforced plate has
recaptured the original strength. By observing the normalized shear strengths, it can be seen from the
Figure 5 that all three reinforcement schemes are capable of restoring the shear strength of plates which
was compromised due to the presence of centrally located square opening. When an adequate amount of
reinforcements is applied the ultimate shear strength of a plate with a square opening can even increase
beyond its original shear strength when the plate is solid. Especially for thin plates, for example, when
h/t=200, Figure 5 [D] shows that the ultimate shear strength of a plate with flat-reinforcement around the
opening can be as high as about 1.5 times the original shear strength of a solid plate. This can be
attributed to the fact that the reinforcement actually divides the plate into three panels. Two panels are on
either side of the opening, and the third region is the reinforced opening. When enough reinforcements
are provided the plate fails in the regions outside of the opening. Thus, the failure load of the plate is
governed by the outside square panels. Chen [6] has shown her studies that the ultimate shear strength of
a plate increases with decreasing aspect ratio (a/h). Thus, with proper opening reinforcement, the effective
a/h of the plate actually decreases, causing the ultimate shear strength to increase relative to the original
solid plate. Furthermore, the reinforced opening edges may provide rotational restraints to the outer
panels, thus, one edge of these outer panels is not simply supported, and thus experiences higher load than
that of a simply supported plate. For example, when h/t=200, with enough reinforcement (tr/t=3.5),
τul(reinf.) = 84.7MPa. The shear strength of a simply supported plate with h/t=200 and a/h=1 would be τul(a/h
= 1) =81.50MPa. Thus, when enough reinforcement is applied, the ultimate shear strength of a plate with
a/h=3 and reinforced opening is comparable to the ultimate shear strength of a solid plate with a/h=1.
Effects of Reinforcement Thickness: Table 1 shows that for all three reinforcement schemes, as the
thickness of the reinforcement (tr/t) increases, the ultimate shear strength of the reinforced plate increases.
From Figure 5, it can be seen that, at the initial portion of the diagrams, the ultimate shear strength of
plates with reinforced openings increases approximately linearly with increasing ‘tr/t’, but the increase in
the ultimate shear strength reduces for higher values of ‘tr/t’. Essentially, there is no strength gain beyond
an optimal reinforcement thickness. From Figure 5, it can be noted that it is easier to restore the shear
capacity of slender plates by any one of the three reinforcement schemes. For example, for a plate with
h/t=50 a flat-reinforcement of tr/t=6 is needed to restore the shear capacity of the plate with opening to
the shear capacity of a solid plate. However, for a plate with h/t=200 a flat-reinforcement of tr/t=1.5 is
enough to restore the shear capacity of that plate with opening to the shear capacity of a solid plate.
Similar observations can be made with respect to the lip-reinforcement and the angle-reinforcement
schemes.
Effects of Reinforcement Configuration: Since the total width (hr) was fixed as 20mm, and since the
length of the reinforcement is approximately equal to the perimeter of the opening for all three
reinforcement configurations, the reinforcement scheme with the least ‘tr/t’ value which can restore the
shear strength of plates with openings to the shear strength of solid plates may be considered as the most
effective reinforcement scheme. Figure 5 compares the ultimate shear strength of plates with different
reinforcement configurations as the size of the reinforcements (tr/t) increases. It can be seen that for plates
under consideration with ‘h/t’ values 50, 100, 150 and 200, the flat-reinforcement scheme can restore the
ultimate shear strength of a plate with an opening to that of a solid plate with the least ‘tr/t’ value. For
example, Figure 5 [D] indicates that for plate with h/t=200, the flat-reinforcement can restore the shear
strength of plates with openings to the shear strength of solid plates with tr/t ≈1.1; the angle-
reinforcement can restore the shear strength of plates with openings to the shear strength of solid plates
with tr/t ≈1.3; the lip-reinforcement can restore the shear strength of plates with openings to the shear
strength of solid plates with tr/t ≈4.3. Similar trend can be noticed for plates with h/t=50, 100 and 150.
Thus the flat-reinforcement is considered as the most effective way to reinforce a square opening in a
plate comparing with the other two reinforcement schemes. In the same way, the lip-reinforcement is the
least effective reinforcement configuration to restore the shear capacity of plates with square opening, and
the angle-reinforcement configuration works between the flat and the lip-reinforcement configuration.
761
5 CONCLUSIONS
This paper considered the ultimate shear strength of plates with reinforced openings. The plate
analyzed in this chapter has an aspect ratio of 3 (a/h=3) and a centrally located 60% square opening
(dc/h=0.6). The four slenderness ratios (h/t) considered in this chapter are h/t=50, 100, 150 and 200,
which cover from thick plate to the thinnest plate allowed in the AISI code [5]. Three reinforcement
schemes, namely the flat-reinforcement, the lip-reinforcement and the angle-reinforcement, were applied
on the plates to compare and evaluate the effectiveness of these three reinforcement schemes. It was
shown from the study that with an adequate amount of reinforcement material, all three reinforcement
schemes are capable of restoring the ultimate shear strength of a plate with a square opening to that of a
solid plate. However, the flat-reinforcement is the most effective reinforcement scheme as compared to
the other two reinforcement schemes.
REFERENCES
[1] Redwood, R. G. and Shrivastava, S. C., (1980), Design Recommendations for Steel Beams with
Web Holes, Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, Volume 7, No. 4, pp. 642-650.
[2] Narayanan, R. and Der-Avanessian, N.G.V., (1985), Design of Slender Webs Having
Rectangular Holes, Journal of Structural Engineering, Volume 111 (4), pp. 777-787.
[3] Pannock, R. W., (2001), Strength of Light Gauge Cold Formed Steel Joists with Web Perforation:
Senior Report, University of New Brunswick, NewBrunswick, Canada.
[4] Acharya, S. R., (2009), Reinforcement Schemes for Cold-Formed Steel Joists Having Web
Openings, Doctoral Dissertation, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, pp-332.
[5] AISI, (2001), Standard for Cold-Formed Steel Framing-Prescriptive Method for One and Two
Family Dwellings, American Iron and Steel Institute, Washington DC, USA.
[6] Chen, B., (2009), Shear Behavior of Steel Plates with Reinforced Openings, Master Thesis,
McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, pp-208.
[7] ADINA User Manual, (2008), Automatic Dynamic Incremental Nonlinear Analysis, ADINA R &
D, Inc., Watertown, MA USA.
[8] Rondal, J., (1987), Residual stresses in cold-rolled profiles, Construction and Building
Material, 1(3):0–0.
[9] Sivakumaran, K.S. and Abdel-Rahman, N., (1998), A Finite Element analysis Model for the
Behavior of Cold-formed Steel Members, Thin-Walled Structures, 31(1998) 305-324.
762
CRACK INITIATION UNDER STATIC LOADS INCLUDING THE

INFLUENCE OF RESIDUAL WELDING STRESSES
Versuchsanstalt für Stahl, Holz und Steine, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

e-mails: michael.volz@kit.edu, helmut.saal@kit.edu
Keywords: crack, static loading, brittle fracture, welding simulation, residual stresses.
Abstract. Starting from the basic approaches for the reduction of ultimate strain for steel with increasing
hydrostatic stress tensor a function is derived which reflects the different influences on ultimate strain
abetting brittle fracture. This function, which via stress state includes the influence of residual stresses,
e.g. due to welding, is a tool for predicting the formation of the crack. Nonlinear FE-analyses including
a welding simulation macro are performed to describe the stress-strain situation up to the fracture state
in component tests.
1 INTRODUCTION
The steadily growing demands on span, size and transparency of steel constructions result in
structures with increasing span. The large stress resultants which are due to this development necessitate
thick cross-sections and/or high strength steels. The latest enhancements of the steel production provide
products which satisfy both of these requirements and at the same time have largely improved toughness
properties. This development has to be taken into account in the design standards. Fracture mechanics is
utilized for this purpose as the basis of EN 1993-1-10. Because the presence of a crack is a sine qua non
for the application of fracture mechanics such a flaw of defined size had to be assumed for the steel
structure as the basis of EN 1993-1-10. This assumption, however, is contradictory to the normative
regulations for the execution of steel structures, e.g. EN ISO 5817 and EN 1090-2, which do not allow a
visible crack or cracks indicated by additional non-destructive-testing. Since the execution standards thus
conflict with cracks assumed in the design standards there is a need to explain crack initiation due to
static load. The experience shows that with this explanation multi-axial welding residual stresses and
other negative influences have to be considered [1]. The following investigation is due to the great variety
of influencing parameters confined to non-alloy and low alloy steel grades S235 to S355 predominantly
applied in civil engineering.
2 WELDING RESIDUAL STRESSES

Since steel structures are almost always welded, the welding residual stresses have to be taken into
account with the investigation of crack initiation. The welding residual stresses are calculated using a
Finite Element Model (FEM). Here it is sufficient to uncouple the processes by first calculating the
temperature field, and then with the temperature field as input the stress field. This is due to the fact that
the results of the calculation of the temperature field strongly influence those of the stress calculation, but
those of the stress calculation have almost no influence on those of the calculation of the temperature
field. Fig. 1 shows the uncoupling of the sub-models when neglecting transformation.
763
heat temperature stress

source field field
thermo dynamical thermo mechanical

material parameters material parameters
Fig. 1: Uncoupling of the sub-models for a simplified calculation of residual stresses
The calculation of the temperature field is performed on the basis of a heat conduction model because
the thermal conduction in the material which is emanating from the welding heat source dominates the
development of the temperature field. Large strains are accounted for by also considering non-linear
terms in the displacement-distortion-relation in the subsequent calculation of the stress field. Due to the
large plastic strains at high temperatures, real stress-strain-relations are applied.
Temperature dependent material parameters: Since thermo-dynamical as well as thermo-mechanical
material parameters of non-alloy and low alloy steels strongly depend on the temperature, the governing
material parameters have to be applied as functions of temperature for the numerical determination of
residual stresses after welding.
The FE-program ANSYS is used for the numerical calculation of the welding residual stresses. For
this purpose, a welding simulation macro was developed, which for almost any structure easily calculates
temperature field and stress field induced by the welding process [2]. The temperature dependent material
parameters for grade S 335 and similar steels (Figures 2, 3, 4) are the basic input data for this macro.
Fig. 2: Temperature dependent V-H-curves for S355J2+N used in the FE-analysis
764
heat transfer rate 10-1 [J/m²sK] enthalpie

heat conductivity [W/mK]
heat conductivity
enthalpie 10-8 [J/m³]
heat transfer rate
Fig. 3: Thermo-dynamical material parameters used in the FE-analysis

thermal expansion coefficient 10-7 [1/K]
elastic modulus 103 [MPa]
thermal expansion
tensile strength [MPa]
poisson ratio 102 [--]
yield strength [MPa]
poisson ratio
elastic modulus
yield strength
tensile strength
Fig. 4: Thermo-mechanical material parameters used in the FE-analysis
The temperature distribution obtained in a welding test with a fillet weld (MAG, energy P = 6417 W
(k = 0,9)) is compared with the results from the FE-analysis for the same configuration. The fusion zone
obtained from the calculation is compared with that from the test for verifying the calculation of the
temperature field. Fig. 5 shows this comparison of the temperatures obtained in the numerical calculation
with the etched macro-section of the welding test. The weld pool with a maximum root penetration of 1.8
mm in both cases shows a very good conformity. Table 1 gives the values of temperature distributions
from the welding test and the FE-analysis, which also agree very well.
765
Fig. 5: Comparison of fusion depth from FE and welding test
Table 1: Comparison of temperature distribution from FE and welding test

distanced from root point distance from root point
Temperature to the left [mm] to the top [mm]
test FEM test FEM
340°C 12,0 12,5 10,5 12,5
280°C 13,0 13,5 12,0 13,5
220°C 14,5 14,5 14,0 14,5
3 CRITERION FOR CRACK INITIATION

Under static load, a crack develops exactly when the first principal strain H1 reaches a critical value.
This assumption is the basis of the following considerations and was already investigated in [3], [4] with
regard to the influence of multiaxiality. In this context there are approaches to assume a decrease of
critical strain Hcrit with increasing multiaxiality of the stress condition (SMCS – Stress Modified Critical
Strain) where the multiaxiality M is defined by the ratio of mean stress Vm to equivalent stress VV:
Hcrit SMCS K H e BM (1)
Vm
M (2)
Vv
Hancock and Brown [4] for example use the value B = 1.5 for steel. In Fig. 6, the critical strain Hcrit is
depicted versus the multiaxiality M for different values of the factor KH.
766
Fig. 6: Influence of multiaxiality M on the critical strain at failure Hcrit (SMCS)
The observation of crack initiation in tensile tests which are only different with regard to the notch
geometry of the specimens (Fig. 7) in comparison with the results of the associated FE-analyses is
performed to verify equation (1). The factor KH is obtained with the tests at ambient temperature. For the
round bar tensile specimens (Fig. 7) the failure is defined as crack initiation when the crack starts from
inside.
Table 2 gives the first principal value H1 of true strain at which crack initiation occurs, the
corresponding multiaxialitiy M and the location of crack initiation for the tensile specimens Z1 to Z4.
Fig. 8 with the plot of H1 versus M for the 4 tests shows that equation (1) with KH = 3,3 fits the results.
With the test specimens Z1, Z2 and Z3 the multiaxiality becomes decisive and the fracture accordingly
starts from inside whereas the fracture for specimen Z4 starts from outside due to the sharp notch.
Fig. 7: Dimensions of the tensile specimens for the tensile tests
Table 2: strains H1 at crack initiation and corresponding multiaxiality M.

Specimen test location of strain H1 at multi-
temperature crack crack initiation axiality M
[°C]
Z1 20 inside 1,15 0,76
Z2 20 inside 0,79 0,91
Z3 20 inside 0,72 1,05
Z4 20 outside 1,15 0,46
767
critical strain Hcrit
Fig. 8: Results of the tests with notched tensile specimens
5 TESTS FOR IMPROVING THE CRITERION FOR CRACK INITIATION

The critical strain Hcrit not only depends on multiaxiality M but also on other influences Xi. The
essential ones are:
X1 = toughness expressed by transition temperature obtained from Charpy impact test
X2 = strength expressed by yield stress ReH or Rp0,2
X3 = material thickness t
X4 = component temperature -
X5 = change of material microstructure due to welding
X6 = rate of stress increase, cold-working, zinc coatings
Numerous component tests and FE-analyses, which are documented and evaluated in [5], were
performed to extend equation (1) in order to include the influences Xi by presenting the factor KH as a
product according to equation (3) of factors Ki depending on the parameters Xi,. Figures 9 and 10 show
the functions Ki(Xi) for the influences X1 to X4. With the assessment K5 = 1 the influence of changes of
material microstructure due to welding was ignored. Since the tests were performed with slow loading
rate and the material was neither cold-worked nor zinc coated K6 = 1.
KH K i K( X i ) (3)
i i
K1 K2
Fig. 9: Influence of the transition temperature K1 and the yield strength K2 on KH
768
K4
K3
Fig. 10: Influence of the material thickness K3and the component temperature K4 on KH
6 COMPARISON WITH EN 1993-1-10

For comparing the results of the crack initiation criterion (1) with those of EN 1993-1-10, critical
strains Hcrit at failure according to equation (1) are calculated with maximum allowable thicknesses t
according to EN 1993-1-10 for the utilization factor VEd/fy(t) = 0,75. These calculations are performed
with the multiaxiality M = 1,0 as an unfavorable assumption for two different steel grades S235 and
S355, different toughness values as expressed by X1 and two different temperatures 0°C and 30°C. The
results of these calculations are compiled in Table 3. All strains at failure Hcrit are about 10%. For other
multiaxialties M, the calculated strains at failure are also within such narrow limits.
Table 3: Calculated strains at failure Hcrit for limit cases according to EN 1993-1-10 for M = 1,00
X1(Tü) X2(ReH) X3(t) X4(I) K(X1) K(X2) K(X3) K(X4) K M Hcrit
Steel grade [°C] [MPa] [mm] [---] [---] [---] [---] [---] [---]
[°C] [---]
S235JR 20 240 50 0 0,53 1,49 0,57 1,00 0,45 1,0 0,10
S235JR 20 240 30 -30 0,53 1,49 0,88 0,65 0,45 1,0 0,10
S235J0 0 240 75 0 0,69 1,49 0,42 1,00 0,43 1,0 0,10
S235J0 0 240 40 -30 0,69 1,49 0,69 0,65 0,46 1,0 0,10
S235J2 -20 240 105 0 1,00 1,49 0,31 1,00 0,47 1,0 0,10
S235J2 -20 240 60 -30 1,00 1,49 0,50 0,65 0,48 1,0 0,11
S355JR 20 360 35 0 0,53 1,00 0,78 1,00 0,41 1,0 0,09
S355JR 20 360 15 -30 0,53 1,00 1,27 0,65 0,44 1,0 0,10
S355J0 0 360 50 0 0,69 1,00 0,57 1,00 0,39 1,0 0,09
S355J0 0 360 25 -30 0,69 1,00 1,00 0,65 0,45 1,0 0,10
S355J2 -20 360 75 0 1,00 1,00 0,42 1,00 0,42 1,0 0,09
S355J2 -20 360 40 -30 1,00 1,00 0,69 0,65 0,45 1,0 0,10
S355K2/M/N -30 360 90 0 1,25 1,00 0,36 1,00 0,44 1,0 0,10
S355K2/M/N -30 360 50 -30 1,25 1,00 0,57 0,65 0,46 1,0 0,10
S355ML/NL -50 360 130 0 2,05 1,00 0,27 1,00 0,55 1,0 0,12
S355ML/NL -50 360 75 -30 2,05 1,00 0,42 0,65 0,55 1,0 0,12
769
7 CONCLUSION
Crack initiation occurs when the first principal strain exceeds a critical value Hcrit. This value Hcrit
depends upon several factors which are known to contribute to brittle failure susceptibility. An already
existing formula relates the critical strain Hcrit to the multiaxiality M which is expressed by the ratio of
mean value Vm of the three principal stresses to the von Mises equivalent stress VV. This formula is
extended with a product of factors Ki which represent the unfavourable influences of low toughness, high
strength, thick material and low temperature. These factors Ki, which are functions of the influence
parameters are obtained from tests with schematic variation of the influence parameters. The effect of
welding is accounted for with the welding residual stresses which contribute to the stress state and thus
also influence the multiaxiality M. Changes of the microstructure of the steel are only taken into account
in the calculation of the residual stresses but not in the determination of the critical strain Hcrit. The results
of the investigation are confined to non-alloy and low alloy steel grades S235 to S355 since for higher
strength materials the macro developed in this investigation for the calculation of welding residual
stresses will need some modification.
The criterion presented here has been verified with several component tests which were performed for
investigation of the cause of failures of structures. Because of the restricted space they are not reported
here but in [5]. The application of the criterion (1) to the steel grades S235 and S355 shows that with a
utilization factor VEd/fy(t) = 0,75 and the unfavourable value M = 1 the critical strain Hcrit for all possible
combinations of different toughness values and component temperatures for the maximum material
thickness allowed by EN 1993-1-10 is nearly the same. Thus the criterion presented here includes the
results of EN 1993-1-10 and additionally facilitates a more realistic consideration of the component
situation, because no crack has to be assumed and the assumption of residual stresses included in EN
1993-1-10 is obsolete because the specific residual stress state is taken into account in the criterion.
REFERENCES
[1] Saal, H., Steidl, G., Volz, M.: Sprödbruchsicherheit im Stahlbau. Stahlbau 70 (2001), S. 685 697.
[2] Käpplein, S.: Bestimmung von Schweißeigenspannungen mit der Methode der Finiten Elemente.
Diplomarbeit an der Versuchsanstalt für Stahl, Holz und Steine der Universität Fridericiana in
Karlsruhe, 2006.
[3] Valtinat, G.: Kriterium zur Erfassung der Spannungsversprödung von Werkstoffen.
Habilitationsschrift, Fakultät für Bauingenieur- und Vermessungswesen, Universität Karlsruhe,
1970.
[4] Hancock, J.W., Mackenzie, A.C.: On the mechanism of ductile failure in high-strength steels
subjected to multi-axial stress states. J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 1976, Vol. 24, pp. 147 to 169,
Pergamon Press, Great Britain.
[5] Volz, M., Die Rissentstehung in statisch beanspruchten Stahlkonstruktionen unter
Berücksichtigung von Schweißeigenspannungen. Berichte der Versuchsanstalt für Stahl, Holz und
Steine der Universität Fridericiana in Karlsruhe, 5. Folge Heft 22, Karlsruhe, Germany, 2009.
770
THE FATIGUE AND SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATES OF THE WEBS OF

STEEL GIRDERS SUBJECTED TO REPEATED LOADING
M. Škaloud*, M. Zörnerová*
*Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague

e-mail: skaloud@itam.cas.cz, zornerova@itam.cas.cz
Keywords: Thin-Walled Construction, Limit States, Buckling, Breathing, Fatigue, S-N curves.
Abstract. As a great part of steel structures are subjected to many times repeated loads (bridges, crane-
supporting girders and the like), it is demonstrated, by means of the results of numerous experiments
carried out by the authors in Prague, how the post-critical reserve of strength, the failure mechanism and
the limit states of the webs of steel girders are affected by the cumulative damage process generated by
the many times repeated character of loading, and how this phenomenon influences the design of such
girders.
1 THIN-WALLED CONSTRUCTION AND POST-BUCKLED BEHAVIOUR IN IT

One of the most promising trends in our striving to save steel is to use thin-walled structures, i.e.
structural systems made of slender (usually plate) elements. Of course, here it can be argued that such
elements are liable to buckle so that then the limit state of the system is substantially reduced by stability
phenomena. The situation is however remedied by the miracle of post-buckled behaviour, in the light of
which a thin-walled plated system subjected to quasi-constant loading behaves like a (so called) super-
smart structure, i.e. like one which is able not only to diagnose its own situation, but also to generate a
means of powerful self-defence, thanks to which the ultimate strength of the system is usually very
significantly higher than the linear-buckling-theory critical load.
That is why a great attention has been internationally paid to research on the post-buckled behaviour
and ultimate strength of slender webs, flanges and other plate elements, the Czech research always
striving to play a useful role in these activities.
For example, the authors of this paper and their co-workers spent about three decades in investigating
the post-critical reserve of strength and ultimate load behaviour of steel plate girders, box girders, thin-
walled columns etc.
2 PARTIAL “EROSION” OF THE POST-BUCKLED BEHAVIOUR IN THIN-

WALLED CONSTRUCTION SUBJECTED TO MANY TIMES REPEATED LOADING
Although a great part of steel plated structures used in building construction can be listed among
structures under the action of quasi-constant loading, this cannot be said about steel bridgework, crane
supporting girders and similar systems. Such structures are exposed to many times repeated loading.
Then, if their webs are slender, they repeatedly buckle out of their plane. This phenomenon, being now
usually termed web breathing, induces significant cumulative damage process in the breathing webs and
we can ask the obvious question of whether the breathing phenomenon leads to a significant „erosion“ of
the post-critical reserve of strength described above.
And to research on this problem the authors turned their attention several years ago.
Given the complex character of the cumulative damage process in breathing webs, it was crystal clear
that a very important role should be played by experiments. The tests, their number already exceeding
771
M. Škaloud, M. Zörnerová
two hundred, were conducted in three laboratories, viz. at (i) the Institute of Theoretical and Applied
Mechanics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, (ii) Klokner Institute of the Czech Technical University,
and (iii) the Research Institute of Materials.
The large number of tests proved to be indispensable in view of the large scatter which is
characteristic of all breathing experiments.
But as this juncture it is useful to say a few words about the character of the test girders used.
Like most girders tested now by the writers at the Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics in
Prague, they are fairly large, having a web 1000mm deep, so that their character is not far from that of
ordinary girders.
All the girders were fabricated in the steel fabricator of Division 7 of the Company METROSTAV
plc., using the same technological procedures as are applied there in the fabrication of ordinary steel
bridges. It is important to note that, in the fabrication of the test girders, no attempt was made to diminish
(by heat treatment) the initial curvature of the web generated during the process of girder fabrication.
a)
b)
Figure 1: The cumulative-damage induced “erosion” of the maximum load – with respect to the initiation
of the first fatigue crack.
772
a)
b)
Figure 2: The cumulative-damage induced “erosion” of the maximum load – with respect to the fatigue
failure of the girder.
Here only some of the conclusions drawn during the experimental investigation can briefly be
mentioned. Other results and conclusions can be found for example in [1].
For the purpose of practical design it is important to know what portion of the post-buckled strength ,
i.e. of the maximum load that a girder is able to sustain, is “eroded” when the girder is exposed to many
times repeated loads.
The authors were able to shed some light on this interesting question because for each series of their
fatigue tests, they also carried out a few static experiments on girders having the same dimensions. Given
the character of the Prague test girders, their webs were subjected to combined shear and bending, with
the effect of shear predominating. Let us therefore measure the loading of each web panel by shear force
V, its intensity being determined by ratio V/Vcr , when Vcr is the critical shear force (given by the linear
buckling theory), calculated for a web panel clamped into the flanges and hinged on the transverse
stiffeners. The ratio V/Vcr then also determines the post-buckled reserve of strength.
The results of the writers´ experiments are shown in Figures 1 and 2. The corresponding ratios
Vmax/Vcr are plotted on the vertical axis, the related numbers N of loading cycles on the horizontal axis.
773
As all of the Prague breathing tests are conducted to failure, the authors are able to study the whole
history of the development of each fatigue crack from its initiation to the collapse of the whole girder.
Figure 1 is then related to the initiation of the first crack and Figure 2 to the fatigue failure of the whole
girder.
Each of the two figures is divided into two parts: that denoted by a concerns 0 < N 105 (i.e. the
interval of N where the gradient of the test results is greatest), the part b then holds for N > 105.
A very significant impact of the cumulative damage process on the fatigue tests can easily be seen in
the figures. As the Prague breathing experiments exhibited, like most fatigue tests of all kinds, a large
scatter, an average line of the breathing tests is also given in the figures. The area above it, (Vmax,st/Vcr –
Vmax,fat/Vcr) average, gives an average value of the cumulative-damage induced “erosion” of the maximum
sustainable load.
3 IMPACT ON FAILURE MECHANISM
Figure 3: The failure mechanism of one of the test girders subjected to constant loading
Figure 4: The failure mechanism of one of the test girder subjected to repeated loading
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The process of the initiation and propagation of fatigue cracks in the breathing web substantially
alters the failure mechanism of the whole girder.
When the girder is under the action of quasi-constant loading, the performance and limit state
mechanism of the web is well-known: a redistribution of membrane stresses in webs subjected to
compression or in-plane loading, which can easily be taken into account by way of defining an effective
depth of the web, and a kind of tension field, or tension band, action in webs in shear, for which also user-
friendly methods exist. In the case of constant predominantly shear loading, this mechanism consists (as
was in detail described by K. C. Rockey and one of the authors more than four decades ago) of a plastic
diagonal tension band in the web and a system of partial plastic hinges (see Figure 3).
But in the case of many times repeated loads, the web - so to speak - does not have enough time to
develop the aforementioned classical mechanism, since its behaviour is over-shadowed by the initiation
and propagation of fatigue cracks, and the failure mechanism of the girder is more complex. And the
cumulative damage process is not here parallel to, but instead of classical buckling failure, which it
entirely replaces and therefore determines the maximum sustainable load.
Then, in the case of repeated predominantly shear loading, this mechanism is significantly affected by
the presence of a large opening in the web (which is a well developed main fatigue crack) usually
“cutting” the plastic diagonal band in the web (see Figure 4).
4 IMPACT ON DESIGN
It follows from the above analysis that the problem of web breathing can play a very important role
and therefore cannot be disregarded; on the contrary, it can significantly affect the design of steel bridges,
crane-supporting girders and other structural systems under the action of many times repeated loads.
And to establish a reliable method for the analysis of the breathing webs of thin-walled girders was
the main objective of the authors´ research.
First it should be mentioned here that during the first stage of our research, we deliberately postponed
any attempt to establish a design procedure, desiring first to “map” in detail all aspects of the breathing
phenomenon (the initiation and propagation of fatigue cracks and their role in the failure mechanism of
the girders, and a suitable definition of the limit state of the whole system) and the part of all factors
influencing it.
It is also worth mentioning that, unlike some tests carried out by other authors, in which the
experiments were stopped when the first observable crack was detected, all of the Prague tests were
conducted to failure. Thus we were able to “map” the whole history of all fatigue cracks – from their
initiation to the failure of the girder. Thereby we avoided being “fascinated” by the very phenomenon of
crack appearance, but were able to study the further development of each crack, to see whether it
propagated or stopped, and to find out how far away was the initiation of the first fatigue crack from the
fatigue failure of the whole girder.
Based on an analysis of the experimental results obtained and thanks to having thus “mapped” for all
test girders the whole regime of fatigue crack growth from the initiation of the first fatigue fissure to the
failure of the whole girder, the authors were able to establish a design procedure based on S-N curves.
5 S-N CURVES ESTABLISHED BY THE WRITERS ON THE BASIS OF THEIR

BREATHING TESTS
The authors follow the general features of the design philosophy proposed by Maquoi and Škaloud
[2], according to which two limit states are introduced in the analysis, viz. (i) the fatigue limit state, (ii)
that of serviceability.
While the fatigue limit state can be related to the failure of the girder (i.e. to unrepairable damage –
which is acceptable in view of the fact that the fatigue limit state can never be attained during the planned
life of the girder), the limit state of serviceability should be related to a much more limited, easily
repairable degree of damage. In the case of steel girders with breathing webs, this means that, in the
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course of the useful fatigue life of the girder, either no or very small fatigue cracks can develop, such as
to be easily kept under control, or easily retrofitted in case of need.
The two limit states can be ascertained directly on the basis of the authors´ breathing tests, following
the statistic procedure recommended in Appendix Z of EUROCODE 3. In so doing, the range of the stress
state in the breathing web can be measured simply by the range ǻĲ of the average shear stress W 0 (=
shear force V/web area Aw) in the web. Only those of the writers´ experiments were considered in which
the girder went through all stages of fatigue crack growth until the very failure of the girder.
Before proceeding to the derivation of the S-N curves, let us define the range of their application.
The breathing phenomenon is usually linked with high-cycle fatigue. The frontier, measured by the
number N of breathing cycles, between high-cycle and low-cycle fatigue is between 104 and 105 cycles.
As the authors also obtained enough results in this domain, the S-N curves can be regarded as applicable
for N > 104. As regards the other boundary, i.e. for high values of N, the S-N curves established
herebelow hold for all N < 10m cycles. For the fatigue limit state m = 6.75, for the serviceability limit one
m = 6.25. However, for these very high values of N, the S-N curves shall yet be completed by
determining their threshold values.
As far as web slenderness Ȝ and aspect ratio Į are concerned, let us mention that the authors´
experiments were carried out for Ȝ = 117, 175, 250 and Į = 1, 1.43, 2, which are the parameters of the
webs of most steel plated girders subjected to breathing. The influence of these parameters is reflected in
the S-N curves by the role of the quantity Ĳcr, the (linear-buckling-theory) critical load of the web. Given
the fact that the writers´ tests were conducted on girders with various flange dimensions, Ĳcr can also take
account of the boundary conditions of the web.
A similar statement can be made in regard to web loading. The webs of the writers´ test girders were
under the action of combined shear Ĳ and bending ı, with shear predominating, i.e. their ı/Ĳ ratios < 1.0.
This means that the S-N curves are applicable to webs subjected to shear or to combined shear Ĳ and
bending ı provided ı/Ĳ 1.0. For larger ı/Ĳ ratios the S-N curves shall be the objective of further
research.
Let us now establish, via the statistic procedure recommended in Appendix Z EUROCODE 3, the S-
N curves for both limit states.
148 test results, i.e. the data resulting from all of those authors´ experiments in which the authors
were able to study the whole cumulative damage process in the breathing webs from the initiation of the
first fatigue crack to the complete fatigue failure of the whole girders, were used in the analysis.
All test results related to the fatigue failure of the test girders, i.e. to their fatigue limit state, are
plotted in Figure 5a. Also two straight lines are given there: one of them shows average values of the
experimental results obtained (their scatter being large) and the other one is the fatigue limit state S-N
curve proposed by the authors.
Mathematically it can be expressed as follows:
log(ǻĲ/Ĳcr + 1) = -0.1027log N + 0.7537 (1a)
where ǻĲ is the shear stress range, Ĳcr the critical load of the web given by linear buckling theory, and N is
the number of loading cycles to which the web is subjected.
All test results related to the initiation of the first fatigue crack, i.e. to the serviceability limit state, are
plotted in Figure 5b, the two straight lines having the same meaning as above in Figure 5a.
Mathematically the S-N curve for the limit state of serviceability is given by this relationship:
log(ǻĲ/Ĳcr + 1) = -0.0756log N + 0.5265 (1b)
all symbols having the same meaning as in the formula for the fatigue limit state.
The above formulae for the S-N curves need completing by determining their threshold values. In
their analysis, let us concentrate merely on experimental results for high N-values, and let us determine
the threshold value, log (ǻĲ/Ĳcr +1)th ,by the requirement that only 5% (this high percentage is acceptable
in the view of the scatter of test results being very large) of the experimental data obtained can be under
the threshold value.
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Figure 5a: S-N curve for the fatigue limit state.
Figure 5b: S-N curve for the serviceability limit state
Thereby we arrive, for both of the two limit states, at the threshold value
log(ǻĲ/Ĳcr + 1)th = 0,08 (2)
For lower values of log (ǻĲ/Ĳcr + 1)th and for all larger values of N, the S-N curves are assumed to be
horizontal.
And what about the effect of various stress ranges?
777
If, during its lifetime, the web is subjected to various stress ranges ǻĲi Palmgren-Miner´s criterion can
be used:
ni
¦ d1 (3)
Ni
where ni is the actual number of loading cycles for the stress level ǻĲi and Ni is the life, determined from
the above S-N curves, of the web determined on the assumption that ǻĲi is the only loading to which the
breathing web is subjected during its whole lifetime.
6 FATIGUE ASSESSMENT OF BREATHING WEBS IN THE LIGHT OF THE S-N

CURVES ESTABLISHED BY THE AUTHORS
The fatigue assessment of breathing webs should then proceed as follows:
x The first limit state, connected with fatigue failure, shall not be reached before the whole
planned life of the structure has been exploited.
x The other limit state, related to the (experimentally observable) initiation of the first-fatigue-
through-crack, governs the maximum time before which the first inspection of the girder for potential
fatigue cracks needs to be carried out.
If no fatigue fissures are found during the inspection, the useful life of the girder can be extended
until another inspection is conducted after one half of the time period to the first inspection (this reflecting
the fact that the degree of cumulative damage in the breathing web is then larger than during the first
period). Failing to detect any fatigue cracks even then, the system of inspections can be extended in the
same way. If, and when, a fatigue crack is detected, it shall be carefully measured – via frequent enough
inspections – with the view to find out whether it (i) propagates or (ii) has stabilised.
The results of the two checks mentioned above will decide whether some retrofitting of the girder is
necessary.
7 CONCLUSIONS
Based on their experimental results, the authors established S-N curves which can serve as a basis for
the design of plate girder webs breathing under many times repeated combined shear and bending.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors express their gratitude to (i) the Czech Science Foundation for the financial support of
their research carried out within the projects 103/09/0091, 103/08/0275 and 103/08/1677, and (ii) the
ITAM AS CR, v.v.i. for the support within the project AVOZ 20710524.
REFERENCES
[1] Škaloud, M. and Zornerová, M., “The post-buckled behaviour in thin-walled steel
construction and its partial "erosion" under repeated loading”, invited lecture at Mini-
Symposium Stability and Non-Linear Behaviour of Steel Structures, Lisbon, 2009. To be
published in a Special Issue of the Int. Journal of Struct. Stability and Dynamics.
[2] Maquoi, R. and Škaloud, M., “Some remarks in regard to the fatigue analysis of steel
plate girders with breathing webs”, Proc. of the 20th Czech-Slovak Conference Steel
structures and bridges 2003, J. Studniþka, Czech Technical University in Prague, Prague,
397-402, 2003.
778
IMPERFECTIONS IN STEEL PLATED STRUCTURES AND THEIR IMPACT

ON ULTIMATE STRENGTH
J.Kala*, M.Škaloud**, J.Melcher*, and Z.Kala*
* Faculty of Civil Engineering, Brno University of Technology,

VeveĜí 95. 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic
e-mail: {kala.j, melcher.j, kala.z}@fce.vutbr.cz
** Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Czech Academy of Sciences,
Prosecká 76, 190 00 Prague 9, Czech Republic
e-mail: skaloud@itam.cas.cz
Keywords: Imperfections, steel plated structures, tolerances, straightening.
Abstract. Initial imperfections in welded plated systems and web tolerances. Analysis of the effect of
initial web curvatures on the ultimate strength of the whole girder, with the view to find out whether it is
possible to avoid costly straightening of plate elements involved.
1 THIN-WALLED CONSTRUCTION
Numberless are situations where an application of thin-walled construction is very advantageous. For
example, in steel bridgework this is in the case of bridges with larger spans.
That is why a great attention has been internationally paid to research on post-buckled behaviour and
ultimate strength of slender webs, flanges and other plate elements, the Czech research always striving to
play a useful role in these activities.
However, there are also numerous cases where another approach is more economical. This results
from the fact that the price of a steel structure is not only given by the price of the steel used but is also
considerably affected by the cost of the fabrication of the structure. And in a good many situations it is
the latter aspect that prevails; then it does not matter much that the structure in question is by a few tons
heavier if this is compensated (and frequently outweighed) by substantially reduced fabrication costs.
2 WAYS TO ECONOMIC-FABRICATION CONSTRUCTION

The above objective can be achieved in two ways, viz. by means of (i) a simple and easily fabricated
structural system, (ii) a reduction or a complete elimination of some costly fabrication procedures.
2.1 A simple structural system
In bridge construction this occurs with small and medium-span bridges, where a simple system,
composed of a simple welded I-beam (without any longitudinal ribs and with as few transverse stiffeners
as possible) made composite with a concrete slab is becoming very popular.
Then the amount of welding and other fabrication processes, and consequently also the fabrication
costs, are very substantially reduced.
2.2 A reduction of some fabrication procedures
But the economic-fabrication approach is not only connected with the structural system chosen, but
also with the way it is fabricated. And in this respect an important question ought to be asked, viz. should
we straighten the plate elements (for example the webs of steel plate and box girders) of which the
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structural system is composed, which, as a result of the fabrication of the system (in particular as a result
of the welding procedures used), always exhibit an initial curvature?
It is practically impossible to fabricate welded steel plated structures without their plate elements
exhibiting initial curvatures. Therefore it is understandable that various standards require that this initial
“dishing” be kept under control via prescribed tolerances and that in the case of need the magnitude of
the initial curvature be reduced by straightening, usually heat straightening.
But is this really indispensable and desirable?
Of course, we are not the first to pose this question:
The problem was already dealt with some time ago by the Task Group “Tolerances in Steel Plated
Structures”, sponsored b the IABSE, chaired by Prof. Ch. Massonnet [5], with the second author of this
paper being a member of the Task Group. And the observations made during, and the conclusion drawn
from, the activities of the Task Group are very much of interest even now.
It is true that discussions within the Task Group exhibited some differences of opinion. However,
these differences notwithstanding, the Task Group tended to the opinion that heat straightening in steel
plated structures is not desirable.
And the authors of this paper endorse the above stand point, the reasons being twofold:
(i) The procedure of straightening is rather costly (not only directly, but also due to blocking some
space in the steel fabricator which can be used for other operations) and therefore would not be
compatible with the aforesaid economic-fabrication strategy.
(ii) While it is understandable that the straightening of webs should be employed for aesthetical and
psychological reasons, it is not certain that the actual stability behaviour of a girder with a straightened
web is better than that of the original girder. To straighten the web of a girder by heat treatment only
means that one initial imperfection (initial web curvature) is replaced by another initial imperfection
(additional residual stresses induced by the heat treatment applied). The aforementioned Task Group also
turned attention to another important fact; namely, while in the case of compressed plates (e.g. the
compression flanges of steel box girder bridges) the influence of an initial curvature on load-carrying
capacity can be significant (in ordinary cases even 20%), with webs subjected to combined shear and
bending the same effect is (of course. when the initial dishing is not too large - and it should not be when
the plated structure is fabricated in a good enough steel fabricator) much less important.
But is it really so?
If we desire to go as far as entirely to disregard the effect of unavoidable initial web curvatures, we
must be certain that the influence of initial web “dishing” larger than usually adopted tolerances will not
imperil the safety of steel plated girders.
And for this reason the authors have started an extensive investigation into the impact of various (but
practically important) configurations and magnitudes of web initial curvature on the limit state of steel
girders.
3 THE AUTHORS’ STUDY OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE INITIAL CURVATURE

OF THE WEBS OF STEEL PLATE GIRDERS ON THE ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE
OF THE GIRDER
3.1 Girders used in the analysis

The study was carried out on three types of plate girders. The first of them were test girders (Fig. 1)
used by the second author of this contribution and M. Zörnerová in their numerous experiments on the
“breathing” cumulative damage process and fatigue limit state of the webs of steel girders subjected to
many times repeated combined shear and bending.
Like most girders tested now by the second writer and M. Zörnerová at the Institute of Theoretical
and Applied Mechanics in Prague, they are fairly large, having a web 1000mm deep, so that their
character is not far from that of ordinary girders. One of the experimental girders in the testing position is
shown in Fig. 2.
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J. Kala et al.
Figure 1: Test girder TG with D = 1.
Figure 2: One of the Prague experimental girders in the testing position.
Figure 3: Larger girders used in the analysis.
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J. Kala et al.
All the girders were fabricated in the steel fabricator of Division 7 of the Company METROSTAV
plc. (which is one of the best steel fabricators in the Czech Republic), using the same technological
procedures as are applied there in the fabrication of ordinary steel bridges. It is important to note at this
juncture that, compatibly with the problem treated in this paper, in the fabrication of the test girders no
attempt was made to diminish (by heat treatment) the initial curvature of the web generated during the
process of girder fabrication.
The shape and magnitude of the initial “dishing” of both of the web panels of all the test girders were
very carefully measured and then their contour plots elaborated.
The shape of the initial curvature varied from girder to girder, this depending mostly on the regime of
welding used, but usually exhibited one half-wave in the longitudinal direction and one or two half-
waves in the transverse one. Their amplitudes were in the interval 2 - 11mm, i.e. d/500 - d/91, d being the
depth of the web.
The advantage of using in the theoretical investigation the same girders as were employed in the
Prague experimental analysis was in the possibility to verify the theoretically predicted ultimate loads by
comparing them with their experimental counterparts, since in addition to “breathing” tests under
repeated loading, part of the Prague girders were also tested statically, i.e. in the same regime as in our
theoretical analysis.
The second type of girder is similar, but has longer web panels, so that their aspect ratio Į = 2.
Another part of the calculations were conducted on larger girders, viz. on those depicted in Fig. 3,
various kinds of initial imperfections being again considered.
3.2 Theoretical apparatus applied in the analysis
The study of the effect of web initial curvature on the ultimate limit state of steel plate girders was
based on an application of elasto-plastic large-deflection theory, the ANSYS program being used in the
analysis [1].
The Euler method based on proportional loading in combination with the Newton-Raphson method
was used. The girder was modelled, in a very minute manner, by means of a mesh of shell four-node
elements SHELL 181. The girder symmetry and that of loading were made use of. The loading test is
simulated by the incrementation of a loading step in the Euler method. The load-carrying capacity was
determined as the loading rate at which the matrix of tangential toughness determinant Kt of the structure
approaches zero with accuracy of 0.1 %. The incrementation run was decremented automatically. For
steel grade S235, bilinear kinematic material hardening was supposed. Further on, it was assumed that the
onset of plastification occurred when the Mises stress exceeded the yield stress.
At this juncture it should be mentioned that the theoretically predicted ultimate loads very well
correlated (the difference being only a few p.) with their experimental counterparts. Thereby the
reliability of the theoretical results was confirmed.
4 THE MAIN RESULTS OF, AND THE PRINCIPAL CONCLUSIONS DRAWN

FROM, THE ANALYSIS
The main results of the authors’ analysis are summed up in Tables 1-5. Table 1 is related to the Prague
experimental girders with D = 1, Table 2 to those with D = 2 and Table 3 to girders shown in Fig. 3. Table 4
again returns to the girder depicted in Fig. 3, but the shape of the curvature is considered exactly as it was
measured before testing the girder, but its amplitude varies in several steps. Table 5 returns to the girder seen in
Fig. 1, but the web curvature has the shape of the first eigen function of the related linear-buckling theory
problem, its amplitude again varying from case to case [3].
In the case of Tables 1 and 2 more than one shape of the initial curvature are considered; they are indicated
there as the number of half-waves in the longitudinal direction multiplied by that in the transverse one.
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J. Kala et al.
Table 1:
Ultimate load Fult
w0 [kN]
w0/d
[mm] Shape of initial curvature
1x1 1x2 1x3
1 1/1000 731.0 734.8 734.0
4 1/250 719.2 728.0 730.1
5 1/200 714.9 727.5 727.8
10 1/100 687.1 734.0 715.3
15 1/67 655.3 768.7 706.1
20 1/50 622.8 759.8 702.1
Table 2:
Ultimate load Fult
w0 [kN]
w0/d
1x1 1x2
5 1/200 564.1 560.3
10 1/100 558.1 548.4
20 1/50 549.5 522.0
Table 3:
Ultimate load Fult
w0 [kN]
w0/d
1x1
1 1/1600 2484.4
4 1/400 2450.6
6.4 1/250 2451.6
8 1/200 2456.8
16 1/100 2453.2
20 1/80 2444.6
Table 4:
Ultimate load Fult
w0 [kN]
w0/d
(measured)
1 1/1000 743.2
2 1/500 745.6
4 1/250 744.2
5 1/200 748.2
10 1/100 746.0
15 1/67 737.2
20 1/50 724.6
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J. Kala et al.
Table 5:
Ultimate load Fult
w0 [kN]
w0/d
(first eigen function)
1 1/1600 2447
4 1/400 2440.2
6 1/266 2443.6
8 1/200 2432
15 1/106 2407.2
20 1/80 2387
An examination of the results obtained reveals the following:
(i) The effect of web initial curvature to a great extent depends on its shape; therefore all practically
important (i.e. those that occur in ordinary steel plate girders) configurations need considering and the
most unfavourable results need to be taken into account.
(ii) The impact of web initial curvature is not a monotonic function because it is considerably
affected (a) by the shell-like behaviour of initially curved webs (which brings about a difference between
the monotonic behaviour of an initially curved column and the more complex performance of an initially
curved plate, when at least for certain initial curvature shapes and within a certain interval of initial
curvature amplitudes, an increase in the amplitude need not always necessarily mean a drop in the load-
carrying capacity of the girder) and (b) by snap-throughs which occur during the buckling process of the
web.
(iii) In the light of the main objective of the contribution, it is not of primary importance (even
though even this can be seen in Tables 1-5) to find out how large is the “absolute” impact of the
individual cases of web “dishing”, but more important is it to determine what would happen (i.e. how
large would be the drop in ultimate strength) if one neglects the usually prescribed tolerances (for the
amplitude w0 of web curvature, usually w0 = d/200 - d/250, d being web depth) and find out the ultimate
load for the same girder but with an unstraightened web. For the products of well equipped and fully
experienced steel fabricators, it can be expected (see our measurements mentioned hereabove) that for
unstraightened webs w0 is about d/100.
From the tables summing up the writers’ results, Tables 1-5, it follows that the corresponding
ultimate load reduction is very small, less than 4 p.c. It is therefore insignificant for the safety of the
girders.
However, given the complex character of the behaviour of initially curved webs, see in particular
point (ii) hereabove, further calculations in the aforesaid optics are under way, the writers considering
other girder “geometries” and other kinds of web “dishing”.
5 CONCLUSION
The conclusions drawn from the authors’ study of the effect of (practically important) web initial
curvatures on the ultimate load performance of steel plate girders show that it is not indispensable to
abide by the currently used and rather stringent web tolerances, and that plate girders can be used without
their webs being straightened.
Of course, this conclusion holds only for the products of well equipped and highly accredited steel
fabricators, having a staff with high expertise and experience (such as the steel fabricator of Division 7 of
METROSTAV, plc., where the measurements described above were carried out), for which it can be
expected that the standard of workmanship achieved will be sufficiently high and resulting imperfections
reasonably small.
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J. Kala et al.
But even then it is advisable to strive to fulfil the four recommendations given by the aforesaid Task
Group [5], viz.
(i) Efficient design in balancing welds about neutral axis,
(ii) Avoidance of excessive use of weld metal (this applying to both the number and size of welds),
(iii) Ensure that fit-up is as perfect as can be achieved,
(iv) Use appropriate welding procedures, aware of the fact that automatic and semi-automatic
welding yields better results than manual welding.
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors express their gratitude to (i) the Czech Science Foundation for the financial support of
their research carried out within the framework of the projects 103/08/0275, project CIDEAS No.
1M0579 and (ii) the ITAM AS CR, v.v.i. for the support within the project AVOZ 20710524.
REFERENCES
[1] ANSYS Theory manual, rev. 11.0, 2008.

[2] Kala, Z., Kala, J., Škaloud, M., and Teplý, The stress state in the crack-prone areas of „breathing“
thin-wallded girders – a sensitivity analysis, In Proc. of the Fourth International Conference on
Coupled Instabilities in Metal Structures, Rome (Italy) 2004, pp.265-276.
[3] Kala, J., Kala, Z., Melcher, J. and Škaloud, M. Large-deflection-theory analysis of the effect of web
initial curvature on the ultimate strength of steel plate girder, In. Proc of The Twelfth International
Conference on Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering Computing, Madeira 2009.
[4] Škaloud, M., Melcher, J., Kala, J., Kala, Z. The possibility of making web tolerance less stringent
as a prerequisite for achieving economic-fabrication steel girders, Proc. of 7th EUROMECH Solid
Mechanics Conference, Lisboa, Portugal. ISBN 978-989-96264-2-3
[5] Massonnet Ch. et al. Tolerances in steel plated structures. IABSE Surveys - 14/80, 1980.
785
F. Sinur, D. Beg
IMPERFECTION SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF LONGITUDINALLY

STIFFENED PLATED GIRDERS SUBJECTED TO BENDING-SHEAR
INTERACTION
F. Sinur*, D. Beg*
* Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering, University of Ljubljana

e-mails: franc.sinur@fgg.uni-lj.si, darko.beg@fgg.uni-lj.si
Keywords: M-V interaction, longitudinally stiffeners, plated girder, sensitivity analysis.
Abstract. This paper presents the study of imperfection sensitivity of longitudinally stiffened plated
girders subjected to bending and shear load. For this purpose a finite element model is developed and
verified against real tests. The geometrical imperfections are defined manually as general expected
shapes and as buckling modes. For the study of structural imperfections, i.e. residual stresses, simplified
stress field is used over the web and flanges.
1 INTRODUCTION
The initial geometric imperfections are always present and have to be properly considered in
geometrical and material nonlinear analysis. The imperfections, particularly for plated girders, are manly
caused by steel plate rolling, cutting and welding. Since in a design procedure the real initial (geometrical
and structural) imperfections are in general not known, the most unfavorable shape of the imperfections
that can be realistically expected to appear should be taken into account.
The amplitudes of geometrical imperfections are limited with fabrication tolerances. Because the
residual stresses are more difficult to model, the usual approach is to model geometrical and structural
imperfections with equivalent geometrical imperfections.
In this paper, the influence of geometrical as well as structural imperfections on longitudinally
stiffened plate girder resistance subjected to bending and shear is studied. The shapes of applied
geometrical imperfections are defined in two ways: according to EN 1993-1-5 [1] and with buckling
modes. The purpose is to find out which shapes are most critical for the stiffened panel resistance. The
influence of simultaneously applied structural and geometrical imperfection are also studied and
compared to the influence of equivalent imperfections.
The sensitivity analysis was carried out on symmetric and asymmetric cross sections. The parameters
that were taken into account are: number of longitudinal stiffeners n (n = 1, 2), position of stiffeners,
aspect ratio D (D = 1, 2), slenderness of the web hw/tw (hw/tw = 200, 250, and 300), stiffness of the
longitudinal stiffener and type of stiffener cross-section (open T, closed trapezoidal). The analysis was
performed for girder loaded with low bending – high shear, for girder loaded with high bending - high
shear and for girder loaded with high bending - low shear.
2 FINITE ELEMENT MODELING

The sensitivity analysis of stiffened plate girders was set up using software package ABAQUS. The
basic girder layout is shown in Figure 1. This comprises an inverted simply supported beam with global
panels of length a and height hw. In the analysis symmetry of the girder is taken into account where only
half of the girder with proper support conditions is modeled. Lateral torsional buckling was restrained by
787
F. Sinur et al.
providing adequate lateral restraint to the compression flanges. The structural steel S355 was modeled as
elastic plastic with a linear strain hardening E/200.
Figure 1: Girder layout used in finite element modeling
To cover different levels of bending and shear load the panel length L of the girder was varied.
Bending moment M and shear load V were calculated at a distance 0.5×max(bi) from vertical stiffener. In
Figure 2 the M-V interaction and typical lengths are shown. Models with length L4 were loaded with
high shear – low bending, where shear failure mode with formation of tension field in the panel is
expected. Models with lengths L1, L2, L3 were defined in the area of M-V interaction where mixed
failure mode in the sense of tension field and plastic hinge formation is expected. In the last case the
length of the girder L5 was designed to get only bending failure (formation of a plastic hinge). Lengths
L2, L4 and L5 were defined with the following equations:
Mf Mf M el , eff
L2 , L4 , L5 , (1)
Vbw 2 ¸ Vbw 2¸ M f
where Mel,eff is elastic effective bending resistance of the plated girder, Mf is bending resistance of
flanges only and Vbw is shear resistance of the web.
Figure 2: M-V interaction according to EN 1993-1-5 and denoted length of analyzed girders
In the parametric study the stiffness of the longitudinal stiffener was defined as a ratio of J/J*, where
J is relative bending stiffness of the stiffener defined with:
12 ¸ 1 O 2
¸ I sl
H , (2)
hw ¸ tw3
and J* is stiffness of the stiffener needed to prevent global shear buckling over the whole panel. The
stiffness J/J* was varied from 0.3 up to 28.
788
F. Sinur et al.
2.1 Geometrical imperfections

The initial geometrical imperfections were defined “manually” and as buckling modes. Numerical
model for buckling analysis was modified to get buckling modes only in the analyzed panel. In Figure 3
the first five positive buckling modes, which were later used as initial geometrical imperfection are
shown. The shapes of manually defined imperfections (see Figure 4) were modeled according to EN
1993-1-5:
global stiffener deflection in half-sine wave out of the web plane (imperfection mode 1),
with opposite direction in neighboring panel,
as imperfection mode 1, with waves turned to the same direction (imperfection mode 2),
local subpanel imperfection in half-sin wave out of the web plane, where longitudinal
stiffener remains straight and waves in the subpanel are turned to the opposite direction
(imperfection mode 3),
the same as imperfection mode 3 with waves turned to the same side of the panel
(imperfection mode 4)
1st 2nd 3th 4th 5th

Figure 3: Positive buckling modes for girder hw / tw = 2000/8 mm, bf / tf = 500/30 mm, D = 1, T stiffener
(bst / hst / tst = 44/40/4 mm, J/J* = 1), buckling model IMP 3
Δu = 0 mm
x
Δu = 15 mm
y
Δu = 0 mm
z
0 0 0
0
1000 1000 1000

1000
2000 2000 2000

2000
2000
2000 2000 2000
3000 3000 3000
3000
1500
1500 4000 1500 4000 1500 4000
4000
5000 5000 1000 5000

1000 5000 1000
1000
6000 6000 6000 6000

500
500 500
500
7000 7000 7000 7000
0
0 0
0 8000
8000 8000 −500 8000
−500 −250
−250 0 250
0 0
250 500
500 500
mode 1 mode 2 mode 3 mode 4

Figure 4: Manually defined initial geometrical imperfections
2.2 Residual stresses

The presence of residual stresses in stiffened plates is mainly attributable to the welding of plates.
The residual stresses in the vicinity of the weld are close to the yield limit. Some examples of real
distribution of the residual stresses can be found in [2, 3] for longitudinally unstiffened girder or in [4] for
longitudinally stiffened plates. Because the real distribution of residual stresses in our case is not exactly
known, simplification according to Figure 5b is proposed and used in numerical models. Simplification is
as follows: in the vicinity (xf, xw) of the web – flange welds the web is in tension up to the yield limit,
while the other parts of the web, including welded area in the vicinity of longitudinal stiffener, are in
compression.
To investigate the effect of residual stresses on the girder resistance, the level of compression was
varied from 0.05×fy to 0.20×fy (see Table 1). The area of the tension zone xf, xw, depends on the level of
assumed compression stresses kf, kw and is given with equations in Figure 5. Residual stresses were
investigated in combination with geometrical imperfections with amplitudes equal to 80% of fabrication
tolerances according to EN 1090-2 [5].
789
F. Sinur et al.
kf
xf bf
1 k f
hw t f
¸ tw Asl
xw
2 ¸ tw ¸ 1 kw
Figure 5: Residual stresses in longitudinally stiffened plated girders with a slender web
Table 1: Considered level of residual stresses in stiffened girder

MODEL kw kf MODEL kw kf
RA005 0.05 RB005 0.05
RA010 0.10 RB010 0.10
0.20 0.05
RA015 0.15 RB015 0.15
RA020 0.20 RB020 0.20
2.3 Equivalent geometrical imperfections

To simplify the modeling of initial imperfections, i.e. geometrical and structural imperfections, the
geometrical imperfections are enlarged to cover also the influence of residual stresses. Equivalent
geometric imperfections that were considered in this study are determined according to EN 1993-1-5:
- EG1: global buckling of the stiffener with length a and amplitude of min(a/400, b/400)
- EG2: local buckling of subpanel with short span a or bi and amplitude of min (a/200, bi/200)
- EG3: local stiffener subjected to twist with amplitude of 1/50
a) EG1(+) b) EG2 (+) c) EG3 (+)

Figure 6: Equivalent geometric imperfection
These imperfections were superimposed with respect to the imperfection direction and the selection
of leading and accompanying imperfections. The amplitude of leading imperfection was taken as 100%
and for all accompanying imperfections as 70%.
2.4 Model verification
The non-linear numerical model was verified with the test performed by Pavlovþiþ [6] and with the
test executed in the framework of the COMBRI [7] project. The test of Pavlovþiþ was designed to get
more or less pure shear resistance of the longitudinally stiffened girder. The longitudinally stiffened
girder performed in the COMBRI project was intended to get information on the M-V interaction in the
area of high bending moment and shear force. The results show good agreement in the sense of failure
mode as well as in girder capacity.
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F. Sinur et al.
3 INFLUENCE OF INITIAL IMPERFECTION – NUMERICAL STUDY
3.1 Imperfection shapes

Figure 7 shows the influence of initial imperfections and initial amplitudes on girder resistance
loaded with high bending-shear load (L1). The amplitudes of all investigated imperfections were +hw/400
= 5 mm, hw/200 = 10 mm and hw/100 = 20 mm. The shapes of imperfections were defined “manually”
and as buckling modes. The results show that one general imperfection shape which leads to the
minimum resistance of the plated girder is very difficult to obtain in this way. By increasing the
amplitude of initial imperfection the capacity decrease is not always the case (see Figure 7a, imperfection
4, 5). In this case the imperfection amplitude direction is found as unimportant. The main reason for this
is that local buckling prevails, especially in case when girder is stiffened with stronger longitudinal
stiffeners.
hw/400 hw/200 hw/100 hw/400 hw/200 hw/100
1.020 1.020
1.009
1.008
1.004
1.003
1.001
1.000
1.010 1.010
0.999
0.999
0.998
0.998
0.998
0.997
0.997
0.997
0.996
0.996
0.996
0.995
0.995
0.995
0.994
0.993
0.993
0.993
0.990
0.990
0.990
1.000 1.000
0.988
Fimp./Fperf.
Fimp./Fperf.
0.986
0.984
0.983
0.982
0.982
0.981
0.981
0.980
0.979
0.990 0.990
0.978
0.979
0.975
0.974
0.980 0.980
0.965
0.970 0.970
0.960 0.960
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4
Imperfection Imperfectiom
a) buckling modes b) “manually” defined
ALL IMPERFECTIONS
MAXIMUM ENVELOPE
MINIMUM ENVELOPE
1.010
1560 1.005
1550 1.000
0.995
Fimp./Fperf.
Fnum [kN]
1540
0.990
1530 0.985
1520 0.980
1510 0.975
0.970
1500 0.965
1490 0.960
-20 -10 0 10 20
Imperfection Amplitude w0 [mm]
c) sensitivity envelope
Figure 7: Imperfection study on girder L1: hw / tw = 2000/8 mm, bf / tf = 500/30 mm, D = 1, T stiffener (bst
/ hst / tst = 44/40/4 mm, J/J* = 1)
Further results of imperfection influence are compared between the maximum and the minimum
capacity calculated with different imperfection shapes (defined as first ten positive buckling modes).
Figure 8 shows the normalized difference between the maximum and the minimum capacity and standard
deviation for all analyzed initial imperfections with amplitude +hw/200. The analysis was performed on
girders:
- Ni …symmetric girder with one open stiffener in compression zone,
- NiZ …symmetric girder with one closed stiffener in compression zone,
- Ni-2O …symmetric girder with two open stiffeners in compression zone,
- Ni-2OS …symmetric girder with two open stiffeners – in tension and compression,
- Ni-NP …unsymmetrical girder with one open stiffener in compression zone,
where i indicates integers 1 to 4 and describes the stiffness of the stiffener mentioned in Section 2.
Among all analyzed imperfections the difference between the maximum and the minimum value for
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F. Sinur et al.
symmetric girder under high bending – high shear load (model L1) is up to 3.02% and up to 3.40% for
asymmetric girders.
h w /tw = 250, D = 1 h w /tw = 250, D = 1
3.80 0.018 0.010
Fimp.max-Fimp.min 3.20 Fimp.max-Fimp.min
Standard Deviation
f imp.max.-f imp.min. [%]
Standard Deviation
3.60 Standard Deviation 0.016 Standard Deviation 0.009
0.012
3.16
0.006
3.40 0.008
2.37
3.02 0.014 2.70
2.97
3.20 0.007
0.012
0.004
0.008
3.00 0.006
0.008
0.004
0.004
0.010 2.20
2.54
2.80 0.005
0.006
1.59
1.58
0.006
1.47
0.008
2.32
2.60 1.70 0.004
2.40 0.006 0.003
2.20 0.004 1.20 0.002
N1-2O-L1
N2-2O-L1
N1-NP-L1
N1-L1
N2-L1
N1Z-L1
N1-2OS-L1
N2Z-L1
N2-2OS-L1
a) J/J* 1 b) J/J* 0.30
h w /tw = 250, D = 1 h w /tw = 250, D = 1
0.014 0.010
Fimp.max-Fimp.min 3.00 Fimp.max-Fimp.min
3.40
4.00 0.013
Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation

0.010
Standard Deviation 0.012 Standard Deviation 0.008

3.50 2.50
0.005
0.005
1.72
1.67
0.011
1.59
2.61
0.004
0.008
3.00 0.010 2.00 0.006

2.26
0.009 1.50
1.90
2.50
0.006
1.73
0.008 0.004
0.002
0.006
0.47
0.005
2.00 0.007 1.00
0.001
0.18
0.006 0.002
1.50 0.50
0.005
1.00 0.004 0.00 0.000
N3-2O-L1
N4-2O-L1
N3-NP-L1
N4-NP-L1
N3-L1
N4-L1
N3Z-L1
N3-2OS-L1
N4Z-L1
N4-2OS-L1
c) J/J* 3 d) J/J* 26
Figure 8: Imperfection study on girder L1 in relation to stiffness of the longitudinal stiffener
3.2 Influence of slenderness, panel aspect ratio and stress state in the panel
In Figure 9a-b the effect of geometrical imperfections on girder resistance against different
slenderness of the web and panel aspect ratio is shown. At the change of web slenderness girders show
very small change in imperfection sensitivity. This is found for all girder configurations. By increasing
the panel aspect ratio Į, the sensitivity of girder resistance decreases for girders L4 which are loaded in
high shear – low bending and girders L5, loaded in high bending – low shear. For girders L1 loaded in
high shear – high bending the effect of geometrical imperfections on girder resistance remains more or
less the same.
J J | 14.00 J J |
7.50 J J | L1 J J | L1
f imp.max. -fimp.min. [%]
J J |__ 12.00 J J | __

f imp.max. -fimp.min. [%]
6.50 J J | J J |

5.50 J J | L4 10.00 J J | L4
J J |__ J J | __
4.50 J J | 8.00 J J |
J J | J J |
3.50 L5 6.00 L5
J J | J J |
2.50 4.00
1.50
2.00
0.50
0.00
200 250 300
Slenderness h w /tw 1 Panel aspect ratio D = a/ h w 2
Figure 9: Sensitivity analysis on girders with different slenderness of the web (a) and different panel
aspect ratio (b)
Finally, the imperfection sensitivity for different stress states in the panel is presented in Figure 10.
For all studied girders with different stiffness of longitudinal stiffener N1-N4 the same behavior is found.
Sensitivity of girder resistance decreases with increasing bending moment in the panel. This can be
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F. Sinur et al.
clearly seen from Figure 10 where at the beginning (L4 to L2) considerable drop is observed.
Furthermore, the effect on girder resistance remains more or less the same as long as the bending moment
is the same as or higher than the bending capacity of flanges.
h w /t w = 250, D = 1, b 1 /h w = 0.4
7.50
f imp.max.fperf.max. [%]
6.50 J J
J J
5.50
J J
4.50 J J
3.50
2.50
1.50
0.50
L4
L2
L1
L3
L5
Girder Length
Figure 10: Sensitivity analysis on girders with different stress state
4 INFLUENCE OF RESIDUAL STRESSES – NUMERICAL STUDY

The residual stresses were calculated in combination with geometrical imperfections. Geometrical
imperfections were defined according to EN 1993-1-5. The amplitude of the leading imperfection was
taken as 80% and the accompanying imperfection as 0.7×80% of those according to EN1090-2. Figure
11b shows the influence of residual stresses in the girder. Curve RSF represents the influence of the level
of compression stresses af × fy (af = 0.05, 0.10, 0.15, 0.20) in the flanges, while the compression stresses
in the web remain the same aw × fy (aw = 0.05). By increasing the level of compression stresses in the
flanges, the girder capacity decreases, however only to a certain level. The RSW curve presents the
influence of level of compression stresses aw × fy (aw = 0.05, 0.10, 0.15, 0.20) in the web, at constant
compression stresses af × fy (af = 0.20) in the flanges. Already at the minimum applied residual stresses
(aw = 0.05) in the web, significant drop in girder capacity can be found. Additional increase of residual
stresses (aw = 0.10, 0.15, 0.20) does not additionally influence girder resistance. However, comparing
capacity to the one of the perfect girder, 2.5% decrease is found at most.
1600 1600
1550 1550
1500 1545 1500

RSF 1.001
1450
Force [kN]
1540 1450
Force [kN]
RSW 0.999
PERFECT PERFECT
Force [kN]
1400 0.997
1535 1400 IMP EC1
IMP EC1 0.995
1350 RA005-C1 1530 0.993 1350 RB005-C1
RA010-C1 0.991 RB010-C1
1300 1525 1300
RA015-C1 0.989 RB015-C1
1250 RA020-C1 1520 0.987 1250 RB020-C1
0.985
1200 1515 0.983 1200
40 60 80 100 40 60 80 100
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
Displacement [mm] a w, a f Displacement [mm]
a) b) c)
Figure 11: Influence of residual stresses on girder (N1-L1) resistance
5 EQIVALENT IMPERFECTIONS
When the influences of equivalent geometrical imperfections were taken into account, different
combinations (see Figure 12) of basic imperfection shapes were analyzed to obtain the lowest resistance
of the girder. In Figure 12 the normalized resistance for girder considering equivalent geometrical
imperfections (I1-I4), geometrical imperfections (I5) and residual stress in combination with geometrical
imperfections (I6) are presented. It can be seen that equivalent geometrical imperfections decrease the
girder resistance only by 0.5% compared to the perfect girder, while the explicit consideration of residual
stresses in combination with geometrical imperfection leads to decrease of girder resistance by 1.9%. In
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F. Sinur et al.
this case equivalent geometrical imperfections do not reflect the influence of residual stresses present in
the cross section.
1.010
1.004
1.005 1.000
I0: perfect girder
I1: EG1+0.7×(EG2+EG3)
0.996
0.996
0.996
1.000 0.995
Fimp ./Fperf.
0.995
I2: -EG1-0.7×(EG2+EG3)
0.990
I3: 0.7×(EG1+EG3)+EG2
I4: EG1+0.7×(EG2+EG3)
0.981
0.985 I0 I1
I2 I3 I5: I1 with amplitudes according to fabrication tolerances
0.980 I4 I5
I6 Fperf. = 1548 kN I6: I5 + considered residual stress acc. to model RA005
0.975
Figure 12: Influence of equivalent geometrical (I1-I4), geometrical imperfections (I5) and residual
stresses (I6) on girder resistance
6 CONCLUSION
In this paper the effect of geometrical and structural imperfections of girder web panel is studied.
Geometrical and structural imperfections are implemented in a nonlinear FEM analysis. Girders with
different types and stiffnesses of longitudinal stiffeners subjected to bending and shear are considered.
The main conclusions can be summarized as follows:
- Girders subjected to bending moment higher than bending capacity of flanges shows very little
reduction in capacity when different initial geometrical imperfections and amplitudes are
applied. The maximum reduction of 3.5% for amplitude of hw/100 is found.
- Higher geometrical imperfection sensitivity can be observed for girders loaded dominantly in
shear (L4). In the worst case the maximum deviation of 7.5% is noted.
- The residual stresses do not influence so much the girder resistance (up to 1.5% for analyzed
girder) as they influence the load-displacement response and failure mode which can differ in
case of high compression stresses in the flanges.
- The main conclusion seems to be that girder web panels under high bending and shear are not as
sensitive to the shape and expected amplitude of initial imperfection as girder web panels
dominantly loaded in shear.
REFERENCES
[1] CEN, Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 1-5: Plated structural elements, in EN 1993-1-5.
2006, European Committee for Standardisation: Brussels.
[2] Beg, D., Interakcija Lokalne in Globalne Nestabilnosti Tankostenskih Nosilcev, in Faculty of civil
and geodetic engineering. 1991, University of Ljubljana: Ljubljana. p. 159.
[3] Nakai, H., K. Souda, and M. Sakano, An Experimental and Analytical Study of Ultimate Strength
of End Transverse Stiffener in Plate Girder Bridges. 1986.
[4] Grondin, G.Y., et al., Stiffened Steel Plates Under compression and Bending. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research, 1998. 45(2): p. 23.
[5] CEN, Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures - Part 2: Technical requirements for
steel structures, in EN 1090-2. 2008, European Committee for Standardisation: Brussels.
[6] Pavlovþiþ, L., et al., Shear resistance of longitudinally stiffened panels--Part 1: Tests and numerical
analysis of imperfections. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 2007. 63(3): p. 337-350.
[7] COMBRI, Schlussbericht des RFCS -Forschungsprojekts RFS-CR-03018 "Competitive Steel and
Composite Bridges by Improved Steel Plated Structures". 2006. p. 154.
794
9. SHELLS
INFLUENCE OF GEOMETRY ON THE DYNAMIC BUCKLING AND

BIFURCATIONS OF CYLINDRICAL SHELLS
Zenon N. del Prado* and Paulo B. Gonçalves**
* School of Civil Engineering, Federal University of Goiás, UFG, 74605-200, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
zenon@eec.ufg.br
** Civil Engineering Department, Catholic University, PUC-Rio, 22453-900, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
paulo@puc-rio.br
Keywords: Cylindrical Shells, Dynamic Instability, Shell Geometry, Frequency-Amplitude Relation.
Abstract. In this work, Donnell’s nonlinear shallow shell equations are used to study the dynamic
buckling and bifurcations of simply supported cylindrical shells subjected to axial or lateral load. A
modal expansion with eight degrees of freedom containing the fundamental, companion, axially
asymmetric and five axi-symmetric modes is used to describe the lateral displacement of the shell. The
Galerkin method is used to obtain the nonlinear equations of motion which are, in turn, solved by the
Runge-Kutta method. Several studies on the nonlinear dynamics of cylindrical shells are found in
literature but they are restricted to specific geometries. In this paper we intend to study through a
detailed parametric analysis the influence of the shell geometry, specifically Batdorf’s parameter, length
to radius ratio and radius to thickness ratio on the main nonlinear dynamic characteristics of the shell.
1 INTRODUCTION
The combination of a simple geometry and its efficiency as a load carrying member, particularly for
axial loads and lateral pressure, makes cylindrical shells one of the most common shell geometries in
industrial applications and in nature. The buckling and vibration analysis of cylindrical shells under
various loading conditions has thus become an important research area in applied mechanics. Also, the
adequate selection of geometric characteristics is fundamental in designing against instability.
Amabili and Païdoussis [1] and Karagiosis [2] present extensive literature reviews related to the
nonlinear dynamics of shells in vacuum, and shells filled with or surrounded by quiescent or flowing
fluid. These topics are also presented in detail in a book by Paidoüssis [3] on fluid-structure interactions
and a book by Amabili [4] on nonlinear vibrations and stability of plates and shells. Here only a few key
contributions are mentioned.
The seminal works of Evensen [5] and Dowell and Ventres [6] gave the original idea to the modal
expansions for the shell flexural displacement involving symmetric and asymmetric modes. Later, the
studies by Ginsberg [7] and Chen and Babcock [8] contributed to the understanding of the influence of
the companion mode on the behavior of cylindrical shells. These works showed that cylindrical shells
usually display a softening behavior. Gonçalves and Batista [9] found that the presence of a dense fluid
increases the softening characteristics of the frequency-amplitude relation when compared with the
results for the same shell in vacuum. In a series of important papers Amabili et al. [10-13] the nonlinear
free and forced vibrations of a simply supported, circular cylindrical shell in contact with an
incompressible and non-viscous, quiescent or flowing dense fluid are studied using the Donnell’s
nonlinear shallow-shell theory. However most of these investigations are concerned with the analysis of
elastic isotropic shells with fixed geometric characteristics and there are no specifics works related to the
797
effect of geometry on the instability of cylindrical shells. Other interesting works on nonlinear dynamics
of cylindrical shells can be seen in [14-17].
In this work, an eight-degrees-of-freedom model is used to study the nonlinear vibrations of perfect
circular cylindrical shells with both axial and lateral loads. To discretize the shell, Donnell shallow shell
equations are used together with the Galerkin method to derive a set of coupled ordinary differential
equations in time domain. In order to study the effect of the geometric characteristics of the shell, several
analyses are developed to understand their influence on the natural frequencies, critical loads,
circumferential wave number and nonlinear frequency-amplitude relation. The obtained results can be
used as a design tool by engineers and scientist to select adequate shell geometries. To the authors’
knowledge, such an investigation has not been presented so far.
2 MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION
2.1 Shell equations

Consider a simply supported thin-walled circular cylindrical shell of radius R, length L, and thickness
h. The shell is assumed to be made of an elastic, homogeneous and isotropic material with Young’s
modulus E, Poisson ratio Q, and mass density Us. The axial, circumferential and radial co-ordinates are
denoted by x, y and z, respectively, and the corresponding displacements on the shell surface are denoted
by u, v and w, as shown in Fig. 1. In this work the mathematical formulation will follow that previously
presented in references [10], [14], [15] and [17].
f Pe
z, (w) x, (u)
v, (T) Pe
h
R
L
f
Figure 1. Shell geometry and loads
~ along the edges x=0
The shell is subjected to both a lateral pressure f and a distributed axial load N x
and L given respectively by
~ Pe P (1)
f (t ) f e f d cos(Z L t ); N x (t ) d cos(Z L t )
2S R 2S R
where Pe is a compressive uniform static load, fe is a uniform lateral static pressure and ZL is the forcing
frequency.
The nonlinear equation of motion, based on the von Kármán-Donnell shallow shell theory, in terms
of a stress function F and the lateral displacement w, is given by
1 w 2 F 1 ª w 2 F w 2w w 2 F w 2w w 2 F w 2w º (2)
D 4 w c h w U s h w
f « 2 »,
R wx 2 R «¬ wT 2 wx 2 wx wT wx wT wx 2 wT 2 ¼»
where D Eh3 /[12(1 Q 2 )] is the flexural rigidity and c (kg/m3 s) is the damping coefficient.
The compatibility equation is given by
798
2
1 4 1 w 2 w 1 ª § ww · w2w w2w º (3)
F « ¨ ¸ 2 »
Eh R wx 2 R 2 « ¨© wx wT ¸
¹ wx wT 2 »
¬ ¼
In Eqs. (2) and (3) the bi-harmonic operator is defined as 4 [w 2 / wx 2 w 2 /( R 2wT 2 )]2 .
2.2 Solution expansion for the transverse displacement

The numerical model is developed by expanding the transverse displacement component w in series
form in the circumferential and axial variables. From previous investigations on modal solutions for the
nonlinear analysis of cylindrical shells under axial loads [10, 17] it is clear that, in order to obtain a
consistent modeling with a limited number of modes, the sum of shape functions for the displacements
must (i) express the nonlinear coupling between the modes and (ii) also describe consistently the unstable
post-buckling response of the shell, as well as (iii) the correct frequency-amplitude relation. Here, the
following modal expansion is adopted [10, 14]:
w( x,T , t ) [1,1 (t ) h sin(q) cos (n T ) [1,1c (t ) h sin(q) sin (nT ) [1, 2 (t ) h sin(2q) cos (nT )
[1,2c (t ) h sin(q) sin (nT ) [0,1 (t )h sin(q) [0,3 (t )h sin(3q) (4)
[0,5 (t )h sin(5q) [0,7 (t )h sin(7q)
where [1,1(t), [1,1c(t),[1,2(t), [1,2c(t), [0,1(t),[0,3(t),[0,5(t)and[0,7(t) are the time dependent modal
amplitudes, q mS x / L and m and n are, respectively, the number of half-waves in the axial direction
and the number of waves in the radial direction. This leads to an eight-degrees-of-freedom reduced order
model. This model includes the basic vibration mode, the companion mode, symmetry-breaking modes in
the axial direction and four axi-symmetric modes. These modes are enough to describe the basic
nonlinear interactions responsible for the characteristic softening exhibited by cylindrical shells and the
in-out asymmetry of the nonlinear displacement field.
2.3 Linear analysis
Substituting the fundamental mode in Eq. (3), obtaining the stress function, applying the Galerkin
method and considering only one longitudinal half-wave (m=1), it is possible to obtain the expressions
for the lowest natural frequency, axial critical load and lateral critical pressure in terms of two
parameters. Using the circumferential wavelength parameter ( n ) and the Batdorf’s parameter (Z) given
respectively by [18]
L2
n
nL
SR
, Z
Rh

1 Q 2
12
, (5)
and the following non-dimensional parameters
R2 Us 2 R L2 R L R
:2 Z , *0 Pe , F0 f , D , E (6)
S 4E 2S EL2 h
2
S 2D R h
the non-dimensional frequency, axial critical load and critical lateral pressure are obtained as
:
1 n 2 2

1

1
*o
n2
F0 (7)
12 Z 2 2
S 1 n
2 2 S 12 Z 2
*o

S 1 n 2
2

1

n 2S
F0 (8)
12 Z 2

S 1 n
2 2 12Z 2
799
F0
1 n 2 2

12Z 2

12 Z 2
*o (9)
n 2 2 2
S n 1 n
2 2 n 2S
3 NUMERICAL RESULTS
3.1 Linear Analysis

Consider a simply supported cylindrical shell under both an axial load and a lateral pressure. As a
first analysis, Fig. 2 shows the minimum values of the wave length parameter ( n ) obtained for the lowest
natural frequency, critical axial load and critical lateral pressure parameters as a function of the Batdorf’s
parameter (Z). As can be observed, the minimum wavelength parameter is the same for the lowest natural
frequency and axial critical load but different for critical lateral pressure. It is also possible to see that, as
the Batdorf’s parameter increases, the wavelength parameter increases in a nonlinear manner.
Figure 3 shows the influence of Batdorf (Z) parameter and the L/R and R/h ratios on the lowest
natural frequency parameter : (Eq. 7). As can be observed in Fig. 3a, which is plotted considering the
lowest value of the wavelength parameter n , as the Batdorf’s parameter increases there is a strong
reduction of the natural frequency parameter, :. Batdorf’s parameter includes the influence of both L/R
and R/h. Figure 3b shows the influence of L/R and R/h ratios on the lowest natural frequency and the
associated number of circumferential waves (n). The L/R and R/h ratios influence directly the natural
frequencies values and the number of circumferential waves. Shells with the same L/R and R/h ratios
have the same lowest natural frequency and wavelength numbers. This figure shows that most shell
geometries can be analyzed using Donnell’s shallow shell theory ( n t 5 ).
6
Critical lateral pressure
5
_
n
Natural frequency
3
Critical axial load
2
0 200 400 600
Z
Figure 2. Critical values of wavelength parameter, n .
3.2 Nonlinear Analysis

Now the influence of the shell geometry on the frequency-amplitude relations of the shell is
investigated. Consider a thin-walled cylindrical shell with h=0.002 m, R=0.2 m, E=2.1x108 kN/m2, Q=0.3
and US=7850 kg/m3. For this shell, several geometries with increasing values of Batdorf’s parameter (Z)
and same R/h relation are considered. Table 1 shows the geometric characteristics, lowest natural
frequency, associated circumferential wave number and L/R and R/h ratios for each Batdorf’s parameter.
800
0.07 0.025
n=7
R/h = 100
Frequency parameter (:)
0.06
Non-dimentional frequency (:)

0.020
0.05 n=6
0.015
0.04
n=8
n=5
0.010
0.03
n=7
n=4
n=6
0.02 0.005 R/h = 300 n=5 n=3
n=4
0.01
0.000
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
Z L/R
(a) (b)
Figure 3. Influence of (a) Batdorf geometric parameter Z and (b) the L/R and R/h ratios on the lowest
natural frequency parameter :.
Figure 4 displays the influence of Batdorf’s parameter on the nonlinear frequency-amplitude relation
for the shell geometries shown in Table 1. All shells display a softening behavior. The initial nonlinear
softening behavior increases as the Batdorf’s parameter decreases. On the other hand, the amplitude at
which the bending back of the nonlinear response occurs increases with Z. These curves show the strong
influence of Batdorf’s parameter on the nonlinear behavior of the shell. The influence of the L/R and R/h
ratios on the nonlinear frequency-amplitude relation is conducted considering a fixed value of Batdorf’s
parameter (Z=300). Table 2 shows three shell geometries with different natural frequencies (rad/s) and
L/R and R/h ratios and Table 3 shows three shell geometries with the same natural frequency but different
L/R and R/h ratios.
Table 1: Geometric characteristics and natural frequencies for increasing values of Z.
Z L (m) L/R R/h n Zo (rad/sec) :
100 0.20477 1.02 100 7 6186.47 0.02423
200 0.28959 1.44 100 6 4369.52 0.01712
300 0.35467 1.77 100 5 3628.90 0.01422
400 0.40954 2.05 100 5 3087.81 0.01210
500 0.45788 2.29 100 5 2776.22 0.01209
600 0.50159 2.51 100 5 2579.93 0.01010
Figure 5 displays the nonlinear frequency-amplitude relations obtained for the shell geometries
presented in Tables 2 and 3. As shown in Fig. 5a, the curves display similar initial softening behavior but
different bending back points. The bending back point of Case A (R/h=71.55) is lower than that of Case
B (R/h=127.19) and Case 0 (R/h=100). This shows that shells with the same Batdorf’s parameters but
different L/R and R/h ratios do not have the same nonlinear behavior at large vibration amplitudes. Figure
5b shows the nonlinear frequency-amplitude relations obtained for shell geometries in Table 3. The shells
do not have the same behavior even though they have the same natural frequency Z 0 and parameter Z.
Table 2: Geometric characteristics for different natural frequencies, L/R and R/h ratios and the same Z.
Case h (m) R (m) L (m) L/R R/h Z n Zo (rad/sec) :
0 0.002 0.2 0.35467 1.77 100 300 5 3628.90 0.01421
A 0.004 0.28618 0.6 2.09 71.55 300 5 2560.52 0.01435
B 0.006 0.76315 1.2 1.57 127.1 300 6 934.59 0.01397
801
8.00
Z = 500
Z = 600
Z = 400
6.00
[1,1
4.00 Z = 300
Z = 200
2.00
Z = 100
0.00
0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
ZZR
Figure 4: Frequency-amplitude relations for increasing values of Z.
8.00 8.00
Case B
Case A
Case 0 Case 0 Case C
6.00 6.00
Case D
[1,1
[1,1
4.00 4.00
2.00 2.00
0.00 0.00
0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20
ZZR ZZR
(a) (b)
Figure 5: Frequency-amplitude relations: a) different natural frequencies and different L/R and R/h ratios
but same Z, b) same natural frequencies and Z but different L/R and R/h ratios
Table 3: Geometric characteristics: same natural frequencies and Z but different L/R and R/h ratios.
Case h (m) R L (m) L/R R/h Z n Zo (rad/sec) :
(m)
0 0.002 0.2 0.35467 1.77 100 300 5 3628.90 0.01421
C 0.007766 0.3 0.8559 2.85 38.63 300 5 3628.90 0.02132
D 0.0013 0.4 0.40439 1.01 307.69 300 5 3628.90 0.02844
Finally, Table 4 displays three shell geometries with same natural frequencies and same L/R and R/h
ratios (consequently the same Z and :). The associated nonlinear frequency-amplitude relations are
displayed in Fig. 6. All shells display the same nonlinear behavior. This shows that the nonlinearity is
basically governed by the L/R and R/h ratios.
Table 4: Geometric characteristics same natural frequencies and same L/R and R/h ratios.
Case h (m) R (m) L (m) L/R R/h Z n Zo (rad/sec) :
0 0.002 0.2 0.35467 1.77 100 300 5 3628.90 0.0142
E 0.0028195 0.28195 0.5 1.77 100 300 5 2574.12 0.0142
F 0.0045112 0.45112 0.8 1.77 100 300 5 1608.83 0.0142
802
8.00
Case E
6.00
Case F
[1,1
4.00
Case 0
2.00
0.00
0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
ZZR
Figure 6: Frequency-amplitude relations for same natural frequencies and same L/R and R/h ratios.
The nonlinear frequency-amplitude relation governs the bifurcations and jumps observed in
cylindrical shells under both lateral pressure and axial loads, as illustrated in Figure 7 where the
resonance curve for a shell with L/R=1.0 and R/h=100 and subjected to a lateral pressure is shown. A
detailed explanation of the influence of the frequency-amplitude relation on the instabilities of cylindrical
shells can be found in [14] and [17].
0.60
0.40
|[1,1|
0.20
0.00
0.96 0.98 1.00 1.02 1.04
M:R
Figure 7: Resonance curve for a shell under lateral pressure. L/R=1.0 and R/h=100.
4 CONCLUSION
In this work, the influence of geometric characteristics on the natural frequencies, critical loads,
critical modes and nonlinear frequency-amplitude relations of a simply supported cylindrical shell
subjected to both axial and lateral pressure loads is analyzed. To model the shell the Donnell shallow
shell theory is used together with an expansion of eight degrees of freedom to describe the lateral
displacements of the shell. As observed, the nonlinear frequency-amplitude relation of the shell is
basically governed by the L/R and R/h ratios and not by the Batdorf’s parameter and shells with same L/R
and R/h ratios display similar nonlinear behavior. The nonlinear frequency-amplitude relation governs the
bifurcations and instabilities of the shell under external forcing. These results could serve as a design
basis for engineers interested in choosing optimal geometries of cylindrical shells.
Acknowledgements
This work was made possible by the support of the Brazilian Ministry of Education – CAPES, CNPq
and FAPERJ-CNE.
803
REFERENCES
[1] Amabili, M. and Païdoussis, M.P. “Review of studies on geometrically nonlinear vibrations and
dynamics of circular cylindrical shells and panels, with and without fluid-structure interaction”,
Applied Mechanics Reviews, 56, 349 – 381, 2003.
[2] Karagiosis, K.N.”Experiments and theory on the nonlinear dynamics and stability of clamped shells
subjected to axial fluid flow or harmonic excitation”, PhD thesis, McGill University, Montreal,
Canada, 2005.
[3] Païdoussis, M.P. Fluid Structure Interactions. Slender Structures and Axial Flow, Vol. 2, Elsevier
Academic Press, London, 2004.
[4] Amabili, M. Nonlinear Vibrations and Stability of Shells and Plates, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK, 2008.
[5] Evensen, D.A. “Nonlinear flexural vibrations of thin-walled circular cylinders”. NASA TN D-4090,
1967.
[6] Dowell, E.H. and Ventres, C.S. “Modal equations for the nonlinear flexural vibrations of a
cylindrical shell”, International Journal of Solids and Structures, 4, 975–991, 1968.
[7] Ginsberg, J.H. “Large amplitude forced vibrations of simply supported thin cylindrical shells”,
Journal of Applied Mechanics, 40, 471–477, 1973.
[8] Chen, J.C. and Babcock, C.D. “Nonlinear vibration of cylindrical shells”, American Institute of
Aeronautics and Astronautics Journal, 13, 868–876, 1975.
[9] Gonçalves, P.B. and Batista, R.C. “Nonlinear vibration analysis of fluid-filled cylindrical shells”,
Journal of Sound and Vibration, 127, 133–143, 1988.
[10] Amabili, M., Pellicano, F., Païdoussis, M.P. “Nonlinear dynamics and stability of circular
cylindrical shells containing flowing fluid. Part I: stability”, Journal of Sound and Vibration, 225,
655–699, 1999a.
cylindrical shells containing flowing fluid. Part II: large-amplitude vibrations without flow”,
Journal of Sound and Vibration, 228, 1103–1124, 1999b.
cylindrical shells containing flowing fluid. Part III: truncation effect without flow and
experiments”, Journal of Sound and Vibration, 237, 617–640, 2000a.
cylindrical shells containing flowing fluid. Part IV: large-amplitude vibrations with flow”, Journal
of Sound and Vibration, 237, 641–666, 2000b.
[14] Del Prado, Z.J.G.N., Gonçalves, P.B., Païdoussis, M.P. “Nonlinear vibrations and imperfection
sensitivity of a cylindrical shell containing axial fluid flow”, Journal of Sound and Vibration, 327,
211-230, , 2009
[15] Pellicano, F. and Amabili, M. “Dynamic instability and chaos of empty and fluid-filled circular
cylindrical shells under periodic axial loads”, Journal of Sound and Vibration, 293, 227–252, 2006.
[16] Catellani, G., Pellicano, F., Dall’Asta, D., Amabili, M. “Parametric instability of a circular
cylindrical shell with geometric imperfections”, Computers & Structures, 82, 2635–2645, 2004.
[17] Gonçalves, P.B. and Del Prado, Z.J.G.N. “Nonlinear oscillations and stability of parametrically
excited cylindrical shells”, Meccanica, 37, 569–597, 2002.
[18] Brush, D.O. and Almroth, B.O. Buckling of Bars, Plates and Shells. McGraw Hill Book Company,
New York, 1975.
804
BUCKLING OF A SHALLOW RECTANGULAR BIMETALLIC SHELL

SUBJECTED TO OUTER LOADS AND TEMPERATURE
M. Jakomin*, F. Kosel**
* Faculty of Maritime studies and Transport, University of Ljubljana, Pot pomorščakov 4, 6320 Portorož,
Slovenia
** Faculty of Mechanical engineering, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva 6, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia

e-mails: marko.jakomin@fpp.uni-lj.si, franc.kosel@fs.uni-lj.si
Keywords: bimetallic shell, translation shell, temperature load, snap-through of the system, large
displacement theory, moderate rotation
Abstract. In the article, we have formulated a geometric non-linear mathematical-physical

model of the snap-through of the system of a thin-walled shallow bimetallic translation shell in a
homogenous temperature field according to the theory of large displacements, moderate rotations, and
small strains of the shell element. The model enables the calculation of the geometric conditions, of
shallow translation shells, due to the influences of temperature and mechanical loads. The results are
based on the numeric solution of a non-linear system of partial differential equations with boundary
conditions according to the finite difference method.
1. INTRODUCTION
In practice bimetallic line and plane elements with different coefficients of linear temperature
expansion are used in a range of machines and devices. They are mostly used as safety constructional
elements against temperature overheating of these machines and devices. They are also used for different
purposes such as thermo-elements, blinkers, and for temperature measurement. The function of a
bimetallic construction element is based on the physical fact that bodies expand with the increase of
temperature. Ideally, homogenous bodies expand and contract isotropically. In the case of bimetallic
bodies manufactured from two materials with different temperature expansion coefficients the
deformations due to temperature changes are not isotropic. This study discusses the stress and
deformation conditions for a thin double curved bimetallic translation shell, which due to the possibilities
of constructing different curvatures into the longitudinal and transversal directions enables different
relations between the upper and lower temperature snap-through. We also took into consideration
nonlinear terms in the deformation tensor, while we placed equilibrium equations on the deformed
element of the bimetallic shell.
2. THERMOELASTIC EQUATIONS OF THE PROBLEM

On the element of a deformed shell that is created by cutting the shell in the direction of the
curvilinear coordinates ds1 and ds2 we observe equilibrium of all forces and moments. In this way five
equations can be derived for the equilibrium of forces and moments on a deformed body [1,2]:
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
( )
A F +
∂x 1 2 1
(AF =0
∂x 2 1 2
) (A Ω +
∂x 1 2 1
) ( ) (
A Ω + A1 A2 e1 × F1 + e2 × F2 = 0
∂x 2 1 2
)
805
Jakomin M. Author et al.
Then the system of equilibrium equations is supplemented with three kinematic equations, three
constitutive equations and in addition also with eight equations for the forces and moments per unit of
length [3,4,5,6]. Thus, we have obtained the system of thermo-elastic equations, which consists of the 19th
equations and of the same number of unknown variables [2]. However, the number of equations and
unknowns in this system can be reduced by proper substitution. Finally a geometric non-linear
mathematical-physical model of the snap-through of the system of a thin-walled shallow bimetallic
translation shell in a homogenous temperature field according to the theory of large displacements,
moderate rotations, and small strains of the shell element is achieved as a system of three non-linear
partial differential equations (1) with appurtenant boundary conditions (2) where displacements u, v and
w act as unknown functions [1,2]:
⎛ ⎛ 1 2⎞ ⎛ 1 2⎞ ⎞⎟
N1 = ⎜⎜⎜D ⎜⎜⎜u ′ + w y1′′ + (w ′) ⎟⎟⎟ + D ⎜⎜⎜v + w y2 + (w ) ⎟⎟⎟ + GT ⎟⎟ =0
x 1 =a
⎝⎜ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟ ⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟ ⎠ ⎠⎟ x =a
1
T12R
x 1 =a
( ( )
= H v ′ + u + w ′ w + 2L w ′ (y2 − w ) ) x 1 =a
=0
T13R
x 1 =a
= J w ′′′ + J w ′ + 4L (w ′)
x1 =a
(
= − q 3 b + c2 ) ab
M1
x 1 =a
(
= J w ′′ + J w + K T ) x =a = 0
1
(1)
⎛ ⎛ 1 2⎞ ⎛ 1 2⎞ ⎞⎟
N2 = ⎜⎜⎜D ⎜⎜⎜u ′ + w y1′′ + (w ′) ⎟⎟⎟ + D ⎜⎜⎜v + w y2 + (w ) ⎟⎟⎟ + GT ⎟⎟ =0
x 2 =b
⎝⎜ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎠⎟ x 2 =b
T21R
x 2 =b
( ( )
= H v ′ + u + w ′ w + 2L w ′ (y1′′ − w ′′) ) x 2 =b
=0
T23R
x 1 =b
+ J w ′′ + 4L (w ′′)
=Jw
x 1 =b
(
= − q 3 a + c1 ) ab
M2
x 2 =b
(
= J w + J w ′′ + K T ) x =b = 0
2
⎛ ⎛ 1 2⎞ ⎛ 1 2⎞ ⎞⎟
N1 = ⎜⎜⎜D ⎜⎜⎜u ′ + w y1′′ + (w ′) ⎟⎟⎟ + D ⎜⎜⎜v + w y2 + (w ) ⎟⎟⎟ + G T ⎟⎟ =0
x1 =−a
⎝⎜ ⎝ 2 ⎟
⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎟
⎠ ⎟⎠⎟
x 1
=−a
T12R
x1 =−a
( ( )
= H v ′ + u + w ′ w + 2L w ′ (y2 − w ) ) x1 =−a
=0
T13R
x1 =−a
= J w ′′′ + J w ′ + 4L (w ′)
x 1 =−a
(
= q 3 b + c2 ) ab
M1
x 1 =−a
(
= J w ′′ + J w + K T ) x =−a = 0
1
(2)
⎛ ⎛ 1 2⎞ ⎛ 1 2⎞ ⎞⎟
N2 = ⎜⎜⎜D ⎜⎜⎜u ′ + w y1′′ + (w ′) ⎟⎟⎟ + D ⎜⎜⎜v + w y2 + (w ) ⎟⎟⎟ + G T ⎟⎟ =0
x 2 =−b ⎜⎝ ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎟ ⎟⎟⎠
x 2
=−b
T21R
x 2 =−b
( ( )
= H v ′ + u + w ′ w + 2L w ′ (y1′′ − w ′′) ) x 2 =−b
=0
T23R
x1 =−b
+ J w ′′ + 4L (w ′′)
=J w
x 1 =−b
(
= q 3 a + c1 ) ab
M2
x 2 =−b
(
= J w + J w ′′ + K T ) x =−b = 0
2
806
3. NUMERIC SOLUTION TO THE SISTEM

We solved the system of non-linear differential equations (1) with the boundary conditions (2) by
using a finite difference method [6,7] in the program package Mathematica 7.0.0. Below are the results
for a shell loaded with a temperature T and with a force per unit area q 3 . This force is compensated on
the shell’s edges by the constant transversal forces T13R and T23
R
:
−q 3 a −F
T13R R
= T23 = = (3)
x 1 =a x 2 =b 2 8a
The shell has the following material and geometric characteristics:
0, 5 0, 5
construction curves: y1 = x12 y2 = x 22
102 mm 102 mm
ground plan radii: a = b = 10 mm
thickness: δ = 2δ1 = 2δ2 = 0, 3 mm
(4)
170000N
Young's modulus: E1 = E 2 = E =
mm 2
Poisson's ratio: μ1 = μ2 = μ = 1 / 3
temperature expansion: α1 = 3, 41 ⋅ 10−5 K −1 α2 = 1, 41 ⋅ 10−5 K −1
We slowly heat up a shell that is loaded with an equally distributed force F = −20 N along the
upper surface of the shell. So the force per unit area equals q 3 = −0, 005 N / mm 2 . Let us observe the
change in the relations of heights ξ in dependence of temperature T .
h (x1 ) Y1 (a ) y1 (a ) − w (a ) w (a )
ξ= = = = 1− (5)
h0 (x1 ) y1 (a ) y1 (a ) y1 (a )
x1 =a
The stability curves in dependence from mechanical loads q 3 and temperature T for a shell with the
geometric characteristics in (4) are shown in Figure 1. With the increase of force per unit area q 3 , the
temperature of both snap-through Tp1 and Tp 2 decreases.
Table 1: The snap-through temperatures in dependence from the load q 3 in case of an equal support on
the shell edges
F ⎡ 2⎤
F =0 F = −20 F = −40 F = −70 F = −105
q3 = ⎢N / mm ⎥⎦
4a 2 ⎣ q3 = 0 q 3 = −0, 05 q 3 = −0,1 q 3 = −0,175 q 3 = −0, 2625
Tp1 ⎡⎢C ⎤⎥ Tp1 = 102, 4 Tp1 = 82, 2 Tp1 = 61, 3 Tp1 = 31, 4 Tp1 = −3, 7
⎣ ⎦
ξ1 = 0, 20 ξ1 = 0, 28 ξ1 = 0, 32 ξ1 = 0, 35 ξ1 = 0, 34
Tp 2 ⎡⎢C ⎤⎥ Tp 2 = 97, 6 Tp 2 = 77, 6 Tp 2 = 55, 3 Tp 2 = 24, 4 Tp1 = −11, 8

⎣ ⎦
ξ2 = 0, 20 ξ2 = −0, 28 ξ2 = −0, 27 ξ2 = −0, 28 ξ2 = −0, 27
When the force per unit area q 3 , is strong enough the shell will snap-through without additional
heating. With interpolation of the snap-through temperature Tp1 in dependence from external loads q 3 in
807
Table 1, we have calculated, in the treated case, thhat the shell without additional heating snaps-through if
loaded with an equally distributed force F = −101.4 N along the upper surface of the shell, which
amounts to a mechanical load of q 3 = −0.2535 N / mm 2 . The flat state of the bimetallic shell occurs at
the temperature Tf . If the shell with two equual parabolic construction curves is loaded only with
temperature T , then Tf can be readily calculaated from the boundary condition (2) for the bending
moment M 1 or M 2 from which the temperature Tf of the flat shell follows:
−2 k (J + J ) 4k δ
Tf = = (6)
K 3 (α1 − α2 )
Figure 1: Stability curvees for different load values q 3
In continuation let us observe the shell loadedd with temperature T and force per unit area q 3 and let
the outer force, equally distributed along the uppper shell surface be compensated at the four opposite
corners of the simply supported bimetallic shell. The reduced transversal shear forces per unit of length
T13R and T23R are:
−F 2
T13R R
= T23
3
= lim (7)
x 1 =a x 2 =a
χ→ 0 4χ
where χ ⎡⎣⎢mm ⎤⎦⎥ denotes the length of the edge att the corner of the shell, where the reduced transversal
forces per unit of length T13R and T23R are exerted. The results for this example of load are in Table 2.
808
Table 2: The snap-through temperatures in dependence from the load q 3 in the case of a shell supported
at the corners
F ⎡ 2⎤
F = −20 F = −40 F = −70 F = −88 F = −105
q3 = ⎢N / mm ⎦⎥
4a 2 ⎣ q 3 = −0, 05 q 3 = −0,1 q 3 = −0,175 q 3 = −0, 22 q 3 = −0, 2625
Tp1 ⎡⎢C ⎤⎥ Tp1 = 78, 4 Tp1 = 54, 4 Tp1 = 20, 3 Tp1 = 0, 0 Tp1 = −19, 8
⎣ ⎦
ξ1 = 0, 27 ξ1 = 0, 36 ξ1 = 0, 40 ξ1 = 0, 44 ξ1 = 0, 47
Tp 2 ⎡⎢C ⎤⎥ Tp 2 = 72, 5 Tp1 = 45,1 Tp 2 = 5, 4 Tp 2 = −19, 2 Tp 2 = −46, 2

⎣ ⎦
ξ2 = −0, 33 ξ2 = −0, 27 ξ2 = −0, 28 ξ2 = −0, 28 ξ1 = −0, 28
Let us also observe the case of the simply supported shell, which at its apex, at the point
x1 = x 2 = 0 , is loaded with a concentrated force F . For this example of load it is necessary to place in
the BVP (1), (2):
F
q3 = −χ ≤ (x1 ∧ x 2 ) ≤ χ
4χ 2 (8)
q3 = 0 −χ > (x1 ∨ x 2 ) > χ
The reduced transversal shear forces per unit of length T13R and T23 R
have values in equation (7).
Parameter h defines the region where the force F exerts and limits towards zero. The snap-through
temperatures in dependence from an external force at the apex of the shell are written in Table 3, while
the shape of the shell at the moment of the upper snap-through with the force F = −105 N is shown in
Figure 2. In Figure 3 the local concavity of the shell due to the concentrated force at the apex of the shell
is evident.
Table 3: The snap-through temperatures in dependence from an external force F in the case of a simply
supported shell
F ⎡⎢⎣N ⎤⎥⎦ F = −20 F = −40 F = −70 F = −105 F = −132
Tp1 ⎡⎢C ⎤⎥ Tp1 = 86, 7 Tp1 = 72, 5 Tp1 = 48, 3 Tp1 = 21,1 Tp1 = 0, 0
⎣ ⎦
ξ1 = 0, 24 ξ1 = 0, 27 ξ1 = 0, 32 ξ1 = 0, 33 ξ1 = 0, 40
Tp 2 ⎡⎢C ⎤⎥ Tp 2 = 82, 3 Tp 2 = 66, 3 Tp 2 = 43,1 Tp 2 = 17,1 Tp1 = −2, 9

⎣ ⎦
ξ2 = −0, 32 ξ2 = −0, 28 ξ2 = −0, 25 ξ2 = −0, 23 ξ1 = −0, 20
At the end, we will treat a temperature-loaded shell where all four corners are fixed in such way
allowing only rotations at the corners, while the rest of the shell is free to rotate and displace. In other
words, a shell fixed so cannot expand horizontally at the corners. Instead of the normal forces N 1 and
N 2 at the boundary conditions (2) we now take into account that the horizontal displacement at the
corners of the shell is equal to zero:
w cos ϕ sin ψ + u cos ψ − v sin ϕ sin ψ ≅ w y1′ + u =0 (9)

x1 =x 2 =a x 1 =x 2 =a
809
The stability curve that shows the relation of heights

h ξ in dependence of the temperature T is shown
for this example of load in Figure 4. When the shell is heated up to the temperature T = 255C the
displacements w are positive in the middle of the t shell edge, and negative at the shell corners. In an
overall view, the flatness of the fixed shell is decreeased with heating. This fact is evident in
Figure 5 which shows the shape of the shell when it is heated to a temperature T = 255C . With
reference to the stability curve in Figure 4, whichh shows that in an unstable region the relation of heights
ξ increases, we can conclude that the shell does not
n snap-through into a convex shape
Figure 2: The geometry of the shell at the start of

o the upper snap-through in the case of a concentrated
force F = −105N accting at the apex of the shell
Y
0.15
5
0.1
0.05
5
X
-10 -5 5 10
Figure 3: The occurrence of a local concavity inn the case of temperature load and a mechanical force
F = −105N actin ng at the apex of the shell
Figure 6 shows the shape of a shell in the unstable

u equilibrium state when the shell is heated to a
temperature T = 476C . The relation of heights ξ is at that temperature again equal to one.
T@CoD
400
300
200
100
ξ
0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1
Figure 4: Stability curve for thhe shell of fixed corners free to rotate
810
Figure 5: The geometry of a shell at the temperature T = 255C
Figure 6: The geometry of thhe shell at temperature T = 476C
4. CONCLUSION
Simply supported thin-walled shallow bimetaallic shells have the characteristic to snap-through into a
new position at a defined temperature. The snap-thhrough temperature Tp is dependent on the material and
geometric characteristics of the shell, external mecchanical loads and manner of fixation.
For shallow single layer shells with a constant coefficient of a linear temperature expansion
α (z ) = const . , the relation of heights ξ (T ) rem
mains constant regardless to the temperature load. With
the increase in temperature T the horizontall radius does somewhat increase, while the vertical
component of the displacement w at the shell edgge remains the same at all times. This is why single layer
shells do not have snap-through. Very shallow bim metallic shells with a small value of the parameter k of
construction curves also have no snap-through. We find that a shell with the material and geometric
characteristics in (4) has no temperature snap-throough if its horizontal radius amounts to. Inflated or less
shallow shells snap-through at higher temperatures. With an equal radius a of a bimetallic shell, the
811
temperature of the upper snap-through Tp1 increases with the increase of the parameter k of the
construction curves.
If an external force F is exerted on the shell, snap-through will occur at a lower temperature
comparing to the snap-through temperature Tp1 of an equal shell that is loaded only with a temperature
T . At which temperature the shell will snap-through is dependent, not only on the magnitude of the force
F and the manner of its distribution on the shell surface, but also on the reactions at its boundaries. The
snap-through temperature Tp1 is lowest when the external force F is equalized at all four corners of the
shell. With a large enough force F , the shell will snap-through without any additional temperature load.
For snap-through to occur with bimetallic shells it is necessary to ensure, apart from a high enough
temperature, that the edges of the shell can freely expand. With a bimetallic free rotating shell that is
fixed at the corners, displacements in a horizontal direction are not possible. Such a shell can only expand
at the corners in a vertical direction due to which the increase of temperature T also increases the shell
inflatedness. A shell fixed in such a manner cannot perform the function of a thermo-switch.
If an external force F is exerted on the shell, snap-through will occur at a lower temperature
comparing to the snap-through temperature Tp1 of an equal shell that is loaded only with a temperature
T . At which temperature the shell will snap-through is dependent, not only on the magnitude of the force
F and the manner of its distribution on the shell surface, but also on the reactions at its boundaries. The
snap-through temperature Tp1 is lowest when the external force F is equalized at all four corners of the
shell. With a large enough force F , the shell will snap-through without any additional temperature load.
For snap-through to occur with bimetallic shells it is necessary to ensure, apart from a high enough
temperature, that the edges of the shell can freely expand. With a bimetallic free rotating shell that is
fixed at the corners, displacements in a horizontal direction are not possible. Such a shell can only expand
at the corners in a vertical direction due to which the increase of temperature T also increases the shell
inflatedness. A shell fixed in such a manner cannot perform the function of a thermo-switch.
5. REFERENCES
[1] Jakomin, M., Kosel, F., Kosel. T., “Buckling of a shallow rectangular bimetallic shell subjected to
outer loads and temperature and supported at four opposite points.” Adv. Mech. Eng. (Online),
767648-1-767648-17, 2009.
[2] Jakomin, M., Kosel, F., Kosel. T., “Thin double curved shallow bimetallic shell of translation in a
homogenous temperature field by non-linear theory.” Thin-walled structures, 48(3), 243-259, 2010.
[3] Kosel, F., Jakomin, M., Batista, M., Kosel, T., “Snap-through of the system of open shallow axi-
symmetric bimetallic shell by non-linear theory.” Thin-walled structures. 44(2), 170-183, 2006.
[4] Reddy, J. N., “Theory and Analysis of Elastic Plates.” Taylor & Francis, 1999.
[5] Novozhilov, V.V., ”The Theory of Thin Shells”. P. Noordhoff LTD-Groningen-the Netherlands,
1959.
[6] Gould, P.L., “Analysis of plates and shells.” New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1999.
[7] Smith, G.D., “Numerical Solution of Partial Differential Equations-Finite Diffrerence methods.”
Oxford: Clarendon Press, Third edition 1985, Reprinted 2008.
[8] Farlow, S.J., “Partial Differential Equations for Scientists and Engineers.” New York: Dover
Publications.
812
A GEOMETRY BASED METHOD FOR THE STABILITY ANALYSIS OF

PLATES
Hesham Ahmed*, John Durodola* and Robert G. Beale*
* School of Technology, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK

e-mails: Hesham.Ahmed@gmx.de, jdurodola@brookes.ac.uk, rgbeale@brookes.ac.uk
Keywords: Plates, Stability, Analysis, Buckling.
Abstract. The objective of this paper is to introduce and investigate a new plate buckling analysis
procedure based on geometry. The method is applied to a range of plate edge support condition
combinations including many where results are not readily available. The results obtained by using the
new procedure were compared against theoretical formulae available in the literature and by finite
element analyses with good agreement. Following the verification of the new procedures the technique
was extended to consider buckling of non-rectangular plates and cylindrically curved plate structures
where the results were conservative but easy to use.
1 INTRODUCTION
From the pioneering work by Bryan [1] who determined the buckling load of simply supported
rectangular plates research has been carried out by many different people. These have been summarized
in standard textbooks [2] – [4] and in data sheets [5] – [6]. The basic approach to determining the
buckling strength of plated structures is through the solution of the linearised equations governing the
transition from a flat form to a slightly buckled form. In theory, classical methods can deal with all the
phenomena of flat plate stability using equilibrium, constitutive, and strain-displacement relationships.
These are most easily accomplished for rectangular plates with simple boundary conditions. Numerical
methods characterize the behavior of a structure at points or within regions of the structure and result in
large-order systems of equations whose coefficients are numerically evaluated functions of the material,
geometry, and applied-load parameters at these points or regions. As a group, these methods furnish wide
latitude in the treatment of non-uniformly distributed values of the design parameters and nonlinear
behavior. There are three common methods of determining the lowest buckling load of linear elastic
plates, either by direct solutions of the differential equation for plates, virtual work or by use of the
energy method. Bradford and Roufegarinejad [7] studied the behavior of rectangular plates with all sides
clamped and with linearly varying axial edge compression. They provided a comparison of buckling
analysis solutions from different investigators for square plates in pure compression and showed that
small variations in the assumed models gave rise to predictions of the buckling loads varying by up to
30% (in most cases less than 5%).The objective of this paper is to develop an analysis method able to
deal with all possible plate edge boundary conditions which can be used in spreadsheets for the
preliminary design that is simple to apply and cost effective. The method can be applied to rectangular or
parallelogram shaped plates or to rectangular curved plates.
This paper is only concerned with the determination of buckling loads for simply-supported, free and
clamped conditions and not with other supports such as elastically restrained or with post-buckling
considerations as the objective is to produce a new design procedure appropriate for preliminary design
in aircraft structures.
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Hesham Ahmed et al.
2 THE GEOMETRY BASED ANALYSIS METHOD

2.1 Introduction
In formulating the plate buckling equation several parameters are needed to generalize the equation
of the plate buckling problem. The parameters of the buckling equation are an applied load shape
parameter [O], a plate edge support configuration parameter [E] and a plate geometry parameter [K].
The applied load shape parameter describes the shape of the load distribution applied to the plate
edges and covers plates with both axial and bi-axial loading. The plate edge support parameter describes
the edge support conditions of the plate and in particular if the edge is simple, hinged or clamped. The
plate geometry parameter is based on the aspect ratio of the plate geometry. Equation (1) presents the
plate buckling equation according to the Geometry Based Analysis Method (GBAM)
V cr >V rel @> E @>O @>K @ (1)
where Tcr is the critical buckling stress and Trel is a plate relative buckling stress parameter.
2.2 Determination of the plate relative buckling stress Trel

The relative buckling stress in the loading direction is Trel,x and in the transverse direction is Trel,y.
These stresses are calculated from the Euler buckling load of a simply-supported column which is given
by:
2 §
EI y · (2)
Fcr S ¨ 2 ¸
© a ¹
The Euler equation deals with forces, whilst a plate analysis deals with stresses. Therefore equation (2)
has to be converted into a stress problem. For a plate, which has length a in loading x-direction and width
b in the transverse y-direction and constant thickness t the plate Euler buckling stresses VEuler is
determined by dividing both sides of equation (2) by the plate cross section area of the loaded side (bt).
i.e. Fcr § S 2 · § EI y · (3)
V Euler ¨ ¸¨ 2 ¸
bt © bt ¹© a ¹
The plate relative buckling stresses Trel,x and Vrel,y are determined directly from equation (3).
§ S 2 · § EI y · (4)
V rel , x ¨ ¸¨ 2 ¸
© bt ¹ © a ¹
§ S 2 ·§ EI x · (5)
V rel , y ¨¨ ¸¸¨ 2 ¸
© bt ¹© b ¹
where Ix and Iy are the respective second moments of area of the plate about centroidal axes in the
plate.
2.3 Determination of the plate geometry parameter [K@
The geometry based analysis method classifies plates into two sorts: short plates and long plates. This
classification is derived from the k values curve of uni-axially loaded plates simply supported on all
edges according to classical buckling theory. Figure 1 shows the buckling coefficients (k) according to
the aspect ratio B B is the ratio of the length of the plate in the loaded direction divided by the width of
the plate) and the number of half waves or buckles (m) on the plate in the longitudinal loaded direction.
The curve shows that a plate with only one buckle, m 1, intersects the curve of a plate with two
814
Hesham Ahmed et al.
buckles, m 2, at the point BFor the geometry based analysis method we consider the intersection
point as the separation point between short and long plates.
The plate geometry coefficient is assumed to be linear up to an aspect ratio of 1.4 and then afterwards
to mirror the single buckle value up to an aspect ratio of D = 2.Above this value it is assumed to be
always equal to 1.800 as the intersection of multiple modes means that buckled modes above this value
are approximately the same as can be seen in Figure 1. The values are given in Table 1.
Figure 1: Buckling coefficients, k, for a simply supported plate
Table 1: Values of K for m = 1 and m = 2 buckles

m 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1/2 2 2 2 2 2
D 0.000 0.250 0.500 0.625 0.750 0.875 1.000 1.125 1.250 1.400 1.550 1.675 1.800 1.925 2.000
K 1.000 1.250 1.500 1.625 1.750 1.875 2.000 2.125 2.250 2.400 2.225 2.125 2.000 1.875 1.800
Below an aspect ratio D of 1 the buckling load decreases as the aspect ratio D is increased, Above
this limiting value of D the critical stress changes marginally as can be seen in Figure 1.
2.3 Determination of the plate edge boundary terms
Plates are unlike columns, plates have not only end boundary conditions like columns but also lateral
boundary conditions. In other words, column buckling is resisted by only one bending stiffness (the
smallest bending stiffness) whilst plate buckling is resisted by the bending stiffness of the plate in both
longitudinal and lateral directions. Figure 2 shows the two terms ȕx in the loading direction and ȕy in
lateral direction, which are linked together by the relative plate buckling stress Trel.
Figure 2: Edge boundary terms ȕx and ȕy
The standard four Euler column cases are the free-clamped, case I, simple-simple, case II, simple-
clamped, case III and clamped-clamped, case IV. The critical compression force Fcr for these columns is
given by the standard Euler formulae. For example in case III:
EI y
Fcr 2.04S 2 (6)
a2
I
Defining case II as the “Basic” case we relate the other three cases to determine the values of E Kx ,
IV
E yI , E xIII , E yIII , E xIV and E Ky where the case number is written as a superscript. The value of E xII equals 1
815
Hesham Ahmed et al.
whilst the value of E yII equals 0 since there is no lateral support. As the buckling coefficient for the
clamped-free case is 0.25 we get E xI 0.25 and E yI 0. In similar manners E xIII 2.04, E yIII 0.00,
E xIV 4.00 and E yIV 0.00.
Two virtual buckling load cases – Case V, free-free and case VI, free-simply supported are now
defined. Obviously E xV 0.00 and E yV 0.00 . The 6 cases are plotted on a straight line where the
assumption is made that case VI is between case V and case I. The resulting plot is shown in Figure 3.
EKy
0.50
ff
fc ss sc cc
0.00
fs
E Kx
-0.50
2.00
3.00
3.50
1.50
2.50
4.00
0.50
1.00
0.00
4.50
Figure 3: Stiffness terms for E x and E y for the Euler cases and the virtual cases
In order to determine E xVI for the case free-simple the following correspondences are used: cases I, V
and VI all have one free edge; Cases I, III and IV have one clamped edge; both sets are linked by case I.
The value of case VI is determined by proportion
E xVI E xV E xIII E xI (7)

E xI E xV E xIV E xI
Solving for E xVI and substituting
§ E xIII E xI · I § 2.04 0.25 · (8)

I ¸ x
E xVI ¨ IV E E xV E xV ¨ ¸ 0.25 0.00 0.119
© Ex Ex ¹ © 4.00 0.25 ¹
In order to extend this column analogy into plates the edge ordering shown in Figure 4 is used:
Edge 3
Edge 2
Edge 1
Load Direction b
Edge 4
a
Figure 4: Edge configuration order

18 possible edge configurations can be identified as shown in Figure 5. They are sorted into three
groups – Group 1 with loaded edges simply supported, Group 2 with one loaded edge simply-supported
and one clamped and Group 3 with both loaded edges clamped.
Lateral support condition
ff fs fc ss sc cc
Loaded edges support condition
f f f s s c
Group 1 ssff s 10 s ssfs s 18 s ssfc s 17 s ssss s 01 s sssc s 05 s sscc s 07 s ss
f s c s c c
f f f s s c
Group 2 scff s 12 c csfs c 13 s scfc s 16 c csss c 06 s scsc s 03 c sccc s 08 c sc
f s c s c c
f f f s s c
Group 3 ccff c 11 c ccfs c 15 c ccfc c 14 c ccss c 04 c ccsc c 09 c cccc c 02 c cc
f s c s c c
Figure 5: Edge support conditions
816
Hesham Ahmed et al.
The calculation approach is to relate the buckling of the plates to the Euler column buckling cases.
The unknown values of ȕx and ȕy are estimated using simple interpolation.
Considering the plates shown in Figure 5 let ǻȕ01í05 be the increment from the basic case, plate 01, to
plate 05. The increment ǻȕ01í05 is calculated from the Euler column cases, case I and case VI as follows:
ǻȕ01í05 = 0.119 + 0.25 = 0.369 (9)
05í07 05í07
Let ǻȕ be the increment from plate 05 to plate 07. The increment ǻȕ is twice the previous
increment as the difference in buckling factors in going from the propped cantilever to the fully fixed
case is approximately two. Therefore ǻȕ05í07 = 2(0.369) = 0.738.
In a similar manner, the increment ǻȕ05í03 is also twice the increment ǻȕ01í05 and hence is also 0.738.
The increment ǻȕ03í02 equals twice the previous increment ǻȕ01í03 and is therefore 2(0.738) =1.476.
Once the increments are known, we add them to the values of ȕKx and ȕKy of the plates starting from
plate 01, i.e. E x and E y which are known a priori as equal to 1.000.
Hence we can establish, for example
E x E x 1.000 0.738 1.738 (10)
E x 1.738 1.476 3.214 (11)
Using similar principles we can fill in the remaining values of ȕx and ȕy for cases 01-09.
For plates with lateral edges free the values of ȕx and ȕy have to be modified. The values of ȕx and ȕy
are determined as before by calculating the decrements. For example,
'E 0.5<0.369 0.185 (12)
'E 17 18 0.5<0.185 0.093 (13)

Hence

E Kx 1.000 'E 0111 1.000 0.185 0.815 (14)

E Kx 1.000 'E 17 18 1.000 0.093 0.907 (15)
From Equations (14) and (15) it can be seen that simply-supported edges have a reduction factor of
0.815 and clamped edges a reduction factor of 0.907. These factors are used in determining the reduction
factors for the remaining combinations. The resulting sets of ȕx and ȕy are given in Table 2.
Table 2: Values of ȕx and ȕy for all 18 plate combinations

Case 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09
Edge ssss cccc scsc ccss sssc csss sscc sccc ccsc
ȕx 1.000 3.214 1.738 3.214 1.000 1.738 1.000 1.738 3.214
ȕy 1.000 1.738 1.369 1.000 1.368 1.000 1.738 1.738 1.369
Case 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Edge ssff ccff scff csfs ccfc ccfs scfc ssfc ssfs
ȕx 0.800 2.893 1.564 1.564 2.893 2.893 1.564 0.800 0.800
ȕy 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.095 0.2225 0.095 0.225 0.225 0.095
817
Hesham Ahmed et al.
3 EXAMPLES
In this section a few examples are presented treating different edge configurations of the plates. All
examples deal with rectangular aluminium plates with thickness t 1.0mm. The aspect ratio Dvaries
from D 0.3 to D 2.0. Young’s Modulus of elasticity E 70GPa and Poisson’s ratio Q 0.3. The
results of the classical theory were estimated using Bulson [4] or the software DLUBAL/RSTAB, whilst
the FEM eigenvalue buckling calculations were computed using the software MSC/NASTRAN. The
results from the method proposed in this analysis are called GBAM. The applied edge compression stress
is axially uniform. The results are presented in term of the buckling constant k, where all the results of
calculated critical stresses are divided by a reference stress V E given by:
2
S 2E § t · (16)
VE ¨ ¸
12 1 Q 2 © b ¹
Four examples of plates under uniform compression are given in Figures 6-9.
1 5
G B A M
M S C
k values
1 0 B U L S O N
0
0 .0 0 .5 1 .0 1 .5 2 .0
D
Figure 6: Buckling coefficients for a plate simply-supported on all sides (Case 01 ssss )
2 4
G B A M
M S C
k values
1 6 R S T A B
0
0 .0 0 .5 1 .0 1 .5 2 .0
D
Figure 7: Buckling coefficients for a plate case 06 (csss)
4 5
G B A M
M S C
k values
3 0 R S T A B
1 5
0
0 .0 0 .5 1 .0 1 .5 2 .0
D
Figure 8: Buckling coefficients for a plate case 09 (ccsc)
4 5
G B A M
M S C
3 0 R S T A B
1 5
0
0 .0 0 .5 1 .0 1 .5 2 .0
D
Figure 9: Buckling coefficients for a plate case 14 (ccfsc)

It is noticeable that in all cases the GBAM approach gives results as accurate as those of finite
element analyses.
818
Hesham Ahmed et al.
4 EVOLUTIVE PLATES AND CURVED PLATES

Equation (1) describes only the case of rectangular plates. To extend the geometry based plate
stability analysis method to include also non-rectangular plates needs modification of the plate relative
buckling stress parameter Trel. Figure 10 shows the the evolutive plate used in this analysis.
b 2 b 1
Figure 10: Dimensions of evolutive plates

Consider a unit square plate which has D = a/b2 = 1.0 and a = 1.0. The change in the longitudinal
plate relative buckling stress Trel,x of the plate is related to the change of the aspect ratio Dfrom the long
edge b2 to the short edge b1 of the evolutive plate. The modification parameter [Gx] is written as:
a a 1 1 1 (16)
G x D1 <D 2 < <
b1 b2 b1 1 b1
The change of the plate relative buckling stress Trel,y in the lateral direction is governed by the lateral
change in area of the square plate and the evolutive plates, i.e. the plate with evolutive edges is converted
into an equivalent square plate. The difference in area, '$is equated to a square plate and the edge
length is added to the width of the evolutive plate. Accordingly the removed area equals:
§1 · (17)
'A 2 ¨ c<1¸
©2 ¹
The change in edge length, 'b equals
'b c (18)
Hence
b2 1 c (19)
Gy is taken equal to the new value of b2.
Hence, for example, if c = 0.3 then b1/ b2 = 0.4, Gx = 1.0/0.4 = 2.5 and Gy = 1 + (0.3)0.5 = 1.55. Using
mean stresses similar equations can be constructed for plates with different stresses at each end. Figure
11 shows the results of a typical analysis with different b1/ b2 ratios for simply-supported plates. The
results of the analysis are compared against those tabulated in the German handbook [9]. It is noticeable
that the largest discrepancies occur for the case b1/ b2 = 1.0 whereas the agreement between GBAM and
finite element procedures is excellent as can be seen in Figure 6.
1 0 .0
b1/b2 = 0.4
GBAM
HSB
8 .0
b1/b2 = 0.6
6 .0
b1/b2 = 0.8
b1/b2 = 1.0
4 .0
2 .0
0 .5 1 .0 1 .5
D
Figure 11: Buckling coefficients for evolutive plates
819
Hesham Ahmed et al.
In order to extend the procedure to slightly curved plates (plates bent cylindrically with radius r and
the outer edges subtending an angle 2Iradiansat the centre) the moments of inertia Iy in the stiffness
matrix have to be modified. In these calculations the plan breadth, b, is used. The curvature will increase
the stiffness of the plate, - since the centre of gravity (CG) of the curved plate is displaced by a distance
dCG from the centre of gravity of the flat plate. The moment of inertia Iy is then calculated:
bt 3 2 (20)
Iy bt d CG
12
where § t· d1 A1 d 2 A2 (21)
d CG ¨ r cos I ¸
© 2¹ A2 A1
and 2( r t ) sin I 2r sin I

d1 , d2 , A1 ( r t ) 2 I , A2 r 2I
3I 3I
The maximum curvature that the procedure can be applied to is shown in reference [8] to be
100b / (D r ) 1 (22)
For example, consider a curved aluminum plate, thickness 2.0mm, width 50.0 mm, D = 0.3 and radius
r = 20 m. For this plate equation (22) yields the ratio to be 0.83 and using equation (21) dCG = 0.04 mm.
Hence using equation (20) Iy = 33.51 mm4 and Ix = 10.00 mm4. From equations (4) and (5) Trel,x =
1028.85 N/mm2 and Trel,y = 27.63 N/mm2. The total Trel = 1056.48 N/mm2. Finally using equation (1) the
critical buckling stress is 1373 N/mm2. This compares with the stress obtained using reference [9] which
is 1368 N/mm2.
Similar accuracies are obtained when the method is applied to other curved plates.
5 CONCLUSIONS
This paper has presented the development of a new procedure based on geometry for the design and
analysis of plate buckling. The results of the procedure have been compared against both finite element
analyses and classical analyses presented in the literature and have been shown to be accurate when
applied to rectangular, evolutive and slightly curved plates.
REFERENCES
[1] Bryan G.H., “On the Stability of a Plane Plate under Thrusts in its own Plane, with applications to
the Buckling of the Sides of a Ship”, Proc. of the London Mathematical Society, 22, 54-67, 1890.
[2] Timoshenko S. and Gere J., Theory of Elastic Stability, McGraw-Hill, US, 1961.
[3] Bleich, F., Buckling Strength of Metal Structures, McGraw-Hill, US, 1952.
[4] Bulson P. S., The Stability of Flat Plates, Chatto and Windus Ltd, UK, 1970.
[5] ESDU, Engineering Sciences Data Unit, UK.
[6] DIN 18800, Part 3., German Standard for Analysis of Safety Against Buckling of Plates, Germany,
1990.
[7] Bradford, M.A. and Roufegarinejad, A., “Unilateral and bilateral local buckling of thin-walled
plates with Built-in Edges”, Proc. of Fifth International Conference on Thin-walled Structures, M.
Mahendran (ed.), Brisbane, 15- 28, 2008.
[8] Ahmed, H., A New Approach for the Stability Design of Plated Structures, PhD Thesis (in
preparation), Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK, 2010.
[9] HSB, Handbuck Struktur Berechnung, L. Schwarmann and V. Ribke (Ed), Germany, 1975.
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CRITICAL LOADS AND STABILITY OF AN OPEN ELASTIC-PLASTIC

CYLINDRICAL SHELL WITH THE CORE OF VARIABLE STIFFNESS
J. Zielnica*
* Poznan University of Technology, Institute of Applied Mechanics, Piotrowo 3, 60-965 Poznan, Poland
e-mail: jerzy.zielnica@put.poznan.pl
Keywords: Elastic-Plastic Stability, Strain Energy, Sandwich Shells, Postbuckling.
Abstract. The objective of this work is the stability analysis of an open sandwich cylindrical shell with
unsymmetrical faces under combined load basing on moderately large deflections (geometrically
nonlinear theory), and elastic-plastic properties of the material of the faces are taken into
considerations. The shell consists of two load-carrying faces made of isotropic, compressible, work
hardening material and they are of different thickness and made of different materials. Kirchhoff-Love
(K-L) hypotheses hold for the faces, and the active deformation processes are considered. The core is
assumed to be elastic, incompressible in the normal z direction and it resists transverse shear only. The
elastic constants Ec, and Gc of the core are taken to be variable, and the strength capacity of the shell is
substantially influenced by these constants. Prebuckling stress state is taken to be membrane one and the
virtual work principle is the basis to derive the strain energy expression. The resulting nonlinear stability
equation is solved by Ritz method. An iterative algorithm of elastic-plastic analysis was elaborated to
solve the stability equations and the final objective of the work is numerical analysis of the influence of
geometrical and material parameters on critical loads and equilibrium paths.
1 INTRODUCTION
Shell structures are very interesting from the design point of view and these are well recognized in the
literature [1], [3], [4]. A very significant problem in linear and nonlinear analyses of shell structures is
stability and associated phenomena. One can find here multilayered structures, which are widely used in
the manufacturing of modern vehicles, planes, cisterns, tanks, and in civil engineering, as well. These are
subjected to widely varying combinations of hydrostatic pressure and axial load; hence, stability problem
for such structures is of great importance. The purpose of this study is investigation of large displacement
stability loss of a sandwich cylindrical panel loaded by longitudinal forces and uniformly distributed
external pressure. It is assumed that the shell under consideration is made of a compressible material with
linear and exponential strain hardening. Thus, it is also assumed that the effective stress in prebuckling
state of stress in the shell can exceed the yield limit of the shell material. To find a solution of the
problem, the assumptions of geometrically nonlinear theory and elastic-plastic properties of the faces are
taken into account and the core remains elastic. In Refs [5], [6] both, linear and nonlinear buckling
analyses of elastic-plastic conical and cylindrical shells are presented. In Ref. [4] Vinson J. R. described
and discussed the up-to-date methods for sandwich structures analysis, and included a large reference list
there. Kim S. E. and Kim, S. C. [1], Pinna and Ronalds [2], and Siad [3] discuss stability problems of
cylindrical shells under various external loadings, also with imperfections. The constitutive relations used
in the elastic-plastic analysis follow the incremental J2 Prandtl-Reuss plastic flow theory of plasticity with
the Huber-Mises yield condition. The K-L (Kirchhoff-Love) hypotheses are accepted and the active
deformation processes according to Shanley concept are considered. The system of stability equations
expressed by the displacements does not have an exact solution. Any approximate solution, e.g. by
Galerkin method is complicated because the appropriate calculations are time consuming. The necessity
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to satisfy the kinematic and static boundary conditions leads to the assumption of approximate functions
in a very complicated form. Thus, the virtual work principle is used to derive the total strain energy in the
shell, and the analysis is based on the strain energy minimization, where the total strain in the shell can be
expressed in terms of displacement vector components. Ritz method is accepted to derive the stability
equations for the considered shell. The final solution is a very compound function of the deflection
function parameter, which makes it possible to trace the equilibrium paths for the shell. An iterative
computer algorithm was elaborated to facilitate the numerical analysis for the shells in elastic, elastic-
plastic, and in totally plastic prebuckling state of stress. The algorithm reflects a specific feature of the
elastic-plastic shell stability problem, where the stability equation is a transcendental function, where the
coefficients of this equation depend on the load acting the shell.
2 BASIC ASSUMPTIONS AND GEOMETRICAL RELATIONS

The analyzed object is an open sandwich cylindrical shell, the element of which is presented in Figure
1. The shell consists of three layers: two thin face-layers, which are of different thickness h1, h2, and one
core layer with thickness H=2h. The face layers can be made of different materials, which are
compressible and isotropic ones.
Figure 1: The element of a sandwich cylindrical shell with internal forces and moments
The core layer is assumed to be elastic, incompressible in the normal z direction and it resists
transverse shear only. The middle surface of the core layer is taken as the reference surface of the shell.
The main assumptions for the accepted model include that the shell is thin-layered and shallow one, and
the post-buckling stress state is elastic or elastic-plastic. The following basic assumptions hold for the
accepted model: (i) the shell is thin-layered, the core is elastic, incompressible in the z direction, the
faces are of different thickness and they are made of different materials; (ii) the shell is shallow, the radii
of curvatures of the layers are assumed to be equal; (iii) strains in the shell are described by nonlinear
geometrical relations of the theory of moderately large deflections; (iv) the strains in post buckling stress
state are elastic or elastic-plastic; (v) the displacements in normal direction do not depend on the z
coordinate, and prebuckling stress state is the membrane one; (vi) constitutive relations in the analysis are
those of the J2 plastic flow theory of plasticity with the H-M-H (Huber-Mises-Hencky) yield condition.
If we accept the K-L hypotheses for the faces and include shear for the core we follow the so-called
broken line approach (see Fig. 2) for the displacement scheme of the deformed shell.
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Figure 2: Geometrical configuration of deformed shell.
Following the broken line approach the relations between displacement vector components u, v, w of
arbitrary point of the shell and the displacements of points situated on middle surface of the faces are as
follows:
ª 1 º ª 1 º
w± = wi , u ± = ui + « z ± ( c + ti ) » wi , x , v ± = vi + « z ± ( c + ti ) » wi ,ϕ (1)
¬ 2 ¼ ¬ 2 ¼
Here:
i =1 – lower face - 0,5c ≤ z ≤ ( 0,5c + t1 )
i =2 – upper face - (0,5c + t 2 ) ≤ z ≤ −0,5c , c = 2h1, ti = hi
Superscripts „+” and „–” denote upper and lower face, respectively. We also introduce auxiliary relations
between displacements of the faces, so called reduced displacements, in the following way:
1 1 1 1
uα = ( u1 + u2 ) , vα = ( v1 + v2 ) , uβ = ( u1 − u2 ) , vβ = ( v1 − v2 ) (2)
2 2 2 2
If we assume that the core does not deform in the normal z direction and the ratio h/R <<1, then we get
( t1 − t2 ) w, x + ª«uβ + ( t1 + t2 ) w, x º» ,
1 2z 1
uc = uα +
4 c ¬ 4 ¼
(3)
1 2z ª 1 º
vc = vα + ( t1 − t2 ) w'ϕ + «vβ + ( t1 + t2 ) w'ϕ » , wc = w− = w+ = w
4 c ¬ 4 ¼
Non-linear geometric relations between strain tensor components and the components of displacement
vector for particular layers of the shell are accepted in the following form
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( )
1 w 1
( w, x )2
2
ε x± = u ,±x + εϕ± = v,ϕ± − + w,ϕ
2 R 2
±
γ xy = v'±x + u ,ϕ± + w, x w,ϕ γ ϕ±z = w,ϕ +v,±z (4)
±
γ zx = w, x +u ,±z χ x± = w, xx
±
χϕ =
R
1
2
w + w,ϕϕ χ x±ϕ = w, xϕ +
1
2R
(
u ,ϕ −v, x )
Here:
εx , εϕ are strains along the coordinates x and y,
γxϕ , γϕz , γxz are shear strains in the shell,
χx , χϕ , χxϕ are changes in curvature of the middle surface of the shell.
3 CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS OF THE J2 PLASTIC FLOW THEORY

We assume that effective stresses in the shell can be higher than yield stress of the shell material.
Thus, constitutive relations are accepted according to Prandtl-Reuss plastic flow theory. Stresses and
stress rates are related to strain rates or strain increments by a physical plasticity rule, which is flow rule,
and Huber–Mises–Hencky (H-M-H) yield condition, generalized on the case of plastic stress hardening,
is accepted. The following relations express Prandtl-Reuss plastic flow theory equations:
p
1 § 3ν · 1 dε i
d ε ij = ¨ dσ ij − δ ij
2G © 1 +ν ¹
(
dσ m ¸ + 3d λ σ ij − δ ijσ m , ) 1
σ m = σ kk ,
3
dλ =
2 σi
(5)
Here, İi and ıi are effective strain and effective stress, respectively. Parameter λ can be determined on the
basis of plastic work increment:
§ 1 1·
δ W p = σ sδε sp = σ s ¨¨ − ¸¸ δσ s (6)
© Et E ¹
That gives
3 § 1 1 · δσ
λ = ¨¨ − ¸¸ i (7)
2 © Et E ¹ σ i
The resultant middle surface forces and moments (see Figure 1) in shell faces are accepted in the
following form:
−h h + h1
³ ³
+ −
δ Nαβ = δ Nαβ + δ Nαβ = δσ αβ dz + δσ αβ dz ,
−( h + h2 ) h
(8)
−h h + h1
³ ³
+ −
δ Mαβ = δ M αβ + δ M αβ = δσ αβ zdz + δσαβ zdz ,
−( h + h2 ) h
If we substitute stress variations in equation (5) - using condition (7), by strain variations, and substitute
them into (4) then, performing prescribed integration we obtain the following constitutive relations:
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J. Zielnica
+
δ N x = B11( −
+ B11 ) ( +
δε11 + B12 −
+ B12 ) ( +
δε 22 − B13 )
−
+ b13 δγ12 ,
δNy = ( B + B ) δε + ( B + B ) δε − ( B + B ) δγ ,
+
21
−
21 11
+
22
−
22 22
+
23
−
23 12
δ N xy = − ( B + B ) δε − ( B + B ) δε + ( B + B ) δγ ,
+
31
−
31 11
+
32
−
32 22
+
33
−
33 12
(9)
δ M = − ( D + D ) δκ − ( D + D ) δκ + ( D + D ) δκ ,
x
+
11
−
11 1
+
12
−
12 2
+
13
−
13 12
δ M = − ( D + D ) δκ − ( D + D ) δκ + ( D + D ) δκ ,
y
+
21
−
21 1
+
22
−
22 2
+
23
−
23 12
δ M = ( D + D ) δκ + ( D + D ) δκ − ( D + D ) δκ
xy
+
31
−
31 1
+
32
−
32 2
+
33
−
33 12
Here Bij and Dij are coefficients of the local stiffness matrix given below:
° ª1 + ν 2 º½
( ) °
12 2
B11 = D11 = ψ o ®2 (1 + ν ) + ψ t « 2σ ϕ − σ x + 9τ xϕ » ¾ ,
ti2 ¯° ¬ 2 ¼ ¿°
° ª1 +ν 2 º½
( )( 2σ ϕ − σ x ) °
12 12 2
B12 = B21 = D12 = D21 = ψ o ®2ν (1 + ν ) − ψ t « 2σ x − σ ϕ + 9ντ xϕ » ¾ ,
ti2 ti2 °¯ ¬ 2 ¼ °¿
... (10)
ti
6
¯
1
( )
B33 = 2 D33 = ψ o ® 1 − ν 2 + ψ t ª( 5 − 4ν ) σ x2 + σ ϕ2 − 2 ( 4 − 5ν )σ xσ ϕ º ¾
4 «¬
½
»¼ ¿ ( )
−1
ψo =
Eti
1 +ν ¯
( 1 ª
2 ¬) 2 2
( 2 º½
¼ ¿
)
® 2 1 − ν + ψ t «( 5 − 4ν ) σ x + σ ϕ − 2 ( 4 − 5ν ) σ xσ ϕ + 18 (1 − ν )τ xϕ » ¾ , ψ t =
2 E
Et
− 1,
σx σy τ xϕ
σx = , σy = , τ xϕ = , σ i = σ x2 − σ xσ x + σ ϕ2 + 3τ x2ϕ ,
σi σi σi
The above relations show that constitutive relations of the plastic flow theory are independent of secant
modulus Es. If, moreover, a bilinear stress-strain material model is accepted in the analysis, then tangent
modulus Et and Bij and Dij coefficients are constant in plastic range.
4 STABILITY EQUATIONS OF SANDWICH CYLINDRICAL SHELL

Stability equations are derived from the virtual work principle and the strain energy methods. In
order to obtain the stability equations from the variational relations, the principle of the stationary
potential energy will be invoked, with the sandwich cylindrical shell considered to be in a state of neutral
equilibrium. Since the principle of the stationary potential energy states that the necessary condition of
the equilibrium of any given state is that the variation of the total potential energy of the considered
system is equal to zero, we have the following relation
δ ΠT = δ (U − L ) = 0 (11)
We conclude from Eqs. (11) that if the shell is given the small virtual displacements, the equilibrium still
persists if an increment of the total potential energy of the system δ Π T is equal to zero. Relation (11) is
the basis to derive the variational equation of equilibrium of a shell. For cylindrical sandwich shell the
total potential energy of internal forces is equal to the energy of the specified layers. Here U is the strain
energy accumulated in the shell and represented by strain components
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U = U + + U − + Uc (12)
The terms in Eqn (12) and the work of external forces L are as follows
l βR
³ ³ (ε xδ N x + ε yδ N y + γ xyδ N xy ) dxdy
1
U± = ± ± ±
(13)
2
0 0
1 ª Ec § 2 1 −ν c 2 · 2 º
U± = ³ « 2 ¨
2 V ¬1 − ν c ©
δε xc + δε yc2 + 2ν cδε xcδε yc + (
γ xyc ¸ + Gc δγ yzc
2
+ δγ xzc)» dV
(14)
2 ¹ ¼
l
l βR β R ª § h ( h1 − h2 ) · h ( h1 − h2 ) ·º ½°
° h −h o § h −h
L= ³³ ³
qwdxdy + ® « N xo ¨ uα + 1 2 uβ +
°¯ 0 «¬ ©
¨ H 2H
w, x ¸ + N xy
¸
¹
¨¨ vα + 1 2 vβ +
© H 2H
w, y ¸» dy ¾
¸
¹»¼ °¿0
(15)
0 0
The particular terms in the above equation are related with three layers: upper layer U+, lower layer U-,
and core Uc. L represents the potential of external loads. Equation (11) with its nature has a form of
equilibrium equation in variational sense, and it is correct both for the pre- and postcritical deformation
state. Instead of exact expressions for the displacements ui we introduce approximate functions with
coefficients Ai. These coefficients must be chosen in such a way that they correspond as far as possible to
real displacements.
As it results from the assumptions, the elastic material constants Ec, and Gc of the core are variable. It
is a well-known fact that Ec, and Gc influence substantially the strength capacity of shell structures. These
parameters have their highest values at the faces and change nonlinearly toward shell middle surface
according to formula
E zc = Ec cosh ( kz ) (16)
Here k is a parameter that depends on the properties of the core material. The variable properties can be
reached by changing the core material density in the technological process. It also results from
experimental data that Kirchhoff modulus Gc is a quadratic form of the material (plastic foam) density.
Very good effects can be obtained when the cores are used with variable stiffness along middle surface
coordinates. This stiffness can be varied continuously, or with sudden jumps. In this work it is assumed
that the modules Ec, and Gc depend on spatial variable z.
Ritz method will be used to solve the equations. The equation
l βR
∂L
δ ΠT = ³ ³ δ ui dxdy = 0 (17)
∂ ui
0 0
is satisfied for an arbitrary value of the variations of parameters δAi , where i=1,2,...,k. Thus we have
5 § ∂Π · ∂ ΠT
δ Π = ¦ ¨¨ ¸¸ δ Ai = 0, i=1,2,..,5, hence =0 (18)
i =1 ©
∂ Αi ¹ ∂ Ai
In order to solve the considered problem by Ritz method, we use variational equation (11) with
taking into account nonlinear geometrical relations (4), and we accept the displacement basis functions w,
u and v in the following form
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J. Zielnica
w ( x,ϕ ) = A1 sin kx sin p (ϕ + γ x ) ,

uα ( x,ϕ ) = A2 cos kx sin p (ϕ + γ x ) , uβ ( x,ϕ ) = A3 cos kx sin p (ϕ + γ x ) , (19)
vα ( x,ϕ ) = A4 sin kx cos p (ϕ + γ x ) , vβ ( x,ϕ ) = A5 sin kx cos p (ϕ + γ x )
mπ n
Here k= , 0 ≤ x ≤ l, p= , 0 ≤ϕ ≤ β , (20)
l R
Ȗ is angle of inclination of buckle waves with respect to shell generatrix.
Free parameters Ai in (19) are determined in the solution process. m and 2n are parameters related
with the number of halfwaves developed in the longitudinal and circumferential direction, respectively.
The term Ȗx in (19) represents the influence of the external shear forces on the deformation modes of the
shell. The accepted basis functions satisfy kinematic boundary conditions of a free-support of shell edges
[6]. According to Eqs. (18), we calculate derivatives of the total potential energy of the shell with respect
to free parameters Ai (i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5) of the basis functions, and, finally, we get a non-homogeneous and
non-linear set of algebraic equations, which are the stability given here in a very concise form:
a11A1 + a12 A2 + a13 A3 + a14 A4 + a15 A5 = b11A13 + b12 A12 + b13 A1A2 + b14 A1A3 + b15 A1A4 + b16 A1A5 + b17 ,
a21A1 + a22 A2 + a23 A3 + a24 A4 + a25 A5 = b21A12 + b22 , a31A1 + a32 A2 + a33 A3 + a34 A4 + a35 A5 = b31A12 + b32 , (21)
a41A1 + a42 A2 + a43 A3 + a44 A4 + a45 A5 = b41A12 + b42 , a51A1 + a52 A2 + a53 A3 + a54 A4 + a55 A5 = b51A12 + b52
Coefficients b17, b22, b32, b42, b52 include longitudinal, surface, and shear external loads. The other
coefficients depend exclusively on geometrical and material parameters of the shell and on number of
buckling halfwaves m, n of the shell middle surface, and on parameter Ȗ. We present, for example:
a11 =
1
R 2 (
"
B22 F35 + B11 )
− D11 F79 +
2
R
"
D12 F80 + 2 B12 ( ) "
− D12 F81 − 3D31 − 4B13 ( "
F82 + 4B33 )
− D33 F87 + ( )
G3 ( t1 + t2 + 2c )
2
"
− D22 F103 + B22( ) (
"
− D22 F118 + 3D22 F104 + 3D32 − 4 B23 F119 + ) c 4
F113 ,
1 1 3 1 3
a12 = − B12 F8 + B23F48 − D31F83 − D33 F88 + D32 F105 , ...
R R 4R 2R 2
5 SOLUTION OF NONLINEAR EQUATIONS AND THE RESULTS

The set of equations (21) allows us to determine the nonlinear equilibrium paths for the considered
shell. We eliminate parameters A2-A5 from set of Eqs. (21), and if appropriate transformations and
simplifications are made, we obtain the final solution in the form of the following non-linear algebraical
equation:
e A + e A2 + e3 A13 N0
q= 1 1 2 1 , κ= x (22)
A1e4κ + e5 qR
Here: ei are coefficients of the stability equation that have a very complicated form and they depend on
geometrical parameters, material properties, buckling form, and external loading acting the shell. We
elaborate a special numerical iterative algorithm where the basis is stability equation (22). The computer
program makes it possible to determine the equilibrium paths and critical loads for cylindrical sandwich
shells being in elastic, plastic, or elastic-plastic state of stress. Thus, lateral pressure q, and longitudinal
force Nx can be determined as the functions of deflection w of the shell.
Solution algorithm and program of numerical calculation take into consideration a specific feature of
elastic-plastic stability of shells. Stability equation (22) is a transcendental function, where the
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J. Zielnica
coefficients of local stiffness matrix depend on parameters of external loads. So, we have to use some
iterative techniques to build up equilibrium paths, and to determine upper and lower critical loads.
A cylindrical sandwich panel with the basic dimensions l = 0.9m (shell length), rs = 1.2m (mean
radius), β = 0.6 rad (shell radius), h1 = 0.0012m, h2 = 0.0012m, 2h = 0.01m shell (thickness of the upper,
lower and core layers, respectively) was accepted in numerical calculations. The face material was
structural carbon steel St1, St4, St5 (Polish grade) with Et = 32000 MPa; yield limit σpl = 240 MPa;
elastic modulus E = 210000 MPa; shear modulus of the core is G3 = 24 MPa.
Figure 3: Equilibrium paths; the influence of shear modulus of the core on critical loads.
Fig. 3 shows an example of the results of numerical calculations. The curves in the diagram represent
lateral pressure versus shell deflection q = q(w). One can notice that the increase of shear modulus causes
increasing both upper and lower critical loads. The lower curve in the diagram shows non-relative
changes in critical loads ΔqwG for different value of shear modulus Gc = G3. The other numerical
calculations were also carried out to analyze the postcritical equilibrium paths for arbitrary combinations
of the external loads and geometrical and material parameters of the shell.
5 CONCLUSION
The analysis presented in this work shows that the accepted method of the stability analysis of elastic-
plastic sandwich shells with the core of variable stiffness was appropriately chosen; the results are new
and valuable. The elaborated algorithm of iterative numerical calculations can trace the equilibrium paths,
is versatile one and can be used for the shells in elastic, elastic-plastic or in totally plastic state of stress.
REFERENCES
[1] Kim, S. E. and Kim, S. C., “Buckling strength of the cylindrical shell and tank subjected to axially
compressed loads”, Thin-Walled structures, 40(4), 329-353, 2002.
[2] Pinna, R. and Ronalds, B. F., “Buckling and post buckling of cylindrical shells with one end pinned
and the other end free”, Thin-Walled Structures, 41(6), 507-527, 2003.
[3] Siad, L., “Buckling of thin-walled cylindrical shells under uniform external pressure”, Thin-Walled
Structures, 35(2), 101-115, 1999.
[4] Vinson, J. R., “Sandwich Structures”, Applied Mechanics Reviews, 54(3), 201-214, 2001.
[5] Zielnica, J., “Elastic Plastic Buckling of Sandwich Conical Shells under Axial Compression and
Lateral Pressure”. Bull. Acad. Pol. Sci., XXIX, 239-251, 1981.
[6] Zielnica, J., Stability of elastic-plastic shells [in Polish]. PUT Edition, Poznan, pp. 243, 2001.
828
10. STEEL CONCRETE COMPOSITE MEMBERS
AND STRUCTURES
DUCTILE RESPONSE OF COMPOSITE STEEL AND CONCRETE FRAMES
L. Di Sarno*
* Deparment of Engineering, University of Sannio, Benevento, Italy

e-mail: disarno@unina.it
Keywords: Composite steel and concrete frames, ductility, overstrength, inelastic response.
Abstract. This analytical work investigates the ductile response of composite steel and concrete framed
buildings subjected to horizontal earthquake loading. A code-compliant six-storey spatial moment
resisting frame (MRF) was employed as sample structure. Nonlinear static and dynamic analyses were
performed on a detailed three-dimensional finite element model of the benchmark system. Two models
were employed for structural steel and steel reinforcement bars, namely elasto-perfectly plastic (EPP)
and elasto-plastic with 2% hardening (EPH). Parametric section analyses were utilized to assess the
variation of the section ductility and flexural overstrength with regard to the level of axial load. The
outcomes of the performed analyses showed that for low values of adimensionalized axial load, i.e.
Nsd/Nplrd < 0.10, the response parameters of the composite cross-sections are similar in terms of
rotational ductility. However, as the axial loads increase the EPH model provides higher values of
ductility compared to EPP counterparts. Global system overstrength was estimated to determine the level
of plastic flexural redistribution occurring in the sample composite MRF. The design system overstrength
(Įu/Į1) provided by the European and Italian seismic Code underestimates significantly the actual
values of the ratio Įu/Į1; the values estimated for the benchmark structure vary between 2.65 and 3.07.
As a result the MRF system possesses enhanced plastic redistribution and hence global energy
absorption and dissipation. Furthermore, the sample code-compliant composite frame exhibits sufficient
storey ductility as shown by the computed values of inter-storey drifts at collapse limit states.
1 INTRODUCTION
Moment resisting frames (MRFs), especially in structural steel and reinforced concrete (RC), are
often utilized as effective lateral resisting structural system in regions with high seismic risk world-wide.
Composite steel and concrete structures tend to combine the beneficial effects of both steel and RC
systems; the latter systems are cost-efficient especially for medium-to-high rise buildings. Composite
beam-columns and joints possess adequate stiffness, strength and ductility to withstand gravity and
earthquake-induced horizontal loads, e.g. [1]. Analytical studies and experimental tests addressing
performance assessment of composite building frames are, however, still scarce [2, 3, 4]. Furthermore,
local and global limit states to evaluate quantitatively the performance of composite systems are rarely
specified in a detailed manner [5], both in numerical and experimental studies. On the other hand, seismic
design provisions were recently implemented in international and national codes of practice for this type
of lateral resisting systems, e.g. [6, 7, 8], among many others. Notwithstanding, only a limited number of
studies have assessed the reliability and the degree of conservatism, if any, of the rules formulated in the
novel design standards. The present analytical work assesses the earthquake response of a composite steel
and concrete MRF building with six-storey and designed in compliance with recent national seismic
standards [8]. Detailed static and dynamic (inelastic) analyses were employed to investigate the structural
performance of the benchmark multi-storey building. The results of the inelastic pushovers are discussed
herein. The response criteria were expressed in terms of plastic hinge rotations and inter-storey drifts.
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L. Di Sarno
2 SEISMIC DESIGN RULES

The current seismic standards formulated for the analysis and design of composite steel and concrete
MRFs, especially in Europe [6, 8], were chiefly derived from the experimental and numerical simulations
carried out on structural steel earthquake resistant systems. For example the all-encompassing behaviour
factor q (R-factor in the US practice) utilized to estimate the design (inelastic) base shear by scaling down
the elastic seismic demand, is the same for both bare steel and composite structures. There is sufficient
recent evidence (e.g. [9; 10, 11], among others), however, that the q-factor, which accounts for the energy
dissipation and absorption, should assume higher values for composite structures because of the enhanced
local and global ductility, member overstrength and increased inherent structural damping. The effective
confinement effect of concrete to inhibit local buckling should give rise to less stringent limitations for
the slenderness ratios for I- and H-shaped sections. Partial strength shear connections, particularly at
beam-to-column connections should be further investigated. The inherent damping of such connections
and the reduced flexural capacity of the composite beams may result beneficial for enhanced performance
within the capacity design framework. Additionally, capacity design rules, especially those relative to
connections, beam-to-column and base columns, should validated through experimental tests. The
existing provisions appear extremely conservative and uneconomic thus endangering the use of composite
MRFs in seismic areas.
3 CASE STUDY
3.1 General Description

The sample office building structure assessed in this analytical work includes a structural system with
6-storey, and 5-bay and 4-bay moment resisting frame (MRFs); the MRFs are placed along the perimeter
of the symmetrical plan layout. The bay lengths are 7.0m (two exterior bays), 6.0m (two intermediate
bays) and 5.0m (central bay). The interstorey height is 3.5m for all but the ground floor, which is 4.0m
high. The total height of the building is 21.5m.
The earthquake-resistant MRFs employ partially-encased composite columns; the cross-sections
include hot rolled profiles: HEB400 (lower storeys) and HEB360 (upper storeys). The steel beams are
IPE360 and IPE 330 (primary beams); IPE240 and IPE 270 are utilised as secondary beams. The floor
system is a 120mm thick composite slab; the metal profiled sheeting is a A55/P600 Hi-Bond. The
composite action between the steel beam and the metal profiled sheeting slab is guaranteed by Nelson-
type shear studs (ductile shear studs); their height is 90mm and the diameter is 14 mm; ultimate strength
fu=360N/mm2. The shear connection is a full-strength. The beam-to-column and column-to-base
connections of the MRFs are full-strength and rigid.
The structural steel of beams and columns in the sample MRFs is grade S235 (fy=235MPa). The
concrete used for the composite slab is normal weight (type C25/20); the design resistance is 11.0
N/mm2. A secant Young modulus was assumed for concrete; its estimated value is 29,962 N/mm2. The
steel bars used for the longitudinal and transverse reinforcement in the columns and for the mesh of the
slabs are B450C with a design stress of N/mm2. Material partial safety factor (γc) for concrete is assumed
equal to 1.5, while values of γs equal to 1.05 and 1.15 are used for structural steel and for rebars and
meshes, respectively.
The self-weight loads Gk are 4.67 kN/mq for all floors; the live loads Qk are 2.00 kN/mq because of
the type of occupancy of the building. The force partial safety factors γg and γq at the ultimate limit state
(ULS) are 1.3 and 1.5, respectively. At serviceability limit state (SLS) the above factors are γg=γq=1.0. It
is assumed that the building is located at 135m above the sea level and hence the load due to the snow is
0.48 kN/mq; the wind pressure is 0.85 kN/mq (windward) and 0.43 kN/mq (leeward).
The earthquake design of the sample frame was carried out by utilizing 5% damped acceleration
response spectra at the ultimate (ULS) and serviceability (SLS). The spectra were computed at
damageability limit state (DLS) and life safety (LSLS). The structure is located in an area of high
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seismicity, near Naples, in the South of Italy; the estimated bedrock accelerations are 0.083g (SLS) and
0.258g (LSLS). The soil is type B (360m/s<vs,30<800m/s) and hence the site amplification factor S=1.2
at DLS and 1.162 at LSLS. The behaviour factor is q=6.50 (multi-storey MRF with multiple bays).
3.2 Numerical Model

The MRFs of the sample building structure were modelled through a three-dimensional finite element
(FE) system consisting of elastic beam-elements with lumped plasticity hinges at both ends; the numerical
model was implemented in the software SAP 2000 [12]. Each composite beam was discretized using 5
beam elements to model adequately the effective widths.
Beam-to-column connections are modelled as rigid joints and the column-to-base connections are
assumed fully restrained. The non linear behaviour of concrete was modelled through the constitutive
relationship formulated by [13] for monotonic load and reversal loads. Such relationship accounts for the
different degree of confinement of the concrete in partially-encased columns and beams with profiled
sheeting slab. Two models were also employed for the steel of the reinforcement bars: elasto-plastic and
elasto-plastic with hardening.
The inelastic response of steel structural members was modelled by means of bilinear elasto-plastic
and elasto-plastic with hardening stress-strain curves. For both models the deformation at yield is εsy =
0,002, the ultimate deformation εsu = 0,02. It is assumed that, for the elasto-plastic with hardening model,
the ultimate strength fsu=336 N/mm2, which corresponds to a ratio E/Eh = 37,5 at the deformation εҏ=
0,02. For the columns, three different levels of concrete confinement were accounted for: fully confined
(hourglass shape), partially confined (parabola shape) and unconfined (thin rectangular cover).The
ultimate deformation of concrete was assumed equal to 0.5%. The deformation at the peak compressive
strength f’c is 0.2%.
4 SYSTEM RESPONSE
4.1 Local Response

Comprehensive parametric analyses were carried on composite steel and concrete partially encased
columns. Such analyses were aimed at establishing the effects of the non linear models (i.e. EPP and
EPH) utilized for structural steel on the flexural behaviour. Additionally, the normalized level of axial
load, i.e. Nsd/Nplrd, was varied between 0 (pure flexure) and about 0.25 (high axial load). Tables 1 and 2
provide the outcomes of the performed analyses for the HEB400 columns for the EPP and EPH model,
respectively. The bending moments at yield (My), at collapse (Mu) and peak point (Mmax) were computed
along with the yield (Xy) and ultimate (Xu) curvatures. It is found that for low values of adimensionalized
axial loads, i.e. Nsd/Nplrd < 0.10, the response parameters of the composite cross-sections are similar in
terms of rotational ductility. However, as the axial loads increase the EPH provide higher values of
ductility, e.g. Xu/Xy = 4 (EPP) versus Xu/Xy = 9 (EPH). The flexural overstrength, herein estimated as
Mmax/My, is for EPH model on average 20% higher than the EPP counterparts.
The abrupt reduction of the rotation ductility is found for values of Nsd/Nplrd > 0.10 (N=750kN); for
the latter case, the results of the performed analyses show that the ductility is halved with respect to the
case of pure flexure (Nsd/Nplrd = 0). These results do no depend on the numerical model employed for
simulating the response of steel. Additionally, sudden post-peak loss of stiffness was detected for values
of adimensionalized axial loads greater than 0.20 (N>1250kN), especially when EPP models are used.
The bending moment-curvature diagrams for different levels of axial load for HEB400 column are
pictorially displayed in Figure 1 for HEB400, with either EPP or EPH models.
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L. Di Sarno
N My Mu Mmax Xy Xu Ductility Overstrength

Nsd/Nplrd
[KN] Xu/Xy Mmax/My
[KNm] [KNm] [KNm] [1/m] [1/m]
0 0.00 705 959 962 0.0052 0.0894 17 1.37
250 0.04 757 921 981 0.0057 0.0963 17 1.30
500 0.07 780 913 985 0.0060 0.0963 16 1.26
750 0.11 816 920 987 0.0064 0.0688 11 1.21
1000 0.15 841 859 988 0.0070 0.0606 9 1.18
1250 0.19 858 960 987 0.0076 0.0275 4 1.15
1500 0.22 873 976 976 0.0083 0.0225
3 1.12
Table 1 – Section analysis results of HEB 400 columns with different level of axial load (EPP model).
N My Mu Mmax Xy Xu Ductility Overstrength

Nsd/Nplrd
[KN] Xu/Xy Mmax/My
[KNm] [KNm] [KNm] [1/m] [1/m]
0 0.00 716 1229 1229 0.0054 0.0962 18 1.72
250 0.04 762 1229 1229 0.0057 0.0962 17 1.61
500 0.07 785 1221 1221 0.0060 0.0962 16 1.56
750 0.11 815 1209 1209 0.0064 0.0865 13 1.48
1000 0.15 849 1210 1210 0.0070 0.0774 11 1.43
1250 0.19 851 1137 1137 0.0075 0.0687 9 1.34
1500 0.22 860 1099 1099 0.0081 0.0606
7 1.28
Table 2 – Section analysis results of HEB 400 columns with different level of axial load (EPH model).
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Figure 1 – Bending moment-curvature diagram for differen levels of axial load for HEB400 column: EPP (left) and
EPH (right).
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L. Di Sarno
The above findings were also derived for the partially encased HEB360 members. It can thus be argued
that the FE structural models based on EPP formulations tend to underestimate the effective energy
dissipation capacity of the composite members, thus engandering the reliable assessment of the seismic
structural performance. he variations of the rotation ductility and flexural overstrength with the level of
axial loads are displayed in Figure 2 for elasto-perfectly plastic and elasto-plastic with hardening models.
For the latter model the response tend to be independent of the cross-section type. The rotational ductility
and flexural overstrength exhibit a linear decreasing trend as the normalized axial load Nsd/Nplrd
increases. The regression analyses of the computed values shown a high correlation with the linear trend;
the R2-factor are closed to the unity.
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Figure 2 – Variation of ductility (left) and flexural overstrength (right) for partially encased column using EPP and
EPH models with respect to the case of N=0.
The outcomes of the extensive parameter analyses prove that the rotation ductility is reduced by about
10% for low values of adimensionalized load, e.g. Nsd/NplRd =0.10, and 25% for high values of the ratio
Nsd/NplRd. The variation of flexural overstrength ranger between 4% and 8% and is not significant for
practical applications. The results of the parameter analyses demonstrate that the EPP models tend to
understimate the plastic energy dissipation of columns with moderate-to-high level of axial loads. This is
the case, for example, of base columns in MRFs, where plastic hinges (dissipative zones) are localized to
achieve full plastic collapse mechanism under earthquake lateral loads. The results estimated for EPH
models are characterized by lower reduction of rotation ductility as a function of the axial load because
the hardening tends to redistribute within the member cross-section the material inelasticity. As a result,
the inelastic deformation of the section is augmented.
4.2 Global Response

The modal response of the sample frame was first investigated; the fundamental period of vibration is
2.13 seconds along X-direction and 2.05 seconds along Y-directions. The effective modal mass
associated to the above modes is 82%. The estimated natural period of vibration is 1.87 seconds; this
value is significantly larger that those computed through simplified expressions implemented in modern
seismic codes of practice [7, 8, 9]. However, lower values of the period provide conservative estimate of
the design forces.
The inelastic performance of the sample composite framed building was assessed through inelastic static
analyses (pushovers). Two load patterns were employed: uniform and inverted triangular. The computed
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L. Di Sarno
capacity curves are shown in Figure 3 for X- and Y-directions. The onset of the code-compliant limit
states, i.e. damageability (DLS), life safety (LSLS) and collapse (CPLS), is also estimated. The structural
response was derived by utilizing both the EPP and EPH models. The onset of collapse is detected by the
ultimate rotation of the plastic hinges. For the EPP models the collapse is reached at a drift of about 2.5%
along X-direction and 2.2% along Y-direction. The lateral inelastic deformation is not significantly
affected by the load pattern distribution. The estimated top roof lateral drifts at collapse are lower when
the EPH model is utilized, e.g. 1.96% versus 2.54% for X-direction and inverted triangular load pattern.
The results of the inelastic static analyses provided in Figure 3 show that the largest variations are
detected along the X-direction, where the number of bays (and hence plastic hinges) is higher. The
inelastic response of the benchmark MRF was also assessed in terms of inter-storey drift (d/h), which can
be utilized as an effective measure of structural and non-structural damage of MRF structures. The latter
drifts were computed at different code-compliant limit states, namely DLS, LSLS and CPLS. It is found
that the onset of the ultimate rotation capacity (see Figure 3) corresponds to values of inter-storey drifts
higher than 3%, i.e. 4.0% and 3.5% along X- and Y-direction, respectively.
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Figure 3 – Capacity curves along the X (left) and Y-direction (right) using EPP (top) and EPH (bottom) models.
The outcomes of the inelastic pushovers also demonstrate that the EPH model leads to higher strength
capacity and lower deformation demands. The values of global translation ductility μ and system
overstrength Įu/Į1 are summarized in Table 4 for EPP and EPH models, for inverted triangular and
uniform load patterns, X- and Y-directions.
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L. Di Sarno
ELASTIC PERFECTLY PLASTIC ELASTO-PLASTIC WITH HARDENING
Seismic Input Direction X Y X Y
Seismic Load Pattern Triang Unif Triang Unif Triang Unif Triang Unif
Ductility ȝ 7.3 7.9 6.6 7.0 5.7 5.5 6.7 6.7
System overstrength Įu/Į1 2.78 2.90 2.90 2.65 2.89 2.90 3.01 3.07
Table 4 – System translation ductility and overstrength.
The computed values show that the q-factors that was utilized for the design of the sample composite
frame, i.e. q=6.50, is close to those derived through inelastic static analyses. The global translation
ductility μ varies between 5.5 and 7.9; thus, the average value is consistent with the design q-factor.
However, the system overstrength as specified in the European seismic codes of practice ([6], [8]) are
significantly lower than those computed with FE numerical models. The upper bound of the code values
for the ratio Įu/Į1 is 1.3; the estimated values range between 2.65 and 3.07. It can be argued that the
actual plastic redistribution of the composite steel and concrete MRF systems is significantly
underestimated in the current design standards.
6 CONCLUSIONS
The results of the present analytical study show that the mechanical model employed for the steel,
especially structural steel, can influence significantly the response parameters of the inelastic behaviour
of composite steel and concrete multi-storey moment resisting frame (MRF). Two models were
considered herein, i.e. elasto-perfectly plastic (EPP) and elasto-plastic with 2% hardening (EPH). It is
found that for low values of adimensionalized axial load, i.e. Nsd/Nplrd < 0.10, the response parameters
of the composite cross-sections are similar in terms of rotational ductility. However, as the axial loads
increase the EPH models provide higher values of ductility compared to EPP counterparts. Inelastic static
(pushover) analyses were carried out to derive capacity curves and to assess the structural performance in
terms of both local (plastic rotations) and global (inter-storey drifts) response quantities. The outcomes of
the performed inelastic analyses showed that the design system overstrength (Įu/Į1) provided by the
European and Italian seismic Code underestimates significantly the actual values of the ratio Įu/Į1; the
values estimated for the sample structure vary between 2.65 and 3.07. As a result composite MRF
systems possess enhanced plastic redistribution and hence global energy dissipated. Further analytical and
experimental tests are deemed necessary to assess the reliability of the existing code rules and to promote
the use of composite steel and concrete structures, especially MRF, in earthquake-prone areas.
REFERENCES
[1] Nakashima, M., Matsumiya, T., Suita, K. and Zhou, F. (2007). Full scale test of composite frame
under large cyclic loading. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 133(2), 297-304.
[2] El-Tawil, S. and Deierlein, G.G. (2001). Nonlinear Analysis of Mixed Steel-Concrete Frames. II:
Implementation and Verification. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 127(6), 656-665.
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L. Di Sarno
[3] Spacone, E. and El-Tawil, S. (2004). Nonlinear analysis of steel-concrete composite structures: State
of the art. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 130(2), 159-168.
[4] Zhoul, F., Mosalam, K.M. and Nakashima, M. (2007). Finite-Element Analysis of a Composite Frame
under Large Lateral Cyclic Loading. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 133(7), 1018-1026.
[5] Broderick, B.M. and Elnashai, A.S. (1996). Seismic response of composite frames - I. Response
criteria input motion. Engineering Structures, 18(9), 696-706.
[6] Eurocode 8 (2004). Design provisions for earthquake resistance of structures. Part 1.3: General rules.
Specific rules for various materials and elements. Eur. Comm. for Standardisation, Brussels, Belgium.
[7] American Institute of Steel Construction (2005). Seismic Provisions for Structural Steel Buildings.
Chicago, IL, USA.
[8] DD.MM.LL.PP. (2008). Norme tecniche per le costruzioni - NTC (in Italian).
[9] Plumier A., Doneux C. editors. (2001). Seismic Behaviour and Design of Composite Steel Concrete
Structures. ISBN 972-49-1890-4. LNEC Edition. Lisbon.
[10] Thermou, G.E., Elnashai, A.S., Plumier, A. e Doneux, C. (2004). Seismic design and performance of
composite frames. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 60(1), 31-57.
[11] Bursi, O.S., Caramelli, S., Fabbrocino, G., Molina, J., Salvatore, W., Taucer, F., (2004). 3D Full-
scale seismic testing of a steel-concrete composite building at ELSA. Contr. No. HPR-CT-1999-00059,
European Community.
[12] Computer and Structures (2008), SAP2000 Integrated Finite Element Analysis and Design of
Structures, Vers.12, CSI, Berkeley, California.
[13] Mander J.B., Priestley M.J.N. and Park R. (1988). Theoretical stress-strain model for confined
concrete, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 114(8), 1804-1826.
838
STABILITY AND DUCTILITY OF CASTELLATED COMPOSITE BEAMS

SUBJECTED TO HOGGING BENDING
Marian A. Gizejowski* and Wael A. Salah Khalil**
* Department of Building Structures, Warsaw University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland

e-mail: M.Gizejowski@il.pw.edu.pl
** Department of Civil Engineering, Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt
e-mail: waelcivil@hotmail.com
Keywords: Castellated Composite Beam, Hogging Bending, Distortional Buckling, Ultimate Strength.
Abstract. This paper presents investigations on distortional stability and ductility behavior of steel-
concrete composite beams subjected to hogging bending. These investigations advance the current
knowledge in the field of perforated continuous or semi-continuous composite beams with regard to their
ultimate strength. In total, twelve composite beam specimens were tested under hogging bending
conditions that simulate the behavior multi-span beams over their internal supports. Two sets of
specimens were tested. Six long-span beam specimens represented cases where flexure controlled the
behavior of composite beams, and the remaining six specimens were short-span for which the effect of
shear could not have been neglected. Three groups of two identical beams with square, hexagonal and
circular openings were tested in each set. Numerical modeling and prediction formula for the ultimate
strength are proposed and verified with use of experimental results obtained by the authors.
1 INTRODUCTION
Steel-concrete composite beams in continuous or semi-continuous structural systems are subjected to
both sagging and hogging bending. Research on the stability behavior and ductility performance of plain
webbed composite beams have been carried out extensively both experimentally and numerically for
different beam static schemes, length-to-depth ratios, ratios of the concrete slab section area to the
structural steel cross section area, reinforcement ratios, among others. General design rules for the
resistance check of composite beams under sagging and hogging moments have been developed and
introduced to current structural codes, e.g. to Eurocode 4, as a result of these extensive investigations.
The restrained distortional buckling (RDB) of statically indeterminate plain webbed composite beams
was dealt with by the authors in [1]. A direct strength method analytical formulation has been developed
for the RDB assessment of composite multi-span beams as an alternative approach to those given in
current codes of practice. The prediction equation has the form:
Λ b, dsm § 1·1 Λ pl
= ¨ α1 − α 2 ¸ , λ= (1)
Λ pl © λ ¹λ Λ cr
In equation (1) the following notation is used: Λ cr - elastic distortional buckling load factor, Λ pl - in-
plane limit load factor, Λ b.dsm - RDB strength factor from dsm approach, α 1 and α 2 - constants.
Research on the behavior of castellated composite beams has not been carried out so extensively.
Five castellated composite beams of different span lengths were tested up to failure at the Structural
Engineering Laboratory of McGill University by Megharief [2]. The aim of his research project was to
839
observe the out-of-plane stability of posts separating the openings and the beam modes of failure under
sagging bending, and then to model their behavior numerically with use of the finite element (FE)
technique. A comprehensive experimental investigation of steel and concrete composite girders behavior
under hogging moments was recently reported by He et al. [3]. Less attention, if any, has been paid to
buckling phenomena of castellated composite beams under hogging bending, especially with reference to
the length of hogging moment spread and different shape of openings. This paper presents the results of
research project carried out at the Warsaw University of Technology (WUT) and concerned with the
experimental investigations, numerical modeling and development of prediction equation for the buckling
strength of continuous castellated composite beams. Developed FE modeling technique captures globally
the effect of geometric and material imperfections. Validation of this modeling technique is presented by
the comparison of the FE load-displacement characteristics with their experimental counterparts. Finally,
it is proved that the prediction equation developed in [1] for the buckling strength of plain webbed
composite beams may also be used for the prediction of RDB strength of castellated composite beams.
2 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS
Two sets of composite beam specimens were tested in the WUT laboratory, namely the set made of
steel grade S355 and the set made of steel grade S420. The specimens of each set were divided into two
subsets according to their span length, namely short-span specimens of 2116 mm beam length and long-
span specimens of 4232 mm beam length. Each specimen consisted of two equal length spans, one
overhanging with perforated web, and the other being plain webbed and supported at both ends. The
overhanging span was loaded in such a way that both spans were under hogging bending (see figure 1).

6XSSRUWEHDP +\GUDXOLFMDFN
a) General layout and boundary conditions of

long-span tested specimens
b) General layout and boundary conditions of

short-span tested specimens
c) Typical beam cross-section at the centre of web

opening
Figure 1: General layout of tested specimens.
840
Three different shapes of web openings were considered, namely rectangular, hexagonal and circular
of equal opening area and the same c/c distance. The perforated span for long-span beam specimens
consisted of four openings while two openings were designed for the web of short-span beam specimens.
The list of the tested composite beams is shown in table 1.
Table 1: Description of tested composite beams

Specimen Span length Shape of Number of Steel grade
(mm) openings openings
C4S355 2116 Circular 4 S355
H4S355 2116 Hexagonal 4 S355
R4S355 2116 Rectangular 4 S355
2.1 Test rig setup and loading program

The general layout of the test rig setup is shown in figure 2. Roller hinged support was inserted in the
mid-length of the bottom flange of both long-span and short-span specimens where lateral movement was
not allowed. At the left end of each tested specimen a steel tie frame fixed to the lab floor was provided in
order to restrict lateral and upward vertical displacements. The right end was free to move vertically. The
lateral displacement of the specimen at the right end was prohibited by means of two I-section bracing
columns fixed to the lab floor, as illustrated in figure 2.
Figure 2: General arrangement of test rig.
The loading program was displacement controlled. The vertical displacement was applied gradually to the
specimen starting from the elastic region of beam deformations, through the limit point attainment on the
equilibrium path and up to excessive beam deformations in the post-limit range. At each of displacement
increments, readings from strain gauges, displacement transducers and inclinometers were recorded in
order to examine specimen in-plane and out-of-plane displacements and rotations. The surface of
concrete slab was carefully inspected for the crack development and propagation. Testing was terminated
in the post-limit range when the specimen displacements and rotations became large with reference to
841
normal service conditions, and the slab exhibited values of considerably wide concrete cracks. The
displacement controlled by the actuator was then incrementally decreased and its residual value at the
point of zero reactive force response of tested specimens was recorded.
2.2 Failure modes and ductility behavior
The failure mode of all the tested web perforated composite beams was associated with distortional
instability. Various RDB modes were detected in which lateral-distortional mode with a small
contribution of torsional deformations was a dominating mode for long-span beams with circular and
hexagonal web openings. The torsional-distortional mode with a relatively small contribution of lateral
deformations governed the behavior of long-span specimens with rectangular web openings and all the
short-span specimens, regardless the opening shape type. The castellation process using square web
openings created web posts with the lowest out-of-plane stiffness and with the highest stress
concentration at the opening sharp corners. These factors were responsible for the torsional-distortional
instability mode to occur before any significant lateral displacements seen to be developed.
$SSOLHGORDGN1
Figure 3: Load-displacement response of composite beams with web circular openings.
Figure 3 presents typical curves of the specimen reactive force vs applied vertical displacement for
beams with web circular openings. The long-span beams show lesser initial stiffness and the lower
ultimate load if compared with the corresponding values of the short-span specimens. This is quite
understandable since the longer overhanging span means longer hogging moment length, and hence
earlier triggering of the distortional buckling of unrestrained bottom flange of the structural steel profile.
Moreover, the ultimate load of the long-span specimens does not depend significantly on the grade of
structural steel the profile is made of. The same observation is valid for short-span specimens. This is
attributed to early distortional instability that occurs before the commencement of yielding zones in the
beam bottom flange. Since the beam buckling starts in the quasi-elastic region, the limit load is achieved
with a limited yielding of the beam sections and substantial plastic deformations may only be developed
in the post-limit range. Hence, the difference in the equilibrium path with regard to steel grade becomes
noticeable in figure 3 for the post-limit beam responses. Beams made of the higher steel grade loose their
stiffness less rapidly and approximately in a similar way with regard to different span lengths. Contrarily,
beams with the lower steel grade exhibit different sensitivity to the stiffness decrease in the post-limit
range. Short-span beams behave in this region in more a less the same way as those made of the higher
steel grade. The stiffness of long-span beams made of the lower steel grade decreases more rapidly than
842
their higher steel grade counterparts. This is indicative to a better ductility performance of beams made of
higher steel grade.
Summarizing the effect of web opening shape on the beam instability behavior, one can conclude that
beams with hexagonal web openings represent very close behavior to those with circular openings. Beams
with circular and hexagonal web openings are less exposed to the local effect of residual stress
concentration at opening surroundings. Beams with hexagonal openings may however be in some cases
more vulnerable to web plate fracture since their openings have the circumference line that is not
curvilinear. Experiments concerned with the response of short-span beams with hexagonal web openings
have shown that reaching the limit point on the equilibrium path is associated with the web plate fracture
initiated from the corners of the opening being at the closest distance from the beam end. Reduction in
the ductility performance is even more severe for beams with rectangular openings since the ultimate load
of these beams, regardless of the beam span length, was always associated with the web plate fracture.
Beams with rectangular web openings exhibited in tests lesser initial stiffness from their counterparts with
circular and hexagonal web openings, and also the lower ultimate strength.
The effect of span length is affecting not only the mode of failure, ultimate strength and the post-limit
response but also the development and pattern of concrete cracks of the composite beam slab. Crack
patterns perpendicular to the beam axis formed in an early stage of loading in the slab of tested long-span
beams and propagated in the post-limit state, reaching large values at the end of tests. This was indicative
to the flexural response of composite beams. Patterns with diagonal cracks were observed for short-span
beams indicating the contribution of concrete to the load transfer by shear.
3 NUMERICAL INVESTIGATIONS
The FE computer code ABAQUS is used to simulate the behavior of tested composite beams.
Structural steel is modeled with use of thin shell finite elements S4R5 while the concrete slab with use of
thick shell finite elements S4R. Options available in the ABAQUS library are used for constitutive
models of structural steel, shear connectors and reinforced concrete. Huber-von-Mises yield criterion is
used for steel while Smeared Cracks failure criterion is used for concrete in tension. Rebar Layer option
allows to model the effect of reinforcement in the concrete slab. Mechanical properties of steel and
concrete are derived from material tests. Since concrete tests did not provide data for all the parameters of
constitutive models to be precisely evaluated, some of model parameters are calibrated on the basis of
successive fitting of numerical model to the global behavior of tested specimens. A bilinear stress-strain
diagram is used for steel behavior of shear connectors and reinforcement. Imperfections of structural steel
are taken into consideration. Residual stresses of welded castellated steel profiles are globally represented
by an equivalent curvilinear stress-strain characteristic accounted for stress hardening and gradual
development of yielding (for details of this formulation see [4]). Patterns of geometric imperfections are
conventionally modeled using a linear combination of eigenmodes with the maximum coordinate
evaluated on the basis of survey conducted prior to testing for the geometry of initially distorted beam
profiles. Eigenmodes are evaluated from elastic stability analysis option in ABAQUS and automatically
incorporated to the imperfect model of beams for consideration in geometrically nonlinear analysis
accounted for elastic-plastic properties of steel and inelastic behavior of concrete in compression and
tension. Structural steel section dimensions are taken at the lower values obtained from measurements
conducted for all the specimens just after the delivery from the manufacturer and before their final
arrangement as the composite specimens for testing.
The behavior of tested specimens is examined by including the load-displacement analysis of Riks
type and using an imperfect model of tested beams with imperfections modeled as described above. In the
first analysis step, imperfect beams are subjected to a pressure load applied to the top flange that
simulates the existence of an initial stress state due to the self-weight of the concrete slab. Then, the
second load step commences by applying the vertical displacement at the point of actuator placement to
simulate tests conducted in the laboratory in order to trace the specimen behavior under applied load.
843
Analysis is terminated at a point that over-passes the maximum vertical displacement recorded in tests,
and the unloading stage recorded in testing is not simulated in numerical analysis.
3.1 Beam load-displacement characteristics and restrained distortional buckling strength
Load-displacement curves obtained experimentally are compared with numerical characteristic for all
the tested specimens. Figures 4 and 5 illustrate the results for beams with circular web openings of long-
span and short-span specimens, respectively. Load-displacement characteristics obtained by FE analysis
can reproduce with high degree of accuracy the actual performance of tested composite beams with
circular web openings with respect to the initial stiffness, RDB strength and the post-limit behavior. The
prediction for other beam load-displacement curves is a bit less accurate, especially for those that
experience the web plate fracture. Fracture phenomenon can not be captured in numerical analysis.
Because the web plate fracture was detected in tests at the load level corresponding to the limit point, it
affected significantly the post-limit branch of the equilibrium path. FE simulations over-predict
experimental results. After reaching the ultimate strength, the experimental load-displacement curves of
fractured specimens start to sharply degrade while FE curves exhibit much slower degradation.
a) b)
Figure 4: Load-displacement characteristics - long-span beams with circular openings; a) S355, b) S420.
a) b)
Figure 5: Load-displacement characteristics - short-span beams with circular openings; a) S355, b) S420.
Table 2 summarizes all the results of tested beams with regard to the ultimate load obtained
experimentally and numerically. Differences between the experimental RDB loads and their numerical
counterparts are up to 7% with exception of R2S420 for which the web plate fracture occurred much
earlier than for the other beams with rectangular openings. For the beam R2S420 the difference between
the experimental and numerical ultimate loads appears to be at the maximum value of 14%.
844
Table 2: Comparison of experimental and numerical values of beam ultimate load
Specimen Experimental Numerical
ultimate load (kN) ultimate load (kN)
C4S355 59,6 59,6
C4S420 62,3 63,7
H4S355 62,0 59,3
H4S420 62,5 63,5
R4S355 50,2 51,7
R4S420 53,1 57,1
C2S355 86,7 86,2
C2S420 89,4 95,7
H2S355 87,6 85,9
H2S420 88,9 95,3
R2S355 73,4 78,3
R2S420 74,9 85,7
3.2 Beam deformations

The accuracy of numerical modeling technique developed may also be checked comparing deformed
profiles of distorted beam sections obtained for the post-limit range of deformations. Deformed profiles
of tested beams recorded in the laboratory are compared with the corresponding profiles obtained from
numerical analysis. Figures 6 and 7 illustrate the comparison of deformed profiles for the same value of
vertical displacement, for the cellular long-span and short-span beams, respectively. Deformed profiles
obtained experimentally and numerically are very close to each other. The similar results are obtained for
other tested specimens.

Figure 6: Experimentally and numerically obtained deformed profiles of specimen C4S420.
Figure 7: Experimentally and numerically obtained deformed profiles of specimen C2S420.
Deformed profiles obtained numerically for web perforated composite beams confirm that composite
beams of slender sections fail under hogging bending in the distortional buckling mode before achieving
the beam in-plane Vierendeel mechanism load. Advanced FE Riks analysis based on imperfect model of
real beams proves to be highly accurate when modeling the load-displacement behavior of both long-span
and short-span beams, and their RDB strength. The results obtained with use of such an analysis may
therefore be used for the wider research project of getting a representative number of point corresponding
845
to the RDB ultimate strength of continuous composite beams of different cross-section types, slab section
areas and material properties. These points may next be used for calibration of simplified methods
recommended for the practical assessment of composite beam buckling strength.
4 DIRECT STRENGTH METHOD PREDICTION EQUATION

The buckling strength equation (1) based on the direct strength method (referred to dsm equation
hereafter) was proposed in [1] for the assessment of buckling strength of continuous plain webbed
composite beams. In the following, the hypothesis is verified whether this equation is of a general nature
and can be used also for the prediction of RDB strength of castellated composite beams, or not. In order
to validate equation (1) for castellated composite beams, authors own experimental ultimate loads are
used herein, instead of numerical results. Validation is given in figure 8. Experimental
values Λ b, exp Λ pl are calculated and marked in figure 8 by points representing test results for castellated
composite beams with circular, hexagonal and rectangular openings. Test results are compared with the
analytical predictions from equation (1) represented in figure 8 by the curve. From this validation
exercise one can conclude that dsm equation developed in [1] can be successfully used also for the safe
prediction of distortional buckling strength of castellated composite beams under hogging bending.

WHVWUHVXOWV
FLUFXODURSHQLQJ
KH[DJRQDORSHQLQJ
UHFWDQJXODURSHQLQJ
SURSRVHGGVP

Figure 8: Validation of direct strength method applicability to web perforated composite beams.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Results of experimental investigations, advanced numerical analysis and analytical RDB strength
formulation of perforated web composite beams under hogging bending are presented. Ultimate loads are
predicted and compared, together with the identification of distortional buckling modes and ductility
performance. Results obtained advance current knowledge on the stability and ductility behavior of
castellated composite beams made of slender structural steel sections.
REFERENCES
[1] Salah, W. and Gizejowski M.A., “Restrained distortional buckling of composite beams – FE
modelling of the behaviour of steel-concrete beams in the hogging moment region”, Proc. of
EUROSTEEL2008 5th European Conference on Steel and Composite Structures, R. Ofner et al.
(eds.), ECCS Publication, Brussels, 1629-1634, 2008
[2] Megharief, P.S., Behavior of Composite Castellated Beams, McGill University, Montreal, 1997.
[3] He, J., Liu, Y., Chen A. and Yoda, T. “Experimental sudy on inelastic mechanical behaviour of
composite girders under hogging moment”. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, (in press).
[4] Gizejowski, M.A., Salah, W., Barcewicz, W. “Finite element modeling of the behaviour of steel
end-plate beam-to-column joints”. Archives of Civil Engineering, LIV(4), 693-733, 2008.
846
SHEAR CONNECTION IN STEEL AND CONCRETE COMPOSITE TRUSSES
Josef Machacek* and Martin Cudejko**
* Czech Technical University in Prague, Thakurova 7, Prague 6, Czech Republic

e-mail: Machacek@fsv.cvut.cz
** Ing. Software Dlubal s.r.o., Anglicka 28, Prague 2, Czech Republic
e-mail: cudejko_martin@seznam.cz
Keywords: Composite steel and concrete truss, Bridge truss, Floor truss, Longitudinal shear, Shear
connection, Non-linear behaviour.
Abstract. Distribution of longitudinal shear along an interface between steel and concrete of composite
trusses from elastic phase up to plastic collapse is investigated. Based on experimental investigation the
corresponding 3D FE numerical model has been developed using ANSYS software package. Both floor
and bridge steel and concrete composite trusses are analysed. While in the former the plastic
redistribution of longitudinal shear flow is of the main interest, the form of non-linear elastic distribution
of the longitudinal shear is important particularly for class 3 and 4 sections, fatigue behaviour and non-
ductile shear connectors, all important notably in design of bridges. Numerical results emerging from
parametrical studies are compared with Eurocode 4 provisions. Extensive study also deals with influence
of densification of shear connectors above truss nodes. Finally some recommendations for practical
design are suggested.
1 INTRODUCTION
Distribution of the shear flow between steel truss and concrete slab along span of a composite truss
girder has been investigated since sixties both experimentally and theoretically. Eminent experimental
research in USA and Canada was performed e.g. by Galambos and Tide [1], Iyengar and Zils [2]
Brattland and Kennedy [3], Kennedy and Woldegiorgis [4], Viest [5] and enabled extensive use of
composite trusses as large span floor beams. In nineties the research by Neal and Johnson and SCI
publication [6] led to design recommendations showing wide range of design aspects important for
composite steel and concrete trusses. In compliance with these recommendations the plastic design can
be done identically as for a common plate girder, including the design of a steel-concrete shear
connection, provided the shear connectors are ductile and bending rigidity of upper steel flange of the
truss is sufficient.
In an elastic design of shear connection, however, needed for class 3 and 4 cross sections, rigid shear
connectors with respect to their limited deformation capacity and generally required for bridges the
highly non-uniform distribution of longitudinal shear flow in a composite truss girder due to transmitting
of the shear forces to the concrete slab within truss nodes needs to be taken into account. This case was
indirectly dealt with by Johnson and Ivanov [7] and introduced into Eurocode 4 (EN 1994-2, or ENV
1994-2 in more detail). The Eurocode provides formulas for the local effect of a concentrated
longitudinal force and distribution of the longitudinal shear force into local shear flow between steel
section and concrete slab. The worked example using these formulas and a comparison with non-linear
analysis employing ANSYS software was presented by Machacek et al. [8]. Extensive numerical analysis
of composite trusses both in elastic and plastic region was presented by the authors in [9], embodying
also experimental investigation of two floor 6 m span composite trusses. The numerical model described
below proved to correspond excellently with the tests results and enabled to analyze more than 30
847
variants of shear connections of simple trusses having various load-slip relationships obtained from
previous research [10].
In this paper the main principles of the shear flow distribution along concrete-steel interface
of composite floor trusses are summarized and analysis of typical composite truss bridge girders is
described in a detail. The attention is paid to both bridge trusses with and without gusset plates, influence
of rigidity of upper steel flange and densification of shear connectors above truss nodes. The Eurocode 4
proposals are verified and recommendations for practical use are suggested.
2 FEM MODEL
GMNA (geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis) FEM model using ANSYS software was
developed and verified with tests [9]. The special 3D reinforced concrete elements (SOLID65) were used
for the concrete slab, while steel bottom chord and web bars were modelled by beam elements with
appropriate cross section (BEAM24) and upper chord of the steel trusses was composed of shell elements
(SHELL43). All steel finite elements enable elastic-plastic analysis (furthermore with large deflections),
concrete elements involve smeared reinforcement, crushing and cracking (for shear transfer in opened
and closed cracks ANSYS coefficients C1 = 0.3, C2 = 0.6 were used). Shear connection was modelled by
non-linear springs located uniformly in required distance along span and placed at a suitable spot
between the anticipated shear connectors and concrete slab (e.g. at the centre of gravity of holes in
perforated shear connector or at base position of headed studs). Nonlinear two node spring element
COMBIN39 was employed which makes possible any nonlinear relation between force and extension to
model correctly shear forces in direction of girder axis. Vertical and transverse displacements of concrete
slab (perpendicular to the girder axis) at springs positions were defined being the same as for the shear
connector/steel flange (i.e. no uplift effects were considered in the analysis).
The model was applied to experimental trusses employing real steel and concrete properties and load-
slip diagram of used perforated shear connector. Both numerical and experimental central deflections and
slips between steel truss and concrete parts were nearly identical.
Following numerical studies were performed with characteristic values of material properties.
Simplified bilinear stress-strain diagrams of steel and multi-linear for concrete were used and are shown,
e.g. for steel S355 and concrete C25/30, in Fig. 1.
Figure 1: Example of stress-strain diagrams of steel and concrete used in parametric studies.
3 NUMERICAL STUDIES
First the principal results of large parametrical study concerning a typical floor composite truss are
summarized, followed by an investigation of important parameters of typical bridge composite trusses.
Generally the uniform line loading was imposed on the concrete slab within steel chord width along
entire span and gradually increased up to a truss collapse (corresponding to the maximum loading shown
in following figures). Standard Newton-Raphson iteration was employed while crushing function for
concrete was finally not applied due to problems with proper convergence of results in final loading steps
(believed, however, to have no substantial influence on results).
848
3.1 Floor composite trusses – summary of results

Parametrical study covering more than 30 various types of shear connection differing in load-slip
diagrams and distribution of shearing capacity (i.e. densification of shear connectors above truss nodes)
was published in [9] for the typical floor truss shown in Fig. 2 (upper chord of the steel girder is designed
as ½ IPE 300, bottom chord ½ IPE 330, diagonals # 1 as 2L 80x8, # 2 as 2L 60x6 and # 3 as 2L 50x5).
P [N/mm]
Rk
800
700
600 L1
500
400
300
L9
200
100 L10
0.04
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Gs [mm]
Figure 2: Analyzed floor truss (half span shown) and load-slip diagrams of connections L1, L9 and L10.
In this paper only the connection L1 corresponding to full shear connection (the full truss flexural
strengths correspond to vsf = 304 N/mm or 436 N/mm taking yield stress fy or ultimate stress fu into
account respectively) and L9 corresponding to partial shear connection are shown for illustration (L10
with limited ductility), where the diagrams demonstrate typical behaviour of perforated shear connectors
[10] with ascending part substituted by trilinear representation.
In following figures the shear forces in shear connectors are shown for one half of the truss girder.
The curves show values for load steps increasing up to the numerical collapse value (given by maximal
value in captions), for which the support slip in the shear connection is provided. Either the shear force in
shear connectors (placed by 100 mm) or shear flow for comparison with Standard approach is given at
the vertical axis while the distance from support at the horizontal one (truss nodes are in distances 2400,
4800 and 6000 mm).
70000 q = 10 kN/m
900 EN 1994-2
q = 20 kN/m
60000 800 Theory-auxiliary value
q = 30 kN/m
Shear flow [N/mm]
Shear force [N]
FE model
50000 q = 35 kN/m 700
q = 40 kN/m 600
40000
q = 45 kN/m 500
30000 q = 50 kN/m 400
q = 55 kN/m
20000 300
200
10000
100
0 0
-10000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 -100 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Distance from support [mm] Distance from support [mm]
Figure 3: Shear forces in L1 connectors (per 100 mm): FE model (end slip Gs = 0.4 mm) left, comparison
with Eurocode 4 for loading 38.2 kN/m (elastic resistance for fabrication with propping) right.
In all connections the plastic redistribution of shear forces occurs soon after reaching the second (less
stiff) segment of trilinear ascending part of connector P-įs diagrams. In L1 connection (Fig. 3)
comparison with Standard approach is shown which gives apparently conservative values when
commencing plastic redistribution takes place. At early elastic behaviour, however, the Standard solution
gives good approximation of peak values (see [9]). In L9 case (see Fig. 4 left) the connection decides
about resistance of the composite truss girder (see the decreased collapse value from 55 to 46 kN/m).
849
Insufficient ductility of the shear connection (case L10) results into even more decreased resistance (41
kN/m) and the most stressed shear connectors near support are getting, near the collapse loading, into
descending part of the P-įs diagram, see Fig. 4 right.
30000 q = 5 kN/m 30000 q = 5 kN/m

q = 10 kN/m q = 10 kN/m
25000 q = 15 kN/m 25000 q = 15 kN/m
Shear force [N]

Shear force [N]
q = 20 kN/m q = 20 kN/m
20000 20000
q = 25 kN/m q = 25 kN/m
15000 q = 30 kN/m 15000 q = 30 kN/m

q = 40 kN/m q = 35 kN/m
10000 q = 46 kN/m 10000 q = 41 kN/m
5000 5000
0 0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
-5000 -5000
Figure 4: Shear forces in connectors (per 100 mm): L9 (Gs = 3.2 mm) left, L10 (Gs = 3.6 mm) right.
Densification of shear connectors above truss nodes (Fig. 5) in the peak shear flow areas was also
investigated for the above floor trusses, resulting in recommendation for optimal arrangement. The
parametric study showed for triple connector density above nodes the optimal extent of d/D § 0.25 (i.e. a
quarter of node distance). More details are available in [9]. Care should be taken for adequate increase of
the total shear flow in the densified areas (15 % in Fig. 5), which strongly depends on the increased shear
stiffness (while accompanied decrease of the shear flow in non-densified areas is negligible in this case).
90 000
Shear force [N/connector]
L2 : uniform connectors e = 100 mm

80 000 L2-C4 : above nodes (black area) e = 33.3 mm
70 000 L2-C4 : total shear (as for e = 100 mm)
60 000
50 000
D 40 000
d d e ed 30 000
20 000
10 000
1 2 3 4
0
-10 000 0 1 000 2 000 3 000 4 000 5 000 6 000
Distance from support [mm]
Figure 5: Densification of shear connectors for loading 38.2 kN/m (elastic truss resistance).
3.2 Bridge composite trusses

Realized composite bridges were chosen for detailed parametrical studies of some important
parameters. First a special composite truss bridge without gusset plates common in Central Europe as a
motorway overbridge and second a classical railway composite truss were investigated.
3.2.1 Bridge truss without gusset plates
Only modification of a real application (which is fixed at the stiff support blocks and has more
diagonals) is shown in Fig. 6. The span of the truss is 21 m and steel members are from flats only [mm]:
upper flange 250x20, diagonals 250x40, bottom flange 300x40. Headed studs with 19 mm diameter
located in 3 parallel rows and longitudinally in distance of 200 mm were considered for shear connection,
giving characteristic shear strength 3x77100/200 = 1156 N/mm (T1). As an alternative the shear strength
was decreased to 70% (T2), giving 809 N/mm, Fig. 7. Nevertheless, both alternatives represent full shear
connection (corresponding to shear flow 575 N/mm, taking fy into account) as required for bridges.
850
steel: S355
concrete C30/37
Figure 6: View of the bridge and modified setup for analysis.
90000 90000
4,00; 77100
80000 80000
Shear force P [N]

Shear force P [N]
70000 70000
60000 60000 4,00; 53970
50000 50000
40000 40000
0,10; 39450
30000 30000
0,10; 27615
20000 20000
10000 10000
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Slip G [mm] Slip G [mm]
Figure 7: Load-slip diagrams of shear connections T1 (left) and T2 (right).
As in previous chapter the shear forces in shear connectors are shown for one half of the truss girder
and the curves show values for load steps increasing up to the numerical collapse value (given by
maximal value in captions), Fig. 8. At the vertical axis the shear force in shear connectors is shown while
at the horizontal axis the distance from support is given.
85000 q= 15 kN/m 85000 q= 15 kN/m

Shear force per connector [N]
q= 30 kN/m q= 30 kN/m
75000 75000
q= 45 kN/m q= 45 kN/m
65000 65000
q= 60 kN/m q= 60 kN/m
55000 q= 75 kN/m
55000 q= 75 kN/m
45000 q= 90 kN/m 45000 q= 90 kN/m
35000 q= 105 kN/m 35000 q= 105 kN/m
25000 q= 122 kN/m q= 115 kN/m

25000
15000 15000
5000 5000
-5000 -5000
0 1500 3000 4500 6000 7500 9000 10500 0 1500 3000 4500 6000 7500 9000 10500
Figure 8: Shear forces in connectors (per 200 mm): T1 (left), T2 (right).
The less stiff shear connection T2 demonstrates less distinctive shear peaks but some decrease of
collapse load in comparison to T1 connection (note that Eurocode 4 plastic resistance corresponds to
112,5 kN/m, elastic one to 102,0 kN/m, for fabrication with propping), which is due to final plastic
redistribution of shear forces in extremely loaded shear connectors. Shear flow according to numerical
FEM and simplified Standard procedure (EN 1994-2) for loading 75 kN/m (near the design loading) is
shown in Fig. 9. Within the Eurocode approach the effective width available (beff = 2 m) and twice the
half flange depth ed = 2ev = 20 mm (because of no gusset plates) in accordance with the Standard were
applied.
It follows that Eurocode approach is conservative also in this case and the more conservative the less
rigid the shear connectors are. Agreement of FEM and Eurocode approach is always better at lower
loading (considering high initial stiffness of the shear connection).
851
1900 EN 1994 (trapezoidal: non-ductile connectors) 1900 EN 1994 (trapezoidal: non-ductile connectors)
1700 EN 1994 (rectangular: stud connectors) 1700 EN 1994 (rectangular: stud connectors)
Shear flow [N/mm]

Shear flow [N/mm]
1500 Auxiliary technical calculation 1500 Auxiliary technical calculation

1300 FEM 1300 FEM
1100 1100
900 900
700 700
500 500
300 300
100 100
-100 -100
0 1500 3000 4500 6000 7500 9000 10500 0 1500 3000 4500 6000 7500 9000 10500
Figure 9: Comparison with Eurocode 4 approach, loading 75 kN/m: T1 (left), T2 (right).
Another investigation pointed to importance of upper steel chord stiffness in this type of truss. The
thinner chord flange the higher node shear peaks must be expected. A great deformation of the chord
eliminates the transfer of the shear force, which is then transmitted by the connectors directly at the nodes
only. The shear force peaks above nodes depending on upper chord thickness t [mm] of this truss type is
shown in Fig. 10 (note, that the thickness in Figs. 8 and 9 is t = 20 mm).
245000 t= 10 mm
Shear force per 3 studs [N]
t= 15 mm
Smyková síla [N]
195000 t= 20 mm
t= 40 mm
t= 60 mm
145000
t= 80 mm
95000
45000
-5000
0 1500 3000 4500 6000 7500 9000 10500
Vzdálenost od podpory
Distance [mm] [mm]
from support
Figure 10: Shear forces in shear connection T1 (distance of connectors 200 mm), loading 75 kN/m.
3.2.2 Large span bridge composite truss

Geometrical parameters of a realized railway bridge truss with span of 63 m were used in the
following studies, Fig. 11. Headed studs with 19 mm diameter located in 4 parallel rows and
longitudinally in distance of 400 mm were considered in the study as a basic arrangement, giving
characteristic shear strength 4x91400/400 = 914 N/mm, while full shear connection ranges from
809 N/mm to 1023 N/mm (considering non-uniform chord cross section and taking fy into account). The
FE modelling as above and load-slip diagram by Oehlers and Coughlan [11] given in Fig. 11 were used.
3100 100000 3,55; 86830 5,87; 91400
1600 1600 90000 2,57; 82260 7,60; 86830

Shear force P [N]
80000
10,00; 73120
70000
2,11; 73120
323 60000
50000 1,39; 54840
7229 7545 40000
30000
20000
L/2 = 63 000/2 = 31 500 7545 10000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Slip G [mm]
Figure 11: Geometry of the composite truss bridge and load-slip diagram of studs.
852
The simplified Eurocode 4 calculation gives elastic characteristic resistance of the truss 269.5 kN/m
and plastic one 283.3 kN/m. The FEM distribution of shear forces per connector in basic uniform
arrangement and deflection of the truss at midspan are shown in Fig. 12. After commencing plasticity in
the bottom chord of the truss (at approx. 270 kN/m) and following plastification of shear connectors
(after attainment of shear force at approx. 82 kN) a rapid plastic shear flow redistribution yields into truss
collapse at 325 kN/m. Upper steel chord had to be strengthen between the first two nodes to have
sufficient rigidity (see chapter 3.2.1) ensuring supposed transfer of the shear forces.
100000 q= 50 kN/m
q= 100 kN/m 350
q= 150 kN/m qpl

80000 300
Loading [kN/m]
q= 200 kN/m
q= 250 kN/m 250
60000 q= 270 kN/m
qel
q= 300 kN/m 200
40000 q= 325 kN/m 150
FEM
EN 1994
100
20000
50 įel
0
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000
0 500 1000 1500 2000
-20000 Distance from support [mm] Deflection at midspan [mm]
Figure 12: Shear forces per connector (basic uniform arrangement) and midspan deflection of the truss.
Comparison of shear flow distribution with Eurocode 4 approach at early elastic loading (100 kN/m)
and near to design loading (200 kN/m) is shown in Fig. 13. The Eurocode distribution in the peaks is
shown for both non-ductile shear connectors (inclined, trapezoidal distribution) and ductile ones
(rectangular distribution). The local shear in accordance with the Eurocode is distributed on the length
Lv = ed + beff = (1500 + 2 x 148.5) + 3150 = 4947 mm and gives very conservative values. The decisive
role plays the effective width beff, which is limited by the concrete slab width available (in contradiction
to assumption in [7]).
1100 EN 1994 (trapezoidal: non-ductile connectors) 1900 EN 1994 (trapezoidal: non-ductile connectors)
EN 1994 (rectangular: stud connectors) 1700 EN 1994 (rectangular: stud connectors)
Shear flow [N/mm]
Shear flow [N/mm]
900 Auxiliary technical calculation Auxiliary technical calculation

1500
FEM FEM
1300
700
1100
500 900
700
300 500
300
100
100
-100 0 -100
5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000
Figure 13: Comparison of FEM shear flow with Eurocode 4 approach at loading 100 kN/m (left) and
200 kN/m (right).
Densification of the shear connectors above truss nodes covering shear peaks was also investigated.
Quadruple densification was assumed in three various lengths d and denoted as D1, D2, D3 (Fig. 14).
D Basic arrangement:
d d e ed 4 parallel studs, e = 400 mm
Densification:
D1: 4 parallel studs, ed = 100 mm, d = D/4
L/2 = 63 000/2 = 31 500
Figure 14: Stud densification geometry above truss nodes.
853
With narrower densified area the shear forces per connector are, of course, higher as seen from the
distribution (Fig. 15) and also increased total shear above nodes is obvious. Extent d/D § 0.25 (i.e. a
quarter of node distance) seems to be optimal even in this truss. The increase of the total shear flow in the
densified areas (dotted line) reached in D1 case 97 % (in D3 even 129 %), accompanied by a
corresponding decrease of shear flow (approximately to one half) in non-densified regions.
180000 180000
basic arrangement 4/400 basic arrangement 4/400

160000 160000
140000 with densified connectors D1 with densified connectors D3
140000
120000 120000 total due to increased local rigidity
total due to increased local rigidity
100000 100000
80000 80000
60000 60000
40000 40000
20000 20000
0 0
-20000 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 -20000 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000
Figure 15: Densification D1 (d = D/4) left and D3 (d = D/6) right at loading 200 kN/m.
4 CONCLUSION
Eurocode 4 approach for elastic local effect of concentrated longitudinal shear gives reasonable
solution even in case of truss node forces. However, the approach depends substantially on effective slab
width and the real available ones results into overly conservative results. Likewise shear connector and
steel flange rigidities influence considerably the magnitude of shear flow peaks above truss nodes in
elastic region, which are not covered by the Standard approach. Densification of shear connectors above
nodes implicates considerable redistribution of the shear flow (attracting the flow to rigid areas).
The support of grants MSM 6840770001 and CTU SGS SGS10/026/OHK1/1T/11 is acknowledged.
REFERENCES
[1] Galambos, T.V. and Tide, R.H., “Composite open-web steel joists”. Engineering Journal, AISC,
27-36, 1970.
[2] Iyengar, S.H. and Zils, J.J., “Composite floor system for Sears Tower”. Engineering Journal, 10(3),
74-81,1973.
[3] Brattland, A. and Kennedy, D.J.L., “Flexural test of two full-scale composite trusses”. Canadian
Journal of Civil Engineering, 19, 279-295, 1992.
[4] Kennedy, D.J.L. and Woldegiorgis, B., “Behaviour of web members of composite trusses”. Proc. of
an Eng. Foundation Conf. Composite Constr. in Steel and Concrete III, ASCE, 434-447, 1996.
[5] Viest, I.M. et al., Composite construction design for buildings. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1997.
[6] Skidmore Owings Merrill, Design of composite trusses, Publication 83, SCI, Ascot, 1992.
[7] Johnson, R.P. and Ivanov, R.I., “Local effects of concentrated longitudinal shear in composite
Bridge Beams”. The Structural Engineer, 79(5), 19-23, 2001.
[8] Machacek, J. et al., “Composite trusses”, Proc. Steel structures and Bridges 2000, Juhas and
Kvocak (eds.), Strbske pleso, Slovakia, 359-64, 2000.
[9] Machacek, J. and Cudejko, M., “Longitudinal shear in composite steel and concrete trusses”.
Engineering Structures, 31(6), 1313-1320, 2009
[10] Machacek, J. and Studnicka, J., “Perforated shear connectors”. Steel and Composite Structures,
2(1), 51-66, 2002.
[11] Oehlers, D.J. and Coughlan, C.G., “The shear stiffness of stud shear connections in composite
beams. J. Construct. Steel Research, 6, 273-284, 1986.
854
STEEL AND CONCRETE COMPOSITE BUILDING STRUCTURES

AN ECONOMICAL APPROACH
Catarina Costa*, Luís F. Costa-Neves** and Luciano R. O. de Lima***
* Struplano Ltd
Av. Dias da Silva, nº 49, 3000-137 Coimbra, Portugal
e-mail: catarina@struplano.pt
** ISISE, Civil Engineering Department
University of Coimbra – Pólo II – Rua Luís Reis Santos, Coimbra
e-mail: luis@dec.uc.pt
*** Structural Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering – State University of Rio de Janeiro
São Francisco Xavier, 524, sala 5016A. Maracanã. RJ – CEP 20550-900
e-mail: lucianolima@uerj.br
Keywords: Eurocode 4, Building Design, Steel and Composite Structures.
Abstract. Steel and concrete composite structures are becoming a more and more common solution for
buildings, since its structural efficiency and fast erection methods make its use economically competitive.
A parametric study dealing with steel and concrete composite structures for typical office buildings
braced horizontally and with regularly spaced columns is presented. The varying parameters are the type
of column layout, the spans and the structural steel class. The general modeling principles of these
building structures are briefly described, and for each structure within the parametric study the
structural layout and geometry, the design criteria meeting ultimate and serviceability limit states, and
the most representative internal forces are presented and discussed. Furthermore, the steel weight of the
main and secondary girders, of the columns, and of the whole structure is analyzed and presented in the
form of illustrative graphics, relating the amount of steel to the span and to the structural steel class.
1 INTRODUCTION
In composite structures the proper association of steel and concrete enables the creation of very
effective composite members, where the concrete absorbs the majority of compression stresses and the
steel the tension stresses. It is however a starting condition that both materials work together, with shear
transfer between them being assured by specific devices – the connectors. These elements are used in
girders and columns, but in composite slabs shear transfer is usually assured by some proper steel sheet
geometry.
The most commonly used connectors are the studs, but some alternative connectors, like the
Perfobond [12], where proposed in the past and are also of spread using, with some possible structural
and economical advantages [11].
The use of composite solutions clearly brings to the building market a new set of possibilities, in new
buildings and in reconstruction projects [10], where some weight may be saved comparing to the
traditional single material solution. Also, looking at the erection process, formwork and propping may be
strongly reduced or even eliminated.
855
Costa, Catarina et al.
These advantages, adding to the fact that an effective cost saving is achieved when implementing
larger free areas and larger spans with composite structures justifies the increase in the use of composite
structures for industrial, residential, and other buildings.
Also, hybrid structures result from the association of steel or composite structures (with composite
members) and reinforced concrete elements, such as vertical stairways and lift cores that absorb most of
the horizontal loads. This structural system is particularly attractive since the steel or composite structure
is braced, resulting in a much more economical and simpler to calculate structure.
Figure 1 shows some examples of composite and hybrid structures of some office buildings in São
Paulo, Brazil.
Figure 1: Current steel and composite building structures (courtesy of Prof. Sebastião Andrade).
To support their design, engineers have a set of design documents – the eurocodes, namely the
Eurocode 4 – Design of Steel and Concrete Composite Structures [7]. This document should be used in
coordination with Eurocode 0 – Basis of structural design [2], Eurocode 1 - Actions on structures [3],
Eurocode 2 – Design of concrete structures [4], Eurocode 3 – Design of steel structures [5], [6], and
Eurocode 8 - Design of structures for earthquake resistance [8].
One of the first questions arising to the designer of a building structure is the choice of the most
suitable span. This choice should of course meet the architectural demands and other non-structural
aspects, but looking at the problem from the structural point of view, it is important to find the most
efficient span, likely the most economical as well.
This paper presents a parametric study developed in [9], where the variables were the structural
layout, the span and the structural steel class. In all cases the structure was designed and the amount of
steel resulting from this design for each structural element type was assessed. The results are presented in
curves linking the parameters, from which some relevant conclusions may be derived.
856
2 PARAMETRIC STUDY
The parametric study was performed considering a rectangular building with 40x40 m2, with three
floors and a total area of 4800 m2, corresponding to an ordinary office building with composite beams
and slabs and steel columns. The building was considered as braced, so that no horizontal forces were
considered in the study - Figure 2.
Figure 2: Building geometry.
The one way composite slabs were spanning between IPE composite secondary beams supported by
IPE composite main or principal girders that transmit the vertical forces to the HEA columns. The main
variables of the study were:
- the structural layout (rectangular or square);
- the span or distance between two columns (4 to 10 meters);
- the structural steel class (S275 and S355).
The composite slab and the concrete class were kept constant in the study. Six models with square
layout and four models with rectangular layout were considered, and are shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Span and number of secondary beams for each model.

Square layout Rectangular layout
Span Direction X (m) 4.0 5.0 5.7 6.7 8.0 10.0 4.0 4.0 5.7 5.7
Span Direction Y (m) 4.0 5.0 5.7 6.7 8.0 10.0 8.0 10.0 8.0 10.0
Secondary beams/span 1 2 3 4 4 5 4 5 4 5
Also shown in Table 1 are, for each case, the span and the number of secondary beams in each spam.
The non-integer value of some spans results from the fact that the building was divided into an integer
number of spans. Since all models were built with S275 and S355 steel, twenty models were analyzed,
designed and had their weight assessed.
3 NUMERICAL MODEL
In a first step manual calculations considering all beams as simply supported were performed, having
the advantage of giving internal forces distributions independent from the elements stiffness, shrinkage
and creep, and columns flexural stiffness. These internal forces were the starting point for the pre design
857
of the composite girders. Also, the results from this simpler model may be used to assess the reliability of
the results from a more complex model.
The second step was the construction of a more complete model (Figure 2) with the software
Autodesk Robot Structural Analysis Professional 2009 [1]. In this model the joints to the columns minor
axis were modeled as pinned, and to the major axis as fully continuous. The concrete slab was not directly
modeled, but its stiffness was taken into account by the consideration of the properties of an equivalent
section having the concrete slab with the EC4 effective width.
No horizontal actions were considered in the analysis, since it was assumed that all these forces were
directly absorbed by the bracing system.
4 RESULTS
For each structure in Table 1 code loads for office buildings were applied and the results from the
analysis were used to design the members, coping with the EC3 and EC4 requirements of section
resistance, member stability and serviceability limit states. Also, bare steel beams were verified for the
construction stage, and this was generally the governing design criterion for the secondary beams.
The design enables the weight of the global structure and the amount of steel used in each structural
element type to be assessed. The following paragraphs show these results.
4.1 Columns
Figure 3 and Figure 4 show respectively for square and rectangular structural layouts the required
weight of steel in the columns for each structure in Table 1. The results are shown for S275 and S355.
Columns
S275 S355
Layout Span
kg/m2 kg/m2
4.0 x 4.0 8.1 6.9
5.0 x 5.0 7.7 7.7
Square
5.7 x 5.7 7.2 6.1

6.7 x 6.7 7.0 6.3
8.0 x 8.0 6.6 6.6
10.0 x 10.0 7.3 6.6
Figure 3: Weight of steel used in columns for square layout and its variation with the span.
The irregular shape of the curves is due to the variation in the governing design failure mode. For
some spans the governing criterion is the section resistance, and for some others the member stability. In
this case the required section for S275 and for S355 is the same, since the Young modulus is the same as
well. It may be observed that for S275 the most economical span is of about 8 meters for the square
layout (about 64 m2 for each column), and of about 45 m2 for the rectangular layout. For S355 the
economical span is shorter, being of about 6 meters for S275, and corresponds to an influence area per
span of about 40m2 for the rectangular layout.
858
Columns
S275 S355
Layout Span
kg/m2 kg/m2
4.0 x 8.0 7.5 7.5
Rectangular
5.0 x 10.0 7.0 6.2

5.7 x 8.0 6.9 6.9
5.7 x 10.0 7.3 7.3
Figure 4: Weight of steel used in columns for rectangular layout and its variation with the span.
4.2 Secondary beams

Figure 5 and Figure 6 show respectively for square and rectangular structural layouts the required
weight of steel in secondary beams for each structure in Table 1. The results are again shown for S275and
S355 steel classes. It may be concluded that, since the governing criterion for the selected beams was
always the mid span deflection (serviceability limit state), the required section is independent from the
steel class.
Furthermore, when the span increases, the amount of steel increases as well for all the span range.
This conclusion is valid for both layouts.
^ĞĐŽŶĚĂƌǇďĞĂŵƐ
ϰϬ͘Ϭ
^ƋƵĂƌĞůĂǇŽƵƚ
Secondary beams ϯϱ͘Ϭ

S275 S355
Layout Span ϯϬ͘Ϭ
kg/m2 kg/m2
Ϯ Ϯϱ͘Ϭ
4.0 x 4.0 8.3 8.3 ŵ
ͬ
5.0 x 5.0 14.5 14.5 Ő
Ŭ ϮϬ͘Ϭ
Square
5.7 x 5.7 14.4 14.4 ϭϱ͘Ϭ

6.7 x 6.7 19.2 19.2
ϭϬ͘Ϭ
8.0 x 8.0 22.2 22.2
10.0 x 10.0 35.6 35.6 ϱ͘Ϭ
ϰ͘Ϭǆϰ͘Ϭ ϱ͘Ϭǆϱ͘Ϭ ϱ͘ϳǆϱ͘ϳ ϲ͘ϳǆϲ͘ϳ ϴ͘Ϭǆϴ͘Ϭ ϭϬ͘ϬǆϭϬ͘Ϭ
^Ϯϳϱ ϴ͘ϯ ϭϰ͘ϱ ϭϰ͘ϰ ϭϵ͘Ϯ ϮϮ͘Ϯ ϯϱ͘ϲ
^ϯϱϱ ϴ͘ϯ ϭϰ͘ϱ ϭϰ͘ϰ ϭϵ͘Ϯ ϮϮ͘Ϯ ϯϱ͘ϲ
Figure 5: Weight of steel used in secondary beams for square layout and its variation with the span.
The growing rate of steel weight seems to be higher for larger spans, suggesting that spans over 8
meters in square layouts should be avoided to achieve an economical solution.
859
^ĞĐŽŶĚĂƌǇďĞĂŵƐ
ϭϳ͘Ϭ
ƌĞĐƚĂŶŐƵůĂƌůĂǇŽƵƚ
Secondary beams ϭϱ͘Ϭ

S275 S355
Layout Span ϭϯ͘Ϭ
kg/m2 kg/m2
ŬŐͬŵϮ
4.0 x 8.0 8.3 8.3 ϭϭ͘Ϭ
Rectangular
5.0 x 10.0 9.8 9.8 ϵ͘Ϭ
5.7 x 8.0 13.5 13.5 ϳ͘Ϭ
5.7 x 10.0 16.3 16.3 ϱ͘Ϭ

ϰ͘Ϭǆϴ͘Ϭ ϰ͘ϬǆϭϬ͘Ϭ ϱ͘ϳǆϴ͘Ϭ ϱ͘ϳǆϭϬ͘Ϭ
^Ϯϳϱ ϴ͘ϯ ϵ͘ϴ ϭϯ͘ϱ ϭϲ͘ϯ
^ϯϱϱ ϴ͘ϯ ϵ͘ϴ ϭϯ͘ϱ ϭϲ͘ϯ
Figure 6: Weight of steel used in secondary beams for rectangular layout and its variation with the span.
4.3 Principal beams

For each structure in Table 1, Figure 7 and Figure 8 show respectively for square and rectangular
structural layouts the required weight of steel in the main girders. The results are again shown for
S275and S355 steel classes.
It may be concluded that since the governing design criterion was always the flexural resistance, S355
steel is always a more economical material than S275 steel (its use leads to a lighter structure, and their
price is roughly the same).
The amount of steel is always a growing function to the adopted span.
Using an higher steel grade seems to lead to an higher advantage for larger spans, as depicted in
Figure 7 for square layouts, where a difference of 4 kg/m2 was found for 10 m spans comparing to a
difference of only 0.9 kg/m2 for 4 m spans.
It is interesting to observe that also for square layouts the growing rate of steel per square meter is
roughly constant up to 6.7 meters spans, but starts to grow for larger spans, suggesting that for spans of 8
and 10 meters other solutions could be envisaged in order to achieve a more economical solution.
DĂŝŶŐŝƌĚĞƌƐ
Ϯϱ͘Ϭ
Principal beams
ϮϬ͘Ϭ
S275 S355
Layout Span
kg/m2 kg/m2 ϭϱ͘Ϭ
ŬŐͬŵϮ
4.0 x 4.0 5.2 4.3

5.0 x 5.0 6.9 5.9 ϭϬ͘Ϭ
Square
5.7 x 5.7 8.4 7.2

6.7 x 6.7 10.0 8.6 ϱ͘Ϭ
8.0 x 8.0 13.6 11.6
10.0 x 10.0 19.3 15.3 Ϭ͘Ϭ
^Ϯϳϱ ϱ͘Ϯ ϲ͘ϵ ϴ͘ϰ ϭϬ͘Ϭ ϭϯ͘ϲ ϭϵ͘ϯ
^ϯϱϱ ϰ͘ϯ ϱ͘ϵ ϳ͘Ϯ ϴ͘ϲ ϭϭ͘ϲ ϭϱ͘ϯ
Figure 7: Weight of steel used in the main girders for square layout and its variation with the span.
The trend for rectangular layouts is similar concerning the growing amount of steel for larger spans
and the relative advantage of higher grade steels, also increasing with the span.
860
DĂŝŶŐŝƌĚĞƌƐ
ϭϵ͘Ϭ ƌĞĐƚĂŶŐƵůĂƌůĂǇŽƵƚ
ϭϴ͘Ϭ
Principal beams
ϭϳ͘Ϭ
S275 S355
Layout Span
kg/m2 kg/m2 ϭϲ͘Ϭ
ŬŐͬŵϮ
ϭϱ͘Ϭ
4.0 x 8.0 13.5 11.7
Rectangular
ϭϰ͘Ϭ
5.0 x 10.0 18.2 15.7 ϭϯ͘Ϭ
ϭϮ͘Ϭ
5.7 x 8.0 15.5 13.7
ϭϭ͘Ϭ
5.7 x 10.0 18.1 15.5 ϭϬ͘Ϭ
^Ϯϳϱ ϭϯ͘ϱ ϭϴ͘Ϯ ϭϱ͘ϱ ϭϴ͘ϭ
^ϯϱϱ ϭϭ͘ϳ ϭϱ͘ϳ ϭϯ͘ϳ ϭϱ͘ϱ
Figure 8: Weight of steel used in the main girders for rectangular layout and its variation with the span.
4.4 Whole structure

Figure 9 and Figure 10 show the required weight of steel in the whole structure (models in Table 1).
tŚŽůĞƐƚƌƵĐƚƵƌĞ
ϳϬ͘ϬϬ
Whole structure ϲϬ͘ϬϬ

S275 S355
Layout Span
kg/m2 kg/m2 ϱϬ͘ϬϬ
ŬŐͬŵϮ
4.0 x 4.0 21.5 19.5 ϰϬ͘ϬϬ

5.0 x 5.0 29.1 28.1
Square
5.7 x 5.7 30.0 27.6 ϯϬ͘ϬϬ
6.7 x 6.7 36.2 34.1

ϮϬ͘ϬϬ
8.0 x 8.0 42.4 40.4
10.0 x 10.0 62.2 57.4 ϭϬ͘ϬϬ
^Ϯϳϱ Ϯϭ͘ϱ Ϯϵ͘ϭ ϯϬ͘Ϭ ϯϲ͘Ϯ ϰϮ͘ϰ ϲϮ͘Ϯ
^ϯϱϱ ϭϵ͘ϱ Ϯϴ͘ϭ Ϯϳ͘ϲ ϯϰ͘ϭ ϰϬ͘ϰ ϱϳ͘ϰ
Figure 9: Weight of steel in the whole structure for square layout and its variation with the span.
tŚŽůĞƐƚƌƵĐƚƵƌĞ
ϰϱ͘Ϭ ZĞĐƚĂŶŐƵůĂƌůĂǇŽƵƚ
Whole structure
ϰϬ͘Ϭ
S275 S355
Layout Span
kg/m2 kg/m2 ϯϱ͘Ϭ
ŬŐͬŵϮ
4.0 x 8.0 29.3 27.4

Rectnagular
ϯϬ͘Ϭ
5.0 x 10.0 35.1 31.7
5.7 x 8.0 35.8 33.6 Ϯϱ͘Ϭ
5.7 x 10.0 41.8 39.1 ϮϬ͘Ϭ

^Ϯϳϱ Ϯϵ͘ϯ ϯϱ͘ϭ ϯϱ͘ϴ ϰϭ͘ϴ
^ϯϱϱ Ϯϳ͘ϰ ϯϭ͘ϳ ϯϯ͘ϲ ϯϵ͘ϭ
Figure 10: Weight of steel in the whole structure for rectangular layout and its variation with the span.
861
It may be concluded that, although the steel weight always increases with the span growth, there is an
intermediate range of spans for the square layout where the rate of increase of the amount of steel is
smaller. This suggests that a span between 6 and 8 meters is appropriate. For larger spans the amount of
steel increases very quickly, suggesting that probably alternative structural solutions like lattice girders
would be more appropriate.
Globally, it is more economical to use S355 steel rather than S275, supposing approximately the same
price for both grades.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Estimation of the amount of steel needed to erect braced steel structures with composite slabs,
computed for each structural element type was presented. It could be concluded that globally there is no
intermediate optimal span, and the trend is a global increase in the amount of steel with the span increase.
The economical application range of steel laminated sections is known to be of up to 9 meters. In this
study this conclusion seems to be confirmed, since the amount of steel needed grows very fast for such
large spans.
The use of higher grade steel, S355, rather than S275, is an advantage, since it leads to savings in the
amount of steel in columns, main girders and in the whole structure.
No significant differences were found in the amount of steel per square meter when using similar bay
areas in square and rectangular structural layouts.
REFERENCES
[1] Autodesk, Robot Structural Analysis Professional, 2009.
[2] Eurocode Nº 0 – Basis of Structural Design - EN 1990, CEN, Brussels, 2001.
[3] Eurocode Nº 1 - Actions on structures - Part 1-1: General actions - EN 1991-1-1, CEN, 2001.
[4] Eurocode Nº 2 - Design of concrete structures - Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings - EN
1992-1-1, CEN, Brussels, 2003.
[5] Eurocode Nº 3 - Design of Steel Structures. Part 1-1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings - EN
1992-1-1, CEN, Brussels, 2004.
[6] Eurocode Nº 3 - Design of Steel Structures. Part 1-8: Design of Joints - EN 1993-1-8, CEN,
Brussels, 2004.
[7] Eurocode Nº 4 - Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures. Part 1-1: General Rules and
Rules for Buildings - EN 1994-1-1, CEN, Brussels, 2004.
[8] Eurocode Nº 8 - Design of structures for earthquake resistance. Part 1-1: General Rules and Rules
for Buildings - EN 1998-1-1, CEN, Brussels, 2003.
[9] Costa, Catarina S.S., Estudo económico de estruturas mistas contraventadas aço-betão, Dissertação
apresentada para a obtenção do grau de Mestre em Engenharia Civil na Especialidade de Mecânica
Estrutural, FCTUC, Coimbra, 2009.
[10] Costa Neves, L. F., Lima, L. R. O., “Concepção e construção de uma estrutura metálica para reforço
de um edifício de pequeno porte”, in Lamas, A., Martins, C., Abecassis, T., Calado, L., editores,
Actas do V Congresso de Construção Metálica e Mista, VCMM, Lisboa, 2005.
[11] Vianna, J.C., Costa Neves, L.F., Vellasco, P.C.G.S., Andrade, S.A.L., “Estudo Comparativo de
Conectores de Corte para Estruturas Mistas de Aço e Betão”, Construção Magazine, 2007.
[12] Vianna, J.C., Costa Neves, L.F., Vellasco, P.C.G.S., Andrade, S.A.L., “Experimental Assessment of
“perfobond” and “T- Perfobond” Shear Connectors’ Structural Response”, Journal of
Constructional Steel Research, doi:1016/j.jcsr.2008.02.011, 2008.
862
BEHAVIOR OF STEEL-CONCRETE COMPOSITE BEAMS WITH

FLEXIBLE SHEAR CONNECTORS
Gilson Queiroz*, Francisco C. Rodrigues*, Sebastião S. Pereira*, Michèle S. Pfeil**,

Cláudia G. Oliveira*** and Luciene A. C. da Mata*
* Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais

e-mails: gilson@dees.ufmg.br, francisco@dees.ufmg.br, ssrp@dees.ufmg.br, lucieneacm@gmail.com
** Instituto COPPE, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro
e-mail: mpfeil@coc.ufrj.br
*** Construtora Lider Ltda.
e-mail: claudiar@lider.com
Keywords: composite beam, flexible shear connector, cold-formed section, experimental analysis.
Abstract. The strength and the stiffness of the connection between concrete slab and steel profile in
composite beams depend basically on the number of shear connectors encased in the concrete and their
properties. In the case of flexible shear connectors the contribution of friction between the slab and the
steel profile may be relevant for serviceability limit states and also for ultimate limit states, provided that
the beam span is relatively short and the slab stiffness is relatively large compared to that of the steel
profile alone. These conclusions were drawn from previous analytical and numerical models allowing for
the shear connectors’ flexibility and friction between the slab and the steel profile. The main proposal of
this paper is to present the results obtained from experimental tests carried on composite beams with
flexible connectors with and without friction contribution. It is shown that the results of all tests validate
the conclusions obtained by the analytical and numerical approaches.
1 INTRODUCTION
The use of cold-formed profile (CFP) in Brazil’s construction industry is increasing not only for
applications on secondary members such as purlins and space covering members for roofs and walls but
also on primary components, for example building floor beams. Figure 1 shows a composite beam cross
section in which the steel section is composed of a box CFP and the slab is also a composite member
formed by the profile sheeting and concrete (steel deck with ribs perpendicular to the steel box profile).
Aiming to avoid the application of welded shear connectors to the thin-walled CFP, a new detail of
shear connector was proposed [1] as illustrated in Figure 2. This shear connector consists of a rivet with
internal thread driven in the plate hole and a high-strength bolt. Due to plate bearing deformation (and
hole ovalization) this shear connection is much more flexible than a conventional connection with welded
shear connector, yielding to particular issues in the composite beam behavior. One of these particular
issues is the role played by friction at the interface between the steel profile and the slab which motivated
a series of analytical, numerical and experimental studies developed at Federal University of Minas
Gerais, Brazil.
The strength and the stiffness of the connection between concrete slab and steel profile in composite
beams depend basically on the number of shear connectors encased in concrete and their properties. In
the case of flexible shear connectors the contribution of friction between the slab and the steel profile
may be relevant for serviceability limit states and also for ultimate limit states, provided that the beam
863
Gilson Queiroz et al.
span is relatively short and the slab stiffness is relatively large compared to that of the steel profile alone.
These conclusions were drawn from previous analytical and numerical models allowing for the shear
connectors’ flexibility and friction between the slab and the steel profile [2], [3],[4]. Results from these
models did not show good correlation with the provisions of the Brazilian and American Standards which
recognize the friction contribution in the behavior of composite slabs [5] -[6] but not of composite beams.
The main proposal of this paper is to present the results obtained from experimental tests carried on
composite beams with flexible connectors with and without friction contribution. To remove the friction,
a teflon plate was placed at the interface between the steel profile and the slab. It is shown that the
experimental results validate the conclusions obtained by the analytical and numerical approaches and
that not only the connector strength but also the connector stiffness should be taken into account
particularly for deflection evaluation.
875 mm
125
80 M12 bolt
175
130
Figure 1: Composite beam cross section showing the box cold-formed profile (CFP), the steel deck slab
with ribs perpendicular to the steel section and the shear connectors.
(a) (b)
Figure 2: Shear connector. (a) high-strength bolt. (b) rivet with internal thread.
2 ANALYTICAL APPROACH – ELASTIC DOMAIN

The fundamentals of the developed analytical approach are briefly presented herein [3]. Although
other researchers [7],[8] have already developed analytical approaches for this kind of problem, they did
not allow for friction at the interface. Figure 3 shows the analytical model of the composite beam and its
components, concrete slab, steel profile and shear connectors which are assumed to behave linear
elastically. It is considered that slip may occur at the slab – steel profile interface while vertical
separation between these components is restrained.
Free-body diagrams of infinitesimal length elements of the slab and the steel profile are illustrated in
Figure 4 where the contact compressive force qi and the shear flow dF act at the interface between the
slab and the steel profile. If the available friction force per unit length Pqi (P being the static friction
coefficient) is greater than the elastic shear flow at the interface then no slip occurs and dF is equal to the
elastic shear flow. Conversely, if slip occurs dF is equal to the friction force plus the shear force carried
by the shear connectors. The shear flow dF is then given by the following equations:
dF ks qi ȝ , if qi ȝ V Qtr I tr (1a)
864
dF V Qtr I tr dx, if qi ȝ t V Qtr I tr (1b)
where Qtr is the first order moment of the slab section in relation to the neutral axis, calculated for the
transformed section; Itr is the inertia moment of the transformed section; k is the stiffness of the shear
connectors per unit length and s is the slip.
The components s1 and s2 of the slip s, associated to the section rotation and to the length variations
of neutral axes, respectively, are shown in Figures 4b and 4c. The total slip s at any section is obtained by
applying compatibility equations between the displacements of the neutral axis of both the slab and the
steel profile due to section rotation (see Fig. 4c) and between the axial deformations of both components
as shown in Fig.4b.
Applying the equilibrium equations to the infinitesimal element (Fig. 4a) and the displacement
compatibility equations yields to the establishment of two differential equations that govern the problem,
one valid for sections where there is no slip and another referred to sections where slip occurs at the
interface between slab and steel profile. Solutions of these equations can be found for particular cases, for
example for uniform distributed loads qL and qP [3].
Figure 3: Composite beam and loads.
(b)
( c)
(a)
Figures 4: (a) Free body diagrams of the slab and the steel profile. (b) and (c) slip components.
865
3 NUMERICAL APPROACH
3.1 Finite element model description

A finite element model was developed allowing elastic and plastic analyses of simple continuous
composite beams, including friction at the interface, with any type of loading applied to the slab or to the
I section profile. The software ANSYS version 11.0 [9], and the following elements were used (Figures
5):
1. Shell 181 – used to model the steel profile and the concrete slab, with von Mises criteria,
multilinear stress-strain relation and kinematic hardening;
2. Link 8 – auxiliary elements used to model the shear connector spring at the slab center level ;
3. Link 10 – tension resistant only, used to avoid vertical separation between slab and steel profile;
4. Contac 12 – used to model the friction at the interface between slab and steel profile;
5. Combin 39 – nonlinear spring element used to model the load-slip curve of the shear connectors.
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
6
2 2 2 2 2 2
6
2 2 2 2
slab
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
5 5
3 3 3 3
4 3 3 4 3 3
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
steel
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
profile
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(I section)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Y
Z
1
X
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 (b)
(a)
Figures 5: Finite element model. (a) Basic model. (b) detail of the interface elements.
3.2 Parametric analysis results
Queiroz at al. [3] used 8 simple beam models to perform a parametric analysis with the following
parameters: (i) span length varying from 3.5m to 7m; (ii) shear stiffness of the shear connectors (one with
usual stiffness and another very flexible); (ii) with and without friction at the interface between the slab
and the steel profile. Theoretical analyses were carried out with the aid of the analytical approach
described in section 2 and the numerical model presented in section 3. The main conclusions of this study
may be summarized as follows:
a) A good agreement was achieved between analytical and numerical results.
b) The contribution of friction to the shear stiffness at the slab – steel profile connection is
increased with the flexibility of the shear connectors.
c) The influence of friction to ultimate limit state is relevant in cases of short spans, flexible
connectors and relatively large stiffness of the slab toward the steel profile one.
d) The effect of friction in vertical displacements appeared in all studied cases, being more
prominent in the situations described in (c).
e) The flexibility of the shear connectors should be included in the expressions given by
Brazilian [5] and North-American [6] codes to calculate composite beam deflections.
866
4 EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS
4.1 Models description

Aiming to verify the relevant role played by friction at the interface slab – steel profile in the
composite beam behavior the models for the experimental analysis were conceived on the basis of the
conclusions drawn from the parametric study with the following characteristics: short span equal to 3.5m
and flexible shear connectors.
The beam model cross-section is illustrated in Fig.1. The box section profile is formed from a 2mm
thick SAC300 steel plate (fy=300MPa). The slab is composed of 20MPa compressive strength concrete
casted on steel deck with ribs perpendicular to the steel profile.
Two series of models were tested, each one with two models totalizing four tests. The models named
F1 and F2 refer to beams with friction at the interface between slab and steel profile and the models NF1
and NF2 had no friction contribution. Figures 6 show the seldom difference between the two series: the
placement of teflon plates at the slab-steel profile interface in order to remove friction.
bolt M12
bolt M12
teflon plates
(b)
steel deck support steel deck support
(a)
Figures 6: Details of the slab-steel profile interface. (a) models F1 and F2 with friction. (b) models
NF1 and NF2 without friction.
The shear connectors (Figs. 2) were made of high-strength bolts with 12mm diameter (DIN 960 class
5.8 steel) and SAE 1040 rivets. Push-out tests performed in a similar composite beam with these shear
connectors and steel deck ribs parallel to the steel profile yielded the average load slip curve illustrated in
Figure 7 from which one can calculate the initial stiffness associated to one connector equal to 70 kN/cm.
It is indeed a very flexible connector leading to partial interaction behavior of the composite beam. The
low stiffness is due to bearing deformation of the 2mm thick plate (and consequent hole ovalization).
60
adjusted curve - numerical model
50
fitted curve
experimental
40
load (kN)
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20
slip (mm)
Figure 7: Load slip curves of the shear connection associated to one connector. The curve fitted
to the experimental points [1] was adjusted to be used in the numerical model (see Section 5).
The beam was designed for full connection (governed by steel strength) resulting in 22 connectors
almost uniformly distributed along each side of midspan section.
The beam models were subjected to four concentrated forces in order to simulate a uniform loading.
Figure 8 shows the test setup and the models instrumentation which consists of displacement transducers
867
(DT) at midspan and also at the beam ends to measure end slips, and several strain gages (EER) along the
beam height at midspan section.
EER
concrete
DT north DT south
EER up 1 EER low
EER up 2 DT
750 600 800 600 750 test

slab
Figure 8 : Setup for experimental tests and model instrumentation.

4.2 Experimental results
Figure 9 presents the beam responses in terms of bending moment x deflection at midspan section for
all four tested models. It can be clearly observed the favorable influence of friction to the beam stiffness
and resistance. Collapse loads and bending moments can be found in Table 1 where it is shown that the
ratio between the average collapse bending moments of the beams with friction and without friction
achieved 1.16. This result was obtained for painted surface of the profiles and thus higher values are
expected for untreated surface. Defining the service bending moment as the one associated to the limit
deflection equal to L/300 it can be noticed in Figure 9 that this moment corresponds to 46 kNm for the
beam with friction and to 40 kNm to beam without friction, a difference of 11% assigned to the favorable
effect of friction.
120
F2
100
bending moment (kNm)
F1 NF 1
80
L/300 NF2
60
40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
midspan vertical displacement (mm)
Figure 9: Bending moment deflection curves for the four models tested.
Figure 10 presents the bending moment end slip curves measured at both ends of models F2 and NF1
by displacement transducers (see Fig. 8). For the model with friction (F2) maximum end slip is 2mm
while the model without friction attained 4mm end slip. From Figure 7 it is seen that the connectors in the
beam with friction, unlike the connectors in the NF1 model, maintain their initial stiffness almost until
the beam collapse.
868
Table 1: Collapse load and bending moment

Model Collapse load Collapse bending Average Mc With friction
(kN) moment Mc (kNm) Without friction
F1 174.2 94.3
F2 176.2 95.4 94.8 1.16
NF1 148.4 80.8
NF2 151.1 82.2 81.5
120
F2
100
bending moment (kNm)
NF 1
80
60
40
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
slip (mm)
Figure 10: Bending moment x end slip curves for models F2 (with friction) and NF1 (without friction).
5 COMPARISON BETWEEN NUMERICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

The models of series F and NF tested at the laboratory were simulated with the finite element model
described in section 3. For that purpose the CFP box section was transformed to an equivalent I shape.
Figure 7 shows the connectors load slip curve adopted in the numerical model. The curve fitted to the
experimental results was further adjusted to consider the lower number of shear connectors of the
numerical model in each beam side (17 connectors) as compared to the physical model (22 connectors).
200
(b)
numericalmodel 200
(withoutfriction) numericalmodel
150 150 (withfriction)
NF1
F2
Load(kN)
Load(kN)
100 100
50 50
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Verticaldisplacement(cm) Verticaldisplacement(cm)
(a)
Figures 11: Comparison between numerical and experimental results. (a) model without friction. (b)
model with friction.
The comparisons between numerical and experimental results can be appreciated in Figures 11 a and
b respectively for the beam models NF (no friction) and F (with friction). A very good correlation was
achieved throughout the loading stages for the beam with friction taken into account. The behavior of the
beam without friction was very well simulated by the numerical model for loading stages until half
869
collapse load approximately, after which experimental stiffness degradation took place due to concrete
cracking in the tension area. The behavior of the concrete after cracking was not considered in the
numerical model.
6 CONCLUSIONS
The results of experimental tests in simple composite beams showed that friction at the interface
between the slab and the steel profile plays an important role in the behavior of short span beams with
flexible connectors. For the 3.5m span tested beams with connectors composed by bolts threaded to rivets
a 16% increase in collapse bending moment was assigned to friction favorable effect. It is important to
notice that the friction influence is reduced when part of the slab vertical reaction is supported by a
transverse beam. As the experimental tests of composite beams are usually made without this additional
support researchers should be aware of this difference. It also became evident that not only the connector
strength but also the connector stiffness should be considered in the design, specifically in deflection
evaluation.
The numerical model developed to simulate the tested beams behavior was validated through a very
good correlation achieved in regard to the experimental results particularly in the case where friction is
taken into account.
ACKNOWLEDMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support received from FAPEMIG (Fundação de
Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais).
REFERENCES
[1] Bremer C.F., “Vigas mistas em perfis formados a frio com lajes mistas e lajes moldadas sobre
painéis de concreto celular”, D.Sc. thesis, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte,
Brasil, 2007.
[2] Silva M.C., “Análise numérica de vigas mistas levando em conta a flexibilidade e a ductilidade dos
conectores de cisalhamento bem com o atrito na interface entre o aço e o concreto”, M.Sc. thesis,
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brasil, 2009.
[3] Queiroz, G. Pereira, S.S.R, Mata, L.A.C., Silva, M., “Influence of friction at the slab/steel profile
interface and of the flexibility of shear connectors in steel – concrete composite beams”, 7th
Euromech Solid Mechanics Conference, Lisbon, 2009.
[4] Oliveira, C.G.R., “Análise Teórico-Experimental de Vigas Mistas com Perfil Formado a Frio,
Flexibilidade dos Conectores de Cisalhamento e a Influência do Atrito entre o Concreto e o Aço do
Perfil”, M.Sc. thesis, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brasil, 2009.
[5] ABNT - Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas, Projeto e execução de estruturas de aço e de
estruturas mistas aço e concreto de edifícios. NBR 8800, São Paulo, Brasil, 2008.
[6] AISC - American Institute of Steel Construction, Load and Resistance Factor Design Specification
for Structural Steel Buildings, Chicago, 2005
[7] Nie J., Cai C.S., “Steel-concrete composite beams considering shear slip effects”. Journal of
Structural Engineering, ASCE 2003, p. 495-506.
[8] Gattesco N., “Analytical modeling of nonlinear behavior of composite beams with deformable
connection”. Journal of Constructional Steel Research. 1999. V.52, P.195-218.
[9] ANSYS Version 11.0. Documentation. ANSYS, Inc.
870
INFLUENCE OF THE FRICTION AT THE SUPPORT IN THE

LONGITUDINAL SHEAR STRENGHT OF COMPOSITE SLAB
A. C. C. Lavall*, R. S. Costa * and F. C. Rodrigues**
* Armando Cesar Campos Lavall and Rodrigo Sernizon Costa UFMG

E-mails: lavall@dees.ufmg.br, rsernizon@dees.ufmg.br
** Francisco Carlos Rodrigues UFMG
E-mail: Francisco@dees.ufmg.br
Keywords: composite slabs; partial shear connection method, friction at the support.
Abstract. The aim of this work is to evaluate the behavior and strength of composite slabs considering the
influence of the friction at the supports. For this, were used the results of a program of laboratory tests
carried through in the Structural Engineering Department of UFMG, considering the Steel Deck-60,
which consists of trapezoidal profile with embossments in “V” shape. During the tests deflections, end
slips and strains of the steel decks were measured, allowing the analysis of the behavior of the composite
slab system and the determination of its failure mode. The influence of the friction at the supports in the
longitudinal shear bond was evaluated through the partial shear connection method, using the friction
coefficient recommended by [1]. Comparative analysis with other methods allow affirming that the
influence of the friction at the support in the longitudinal shear bond is significant, mainly, in composite
slabs with short shear spans.
1 INTRODUCTION
Composite slab systems have prevailed as an appropriate method for building slabs. From the
standpoint of the structural behavior, the profiled steel sheet shall be capable of transmitting horizontal
shear at the interface between the sheet and the concrete. Composite behavior between profiled sheeting
and concrete shall be ensured by mechanical interlock provided by embossments, frictional interlock for
profiles shaped in a re-entrant form, end anchorage provided by welded studs and friction of the region of
the supports. If there is no mechanical link or an attachment by friction between the sheeting and
concrete, it will not be able to transmit the longitudinal shear, and thus the composite slab action will not
be effective.
The aim of this paper is to present the partial shear connection method considering the influence of
friction at the support for determining the additional longitudinal shear resistance of composite slab
system Deck-60, after curing the concrete. To achieve this goal the results of research carried out by [2]
were used.
2 CHARACTERIZATION OF THE SPECIMENS AND TEST PROCEDURE

To develop the analysis by the partial shear connection method considering the friction at the support,
a series of twelve specimens of the Deck-60 with simple support was tested to bending. The models were
divided into two groups, six with nominal thickness t = 0.80 mm and six with t = 0.95 mm. The steel
deckings of the specimens were made of steel ZAR 280 and ZAR 345 for thicknesses t = 0.80 mm and
t = 0.95 mm, respectively, and length L = 2500 mm and nominal width b = 860 mm. In each group three
specimens had depth ht = 110 mm and span shear Ls = 800 mm and the other three specimens had depth
871
A. C. C. Lavall et al.
ht = 140 mm and span shear Ls = 450 mm. Figure 1 show a typical cross-section profile of the Deck-60
and its nominal dimensions in millimeters. The ‘‘V-shape’’ embossments were pressed onto the webs.
Figure 1 - Typical geometric profile of the Deck-60.

The modulus of elasticity of structural steel, Ea, was taken equal to 200 GPa and the characteristic
compressive strength of concrete, fck = 20 MPa. Each model was subjected to a symmetrical mode of
loading consisting of a two-point concentrated line load arrangement, as shown in Figure 2. This system of
load application is similar to those indicated by [1] and [3].
Vertical deflections at the centre of span were measured by means of two 0.01 mm displacement
transducers (DT), symmetrically arranged at approximately 20 cm from the edge of the slab. The end-slip
between the steel deck and concrete was recorded through two 0.001 mm digital dial gauges (RC),
attached at the ends of each specimens, two on each side.
Figure 2 - Typical test set-up arrangement.

Electrical resistance strain gauges (EER) were applied to all of the specimens to ascertain the state of
strain in the steel. Loading was applied in increments and each load level was maintained only until the
necessary strain, deflection and end-slip readings were recorded. Cracking characteristics, mode of
failure, end-slip and ultimate load of each specimen were documented.
3 TEST RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

The analysis of results and a general behavior description of composite slabs are studied by referring
to the relationships load versus end-slip, load versus midspan deflection and load versus strain of the
steel.
Figure 3 shows the load versus end-slip curves of the specimen 01A. It can be seen that initially
horizontal slip is almost zero, occurring a full shear connection between the sheeting and concrete. After
the formation of initial cracks, the chemical bond between the sheeting and the concrete is broken
causing end-slip, characterizing the partial connection. According to [1] the initial end-slip load (Pdes) is
defined as the load causing an end slip of 0.5 mm between the sheeting and concrete.
872
Figure 4 shows the load-midspan deflection curve for the specimen 04B, where two stages of load-
deflection behavior were identifiable: the uncracked stage and cracked stage. In the first stage no visible
cracking was observed anywhere on the specimen, hence, the entire section remained fully composite up
to initial cracking.
Figure 3 - Load versus end-slip of the specimen 01A
Figure 4 - Load-midspan deflection curve of the specimen 04B

The cracked stage was identified by the first significant change in initial stiffness of each specimen,
which occurred with the initial cracking (the load-deflection curve ceases to be linearly proportional).
Without the presence of shear transfer devices (embossments and friction) the specimen would not be
able to carry any additional load beyond this load stage. According to [1], the load-midspan deflection
curves allow to classify the longitudinal shear behavior of the composite slab system as ductile, since the
failure load exceeded the initial end-slip load (Pdes) by more than 10%.
Figure 5 shows the load versus strain of the steel curve for the specimen 01A, where negative values
indicate tensile strain. During the uncracked stage occurs a linearly proportional increase of the tensile
strain in the sheeting in both, the lower and higher fibres, indicating the existence of a single neutral axis
in the concrete. The tensile strain of the top of the sheeting decreases after the initial cracking indicating
the presence of two neutral axes in the composite section, characterizing the partial shear connection
between the sheeting and concrete.
873
Based on the experimental results of this investigation, only one mode of failure was experienced
with the Deck-60 composite slab system, namely, longitudinal shear (shear bond). This behavior has been
observed by [3], [4], [5] and other authors.
Figure 5 - Load versus strain of the steel of the specimen 01A
4 PARTIAL SHEAR CONNECTION METHOD

According to [1] two methods are used for the design of composite slabs: the m-k method and the
Partial Shear Connection (PSC) method. Both methods are based on the results of full-scale experiments.
Depending on the test results the behavior of a slab is classified as brittle or ductile. The m-k method may
be used for all profiles, while the PSC method may be used only for ductile profiles. In addition, the PSC
allows evaluating theoretically the contribution of the end anchorage and of the friction at the support in
the longitudinal shear strength.
4.1 Analytical model
The PSC method is based on an analytical model with a physical background, as illustrated in figure
6. The model can be better understood by examining the typical module of the composite slab as shown
in figure 6a. The normal stress distribution considering the partial interaction has two neutral axis: one in
concrete (LNPc) and other in the sheeting (LNPf), as shown in Figure 6b. This distribution can be
decomposed, by simplification, in the diagrams shown in the figures 6c and 6d.
Figure 6 – Normal stress distribution for sagging bending considering the partial interaction
Where ht is the overall depth of the slab; e is the distance from the centroidal axis of profiled steel
sheeting to the extreme fibre of the composite slab in tension; dF is the distance between the centroidal
axis of the profiled steel sheeting and the extreme fibre of the composite slab in compression; ep is the
distance from the plastic neutral axis of profiled steel sheeting to the extreme fibre of the composite slab
in tension; tc is the thickness of concrete above the main flat surface of the top of the ribs of the sheeting;
874
fy is the actual value of the yield strength of structural steel, obtained from specific tests, where
fy = 340 MPa and 390 MPa for thicknesses t = 0.80 mm and t = 0.95 mm, respectively; fcm is the mean
value of the compressive strength of concrete, obtained from specific tests, where fcm = 24.9 MPa and
22.2 MPa for thicknesses t = 0.80mm and t = 0.95 mm, respectively; a is the depth of the concrete block
in compression; y is the lever arm in the slab; Nc is the compressive normal force in the concrete flange;
Nac is the compressive normal force in the sheeting; Nat is the tensile normal force of in the sheeting.
The bending resistance is given by:
M Rp N c y M pr (1)
where Mpr is the reduced plastic resistance moment of the profiled steel sheeting, due to the presence of
the tensile normal force in the sheeting, Na = Nc.
4.2 Determination of longitudinal shear resistance considering the friction at the support
In recent studies, as [4], [7], [8] and [9], among others, it has been observed that in models with
relatively short shear spans the influence of the friction at the supports is relevant in determining of the
longitudinal shear resistance, while for long shear spans this effect is reduced.
To determine the longitudinal shear strength, the partial interaction diagram of each specimen, as
shown in figure 7, should be determined using the measured dimensions and strengths of the concrete and
the steel sheet.
From the maximum applied loads, the bending moment (Mtest) at the cross-section under the point
load due to the applied load, dead weight of the slab and spreader beams should be determined and then
divided by the bending moment resistance of the slab considering the full connection, MR. The path
A B C in figure 7, gives the degree of shear connection, Ktest = Nc/Ncfѽҏ for each specimen, where Ncf
is the value of the compressive normal force in the concrete with full shear connection.
Figure 7 - Determination of the degree of shear connection from Mtest

After determining the value of Ktest, the compressive normal force in the concrete, Nc, is given by:
Nc Ștest N cf (2)
The value of the longitudinal shear strength of a composite slab, Wu, considering the friction at the
support for each specimen is assumed uniform along the length (Ls + L0) and its value is determined by
the following equation:
N c PVut
Ĳu (3)
b(Ls Lo )
875
where Vut is the support reaction, L0 is the length of overhang (L0 = 50 mm).
According to [1] characteristic value of longitudinal shear strength, Wu,Rk, should be calculated as the
5% fractile by using an appropriate statistical model, in accordance with [10], Annex D. In this work the
Student's distribution was adopted:
Ĳ u,Rk Ĳ u,m t s (4)
where Wu,m is the mean longitudinal shear strength resulting from the tests; t is the reliability coefficient of
Student's distribution; s is the standard deviation of the longitudinal shear strength.
In table 1 the characteristics values of longitudinal shear strength (Wu,Rk), are determined according to
Equation 4. In this table are shown: the degree of shear connection of each specimen tested (Ktest); the
value of the compressive normal force in the concrete (Nc), given by Equation 2, where the values of Ncf
were calculated by the expression Ncf = Npa =AF,ef fy, using the net thickness of the steel decking; the
friction coefficient ȝ = 0.50, adopted in accordance with [1]; the support reactions (Vut) obtained in the
tests; the longitudinal shear strength (Wu) for each tested specimen given by Equation 3; Wu,m for each
thickness of the deck tested and standard deviation (s). The reliability coefficient of Student's distribution
t0.95 = 2.015 was adopted.
Table 1 - Determination of the characteristic value of longitudinal shear strength (Wu,Rk)

Nc Vut Wu Wu,m Wu,Rk
Specimens Ștest μ s
(N) (N) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
01A 0.592 183474 20109 0.2383
01B 0.619 191904 20873 0.2503
01C 0.604 187237 20385 0.2430
0.2407 0.0177 0.2050
02A 0.357 110716 33405 0.2179
02B 0.344 106713 32959 0.2100
02C 0.396 122687 0.50 36534 0.2434
03A 0.528 224689 23864 0.2910
03B 0.488 207877 23975 0.2677
03C 0.456 194042 22399 0.2507
0.2696 0.0214 0.2265
04A 0.298 126809 39066 0.2485
04B 0.322 137110 40511 0.2715
04C 0.355 151122 43586 0.3015
The design value of longitudinal shear strength of a composite slab, Wu,Rd, is given by:
Ĳ u,Rk
Ĳ u,Rd (5)
Ȗ sl
where Jsl is the partial factor for design shear resistance of a composite slab. The [1] recommends that the
value obtained by calculating the coefficient for the design service load (Vs) do not exceed the initial slip
load (Vdes) obtained in the test divided by 1.2. The value of Ȗsl determined for this system was equal to
1.60.
4.3 Comparative analysis
Figures 8 and 9 are presented in order to compare the results of the nominal shear resistance obtained
in the tests with the characteristic shear resistance obtained by the “m-k” method and PSC method with
friction and frictionless, studied by [11].
Analyzing the figures 8 and 9 with thickness of 0.80 mm and 0.95 mm, respectively, it can be
observed excellent correlations between the resistances determined by all methods and the results of the
tests. For long shear spans, the results obtained by all methods are similar, concluding that in these
876
situations, the influence of the friction at the support in the longitudinal shear resistance is small.
Otherwise, for short shear spans, it was observed that the results of the PSC method, that explicitly
considers the influence of the friction, have a better approximation with the test results. So it can be
concluded that for short shear spans the influence of the friction is significant for determining the
longitudinal shear strength of composite slabs.
Figure 8 -Characteristic shear resistance of specimens of the groups 01 and 02 (t = 0.80 mm)
Figure 9 - Characteristic shear resistance of specimens of the groups 03 and 04 (t = 0.95 mm)
5 CONCLUSIONS
Partial shear connection method (PSC) is an alternative method to “m-k” for checking the
longitudinal shear strength that allows evaluating theoretically the contribution of the end anchorage and
the friction at the support in the longitudinal shear strength.
The [1] recommends that the partial factor for design shear (Jsl) is equal to 1.25 for the “m-k” and
PSC methods. However, it is recommended that the value obtained by calculating the coefficient for the
design service load do not exceed the initial slip load, obtained from the tests, divided by 1.2. So for the
Deck-60 system, Jsl was found equal to 1.60 by PSC method considering the influence of the friction at
the support, showing that Jsl should be carefully evaluated.
877
Analysis of results showed that the PSC method considering the influence of friction at the support is
efficient in the determination of the longitudinal shear resistance showing excellent correlation with test
results. It was also observed that the influence of the friction at the support in the longitudinal shear
resistance for long shear spans is small, while for short shear spans, the influence of the friction is
significant for determining the longitudinal shear strength of composite slabs.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grateful to CNPq – Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e
Tecnológico, for their support to carry out this research.
REFERENCES
EN 1994-1-1, Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures, Part 1.1, General rules and rules for
building, CEN - European Committee for Standardization, 2004.
Rodrigues F. C. & Lavall A. C. C., Estudo do comportamento estrutural do sistema de laje mista
DECK-60/USIMINAS. Relatório técnico, 2005.
Schuster, R. M., Strength and Behaviour of the P-2430 - 12HB, Composite Slab System (normal
weight concrete), Report no. WRI 110-12-02, Canada: Department of Civil Engineering,
University of Waterloo, 1984.
Melo, C. B. F., Análise do Comportamento e da Resistência do Sistema de Lajes Mistas. 141 p.
Dissertação de Mestrado, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Engenharia de Estruturas,
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, 1999.
Araujo, G. S., Análise do Comportamento e da Resistência de um Sistema de Lajes Mistas pelo
Método da Interação Parcial. 116p. Dissertação de Mestrado, Programa de Pós-Graduação em
Engenharia de Estruturas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, 2008.
Johnson, R. P., Composite Structures of Steel and Concrete - Beams, Slabs, Columns and Frames for
Buildings, vol. 01, Blackwell Scientific Publications, 2ª edição, Oxford, 1994.
Veljkovic’, M., Development of a New Sheeting Profile for Composite Floor. Experimental Study and
Interpretation - Research Report, Division of Steel Structures, Luleå University of Technology,
Tuleå, Swedish, 1993.
Tenhovuori, A., ASCE, Parameters and Definitions for Classifying the Behaviour of Composite Slabs,
Composite Construction in Steel and Concrete III, Proceedings of an Engineering Foundation
Conference, New York: American Society of Civil Engineers, 1996.
Souza Neto A. S., Análise do Comportamento e da Resistência de um Sistema de Lajes Mistas com
ancoragem de extremidade com considerações sobre a fôrma de aço isolada e o atrito nos
apoios, Dissertação de Mestrado, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Engenharia de Estruturas,
Belo Horizonte: Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, 2001.
EN 1990, Basic Structural Design. CEN - European Committee for Standardization, 2002
Costa, R. S., Análise de um Sistema de Lajes Mistas considerando a Influência do Atrito dos Apoios e
a Avaliação do Momento de Inércia Efetivo. 193p. Dissertação de Mestrado, Programa de Pós-
Graduação em Engenharia de Estruturas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo
Horizonte, 2009.
878
A PARAMETRIC ANALISYS OF COMPOSITE BEAMS WITH T-

PERFOBOND SHEAR CONNECTORS
Juliana da C. Vianna*, Sebastião A. L. de Andrade*,

Pedro C. G. da S. Vellasco** and Luís F. da C. Neves***
* Civil Engineering Department, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro, PUC-Rio, Brazil
e-mails: jcvianna@esp.puc-rio.br, andrade@puc-rio.br
** Structural Engineering Department, State University of Rio de Janeiro, UERJ, Brazil
e-mail: vellasco@uerj.br
*** Civil Engineering Department, University of Coimbra, Portugal
e-mail: luis@dec.uc.pt
Keywords: Composite Construction, Perfobond and T-Perfobond Shear Connectors, Finite Element
Analysis, Structural Behaviour, Composite Beams.
Abstract. This paper presents the design and push-out test results of T-Perfobond connectors. The shear
connectors were made with two different geometries by varying the connector flange thickness. The T-
Perfobond connectors presented two web holes and were immersed into 120mm thick concrete slabs.
Reinforcing steel bars were used inside the web holes to increase its structural performance. A numerical
study was also made to aid the shear connector design aiming to increase its associated deformation
capacity. The results indicate that the developed T-Perfobond connector possessed an appropriate
structural behaviour and was also able to achieve the Eurocode 4 [1] ductility requirements.
1 INTRODUCTION
Composite beam investigations are not new and continues to motivate the search for new
technologies that meet not only improvements in the structural point of view, but also meet economic
needs in composite construction. Several authors have presented numerical and experimental works in
this line of research, specifically around the development of new alternative shear connectors. Various
existing types can be cited like the widely used stud bolts, C profiles and Perfobond, Figure 1, Vianna et
al. [2].
Ferreira [3] developed the T- Perfobond rib connector for use in beam to column connections of
external columns, Figure 2. Its main function was to transmit the reinforcing bar tensile forces to the
columns flanges in composite semi-rigid joints present in hogging moment regions.
This work presents alternative geometries for the T-Perfobond connector to be used in composite
beams under positive moments. It is widely known that the Perfobond connector geometry is made of a
rectangular steel plate with holes welded to the steel beam to be later immersed to the concrete slab.
Alternatively the T-Perfobond connector is made from an I profile section, incorporating to the original
Perfobond connector the contribution of an additional flange, that can provide additional anchor capacity,
[4]. Perfobond connectors may be even more efficient with the use of additional reinforcing steel bars
inside the connector holes. The Perfobond was developed by Leonhard and was investigated by various
authors like: Machacek e Studnika [5], Valente e Cruz [6], Vellasco et al. [7], Ahn et al. [8], Martins [9],
Vianna et al. [2] focusing on their structural capacity determined by push-out tests. Various geometrical
879
Juliana C. Vianna et al.
and material parameters can influence the structural behaviour of the connector like: concrete
compressive strength, number of holes, plate geometry, among others.
“Perfobond”
(a) Studs [10] (b) C profiles [10] (c) Perfobond [11]

Figure 1: Examples of shear connectors.
Figure 2: T-Perfobond rib connector by Ferreira [3]
This paper presents the results of tests carried out in two experimental programs to evaluate the
performance of the T- Perfobond connector. The results of a numerical modelling of the flange connector
is also presented aiming to determine the best configuration to increase the shear connector ductility. The
first experimental program was held at the Department of Civil Engineering, University of Coimbra
while the second was held at the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro. In the first program, the
T- Perfobond connector was made from IPN 340 profiles, Figure 3a, made of S275 steel grade, Vianna et
al. [12], (web thickness equal to 12.2 mm and average flange thickness equal to 18.3 mm). This particular
connector presented a rigid block like behaviour during the performed push-out tests. In order improve
the connector ductility, a new geometry was investigated reducing the flange thickness to 11.3mm while
keeping the original web thickness to enable a comparison with the first set of tests. The present paper
also presents and numerical investigation of the deformation capacity of the connector flange that was
accomplished before the second experimental programme.
The new T- Perfobond connector geometry adopted in the second experimental programme is
presented in Figure 3b and Figure 4. The connector was made from a HP200x53 profile equivalent to
American Profile HP8x36, using a ASTM A572 Grade 50, equivalent to a S355 steel grade.
880
a) IPN 340 – University of Coimbra tests b) HP 200x53 – PUC-Rio tests

Figure 3: Adopted T-Perfobond connectors.
The T-Perfobond connectors were used in 120mm thick concrete slabs designed to reach a class
C30/37 compressive strength.
Figure 4: Geometry of T-Perfobond connectors the second stage
2 NUMERICAL MODELING
The proposed numerical models were developed using Shell 63 elements, available in the ANSYS
program library, to represent the T- Perfobond connector flange. This is a plane finite element with four
nodes and six degrees of freedom per node, three translations and three rotations, Figure 5, being capable
to take into account the material nonlinearity.
Figure 5: Elemento Shell 63, Manual do Ansys
In order to verify the deformation capacity of the connector flange a simplified model layout taking
into account the symmetry conditions was adopted. The nodes corresponding to the supports,
representing the part of the connector welded to the beam flange, and the nodes along the symmetry line
of the flange, had all their degrees of freedom restricted. The load was applied by means of a pressure
(around 48.85 MPa) applied at the entire flange area to simulate the push-out test transfers of forces that
occurs from the concrete slab to the shear connector flange, Vianna [13]. The modelling layout is
depicted in Figure 6 where its highlighted region is shown in detail in Figure 7 were the flange adopted
881
mesh is illustrated. A linear elastic analysis was performed assuming an isotropic behaviour with a
205GPa Youngs Modulus and a 0.3 Poisson's ratio.
Y
X welding
Z
Flange
modelling
welding
Figure 6: T-Perfobond connector

(web simetry)
(flange weld)
Figure 7: Connector flange model: mesh and boundary conditions.
Table 1 presents the results of the elastic deformation capacity and associated displacements related
to node 9, shown in Figure 8, determined in the present investigation. The 18.3 mm thickness is
associated to the flange adopted in the T-Perfobond connectors used in the first push-out tests. The
thickness of 12mm was chosen as an initial try to increase almost 3 times the 18.3 thick connector
deformation capacity. The 11.3 mm flange thickness corresponds to the flange and web thickness of the
HP200x53 profile adopted in the second set of push-out tests. Figure 8 graphically presents deformation
and displacement distribution along the 11.3 mm thick flange.
Table 1: Numerical modelling results

Thickness of plate (mm) Z Axis Displacement (mm) Z Axis Elastic deformation (PH)
18.3 0.49 203
12.0 1.74 574
11.3 2.09 657
882
(a) Z- Axis displacement distribution (mm) (b) Z- Axis deformations distribution (PH)
Figure 8: HP200x53 connector results (11.3mm thick).
This simple model of T-Perfobond connector flanges indicated that if a reduction of the flange
connector thickness from 18.3 mm to 12mm was made a significant gain was achieved in the shear
connector deformation capacity. This was the main direction for choosing the HP200x53profile, that
presents a 11.3 mm flange and web thickness in the second set of Push-out tests.
3 PUSH-OUT EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM

The performed push-out tests followed the Eurocode 4 [1] procedures. These tests can used to obtain
the relationship between applied forces and associated deformations of the shear connectors being more
simpler and direct than traditional flexion tests, Vianna et al. [4].
The second experimental program was divided into two parts with two tests in the first set, followed
by three more tests on second. All connectors were made with a height and length of 76.2 mm and
170mm presenting two web holes, as shown in Figure 4. Table 2 presents the test results where it is easy
to observe that 10 mm, 12mm, and 16mm S500 reinforcing steel bars were adopted in experiments.
Vertical and horizontal displacement transducers were installed in the two slabs to measure the
relative slip between the concrete slab and steel profile as well as the uplift. In the first stage, held at the
University of Coimbra, the tests were conducted in a 5000kN hydraulic jack system. In the second stage,
held at PUC-Rio, the test system comprised the use of a reaction steel frame with two 1000kN hydraulic
jacks. The adopted layout also comprised the use of a transition beam to transfer the loads from the two
jacks to a single application point located at the steel beam push-out test configuration. thus meeting the
EUROCODE 4 [1], recommendations’ Vianna et al. [4]. A hinge was also used to ensure a smooth load
transfer between the transition beam and the push-out test steel. The Figure 9 presents the push-out test
configuration and details of reinforcement bars adopted.
Since the results of each series had different compressive strength of concrete, the value of force per
connector was normalized by using Eq 1, proposed by Oguejiofor & Hosain [14].
f ckmean (1)
PrkNormaliz Prk
f ck
where:
PrkNormaliz connector characteristic shear capacity (kN).
fckmean mean concrete cylinder compressive strength (MPa).
fck concrete cylinder compressive strength (MPa).
883
Bars inside
the holes Bars at the
front
(a) Push-out test at PUC-Rio (b) Reinforcing bars at the front and inside
the connector holes
Figure 9: Push-out test at PUC-Rio and reinforcing steel bars
The graph illustrated in Figure 10 shows the first and second set of test results made to evaluate the
structural performance of the more flexible shear connector adopted at the second experimental
programme. From these curves it it is possible to observe that the HP 200x53 T- Perfobond connectors
had a better ability to deform being therefore, more ductile connectors. The connector with the best load
capacity was made from a HP 200x53 profile with 12mm and 16mm reinforcing bars at the front and
inside the connector holes, ie. TP-2F-AR-120-A-IN-12-16. If a comparison with the TP-2F-AR-120-IN-
A-10 connector results , used in the first set, is made a gain of 13% and 137% in the load carrying and
deformation capacities can be observed. The first experimental programme shear connectors that were
manufactured from the IPN 340 profile had higher load carrying capacities when compared to the two
second set of tests of the second experimental programme but on the other hand showed a limited
ductility capacity. Table 2 summarises the Push-out tests characteristics and results:
700
HP 200X53
600
Load per connector (kN)
500
400
300
TP-2F-AR-120-A-IN-10
TP-2F-AR-120-A-IN-12
200
TP-2F-AR-120-A-IN-10-12-C
TP-2F-AR-120-A-IN-10-16-B
100
IPN 340 TP-2F-AR-120-A-IN-12-16-B
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Slip (mm)
Figure 10: Comparison of T-Perfobond shear connectors made with IPN 340 and HP 200x53 profiles.
884
Table 2: Push-out tests characteristics and results.

Specimen Slab T-Perfobond Results
fck I Hole I Front qu,test Prk PrkNorm Gu Guk
MPa (mm) (mm) kN kN kN mm mm
First TP-2F-AR-120-A-IN-10 33 10 10 585.30 526.77 509.22 2.54 2.29
set TP-2F-AR-120-B-IN-12 12.5 12.5 649.10 584.19 564.72 4.19 3.77
Second TP-2F-AR-IN-10-12-C 35.15 12.5 10 594.62 535.16 501.26 6.75 6.08
set TP-2F-AR-IN-10-16-B 29.18 16 10 541.97 487.77 501.44 5.15 4.64
TP-2F-AR-IN-12-16-B 26.02 16 12.5 585.86 527.27 574.01 6.03 5.43
where:
Reinf. Hole reinforcing bars diameter used inside the connector holes
Reinf. Front reinforcing bars diameter used at the front of the connector
qu,test shear connector test strength
Prk shear connector characteristic strength
Gu test ductility capacity
Guk ductility characteristic capacity
4 CONCLUSIONS
The push-out test indicated that varying the reinforcing bar diameter from 10 to 12.5 mm a significant
gain in both load carrying and ductility capacities were obtained. The tests also indicated that only
increasing the reinforcing bars diameter used inside the shear connector no significant gain in load
carrying or ductility capacities was observed, contrary to what was initially expected. The test that used
the 12mm diameter reinforcing bars used inside the connector holes presented a 31% ductility capacity
increase when compared to the test with 16mm bars at the same location. At this point it is fair to observe
that this result may have been masked due to lack of an effective load application control since this was
manually made.
Only increasing the reinforcing bars diameter used at the front of the shear connector from 10 mm to
12.5 mm, gains of 14.5% and 17% were observed in the load carrying and deformation capacities. When
both diameters were increased (10mm to 12.5 mm, for bars used at the connector front and inside its
holes) a 14.8% increase and a 10.7% reduction were observed in the load carrying and deformation
capacities. This result can also be explained by the manual load control previously explained. The test
results indicated that reinforcing bars used at the connector front and holes had the same key influence
over the connector load carrying and deformation capacities.
The second set of tests made with the 11.3 mm thick profile were able to meet the minimum slip limit
of 6 mm required by Eurocode 4[1], which ensures the ductile connection behaviour. This type of
behaviour could be confirmed with the aid of the simple numerical model results.
The investigation also confirmed that T-Perfobond connectors have high load carrying and stiffness
capacities. Since this shear connector can be fabricated by readily available rolled profiles leftovers a
significant economy can be achieved when compared to other commoly adopted shear connectors like the
studs. The T-Perfobond connectors produced in Portugal, from the IPN340 profile did not present a
ductile behaviour in 120mm thick slabs, indicating the adoption of an elastic distribution of shear along
the beam length for composite beam design. Alternatively the T-Perfobond connectors, produced in
Brazil, from a HP200x53profile, with proper reinforcing bars in 120mm thick slabs showed aductile
behaviour, thus allowing a plastic design approach to be performed.
885
REFERENCES
[1] EUROCODE 4. EN 1994. Design of composite steel and concrete structures Part 1.1 General rules
and rules for buildings. CEN, European Committee for Standardisation, Brussels, 2003.
[2] Vianna, J.C., Neves, L.F.C., Vellasco, P.C.G.S., Andrade, S.A.L., “Experimental assessment of
perfobond and T-perfobond shear connectors structural response”, Journal of Constructional Steel
Research, 65, 408-421, 2009.
[3] Ferreira, L.T.S. “Semi-rigid systems for composite building construction”. PhD Thesis, PUC-Rio,
Rio de Janeiro, 281p, 2000.
[4] Vianna, J.C., Neves, L.F.C., Vellasco, P.C.G.S., Andrade, S.A.L., “Comportamento estrutural do
conector t-perfobond para vigas mistas aço-betão”. Congresso de Construção Metálica e Mista, VII
CMM, Lisboa, 2009 (in portuguese).
[5] Machacek, J.; Studnicka, J. “Perforated shear connector”. Steel and Composite Structures, vol. 2,
no 1, 51-66, 2002.
[6] Valente, M. I. B.; Cruz, P. J. S. “Experimental analysis of Perfobond shear connection between
steel and lightweight concrete”, Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 60, 465-479, 2004.
[7] Vellasco, P.C.G.S.; Andrade, S. A. L.; Ferreira, L.T.S.; Lima, L.R.O. “Semi-rigid composite frames
with perfobond and T-rib connectors Part 1: Full scale tests”, Journal of Constructional Steel
Research, 63, 263-279, 2007.
[8] Ahn, J.-H.; Kim, S.-H.; Jeong, Y.-J. “Shear behaviour of perfobond rib shear connector under static
and cyclic loadings”. Magazine of Concrete Research, 60, nº5, 347-357, 2008.
[9] Martins, J.P.S.C. “Avaliação do comportamento estrutural de conectores em estruturas mistas: o
perfobond”. Dissertação de Mestrado, Departamento de Engenharia Civil, Universidade de
Coimbra, 64p., 2008 (in portuguese).
[10] Tristão, G. A.; Neto, J. M. “Comportamento de conectores de cisalhamento em vigas mistas aço
concreto com análise da resposta numérica ”, Cadernos de Engenharia de Estruturas, São Carlos,
V.7, n.23, p.119-142, 2005 (in portuguese).
[11] Neves, L.F.C.; Lima, L.R.O. “Concepção e construção de uma estrutura metálica para reforço de
um edifício de pequeno porte”, Congresso de Construção Metálica e Mista, V CMM, Lisboa, 2005
(in portuguese).
[12] Vianna, J.C., Andrade, S.A.L., Vellasco, P.C.G.S., Costa-Neves, LF. “Análise experimental e
estudo comparativo de conectores de cisalhamento para estruturas mistas de aço e concreto”. XXIX
CILAMCE 2008, Maceió-Al., Brasil, 2008 (in portuguese).
[13] Vianna, J.C. “Avaliação do Comportamento Estrutural de Conectores Perfobond e T-Perfobond
para Vigas Mistas”. Tese de Doutorado, PUC-Rio, Rio de Janeiro, 300p, 2009 (in portuguese).
[14] Oguejiofor, E. C.; Hosain, M. U.: A parametric study of perfobond rib shear connectors, Canadian
Journal of Civil Engineering, 21, 614-625, 1994.
886
FE MODELLING OF SLENDER CONCRETE-FILLED STAINLESS STEEL

TUBULAR COLUMNS UNDER AXIAL COMPRESSION
Zhong Tao*, Brian Uy** and Lin-Hai Han***
* School of Engineering, University of Western Sydney, Penrith South DC, NSW 1797, Australia
College of Civil Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fujian Province, 350108, P.R. China
e-mail: z.tao@uws.edu.au
** School of Engineering, University of Western Sydney, Penrith South DC, NSW 1797, Australia
e-mail: b.uy@uws.edu.au
*** Department of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, P.R. China
e-mail: lhhan@tsinghua.edu.cn
Keywords: Concrete-filled steel tubes (CFST), Stainless steel, Slender columns, Strength, Nonlinear
analysis, Initial imperfection.
Abstract. This paper is concerned with the finite element (FE) modelling of slender concrete-filled
stainless steel tubular columns (CFSST) under axial compression. This modelling is performed using
ABAQUS, a commercially available FE program. Generally good agreement is achieved between the test
and predicted results in terms of load-deformation curves and ultimate strength. This demonstrates that
the FE modelling presented in this paper can be used with confidence to carry out extensive parametric
studies into the behaviour of slender CFSST columns.
1 INTRODUCTION
Concrete filled steel tubular (CFST) columns have many design and construction merits, and are
gaining popularity in buildings, bridges and other types of structures, especially in Australia, China and
Japan [1]. Composite construction ideally combines the advantages of both steel and concrete, namely
the speed of construction, high strength, and light weight of steel and the inherent mass, stiffness,
damping, and economy of concrete.
In recent times, there is an accelerating interest in the use of stainless steel in construction throughout
the world. This is attributed to the fact that stainless steel is extremely durable, corrosion resistant, fire
resistant and easily maintainable [2]. Previous major projects to have utilized stainless steel include the
300 m tall St Louis, Missouri, USA (1966), the 81 m tall Parliament House Flag Pole in Canberra,
Australia (1988) and the Hearst Tower at 959 Eight Avenue, New York City, USA (2006) [3]. Due to the
merits of stainless steel, it is evident that it has a very important role to play in the future design of
structures, particularly when architects and structural engineers become more cognisant of the need for
life cycle costing.
Previous research achievements on stainless steel have demonstrated that stainless steel exhibits
fundamentally different material behaviour from carbon steel, such as non-linear stress-strain
characteristics, varying elastic modulus, higher residual stresses and improved thermal properties [4].
Therefore, it is expected that the behaviour of stainless steel CFSTs also differs from that of conventional
carbon steel CFST columns. Some recent research [5]-[7] carried out has clearly indicated this.
A literature review showed that no research work conducted on slender CFSST columns has been
reported. In practice, columns are usually subjected to the influence of slenderness. In this regard, a
research program was carried out recently at the University of Western Sydney to investigate the
887
Zhong Tao et al.
behaviour of slender CFSST columns. Test results of 24 composite columns with different tube shapes
comprised of stainless steel have been reported elsewhere [8]. Finite element (FE) modelling is carried
out in this paper to simulate the slender CFSST columns under axial compression, which may be used to
conduct further parametric studies.
2 FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING
2.1 General
FE software ABAQUS [9] was used to investigate the buckling behaviour of slender CFSST columns.
Because symmetry was assumed, only half of a column was modelled as shown in Figure 1(a). Four-code
doubly curved general-purpose shell elements S4R with three translation and three rotation degrees of
freedom at each node were used to model the steel tube, whilst 8-node brick elements (C3D8R) with
three translation degrees of freedom at each node were used to model the concrete core.
Concrete Pinned reference point
Coupling constraint
Steel tube Reference point
YSYMM
t
(a) A general view (b) Top surface
Figure 1: Typical finite element model used.
Surface-based contact was used to model the interaction between the stainless steel tube and its core
concrete. This model has been used successfully in the past to simulate both CFST columns [10]-[11] and
CFSST stub columns [12]-[13]. More details can be found in these references.
As pointed out by Gardner and Nethercot [14], residual stresses cause only a small reduction in initial
stiffness but have little influence on the overall load-deformation response for a stainless steel column.
Since the influence of residual stresses will be further minimised for a CFST column by concrete filling
[11], the residual stresses were not included in the following analysis with an aim to reduce
computational time.
2.2 Boundary conditions
To create a pin-ended column model, the cross-section centroid of the top end of the column was
defined as a reference point for loading as shown in Figure 1(a). A coupling constraint shown in Figure
1(b) was defined to constrain the motion of the top surface to that of the single reference point, where all
three translational degrees of freedom were specified. In this case, all coupling nodes on the top surface
follow the rigid body motion of the reference point [9]. All translational degrees of freedom of the
reference point, except the vertical displacement, were fixed. Loading was applied in a displacement
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control mode at the reference point to simulate the axial loading condition. Symmetry plane at the
column mid-height was specified for the FE model (indicated in Figure 1(a) as YSYMM), where the
nodes in the symmetry plane were restrained against displacement in the Y-direction, as well as the
rotational degrees of freedom about the X axis and the Z axis.
2.3 Material modelling
About the material modelling of stainless steel, a modified Ramberg-Osgood model proposed by
Rasmussen [4] is used in this paper. This is based on a model comparison presented by Tao et al. [13]. It
was found that the Rasmussen’s model can reproduce the actual behaviour of stainless steel even up to
relatively high strains of general structural interest. As far as the concrete modelling is concerned, an
equivalent stress-strain model proposed by Han et al. [10] has been used, in which the yield strength (fy)
for carbon steel was replaced by the 0.2% proof stress (V0.2) for stainless steel.
Since the majority of square and rectangular stainless steel hollow sections are currently formed by
cold rolling, the significant strength enhancement at corner regions of cold-formed sections should be
considered in FE modelling. Cruise and Gardner’s model [15] expressed by Eq. (1) was used to predict
the enhanced corner material strength.
1.673V 0.2, v (1)
V 0.2,c
( ri / t ) 0.126
where V0.2,c and V0.2,v are the 0.2% proof stresses of the corner material and the virgin material,
respectively, ri is the internal corner radius, and t is the thickness of the cross-section. This model has
been verified by a large number of published test data [15].
2.4 Initial imperfections
This paper focuses only on CFSST columns with stocky cross-sections, and no local buckling is
expected to occur for them before their maximum strengths are attained. In this case, initial local
imperfections have only minor influence on the column behaviour. Therefore, the initial local
imperfections are not included in the current models to improve computational efficiency.
Global geometric imperfection is essential for a column to be included in its FE model, which is
represented by a half-wave sine curve along the column length. Generally, measured out-of-straightness
can be used to represent the imperfection amplitude (w0). According to Young and Ellobody [16] and
Ellobody [17], the average measured imperfections of L/1715 and L/5614 are used, respectively, to model
slender cold-formed stainless steel unstiffened and stiffened columns, where L is the column length. Based
on 12 test results of pin-ended stainless steel column, Gardner and Nethercot [14] conducted a comparative
research using three imperfection amplitudes: L/1000, L/2000 and L/5000. An imperfection amplitude w0 of
L/2000 was then recommended by Gardner and Nethercot [14] following parametric studies and comparison
with test results. Eight circular and six square cold-formed stainless steel columns were tested by Rasmussen
and Hancock [18]. The measured geometric imperfections for the circular columns ranged from L/2000 to
L/6667 with an average of L/3496, whilst those for the square columns ranged from L/1429 to L/20000 with
an average of L/2233. To predict column curves for stainless steel columns, a global imperfection amplitude
of L/1500 was adopted by Rasmussen and Rondal [19], which was based on a mean value of L/1470 for
carbon steel columns as suggested by Bjorhovde [20].
From the above review, it is clear that initial global imperfections vary randomly among different
supplied tubes. In general, the range of the initial global imperfections is from L/1000 to L/10000. As far as
the cold-formed stainless steel tubes presented by Uy et al. [8] are concerned, Measurement was carried out
with an aim to obtain geometric imperfections using a stretching metal wire and a Vernier caliper. It appears
from the results that these tubes were almost ideally straight, and no visible imperfections could be measured.
Therefore, to simulate the CFSST columns presented in [8], w0 was taken as L/10000 to represent nearly
perfect columns [19].
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According to the test observations presented by Uy et al. [8], deflection for a rectangular column was
mainly observed along the major axis of its cross-section. Therefore, its global imperfection was only
applied along the major axis. But the tendency of deflection development was different for a square
column since there was no identification of minor or major axis. Without specific indication, global
imperfection will only be applied along a principal axis for a square column in the following.
2.5 Mesh convergence studies
Mesh convergence studies were conducted to determine optimal FE mesh that provides relatively
accurate solution with low computational time. It was found that the aspect ratio of elements has
neglectable influence on the axial load (N) versus lateral mid-height deflection (um) curves if this ratio is
smaller than 3. Therefore, element size in the axial direction was selected as 2 times that in the lateral
direction. An example of convergence study conducted for a square column S1-2a presented by Uy et al.
[8] is shown in Figure 2, where the predicted peak strengths based on different refinement meshes are
presented. It is clear that finer mesh will give higher strength prediction, but resulting in longer
computational time. It seems that the mesh with 5445 elements can give generally good convergence
prediction for the specimen S1-2a with acceptable computational time. Based on the mesh convergence
studies, element size across the cross-section can be chosen as D/12 for a circular column or B/10 for a
square or rectangular column, where D is the overall diameter of the circular column, and B is the overall
width of the square or rectangular column.
700
Peak load (kN)
680
660
640
620
600
0 5000 10000 15000 20000
Number of elements
Figure 2: Mesh convergence study for a square specimen S1-2a [8].
3 MODEL VERIFICATION
Twenty four test results of CFSST columns presented by Uy et al. [8], including 12 circular, 6 square
and 6 rectangular specimens, respectively, were used to verify the FE models. The specimen details are
given in Table 1, where Nue is the measured peak load, Le is the effective length of a column, fcc is the
cylinder compressive strength of concrete, and H is the overall depth of a rectangular steel tube.
The predicted ultimate loads (Nuc) are compared with those obtained from the tests (Nue) in Table 1
and Figure 3, and part test curves are compared with the predicted N-um curves in Figure 4. In Figure 3,
Nue/Nuc is plotted against the slenderness ratio (O), which is defined as 4Le/D for circular columns, and
2 3Le / B for square or rectangular columns. The mean values of Nue/Nuc for the circular, square and
rectangular columns are 1.140, 1.053 and 1.086, respectively; whilst the corresponding standard
deviations are 0.190, 0.111 and 0.042, respectively.
From the above comparisons, it is clear that the FE predictions are generally conservative compared
with the test results, where only three specimens shown in Table 1 have peak loads lower than the
predicted results. The largest deviation of the three unconservative predictions is -2.7% for the short
circular column C1-1a. It should be noted that very conservative predictions with Nue/Nuc larger than 1.25
are achieved for two circular specimens C1-3b and C2-3a, and the square specimen S1-3a. Obviously,
these specimens are the slenderest in each section series, but they were tested under nearly perfect axial
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Zhong Tao et al.
compression with much smaller lateral defections developed than expected before their peak loads were
reached. Therefore, the second-order effect in these cases is less significant than expected. If ignoring
these three specimens, the FE modelling with the values of w0 taken as L/10000, give reasonable
predictions shown in Table 1, where the mean values of Nue/Nuc for the circular and square columns are
1.062 and 1.008, respectively.
Table 1: Comparison between FE results and test result.
No. Specimen D(B) H Le V0.2 fcc Nue Nuc N ue

Section type t O
label (mm) (mm) (mm) (MPa) (MPa) (kN) (kN) N uc
1 C1-1a 113.6 2.8 485 17.1 288.6 36.3 738.0 758.4 0.973
2 C1-1b 113.6 2.8 485 17.1 288.6 75.4 1137.1 1028.5 1.106
3 C1-2a 113.6 2.8 1540 54.2 288.6 36.3 578.9 555.1 1.043
4 C1-2b 113.6 2.8 1540 54.2 288.6 75.4 851.1 820.9 1.037
5 C1-3a 113.6 2.8 2940 103.5 288.6 36.3 357.6 346.6 1.032
6 C1-3b 113.6 2.8 2940 103.5 288.6 75.4 731.8 498.9 1.467
Circular
7 C2-1a 101 1.48 440 17.4 320.6 36.3 501.3 486.3 1.031
8 C2-1b 101 1.48 440 17.4 320.6 75.4 819.0 739.0 1.108
9 C2-2a 101 1.48 1340 53.1 320.6 36.3 446.0 387.8 1.150
10 C2-2b 101 1.48 1340 53.1 320.6 75.4 692.9 616.0 1.125
11 C2-3a 101 1.48 2540 100.6 320.6 36.3 383.0 240.9 1.590
12 C2-3b 101 1.48 2540 100.6 320.6 75.4 389.7 383.2 1.017
13 S1-1a 100.3 2.76 440 15.2 390.3 36.3 767.6 761.8 1.008
14 S1-1b 100.3 2.76 440 15.2 390.3 75.4 1090.5 1098.7 0.993
15 S1-2a 100.3 2.76 1340 46.3 390.3 36.3 697.3 708.4 0.984
Square
16 S1-2b 100.3 2.76 1340 46.3 390.3 75.4 1022.9 1011.1 1.012
17 S1-3a 100.3 2.76 2540 87.7 390.3 36.3 622.9 488.7 1.275
18 S1-3b 100.3 2.76 2540 87.7 390.3 75.4 684.2 655.2 1.044
19 R1-1a 49 99.5 1.93 440 31.1 363.3 36.3 385.6 371.3 1.039
20 R1-1b 49 99.5 1.93 440 31.1 363.3 75.4 558.3 533.0 1.047
21 R1-2a 49 99.5 1.93 740 52.3 363.3 36.3 361.1 335.2 1.077
Rectangular
22 R1-2b 49 99.5 1.93 740 52.3 363.3 75.4 517.7 472.1 1.097
23 R1-3a 49 99.5 1.93 1340 94.7 363.3 36.3 262.8 227.7 1.154
24 R1-3b 49 99.5 1.93 1340 94.7 363.3 75.4 332.8 301.8 1.103
1 .8
Circular co lum n s C2-3a
1 .6 Square co lum n s
Rect an gular co lum n s C1-3b
1 .4
N ue/N uc
S1-3a
1 .2
0 .8
0 30 60 90 120
Slen dern ess rat io O
Figure 3: Comparison between predicted and experimental ultimate loads.
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Zhong Tao et al.
1200 1200
C1-2a (measured)
C1-2a (predicted)
Axial load N (kN)
Axial load N (kN)

900 900
C1-2b (measured)
C1-2b (predicted)
600 600
C1-1a (measured)
C1-1a (predicted)
300 C1-1b (measured) 300
C1-1b (predicted)
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 15 30 45 60
Mid-height deflection u m (mm) Mid-height deflection u m (mm)
(a) Circular columns (O=17.1) (b) Circular columns (O=54.2)
1200 500
R1-3a (measured)
Axial load N (kN)
400
Axial load N (kN)
900 R1-3a (predicted)

R1-3b (measured)
300
R1-3b (predicted)
600
S1-1a (measured) 200
S1-1a (predicted)
300 S1-1b (measured) 100
S1-1b (predicted)
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 15 30 45 60
Mid-height deflection u m (mm) Mid-height deflection u m (mm)
(c) Square columns (O=15.2) (d) Rectangular columns (O=94.7)

Figure 4: Comparison between predicted versus experimental N-um curves.
The predicted failure modes are also compared with those observed from the tests. Figure 5 shows a
comparison between the numerical deformed shapes and the experimental ones presented by Uy et al. [8]
for two typical specimens with different cross-sections. To make the comparison more clear, visualisation
aid of mirrors provided by ABAQUS was used to produce a desired view of complete models. From the
comparison, it can be found that the predicted failure modes also agree well with the tests.
4 CONCLUDING REMARKS
Finite element modelling of slender concrete-filled stainless steel tubular columns under axial
compression was performed in this paper, in which nonlinear material behaviour, enhanced strength
corner properties of steel, and initial geometric imperfections were all included. Generally good
agreement was achieved between the test and FE results in terms of load-deformation response and
ultimate strength.
The finite element modeling presented in this paper can be further used to perform a parametric
analysis to compare the behaviour of stainless steel CFST columns with that of carbon steel CFST
columns. Thus, the behaviour differences between stainless steel and carbon steel CFST columns can be
further recognised.
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Zhong Tao et al.
(a) Circular column (C1-2a) (b) Square column (S1-2a)

Figure 5: Comparison between predicted and experimental failure modes.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work is part of a project supported by the Australian Research Council (ARC) under its Future
Fellowships scheme (Project No: FT0991433). Zhong Tao is the recipient of the Fellowship. This
research work has also been partially supported by the Research Grant Scheme and the International
Research Initiatives Scheme provided by the University of Western Sydney. This financial support is
gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
[1] Tao, Z., Uy, B., Han, L.H. and He, S.H., “Design of concrete-filled steel tubular members
according to the Australian Standard AS 5100 model and calibration”. Australian Journal of
Structural Engineering, 8(3), 197-214, 2008.
[2] Gardner, L., “The use of stainless steel in structures”. Progress in Structural Engineering and
Materials, 7(2), 45-55, 2005.
[3] Uy, B., “Stability and ductility of high performance steel sections with concrete infill”. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research, 64(7-8), 748-754, 2008.
[4] Rasmussen, K.J.R., “Full-range stress-strain curves for stainless steel alloys”. Journal of
[5] Young, B. and Ellobody, E., “Experimental investigation of concrete-filled cold-formed high
strength stainless steel tube columns”. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 62(5), 484-492,
2006.
[6] Lam, D. and Gardner, L., “Structural design of stainless steel concrete filled columns”. Journal of
[7] Uy, B., Tao, Z. and Han, L.H., “Behaviour of concrete-filled stainless steel tubular columns, Part I-
Short columns”. Journal of Constructional Steel Research (submitted for publication).
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Zhong Tao et al.
[8] Uy, B., Tao, Z. and Han, L.H., “Behaviour of concrete-filled stainless steel tubular columns, Part
II-Slender columns”. Journal of Constructional Steel Research (submitted for publication).
[9] ABAQUS, ABAQUS Standard User’s Manual, Version 6.7.2, Dassault Systèmes Corp., Providence,
RI, USA, 2007.
[10] Han, L.H., Yao, G.H. and Tao, Z., “Performance of concrete-filled thin-walled steel tubes under
pure torsion”. Thin-Walled Structures, 45(1), 24-36, 2007.
[11] Tao, Z., Uy, B., Han, L.H. and Wang, Z.B., “Analysis and design of concrete-filled stiffened thin-
walled steel tubular columns under axial compression”. Thin-Walled Structures, 47(12), 1544-1556,
2009.
[12] Ellobody, E. and Young, B. “Design and behaviour of concrete-filled cold-formed stainless steel
tube columns”. Engineering Structures, 28(5), 716-728, 2006.
[13] Tao, Z., Uy, B., Liao, F.Y. and Han, L.H., “Finite element modelling of concrete-filled square
stainless steel tubular stub columns under axial compression”, Proceedings of the 5th International
Symposium on Steel Structures, Seoul, Korea, 87, 2009 (full paper on CD-Rom).
[14] Gardner, L. and Nethercot, D.A., “Numerical modelling of stainless steel structural
componentsA consistent approach”. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 130(10), 1586-
1601, 2004.
[15] Cruise, R.B. and Gardner, L., “Strength enhancements induced during cold forming of stainless
steel sections”. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 64(11), 1310-1316, 2008.
[16] Young, B. and Ellobody, E., “Column design of cold-formed stainless steel slender circular hollow
sections”. Steel & Composite Structures, 6(4), 285-302, 2006.
[17] Ellobody, E., “Buckling analysis of high strength stainless steel stiffened and unstiffened slender
hollow section columns”. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 63(2), 145-155, 2007.
[18] Rasmussen, K.J.R. and Hancock, G.J., “Design of cold-formed stainless steel tubular members. I:
Columns”. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 119(8), 2349-2366, 1993.
[19] Rasmussen, K.J.R. and Rondal, J., “Column curves for stainless steel alloys”, Journal of
Constructional Steel Research, 54(1): 89-107, 2000.
[20] Bjorhovde, R., Deterministic and probabilistic approaches to the strength of steel columns, PhD
dissertation, Lehigh University, PA, 1972.
894
BUCKLING RESISTANCE OF STEEL-CONCRETE COLUMNS COMPOSED

OF HIGH-STRENGTH MATERIALS
Marcela Karmazínová* and Jindrich J. Melcher*
* Brno University of Technology – Faculty of Civil Engineering, Brno, Czech Republic

e-mails: karmazinova.m@fce.vutbr.cz, melcher.j@fce.vutbr.cz
Keywords: Steel-Concrete Columns, Compression Members, Buckling Resistance, High-Strength Steel

(HSS), High-Performance Concrete (HPC), Experimental Verification
Abstract. The paper deals with some problems of the actual behaviour and buckling resistance of steel-
concrete compression members composed of high-strength steel and high-performance concrete.
Especially, this paper is directed towards the steel-concrete composite columns of the dimensions used
usually for columns of multi-storey buildings. High-strength materials (steel and concrete, too)
can effectively increase the load-carrying capacity of members in the case of simple compression,
because of their high strengths. In the case of the buckling the load-carrying capacity is significantly
influenced by the stiffness (through the slenderness) dependent on the modulus of elasticity. For steel the
modulus of elasticity is the same regardless of steel grade, in the case of high-strength concrete the
modulus of elasticity increases slowly compared with the strength increasing, so that can influence the
buckling resistance negatively. This paper presents brief information and some results of experimental
and theoretical analysis oriented to the usage of high-strength steel and concrete in composite columns,
from the viewpoint of the buckling resistance, for the particular examples of typical steel-concrete
sections - open H-sections encased between flanges and circular tubes filled by concrete.
1 INTRODUCTION
In the last period in civil engineering constructions the usage of modern progressive materials is
frequent. In the reliable and efficient structures the combinations of steel and concrete is effective to
reach the high load-carrying capacity commonly with the low self-weight and costs. For this reason the
utilization of high-strength steels (HSS) and high-performance concretes (HPC) can be advanced in the
case of steel-concrete columns, too. However, because of the buckling resistance increasing it is
necessary to find the available cross-section type with the suitable relation of both section parts from the
viewpoint of the cross-section form and the contribution of steel and concrete to the member resistance.
On the workplace of the Division of Metal and Timber Structures of the Faculty of Civil Engineering
at the Brno University of Technology (Brno, Czech Republic) the intensive attention is oriented to the
problems of the buckling resistance of steel-concrete composite members (including composite columns)
in the period of last several years. Especially, the behaviour of the structural members composed of high-
quality steels and concretes is investigated [2], [8]. These research activities are directed to the problems
of the behaviour and resistance of steel-concrete compression members composed of HSS and HPC and
cover various forms of the analysis, mainly for example: (i) experimental verification of the actual
behaviour and the objective ultimate resistance with the utilization of the test results ([6], [7], [8]) for the
design resistance determination (philosophy of the design assisted by testing), (ii) the buckling resistance
analysis based on the general theoretical principles in comparison with the normative rules approaches
(see [1], [4]), (iii) numerical analysis using the static modelling aimed to their verification and calibration
helping the test results [1], (iv) parametric studies aimed to the finding of the optimal configuration of the
cross-sections respecting the economic viewpoints [5], (v) statistical and probabilistic evaluation [9]
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Marcela Karmazínová et al.
aimed to the reaching of the guaranteed reliability level with the structural design economy, (vi)
sensitivity analysis [3] directed to the influence of particular geometrical and physic-mechanical
parameters and their importance to the result buckling resistance, and other methods.
2 THEORETICAL ANALYSIS OF DESIGN BUCKLING RESISTANCE

In accordance with the experimental research of the behaviour and load-carrying capacity of the
steel-concrete columns (see below) the design buckling resistances were calculated using the normative
rules given in [10], [11], to select available of cross-section types from the viewpoint of the optimal
proportions of steel-to-concrete areas and strengths (also within the context of subsequent numerical
modelling). The design buckling resistances have been calculated for two selected cross-section types –
circular tube filled by concrete and HEA section encased by concrete between flanges. In this theoretical
calculation the members of cross-sections and critical lengths typical for the usual building columns (in
practice) were investigated. Hence for the calculation of design resistance steel-concrete compression
members of the following cross-sections were utilized: (i) circular tube TR Ø152/4.5 and (ii) cross-
section HE 140A, in both cases for the actual length Lcr = 3 000 mm. For the theoretical analysis of the
design buckling resistance respecting the effect of material properties various steels and concretes were
considered – steel grades were in the range from S 235 to S 690 (for more detail see [15]), concrete
classes were in the range from C 20/25 to C 80/95 (for more detail see [16]). For the possibility of the
comparison, cross-section areas of both parts (steel and concrete) were the same approximately. Design
values of the buckling resistance were calculated according to relevant European Standards [10], [11], in
the case of steel-concrete columns using the simplified method for the buckling resistance determination.
The design buckling resistance of steel and steel-concrete compression member is given as
fy , (1)
N b, Rd F A F N pl , Rd
J M1
where for the steel member A is the cross-section area, fy is the nominal steel yield strength, ȖM1 is the
material partial safety factor and Ȥ is the buckling reduction factor (see below) depending on the non-
dimensional slenderness O ; the full-plastic resistance for the steel-concrete member is given as
fy f ck , (2)
N pl , Rd Aa (0.85) Ac
Ja Jc
where Aa, Ac are the cross-section areas of steel and concrete section parts, fy is the nominal steel yield
strength, fck is the characteristic concrete cylindrical strength, Ȗa, Ȗc are the material partial safety factors
for steel and concrete (see [10], [11]). The coefficient 0.85 is used for the open steel cross-section only,
not for hollow sections. The non-dimensional slenderness O can be obtained from the formula
N pl ,Rk , (3)
O
N cr
where the full-plastic section resistance (without buckling) Npl,Rk for steel cross-section and for steel-
concrete cross-section respectively, is given in the forms of
N pl , Rk A fy , N pl , Rk Aa f y Ac f ck (4)
and the critical force Ncr for steel and steel-concrete cross-section respectively, is given by the formats
EI , EI eff (5)
N cr S2 N cr S2
L2cr L2cr
896
with the flexural stiffness EI or the effective flexural stiffness (EI)eff (for steel-concrete members). Then
the buckling reduction factor Ȥ is given generally (for steel or steel-concrete columns, too) in the form of
1 , (6)
F
2 2
I I O
where >
I 0.5 1 D1 O 0.2 O . 2
@ (7)
The imperfection factors Į1 were considered as follows: (i) for circular tubes – in all cases (steel and also
steel-concrete members) the imperfection factor Į1 = 0.21 (buckling curve “a”), but for steel grades S 460
and higher Į1 = 0.13 (buckling curve “a0”); (ii) for hot-rolled HEA sections buckled to weak axis – the
imperfection factor Į1 = 0.49 (curve “c”), for steel grades S 460 and higher Į1 = 0.21 (curve “a”).
To show the influence of the steel yield strength and cylindrical concrete strength to the load-carrying
capacity of steel-concrete columns the values of the design buckling resistance Ȥ Npl,Rd in comparison
with the design full plastic resistance Npl,Rd (in the case of the simple compression) and with the critical
force Ncr are depicted in graphs on Figure 1. These values were calculated for the configurations and
dimensions of cross-sections and for material parameters in the range mentioned in the description above.
Within the context of the experimental verification, in Figure 1 also the values of Ȥ Npl,Rd, Npl,Rd and Ncr
are drawn for the steel grade S 275 (in the case of circular tubes), respectively S 355 (HEA sections), in
the combinations with concrete class C 20/25 and C 80/95, which were assumed for the test specimens.
2400
2400
TR + CONCRETE HEA + CONCRETE

2000
2000
Npl,Rd
Npl,Rd, Ncr , Ȥ Npl,Rd [kN]
N pl,Rd, N cr , Ȥ N pl,Rd [kN]

1600
1600
Npl,Rd
1200
1200
800
800
Ȥ Npl,Rd
Ȥ Npl,Rd
400
400
20 40 60 fck [MPa] 80 20 40 60 fck [MPa] 80
S235 S355 S460 S235 S355 S460

S690 Ncr S275+C20/25 S690 Ncr S355+C20/25
S275+C80/95 S355+C80/95
Figure 1: Steel-concrete columns: design buckling resistance Ȥ Npl,Rd in comparison with the full plastic
resistance Npl,Rd and critical force Ncr – influence of steel yield strength and cylindrical concrete strength.
3 EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF BUCKLING RESISTANCE
3.1 Test specimens, test arrangement, test realization

Within the framework of the experimental verification 18 specimens have been tested, from that 9
specimens with the tube TR 152/4.5 and 9 specimens with HEA section HE 140A. In both groups the
following types of specimens were tested: 3 steel specimens and 6 steel-concrete specimens filled or
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encased by concrete, from that 3 test specimens with normal concrete (NC) and 3 test specimens with
high-performance concrete (HPC) – the specification and description of tested specimens (including the
symbols used in graphs below), from the viewpoint of cross-section types and material parameters, which
were measured, is presented in Table 1. Realized tests aimed at the comparison of actual results with
theoretical analyses. Some illustrations of the test realization are shown in Figure 2.
Table 1: Specification of test specimens – cross-section configuration and material parameters

cross- symbol and description of cross-section type
section
type steel – circular tube steel – HEA cross-section
steel TR TR 152/4.5 HEA HE 140 A
TR 152/4.5 HE 140 A
TR + NC HEA + NC
steel + normal concrete + normal concrete
+ TR 152/4.5 HE 140 A
concrete TR + HPC + high-performance HEA + HPC + high-performance
concrete concrete
material measured physical-mechanical parameters – mean values
yield strength yield strength
steel TR HEA
fym = 354 MPa fym = 456 MPa
cube strength fccm = 34 MPa, cylindrical strength fcm = 27 MPa,
NC
Ecm = 32 GPa
concrete
cube strength fccm = 102 MPa, cylindrical strength fcm = 87 MPa
HPC
Ecm = 49 GPa
Figure 2: Illustration of test specimens and loading tests – HEA sections with concrete
3.2 Test results evaluation

From the realized tests the basic results were obtained, especially the ultimate objective load-carrying
capacity reached in the moment of the specimen failure, which was used as the most important result for
the evaluation of the actual buckling parameters. These test results were utilized i.a. for the derivation of
the actual buckling length and slenderness respectively, and for the determination of the actual initial
imperfections, which can influenced the buckling resistance very significantly.
898
3.2.1 Actual buckling length and slenderness

During loading tests the actual supporting of member ends was investigated. Theoretically the hinges
on both member ends were supposed, if the member length between supports was L = 3 070 mm. It is
evident, that due to real structural detailing of the ends supporting and other influences (e.g. the loading
force is not centric, the member axis is not parallel with the force direction etc.) the assumption of ends
hinges is more or less inexact. These effects will influence the actual member slenderness, which can be
derived from the test results and related to the slenderness supposed theoretically.
If Ntest is the force corresponding the member buckling and Ncr is supposed critical force calculated
for the hinges on both ends (Lcr = ȕ L, where Lcr is the buckling length, L is the member length, ȕ is the
buckling length factor, here for the theoretical assumptions ȕ = ȕth = 1), then for the non-dimensional
slenderness O test from the tests and for the theoretically calculated slenderness O th it can be written
N pl Lcr ,test N pl E test L N pl , (8)

O test
N test S EI S EI
N pl Lcr ,th N pl E th L N pl . (9)

O th
N cr ,th S EI S EI
From equations (8), (9) the actual buckling length follow as Lcr,test = ȕtest L and the actual buckling
length factor ȕtest can be written (if ȕth = 1) in the format of
O test Lcr ,test E test L E test

E test . (10)
O th Lcr ,th E th L E th
Table 2: Actual buckling length and non-dimensional slenderness

cross-section type Ncr [kN] Ntest [kN] ȕtest Lcr,test [mm] O
667.7 1.367 4 197 1.051
TR 1 248.2 640.0 1.397 4 287 1.074
602.5 1.439 4 419 1.107
circular
1 000.6 1.288 3 955 1.082
tube
TR + NC 1 660.9 904.6 1.355 4 160 1.138
929.3 1.337 4 104 1.123
TR + HPC 1 880.2 1 498.8 1.120 3 438 1.194
881.8 0.985 3 024 1.274
HEA 855.4 931.2 0.958 2 942 1.240
835.2 1.012 3 107 1.309
HEA 1 239.5 1.058 3 250 1.223
cross- HEA + NC 1 388.7 1 321.5 1.025 3 147 1.184
section 1 078.7 1.135 3 483 1.311
1 707.3 0.990 3 038 1.278
HEA + HPC 1 672.0 1 603.4 1.021 3 135 1.319
1 541.4 1.042 3 197 1.345
The actual buckling length factors, buckling lengths, respectively non-dimensional slenderness
calculated using the equations (8), (9), (10) are written in Table 2. The graphic expressions of the actual
and theoretically calculated values of the buckling resistance in dependence on the non-dimensional
slenderness are seen in Figures 3 (for circular tubes) and 4 (for HEA sections). In Figures 3 and 4 these
values are shown for all 3 types of specimens (TR, TR+NC, TR+HPC, respectively HEA, HEA+NC,
HEA+HPC), to show the influence of the section configuration and material properties on the buckling
899
resistance. For the comparison the test values are drawn for the actual and also for the theoretically
assumed slenderness, respectively buckling lengths. It is seen, that the buckling resistances obtained from
the tests are practically equal to the Euler critical force, in the case of the test specimens with the HEA
cross-sections especially. It is mainly due to the very small imperfections, which were observed in the
range from Lcr / 1 500 to Lcr / 2 000 (see Figure 6) in this particular specific case, where quite randomly
the conditions were suitable to allow the buckling resistance reaching the Euler critical force.
2000
Ncr , Ȥ Npl, Ntest [kN]
O for Lcr = 6 m
1000
0
0 0,2 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 O 3

Ncr-TR Ncr-TR+NC Ncr-TR+HPC
ȤNpl-TR ȤNpl-TR+NC ȤNpl-TR+HPC
Ntest-TR Ntest-TR+NC Ntest-TR+HPC
Figure 3: Buckling resistance in dependence on the non-dimensional slenderness – circular tubes

3000
2000
Ncr , Ȥ Npl, Ntest [kN]
O for Lcr = 6 m
1000
0
0 0,2 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 O 3
Ncr-HEA Ncr-HEA+NC Ncr-HEA+HPC

ȤNpl-HEA ȤNpl-HEA+NC ȤNpl-HEA+HPC
Ntest-HEA Ntest-HEA+NC Ntest-HEA+HPC
Figure 4: Buckling resistance in dependence on the non-dimensional slenderness – HEA sections
In Figure 5 the ratios of buckling resistances and critical forces to full plastic resistances related to
the non-dimensional slenderness, are drawn for all cross-section types. For the comparison the same
ratios for the test results are added to the graphs. The ratio of the buckling resistance to the full plastic
resistance is the reduction factor Ȥ corresponding to the buckling curve “a” (circular tubes), respectively
“c” (HEA sections). The ratio of the critical force to the full plastic resistance, using (3) is given as
N cr 1 , (11)
2
N pl O
so that in dependence on O this relationship is the same for all types of cross-sections regardless of the
cross-section configuration and mechanical properties.
900
0,8
Ncr / Npl
0,6
Ȥ, Ncr / Npl
0,4
Ȥ : TR, TR+NC, TR+HPC
0,2
Ȥ : HEA, HEA+NC, HEA+HPC
0
0 0,2 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 O 3
Ntest-TR Ntest-TR+NC Ntest-TR+HPC Ntest-HEA Ntest-HEA+NC Ntest-HEA+HPC
Figure 5: Ratios of the buckling resistances and critical forces to the full plastic resistances in dependence
on the non-dimensional slenderness – comparison with test results
3.2.2 Actual initial imperfections

Information on the influence of the initial imperfections the Southwell line can give (it expresses the
linear relationship between the values w / N and w), helping the initial imperfection e0 (for its definition
see Figure 6), which in the form of the relative initial imperfection m0 = e0 / j (where j = W / A) is used in
the procedure of the derivation of the reduction buckling factor Ȥ. In Figure 6 the Southwell lines and
corresponding actual initial imperfections are depicted for the test results of all test specimen types.
2,00E-05
1,50E-05
w / N [mm/N]
1,00E-05
5,00E-06
e0
TR TR+NC TR+HPC
0,00E+00
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
w [mm]
2,00E-05
1,50E-05
w / N [mm/N]
1,00E-05
5,00E-06
e0
HEA HEA+NC HEA+HPC

0,00E+00
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
w [mm]
Figure 6: Soutwell lines and actual initial imperfections
901
CONCLUSIONS
Summarizing the results of the design analysis and experimental programme particular concluding
remarks can be mentioned: (i) the actual objective buckling resistances were higher than the calculated
ultimate resistances, so that they were much higher (in average by 30 %) than design resistances; (ii) the
actual supporting of the member ends significantly influences the actual buckling length – for circular
tubes the actual buckling lengths were even by 40 % higher than theoretical buckling lengths considered
for the theoretical assumptions; (iii) actually obtained initial imperfections were very low (even several
times) in comparison with the imperfections given in [10], [11]. Ascertained information can influence
the test evaluation not only positively, but in some cases negatively, too.
Acknowledgement
The paper was elaborated with the financial support of the GAýR grant projects Nos. 103/09/0597
and 103/09/H085 and the MŠMT Research Project No. MSM 0021630519.
REFERENCES
[1] Karmazínová, M., Melcher, J. J. and Röder, V., Load-carrying capacity of steel-concrete
compression members composed of high-strength materials, In Proceedings of the 9th
International Conf. on Steel-Concrete Composite and Hybrid Structures „ASCCS 2009“ held in
Leeds, Research Publishing Services: Singapore, 2009, pp. 239-244. ISBN 978-981-08-3068-7.
[2] Karmazínová, M. and Melcher, J. J., Possibilities of application of glass-fibre-concrete in
composite steel-concrete beams, In Proceedings of the 9th International Symposium on Fiber-
Reinforced Polymer Reinforcement for Concrete Structures “FRPRCS-9” held in Sydney,
University of Adelaide, 2009, p. 51 + DVD (full version – 4 pp). ISBN 978 0 9806755 0 4.
[3] Kala, Z., Karmazínová, M., Melcher, J., Puklický, L., Omishore, A. Sensitivity analysis of steel-
concrete structural members, In Proc. of the 9th Int. Conf. on Steel-Concrete Comp. and Hybrid
Struct., Research Publish. Services Singapore, 2009, pp. 305-310. ISBN 978-981-08-3068-7.
[4] Melcher, J. and Karmazínová, M., The analysis of composite steel-and-concrete compression
members with high strength concrete, In Proc. of 2004 SSRC Annual Technical Session and
Meeting, Long Beach, Univ. of Missouri Rolla/SSRC, 2004, pp. 223-237. ISBN 1-879749-71-8.
[5] Röder, V. and Karmazínová, M., Optimization of the design of steel-concrete columns
composed of high-strength materials (in Czech language). Konstrukce, Vol. 8, No. 3, Ostrava:
Konstrukce Media, s.r.o., 2009, pp. 21-26. ISSN 1213-8762.
[6] Karmazínová, M., Melcher, J. and Kala, Z., To applications of methods of design assisted by
testing. In Proceedings of the 5th European Conference on Steel and Composite Structures
EUROSTEEL 2008 held in Graz, Brussels, ECCS, 2008, pp. 803-808. ISBN 92-0147-000-90.
[7] Karmazínová, M., Melcher, J. and Kala, Z., Design of expansion anchors to concrete based on
the results of experimental verification, Advanced Steel Construction, an International Journal,
Vol. 5, No. 4, Hong Kong Institute of Steel Construction, 2009, pp. 390-405. ISSN 1816-112X.
[8] Melcher, J., Karmazínová, M. and Pozdíšek, J., Experimental verification of behaviour of
composite steel and glass-fibre-concrete beam, In Proceedings of the 9th International
Conference on Steel-Concrete Composite and Hybrid Structures „ASCCS 2009“ held in Leeds,
Research Publishing Services: Singapore, 2009, pp. 390-395. ISBN 978-981-08-3068-7.
[9] Melcher, J., Škaloud, M., Kala, Z. and Karmazínová, M., Sensitivity and statistical analysis
within the elaboration of steel plated girder resistance, Advanced Steel Constr., an Int. Journal,
Vol. 5, No. 2, Hong Kong Institute of Steel Construction, 2009, pp. 120-126. ISSN 1816-112X.
[10] EN 1993-1-1: Design of Steel Structures – Part 1-1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings.
Brussels, 2004.
[11] EN 1994-1-1: Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures – Part 1-1: General Rules and
Rules for Buildings. Brussels, 2004.
902
11. THIN WALLED CONSTRUCTION
AND COLD FORMED MEMBERS
EFFECTS OF DISTORTION ON THE SHEAR STIFFNESS OF RACK

STRUCTURES
Sambasiva R. Sajja*, Robert G. Beale** and Michael H.R. Godley*
* School of the Built Environment, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK

** School of Technology, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK
e-mails: srsajja@gmail.com, rgbeale@brookes.ac.uk, mgodley@brookes.ac.uk
Keywords: Stability; Distortion, Built-up columns; Shear stiffness; Pallet rack uprights
Abstract. This paper describes the experiments carried out at Oxford Brookes University to measure the
local rotation of the upright at the connection of elements. The aim of this experimental investigation was to
determine the reduction in stiffness due to distortion of the upright. The distortional stiffness was quantified
and introduced into a three dimensional frame model by the use of an equivalent rotational spring with a
further reduction of the discrepancy between the shear stiffness values determined by theory and experiment.
1 INTRODUCTION
Pallet racks are regular beam and column structures. The columns are usually perforated cold-formed
sections and the beams that lie in the plane of the aisles, also cold-formed, connect with the uprights using
connectors with a semi-rigid moment-rotation characteristic. In cross-aisle planes the columns are normally
part of a bolted lattice column structure.
In the plane of the aisles, sway buckling is the dominant mode of failure heavily influenced by the
stiffness and strength of the beam to column connectors. In the plane normal to the aisle where the structure
is triangulated, a linear analysis is normally sufficient for use in design. However, in some very tall racks,
narrow frames may have a significant shear flexibility that could influence overall elastic buckling. The
source of the shear flexibility is the softness of the open section, bolt looseness, the eccentricity of the bolted
connections and the manner in which the bracing elements are attached [1] – [4]. The elastic buckling load of
this lattice column assembly depends on its flexural stiffness and its shear stiffness; the shear stiffness is
measured by test [5]. The US RMI code [6] is based upon Timoshenko [7] and the authors in references [1] –
[3] have pointed out that the US code yields values of shear stiffness that are up to 20 times more than those
obtained from test. The earlier research quantified the influence of joint eccentricity, bolt slip, bracing
arrangement and recommended changes in test procedures so that all tests were conducted cyclically varying
the load. The authors also recommended that cross-aisle looseness be included as ignoring this effect could
cause significant errors in the prediction of the shear stiffness. However, the best theoretical models
developed still only predicted stiffness values which were still approximately double those of the observed
experimental ones. The objective of this paper was to investigate the influence of member distortion on the
results.
2.1 Test specimens

Tests were conducted on full sized upright frames made of cold formed steel sections conforming to EN
10147 [8]. The uprights were open perforated lipped channels with additional bends and the bracing members
were lipped channels. The upright and bracing members used in testing are shown in Figure 1. Note that all
905
Sambasiva R Sajja et al.
the dimensions mentioned are in mm. The cross- sectional properties of upright and bracing members that
were used in the tests were: upright properties area 788.9 mm2, Iyy 522444 mm4, Izz 1.02x109 mm4, the
distance of the centroid of the upright from its back face centre line 33.96 mm and torsion constant 2062
mm4; bracing member area 139.5 mm2, Iyy 27187 mm4, Izz 10923 mm4, the distance of the centroid of the
brace from its back face centre line 8.87 mm and the torsion constant 105 mm4. The upright frames used in
the distortion test had one panel of length (i.e. centre to centre distance between joints, where diagonals
intersect) 1200mm and the depth of the frame was 1050mm leading to panel aspect ratio of 1.14.
Z
2.8 45
Bolt line 23.5
10
Y
76
Y Y
Z
56
Z
35
1.5
Y
6
90
Z
(a) A view of upright (b) Upright section (c) Brace section
Figure 1: Upright and bracing member dimensions.
2.2 Test arrangement

Earlier shear tests conducted on upright frames identified the significance of the lacing pattern (i.e. back-
to-back or lip-to-lip) and the application of load on the frames [1] – [3]. Depending upon the orientation of
the diagonal braces (called lacing elements) the forces in these elements can be in either tension or
compression. It was assumed that the eccentric forces applied from lacing elements to the upright would lead
to distortion of the upright, which in turn would reduce the shear stiffness. This experimental program was
aimed at evaluating the accurate joint stiffness, which was then used further in numerical and theoretical
analyses. In total, four tests were carried out by changing the lacing (‘back-to-back’ or ‘lip-to-lip’) and
loading patterns (tension or compression in the loaded member). All the tests were conducted on single panel
frames with restraints at the corner nodes of the frames only. The basic arrangement of the test upright frame
and application of the load was similar to other tests by the authors [1] – [4]. However, more displacement
transducers (LVDTs) were placed on the upright of the frame with connecting joint between lacing members
and upright section as depicted in Figure 2. Test arrangements are shown in Figure 3. Figure 3(b) shows a
‘lip-to-lip’ lacing arrangement. Note that this arrangement would not normally be used in practice but was
used in two of the tests to get different geometries. The ‘back-to-back’ pattern reduces eccentricities in the
diagonal bracing.
Two LVDTs were used at locations A, C and D to measure the upright rotation under applied loading.
‘A’ and ‘C’ were located at midpoints of half panels and ‘D’ was 112.5 mm away from ‘A’. At location B, as
shown in Figure 2, two displacement transducers were placed in similar positions to those at A and also an extra
two LVDTs were placed on the top of upright to measure difference in upright rotations at the joint, if any. The
values measured during the experimental program were not at the exact locations where the LVDTs were
placed since there was movement of the upright. They were approximately at r 10 mm along the length of
the upright. The data obtained from the data acquisition system was used to plot load-rotation curves as
shown in Figures 4 and 5. Note that the initial loading curves from the origins have a different slope to those
of subsequent cyclic curves. This is due to the initial looseness in the system. As these tests were solely to
determine the effects of distortion this looseness was ignored and the regression lines obtained from the other
data. Note that not conducting cyclic tests through zero is contrary to the authors’ recommendations [4] but
tests with both tensile and compressive loading were undertaken.
906
R o llers B o lt lin es LVDT
A D B C
LVDT LVDT
Ja ck
L o a d ce ll
(a) Test Schematic (b) Detail at A, C and D (c) Detail at B
Figure 2: Test arrangement.
(a) Experimental set-up (b) Displacement transducer positions

Figure 3: Experimental arrangement.
2.3 Analysis of results
The cross-section of the uprights can distort in the modes shown in Figure 5. The original cross-section is
shown in Figure 5(a).and the modes are: St. Venant torsion of the entire upright section [Figure 5(b)], the
cross-section of the upright opening in a distortional mode [Figure 5(c)] and shear distortion of the cross-
section [Figure 5(d)]. The mode shown in Figure 5(c) can either be inwards or outwards. This mode is
approximately represented by a half-sine wave. In the test procedure this mode was suppressed at the central
joint by the bolt attached to the bracing.
Applied Load (kN)
Applied Load (kN)
6 6
4 4
Rotationnear bolt-line
Experimental curve
2 2
Linear TrendLine Upright rotation
0 0
-0.080 -0.060 -0.040 -0.020 0.000 0 0.02 0.04 0.06
Rotation(radians) Rotation(radians)
(a) Rotation at position A (b) Rotation at position B

Figure 4: Test results: Rotation at joints.
907
Applied Load (kN)

Applied Load (kN)
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 0
0 0.01 0.02 -0.016 -0.012 -0.008 -0.004 0 0.004
Rotation (radians) Rotation (radians)
(c) Rotation at position C (d) Rotation at position D
Figure 4 (continued): Test results: Rotation at joints.
(a) original cross-section (b) torsion (c) distortion due to

section opening
(d) distortion due to (e) section opening (f) shear distortion

shear distortion and torsion and torsion
Figure 5: Upright distortion modes.
The positions of the transducers in relation to cross-sections is shown in Figures 5(e) [Positions A,C and
D in the test] and 5(f) [Position B in the test]. Unfortunately, as can be seen in Figure 4 the transducer
positions at A, C and D were not able to capture the distortion alone as they were affected by both types of
distortion and by torsion. However the two pairs of transducers at B were successful. The transducers
attached to the flange sides of the upright were only affected by torsion and hence the rotation that these
transducers measured was only torsion. The transducers attached to the lips of the uprights were affected by
both shear distortion and torsion. Hence removing the torsion effects gave estimates of change in angle due to
distortion. Table 1 gives the results of the rotation measurements.
2.4 Calculation of rotational stiffness
The rotational calculations (T) shown in Table 1 are measured in terms of load applied (P) on the upright
frame. As we already know the geometry of the frame, we can calculate forces in the lacing members (F) by
908
simplifying the system as a truss. This simplistic assumption ignores the continuity of the upright at joint but
is verified by the results of finite element analyses shown in Table 3 below where the difference in analyzing
the frame as a pin-joined truss compared with analyzing it as a rigid frame is approximately 5%. The
perpendicular component of these forces in lacing members generates distortion of the upright. Figure 6 gives
a schematic of the frame.
Table 1: Rotation calculations

Load in Lacing pattern Vertical Horizontal Difference Mean
upright transducer transducer (kN/rad) (kN/rad)
(kN/rad) (kN/rad)
Compression Lip-to-lip 223.24 158.86 64.38 59.37
Tension Lip-to-lip 173.31 119.96 53.35
Compression Back-to-back 432.37 324.53 107.84 103.20
Tension Back-to-back 420.26 321.71 98.55
D
C O
1032 mm
A T B
1200 mm
Figure 6: Loading schematic.
Assuming a load P is applied at point D. Resolving horizontally at the joint O the force in each bracing
member is given by
P (1)
bracing member force =
2 cos T
For the tested frame
600 (2)
cos(T ) 0.5026
6002 10322
Hence force in each bracing member = P*0.9958 kN.

The vertical components of the forces in the bracing elements generate a torque at the joint. The vertical
component is
1032 (3)
Psin(q ) P 0.8645 P
6002 10322
The moment applied to the upright depends upon the bracing configuration as seen in Figure 7.
The distance of the centroid of the bracing from the back face was 8.87 mm. Hence as the bracing web
was 25 mm from the front to the back the moment lever-arm of the eccentric forces was 2*(25.0-8.87) =
32.26 mm in the lip-to-lip case and was 2*8.87 = 17.74 mm in the back-to-back case.
909
P sin(T) P sin(T)
P sin(T) P sin(T)
(a) lip-to-lip (b) back-to-back

Figure 7: Bracing forces.
The distortion rotational stiffness is given by

K = M/T = Fd/T = 0.8645*d*(P/T) (4)
where M is the applied moment, T the rotation, F is the bracing force and d the moment lever arm.
As the tests were conducted for tensile and compressive forces the mean value of (P/T) is taken.
Hence:
Lip-to-lip Stiffness = 0.8645*32.26*59.37 = 1656 kN.mm/rad (5)
Back-to-back Stiffness = 0.8645*17.74*103.20 = 1583 kN.mm/rad (6)
Although the two rotational stiffnesses are almost the same this is thought to be a coincidence. In general
they would be different.
3 NUMERICAL MODELING
A linear analysis was carried out on the frames using the LUSAS finite element software [9]. Initially a
truss analysis was carried out using bar elements with translational degrees of freedom at each end. This
produced results that were close to those of the RMI model but significantly higher than those produced by
experiments. Hence the model was refined by using beam elements (4 elements per section, each element
being derived from the Kirchoff theory [10] with translational and rotational degrees of freedom at each end
and differential displacement at a mid-node. To account for the eccentricities caused by the centroidal
distance of the upright from the line of action of the bolts connecting the bracing to the upright, bending in
the bolt, eccentricity of the centroid of the bracing from the bolt axis small beam elements and spring
elements were introduced to model the force transfer between bracing and upright. The spring elements had
rotational and translational degrees of freedom. The joint model is shown in Figure 8. In the results below
each different effect was added to the model in order to see the influence of each factor.
spring to
model distortion upright
eccentric link spring to model

rotational release
bolt about bolt axis
brace under
compression brace under
tension
Figure 8: Forces at joint.
910
Table 3 shows a summary of the results obtained from the different analyses. In each case the stiffnesses
obtained from tensile loads were averaged with those of compressive loads as in practical frames both tensile
and compressive forces would act at different times upon the frame.
As the tests were only conducted on a single bay a sensitivity analysis was also undertaken where the
distortional rotational stiffness was halved and doubled in value. The difference in results between the three
cases was found to be negligible and hence is not included in Table 3.
The shear stiffness values from the tests are obtained by applying the equation
kti D 2 (7)
S
L
where S is the transverse shear stiffness, kti the slope of an experimental curve relating end displacement to
applied load (see Figure 9), D the depth of the frame and L the total length of the frame [11].
Figure 9: Experimental Shear stiffness determination.
Table 3: Numerical analysis results versus theoretical (RMI) and test values
RMI Back-to-back Lip-to-lip
FE model (kN) braced frame braced frame
LUSAS Test LUSAS Test
(kN) (kN) (kN) (kN)
Truss 8140 8140
Rigid frame (A) 8675 8675
Frame (A) with 7502 6690
all eccentricities (B)
Frame (B) + bolt bending (C) 10951 4372 1305 6688 643
Frame (C) + rotational release
about bolt axis (D) 3003 3239
Frame (D) + Affect of distortion 2756 1574
Shear stiffness values obtained using rigid frame are higher than the results obtained using truss system
due to the rigidity of the joints. As expected the affect of eccentricities were larger when lip-to-lip bracing
pattern was used compared to a back-to-back bracing pattern. The bolt bending affect is more significant in
the case of a back-to-back bracing patterned frame as the point of load transfer from the bracing members is
at the centre of the bolt. As you also can see from Table 3, the rotation of bracing members on bolt axis
911
significantly reduces shear stiffness values. The affect of distortion is more pronounced in a lip-to-lip bracing
patterned frame as the forces are applied more eccentrically. Though the inclusion of distortion reduces the
difference between the numerical analysis results and the test values, still they differ by about two times. This
could be due to initial looseness in the frame as reported by Beale et al [4] and the contact behaviour between
various elements at the joints. This could be studied by more sophisticated three dimensional numerical
models.
4 CONCLUSIONS
This paper describes the experiments carried out at Oxford Brookes University to measure the local
rotation of the upright at the connection of elements. The distortional stiffness was quantified and introduced
into a three dimensional frame model by the use of an equivalent rotational spring with a further reduction of
the discrepancy between the shear stiffness values determined by theory and experiment. Though the
inclusion of distortion reduces the difference between numerical analysis results and the test values, still they
differ by about two times. This could be due to initial looseness in the frame and the contact behaviour
between various elements at the joints, which could be studied by three dimensional numerical models.
REFERENCES
[1] Sambasiva Rao, S., Beale, R.G. and Godley, M.H.R., “Shear Stiffness of Pallet Rack Upright Frames”,
Proc. 17th Int. Speciality Conf. on Cold-Formed Steel Structures, Orlando, 295-311, 2004.
[2] Sajja, SR, Beale, R.G. and Godley, M.H.R., “Factors affecting the shear stiffness of pallet rack
uprights”, Proc. Int. Colloquium on Stability and Ductility of Steel Structures, Lisbon, 365-372, 2006.
[3] Sajja, S.R., Beale, R.G. and Godley, M.H.R., “Shear Stiffness of pallet rack upright frames”, Journal of
Constructional Steel Research, 64, 867-874, 2008.
[4] Godley, M.H.R. and Beale, R.G., “Investigation of the effects of looseness of bracing components in
the cross-aisle direction on the ultimate load-carrying capacity of pallet rack frames”, Thin-walled
Structures, 46, 848-854, 2008.
[5] BSI, BS EN15512, “Steel static storage systems – Adjustable pallet racking systems – principles for
structural design”, British Standards Institution, London, 2009.
[6] The Rack Manufacturers’ Institute, Specification for the design, testing and utilization of
industrial steel storage racks, 1997.
[7] Timoshenko S. and Gere J., Theory of Elastic Stability, McGraw-Hill, US, 1961.
[8] BSI, BS EN10147, “Continuously hot-dip zinc coated structural steels strip and sheet. Technical
delivery conditions”, British Standards Institution, London, 2000.
[9] FEA Ltd, LUSAS 13.8 user manual, London, UK, 2006.
[10] FEA Ltd, Lusas Theory Manual, London, UK, 2000.
[11] British Standards Institute, BS EN 15512:2009, Steel Static Storage Systems – Adjustable pallet racking
systems – Principles for structural design, London, UK, 2009.
912
BUCKLING, POST-BUCKLING, COLLAPSE AND DESIGN

OF TWO-SPAN COLD-FORMED STEEL BEAMS
Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, ICIST/IST, Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal
e-mails: cbasaglia@civil.ist.utl.pt, dcamotim@civil.ist.utl.pt
Keywords: Cold-formed steel, Two-span continuous beam, Buckling, Post-buckling, Structural design
Abstract. This paper reports the available results of an ongoing numerical investigation on the buckling, post-
buckling, collapse and design of two-span cold-formed steel lipped channel beams subjected to uniformly
distributed loads. The results presented and discussed are obtained through analyses based on Generalised Beam
Theory (elastic buckling analyses) and shell finite element models (elastic and elastic-plastic post-buckling analyses
up to collapse). Moreover, the ultimate loads obtained are used to establish preliminary guidelines concerning the
design of continuous (multi-span) cold-formed steel beams failing in modes that combine local, distortional and
global features. An approach based on the existing Direct Strength Method (DSM) expressions is followed and the
comparison between the numerical and predicted ultimate loads makes it possible to draw some conclusions
concerning the issues that must be addressed by a DSM design procedure for cold-formed continuous beams.
1 INTRODUCTION
In order to adequately design and assess the structural efficiency of cold-formed steel (thin-walled) members one
must acquire in-depth knowledge on their non-linear response, a complex task that requires evaluating buckling
stresses and determining post-buckling equilibrium paths up to collapse (accounting for initial imperfections). Indeed,
a fair amount of research work has been recently devoted to the development of efficient design rules for
isolated thin-walled members. The most successful end product of this research activity was the increasingly
popular “Direct Strength Method” (DSM) [1], already included in the current Australian/New Zealander
(AS/NZS4600: 2005) and North American (NAS: AISI-S100-07) specifications for cold-formed steel structures.
In practice, many thin-walled structural members exhibit multiple spans (e.g., secondary elements like
purlins or side rails) and are often subjected to non-uniform bending moment diagrams that combine positive
(sagging) and negative (hogging) regions, a feature making their buckling behaviour rather complex, as it often (i)
combines local, distortional and global features and (ii) involves a fair amount of localisation (e.g., the occurrence of
local and/or distortional buckling in the vicinity of the intermediate supports, where there are significant moment
gradients and very little restraint can be offered to the slender bottom/compressed flanges). Even so, it seems fair
to say that it is still very scarce the amount of research on the buckling and post-buckling behaviours of thin-walled
steel beams subjected to non-uniform bending moment diagrams, namely continuous beams. In this context, it is
worth mentioning the recent works of (i) Camotim et al. [2], who used Generalised Beam Theory (GBT) to analyse
the buckling behaviour of steel beams with distinct loadings and support conditions (including intermediate supports),
and (ii) Yu and Schafer [3], who investigated the influence of a linear bending moment gradient on the distortional
buckling and post-buckling behaviours of single-span cold-formed steel beams, and used their finding to
examine and extend the DSM design procedure for such members.
The aim of this work is to present and discuss the results of an ongoing numerical investigation on the buckling,
post-buckling, collapse and DSM design of two-span lipped channel beams. The numerical results presented were
obtained through (i) GBT buckling analyses and (ii) elastic and elastic-plastic shell finite element (SFE) post-
buckling analyses. In particular, some interesting conclusions are drawn on the features that must be incorporated in
a DSM design procedure for this type of cold-formed steel members.
913
2 NUMERICAL INVESTIGATION: SCOPE, MODELLING AND RESULTS

The buckling, post-buckling and ultimate strength results presented next concerning the non-linear behaviour of
simply supported two-span symmetric lipped channel beams (i) with the cross-section dimensions given in figure
1(a), (ii) having overall lengths of 4.0m (B4), 8.0m (B8) and 10.0m (B10), and (i) acted by a uniformly distributed
load applied along the shear centre axis, causing only (pre-buckling) major-axis bending (see fig. 1(b)). The beam
end sections are locally/globally pinned and can warp freely, and the intermediate support restrains all in-plane
cross-section displacements. The post-buckling analyses incorporate small-amplitude critical-mode initial
imperfections and do not account for residual stresses.
Concerning the GBT and SFE analyses, the following modelling issues deserve to be mentioned:
(i) GBT Cross-Section Discretisation. Figure 2 shows the nodes considered in the lipped channel section. This
cross-section discretisation leads to 17 deformation modes, which are global (1-4), distortional (5-6) and local
(7-17) − figure 3 shows the in-plane configurations of those more relevant for the buckling analyses.
(ii) GBT Member Discretisation. The GBT equilibrium equations were solved using the beam finite element
developed by Camotim et al. [2]. Each beam span was discretised into 20 finite elements for the three beams.
(iii) SFE Discretisation. The SFE analyses, performed in the code ANSYS [4], were based on beam discretisations
into fine meshes of 4-node SHELL181 elements, as illustrated in figures 4(a1), 4(b1) and 4(c1).
(iv) Material Modelling. The steel material behaviour was deemed either linear elastic (bucking and post-buckling
analyses) or linear-elastic/perfectly-plastic with von Mises yield criterion (post-buckling analyses).
(v) Initial Imperfections. Critical-mode initial geometrical imperfections with amplitude equal to either
10% of the wall thickness (local or distortional buckling) or L/2000 (global buckling).
q
(mm) L/2 L/2

200
L=4.0, 8.0 and 10.0m Natural node

2.0
Intermediate node
17
End node
100
(a) (b)
Figure 1: Two-span continuous beam (a) cross-section dimensions Figure 2: Lipped channel
and (b) loading and first-order elastic bending moment diagram. GBT discretisation.
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Figure 3: In plane shapes of the 10 most relevant lipped channel deformation modes.
2.1 Buckling Results

Figures 4(a1)-(c2) show the critical buckling mode shapes of the lipped channel B4, B8 and B10 beams − the
left and right hand side figures are (i) ANSYS 3D views and (ii) GBT modal amplitude functions, respectively. The
corresponding beam critical buckling loads, yielded by the GBT and ANSYS analyses, are (i) qcr.GBT=46.66kN/m and
qcr.ANSYS=46.78kN/m (B4), (ii) qcr.GBT=10.82kN/m and qcr.ANSYS=10.71kN/m (B8), and (iii) qcr.GBT=6.06kN/m
and qcr.ANSYS=5.92kN/m (B10). The analysis of these buckling results prompts the following remarks:
(i) The GBT and ANSYS critical buckling loads practically coincide − the maximum difference is 2.4% and
concerns the B10 beam, which buckles in a predominantly global mode. There is also very close
agreement between the buckling mode shapes – this is particularly striking if one looks at the zoomed buckled
914
intermediate support regions shown in figures 4(a1), (b1) and (c1).

(ii) The three beam critical buckling modes combine at least two types of deformation modes: (ii1) local and
distortional (B4), and (ii2) local, distortional and global (B8 and B10).
(iii) Figure 4(a2) shows that buckling involves only the B4 intermediate support region. The local modes 7-11 are
dominant and the distortional modes 5-6 also play a relevant role (see the bottom flange rotation).
(iv) Figure 4(b2) shows that the B8 buckling mode involves mostly the intermediate support region − there is a
major contribution from the distortional modes 5-6 and also a non-negligible one from the local modes 7-8.
(note that it is quite difficult to detect the latter in the ANSYS output). The global modes 3-4 (minor axis bending
and torsion) play a lesser role − their contributions are only meaningful within the beam spans.
(v) Figure 4(c2) shows that the global modes 3-4 are highly dominant in the B10 buckling mode − they exhibit one
half-wave per span with maximum participations at the middle. Moreover, there are small contributions of the
local (7-8) and distortional (5-6) modes, but restricted to the close vicinity of the intermediate support.
It is worth noting that, in all existing design procedures, a crucial step is the identification of the buckling mode
nature, which is by no means clear in the above three beams. In order to attempt to establish the “dominant nature”
of these buckling modes, additional GBT analyses were carried out including only global (2-4), distortional (5-6)
and local (7-17) deformation modes. Table 1 shows the relation between the “pure” global (qb.e), distortional (qb.d)
and local (qb.l) buckling loads and critical buckling load (qcr), obtained with all the deformation modes − the
“dominant buckling mode nature”, indicated in the last column, reflects the “closeness” between the corresponding
“pure” buckling load and qcr (lowest of the three ratios), and obviously agrees with results shown in figure 4.
1.0
5 9
6
L/2 = 2.0m
0.0
10 5
7 11 8
-1.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
L (m)
(a1) (a2)
1.0
5
4 x (10) 6
L/2 = 4.0m 0.0
3 7 x (2) 8 x (5)
-1.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
L (m)
(b1) (b2)
1.0
6 5
8 x (5)
L/2 = 5.0m 0.0
5
4 x (2) 7 x (2)
3
-1.0
0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0
L (m)
(c1) (c2)
Figure 4: ANSYS and GBT-based buckling mode shapes of the (a1)-(a2) B4, (b1)-(b2) B8 and (c1)-(c2) B10 beams.
915
Table 1: Relation between qb and qcr load values.

Dominant buckling
Beam qb.e / qcr qb.d / qcr qb.l / qcr
mode nature
B4 5.193 1.399 1.032 Local
B8 1.439 1.104 1.187 Distortional
B10 1.074 1.172 1.391 Global
2.2 Post-Buckling Results

This section addresses the SFE analysis of the elastic and elastic-plastic (yield stresses fy=250, 350, 550, 850 MPa)
post-buckling behaviour of the B4, B8 and B10 beams. The curves shown in figures 5(a), 6(a) and 7(a) are the post-
buckling equilibrium paths q vs. V1, q vs. V2 and q vs. V3, where (i) the symbols , , and indicate the ultimate
loads and (ii) V1, V2 and V3 are displacements selected to provide a better characterisation of the beam post-buckling
behaviours − they correspond to the vertical displacements of the bottom flange-lip corner of cross-sections located in
the beam left span and 23.4cm (V1) or 26.7cm (V2 and V3) away from the intermediate support (see fig. 5(b)).
Figure 5(c) concerns the B4 beam with fy=250MPa and displays the deformed configurations and von Mises stress
distributions associated with (i) the full yielding of the mid-cross-section (i.e., the formation of the first beam plastic
hinge) and (ii) the beam collapse. As for figures 6(b) and 7(b), they provide the failure mode and von Mises stress
distributions of the B8 beam with fy=550MPa and the B10 beam with fy=850MPa, respectively.
q (kN/m) Elastic
60
850 m
50 qcr .4c
550 23
350 m
40 ( II ) .7c
26
30 (I) qu (kN/m) Intermediate
fy=250MPa 58.69 V1 Support
20 V2
53.23
10 42.02 V3
37.75
0 V1 (mm)
0 5 10 15 End Support
(a) (b)
I: q=33.38kN/m II: q=37.75kN/m
fy=250MPa MPa fy=250MPa MPa

.766198 3.958
28.448 31.296
56.129 58.634
83.811 85.972
111.493 113.31
139.174 140.648
166.856 167.986
1st plastic 194.537 195.324
222.219 2nd plastic 3rd plastic 222.662
hinge 250 hinge hinge 250
(c)
Figure 5: B4 beam (a) equilibrium paths, (b) location of the measured displacements and (c) deformed configuration
and von Mises stresses associated with the formation of the first plastic hinge and at beam collapse.
916
q (kN/m) 850
12 Elastic
qcr
10 350 550 MPa
8 2.096
62.956
6 qu (kN/m) 123.816
fy=250MPa 11.69 184.676
4 245.536
11.08
9.59 306.396
2 fy=550MPa 367.256
8.58 428.116
0 V2 (mm) 488.976
0 5 10 15 549.836
(a) (b)
Figure 6: B8 beam (a) equilibrium paths and (b) deformed configuration and von Mises stresses at collapse.
q (kN/m)
7 850
qcr Elastic
6
MPa
5 550
12.8
4 350 46.934
qu (kN/m) 81.068
3 fy=250MPa 115.202
6.05
2 5.97 149.336
183.47
5.35 fy=850MPa 217.604
1
4.39 V3 (mm) 251.737
0 285.871
0 2 4 6 8 320.005
(a) (b)
Figure 7: B10 beam (a) equilibrium paths and (b) deformed configuration and von Mises stresses at collapse.
The analysis of the post-buckling results presented in figures 5 to 7 leads to the following conclusions:
(i) The amount of post-critical strength reserve increases as (i1) the yield stress increases (obviously) and (i2) one
“travels” from the B10 beams to the B4 ones, due to the growing presence of local buckling. The higher post-
critical strength reserve occurs for the B4 beam with fy=850MPa − ultimate-to-critical load ratio equal to 1.25.
(ii) The bending moment redistribution is very clear in the beams with low yield stresses, whose collapse is less
affected by the geometrically non-linear (buckling) effects. Figure 5(c) shows the deformed configurations of
the B4 beam with fy=250MPa associated with (ii1) the full yielding of the intermediate support cross-section,
occurring for q=33.38kN/m (point I), and (ii2) the beam collapse, occurring for q=37.75kN/m (point II) and
corresponding to the nearly simultaneously yielding of cross-section near the mid-spans.
(iii) The failure mechanisms of the beams with high yield stresses are very similar to corresponding critical buckling
modes, thus implying that the collapse stems mainly from geometrically non-linear effects. Moreover, it is
worth noting that the failures of all the beams with fy=850MPa occur practically in the elastic range.
(iv) Increasing the yield stresses from 250MPa to 850MPa leads to ultimate load increases of 55.5% (B4 beams),
36.2% (B8 beams) and 37.8% (B10 beams).
3 DSM DESIGN PROCEDURE

The DSM adopts “Winter-type” design curves, calibrated against experimental and numerical results concerning
the ultimate strength of isolated (single-span) members acted by uniform internal force/moment. In beams, the
nominal bending strengths against local (Mnl), distortional (Mnd) and global (Mne) failures are given by the expressions
917
§ §M ·
0.4 · 0.4
¨ ¸§¨ M crl ·
M nl = M y M nl = ¨ 1 − 0.15¨ crl ¸
¸¸¨ M
¸ My (1)
¨ ¨ My ¸ ¸
© © ¹ ¹©
y ¹
( λl = M y / M crl ≤ 0.776 ) ( λl > 0.776 )
§ §M ·
0.5 · 0.5
¨ ¸§¨ M crd ·
M nd = M y M nd = ¨ 1 − 0.22¨ crd ¸
¸¸¨ M
¸ My (2)
¨ ¨ My ¸ ¸
© © ¹ ¹©
y ¹
( λd = M y / M crd ≤ 0.673 ) ( λd > 0.673 )
10 § 10 M y ·
M ne = M y M ne = ¨¨ 1 − ¸¸ M y M ne = M cre , (3)
9 © 36 M cre ¹
( λe = M y / M cre < 0.60 ) (0.60 λe 1.336) (λe > 1.336)
where (i) λl, λd and λe are local, distortional and global slenderness values, (ii) Mcrl, Mcrd and Mcre are the elastic
global, local and distortional critical buckling moments and (iii) M y = W y f y is the cross-section first yield moment
− Wy is the elastic modulus. In beams subjected to non-uniform bending, it is convenient to replace the various “My
values” appearing in (1)-(3) by “first yield load parameter values” − in this case, the obvious choice is qy =32 My/L2.
It is worth noting that the application of expressions (1)-(3) corresponds to neglecting (i) the cross-section elastic-
plastic strength reserve, in statically determinate or indeterminate beams, and (ii) the bending moment redistribution,
in statically indeterminate beams − this means that overly conservative predictions are to be expected in statically
indeterminate beams, particularly in the lower slenderness range.
Figures 8 to 10 show comparisons between the ultimate load predictions yielded by the current DSM design
curves and the collapse loads obtained through SFE analyses involving B4, B8 and B10 beams with 15 different yield
stresses, associated with yield-to-critical load ratios qy /qcr ranging from 0.06 to 3.74. The numerical ultimate loads,
normalised w.r.t. qy, are represented by the symbols , and , respectively for beam local (B4), distortional
(B8) and global (B10) failures. Since the beams exhibit buckling and failure modes that are not “pure”, the DSM
curve choice was made on the basis of their “dominant buckling mode nature”, given in table 1 − however, the λl, λd
and λe are calculated with the actual beam critical buckling load qcr, which is neither “purely” local, distortional or
global. The observation of these comparisons prompts the following remarks:
(i) The DSM predictions are (i1) excessively safe in the low slenderness range, (i2) slightly safe in the intermediate
slenderness range and (i3) unsafe (local and distortional) or accurate (global) in the high slenderness range.
(ii) None of the DSM curves can predict efficiently (safely and economically) the two-span beam collapse loads,
which is due to a combination of (ii1) neglecting both the cross-section elastic-plastic strength reserve and
(mostly) the bending moment redistribution (low slenderness range) and (ii2) the “mixed” nature of the failure
mechanisms (high slenderness range).
(iii) In the high slenderness range, the elastic critical buckling load curves (dashed lines) are either slightly below (B4)
or passes right through (B8 and B10) the beam collapse load ratios.
(iv) Since the beam collapse loads already incorporate the local, distortional and global buckling effects, it seems to
make little sense to neglect the cross-section elastic-plastic strength reserve and beam moment redistribution. The
recent work by Shifferaw and Schafer [5] confirms this assertion − it reports experimental and numerical
evidence, involving simply supported isolated beams (no moment redistribution), of the (logical) presence of a
non-negligible inelastic strength in the low slenderness range.
(v) The most rational approach to account for the beam inelastic strength reserve (including moment redistribution)
is to replace qy (first yield loads) by qpl (geometrically linear plastic collapse loads of the whole beam) in (1)-(3).
Figures 8 to 10 also show comparisons between the ultimate load predictions yielded by these modified DSM
design curves and the previous SFE collapse loads, now normalised w.r.t. qpl and represented by the symbols
, and . The observation of these new comparisons leads to the following comments:
918
(v.1) In the low slenderness range, the modified DSM predictions are either very accurate (local and distortional)
or barely unsafe (global), which confirms the presence and relevance of the beam inelastic strength reserve.
(v.2) In the intermediate slenderness range, the modified DSM predictions are either accurate-to-unsafe (local
and distortional) or clearly unsafe (global).
(v.3) In the high slenderness range, the modified DSM predictions practically coincide with the previous ones.
1.6 DSM curve
1.4 Elastic buckling
1.2 (qu /qy)
§ qu ·
¨ ¸ 1.0 (qu /qpl)
¨ qy ¸
© ¹
0.8
§ qu · 0.6
¨ ¸
¨ q pl ¸
© ¹ 0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 (qy /qcrl)0.5 or (qpl /qcrl)0.5
Figure 8: Comparison between SFE B4 beam collapse loads and DSM local design curve predictions.
1.6
DSM curve
1.4
Elastic buckling
1.2 (qu /qy)
§ qu ·
¨ ¸ 1.0 (qu /qpl)
¨ qy ¸
© ¹
0.8
§ qu ·
¨ ¸ 0.6
¨ q pl ¸
© ¹ 0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 (qy /qcrd)0.5 or (qpl /qcrd)0.5
Figure 9: Comparison between SFE B8 beam collapse loads and DSM distortional design curve predictions.
1.6
DSM curve
1.4
Elastic buckling
1.2 (qu /qy)
§ qu ·
¨ ¸ 1.0 (qu /qpl)
¨ qy ¸
© ¹
0.8
§ qu ·
¨ ¸ 0.6
¨ q pl ¸
© ¹ 0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4
(qy /qcre)0.5 or (qpl /qcre)0.5
Figure 10: Comparison between SFE B10 beam collapse loads and DSM global design curve predictions.
Although much more research work is obviously needed before it is possible to have a firm opinion on the DSM
design of multi-span cold-formed steel beam, it seems possible to make some preliminary comments on the basis of
919
the limited amount of results (both in quantity and in scope) presented in this work:
(i) Since there are no “pure” buckling and failure modes, the DSM curve choice should be based on the concept of
“dominant buckling/failure mode nature”.
(ii) The first yield load (moment) should be replaced by the first-order plastic collapse load (moment), thus
accounting for the cross-section elastic-plastic strength reserve and beam moment redistribution. Failing to do
this will inevitably lead to overly conservative prediction in the low slenderness range.
(iii) Apparently, the most rational approach is to develop and calibrate design curves that are based on (iii1) the
plastic collapse load, for stocky beams, and on (iii2) the elastic buckling load, for slender beams. Nothing can yet
be said about the intermediate slenderness range (or about the slenderness limits separating the three ranges) −
nevertheless, the current DSM design curves provide the quite satisfactory ultimate load estimates in this range.
4 CONCLUSION
This work reported the results of an ongoing numerical investigation on the buckling, post-buckling, collapse
and design of two-span cold-formed steel lipped channel beams subjected to uniformly distributed loads. These
results consisted of (i) critical buckling loads and mode shapes, determined through GBT and ANSYS analyses,
(ii) post-buckling equilibrium paths (up to collapse), deformed configurations and von Mises stress distributions,
obtained by means of ANSYS elastic and elastic-plastic shell finite element analyses, and (iii) ultimate load
predictions, yielded by the current DSM design curves. The following aspects deserve to be mentioned:
(i) The beam buckling and failure modes combine two or three types of deformation modes, which precludes a
straightforward classification. Thus, one must resort to the “dominant buckling/failure mode nature” concept.
(ii) The beam post-buckling behaviour and inelastic strength reserve (ii1) depend on the buckling/failure mode
characteristics and yield-to-critical stress ratio, and (ii2) may be heavily affected by moment redistribution,
provided that the yield stress is low enough − on the other hand, failure may occur in the elastic range in beams
with high yield stresses.
(iii) Due to the “mixed nature” of the beam failure modes, the choice of the appropriate DSM design curve (amongst
the currently available ones) must also be based on the “dominant buckling/failure mode nature” concept.
(iv) The direct application of the current DSM design curves leads to either over-conservative (low slenderness) or
clearly unsafe (high slenderness) beam ultimate load predictions.
(v) The numerical ultimate loads obtained clearly indicate that (v1) the beams with low slenderness exhibit a fair
amount of inelastic strength reserve, stemming mostly from the moment redistribution, and (v2) ultimate loads of
beams with high slenderness are fairly well approximated by their critical buckling loads, particularly if global
buckling is involved. Although further studies are required to confirm these preliminary findings, it seems that
the current DSM design curves will only be efficient if modified to take into account these two aspects.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The first author gratefully acknowledges the financial support provided by “Fundação para a Ciência e
Tecnologia” (FCT − Portugal), through the post-doctoral scholarship nº SFRH/BPD/62904/2009.
REFERENCES
[1] Schafer B.W., “Review: the direct strength method of cold-formed steel member design”, Journal of
[2] Camotim D., Silvestre N., Basaglia C. and Bebiano R., “GBT-based buckling analysis of thin-walled members
with non-standard support conditions”, Thin-Walled Structures, 46(7-9), 800-815, 2008.
[3] Yu C. and Schafer B.W., “Simulation of cold-formed steel beams in local and distortional buckling with
applications to the direct strength method”, Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 63(5), 581-590, 2007.
[4] Swanson Analysis Systems Inc., ANSYS Reference Manual (version 8.1), 2004.
[5] Shifferaw Y. and Schafer B.W., “Inelastic bending capacity in cold-formed steel members”, Proceedings of
Structural Stability Research Council Annual Stability Conference (New Orleans, 18-21/4), 279-299, 2007.
920
EXPERIMENTAL AND NUMERICAL INVESTIGATION OF

POLYURETHANE SANDWICH PANELS
I. Vayas*, M.-E. Dasiou* and X. A. Lignos*
* School of Civil Engineering, National Technical University

Ir.Polytechniou St 9, 15780, Athens, Greece
e-mails: vastahl@central.ntua.gr, medasiou@yahoo.com, lignosx@ central.ntua.gr
Keywords: sandwich panels, experimental investigation, simplified numerical model.
Abstract. Polyurethane sandwich panels are factory made, self-supporting structural elements that are
used for roofs and roof cladding, external walls and wall cladding and walls (including partitions). As
new profile-shapes of panels are developed, the determination of their mechanical properties is
necessary. A series of experiments was performed in the Laboratory of Steel Structures at NTUA,
following the provisions of EN 14509. The test specimens, produced by the company ISOBAU, were of
trapezoidal as well as of waved profile. Additionally, evaluation of the experimental results was
implemented with the use of a numerical model and design tables were conducted for practical
applications.
1 INTRODUCTION
Sandwich panels, consisting of two thin metal sheet faces and an intermediate rigid polyurethane
core, are load bearing elements of a structure transferring wind load to the supporting frame. The different
material, thickness and mechanical properties of the elements used to compose the panels produce a
complexity in the determination of the capacity of the panels. Thus, design tables of such elements must
be provided from the producing company. In the present paper the determination of the mechanical
properties and load bearing capacity of sandwich panels, through experimental investigation and
numerical analysis, is presented. The experimental activity and procedures were based on the current
specifications and especially the provisions of the Ǽȃ 14509 Self-supporting double skin metal faced
insulating panels – Factory made products – Specifications. For the numerical analysis, a simplified
model is proposed. The investigated panels, produced by the company ISOBAU and used as wall
covering for industrial and other types of steel building, have one external profiled metal face and one flat
metal face and a polyurethane core. The profiled face is of trapezoidal or of wave form (Figure 1).
Different heights of these types of panels are examined.
Figure 1: The external face of the investigated panels is of trapezoidal (left) or waved (right) profile.
921
I. Vayas et al.
The aim of the experimental activity is to determine the mechanical properties of the individual
materials used to compose a panel (metal sheets and polyurethane core) and the bearing capacity of the
composite element. Therefore the following tests were implemented:
1. Tensile test of the metal sheets and determination of the metal thickness
2. Cross panel tensile test of the core
3. Compressive strength and modulus of the core material
4. Shear test on the core material
5. Determination of apparent core density and mass of panel
6. Test to determine the bending moment capacity and stiffness of a simply supported panel
7. Test to determine the interaction between bending moment and support force.
3.1 Tensile test of the metal sheets and determination of the metal thickness
The metal sheets are cut from coils, which have a nominal value of thickness t and yield stress fy. The
steel grade is S320. The aim of these tests is to determine the actual values of the thickness tobs (with an
accuracy of 1/100mm) and the yield stress of the metal sheets fobs. These measurements are also necessary
for the determination of correction factors used in the results of the tests to determine the bending
moment capacity and stiffness of a simply supported panel. The tensile tests were conducted in a
universal testing machine INSTRON 300LX, with load effector of 300kN capacity. The imposed force as
well as the deformation of the metal sheets are measured and processed with the Instron Bluehill Material
Testing Software (version 2.15). Figure 2 shows an indicative experimental stress-strain curve.
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Figure 2: Indicative experimental stress-strain curve.
3.2 Cross panel tensile test, compressive strength and modulus of the core material
The cross panel tensile tests and the compressive strength tests are implemented for the determination
of the tensile and compressive strength and the elastic modulus of the polyurethane core. The specimens
are of a square cross section of 100mm and for the tensile tests the faces of the panels are intact in order
to include the tensile bond strength between the faces and the core. The tensile tests are carried out on
specimens under normal temperature (200C) and on specimens, which have been heated for 20 h to 24 h
in a heating chamber at a temperature of 800C. These two types of tests were carried out in the universal
testing machine INSTRON 300LX, with load effector of 300kN capacity. Figure 3 shows an indicative
experimental stress-strain curve for each type of test and Figure 4 shows the two typical failure modes of
the core under tension.
922
I. Vayas et al.
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6

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Figure 3: Indicative experimental stress-strain curves of the tension (left) and compression tests (right).
Figure 4: Failure modes of the core under tension: failure of the bond between the faces and the core
(left) and failure of the polyurethane core (right).
3.3 Shear test on the core material

The shear strength and shear modulus of the core material is determined using the four-point bending
tests on a specimen cut in the lengthwise direction of a panel. The clear span is 1 m, unless no shear
failure occurs where the length shall be decreased in 10 cm steps until a shear failure is obtained. The
ultimate load carried by the specimen failing in shear is measured and the shear modulus is calculated
from the load deflection. The imposed force as well as the deformation of the metal sheets are measured
and processed with the Instron Bluehill Material Testing Software (version 2.15). The ultimate shear
strength fCv of the core material is calculated from the maximum load attained in a specimen failing in
shear based on the following equation:
Fu
f cv = kv
2⋅ B ⋅e (1)
,where Fu is the ultimate load carried by the specimen failing in shear; B is the measured width of the
specimen; e is the measured depth between the centroids of the faces; kv is the reduction factor for cut
ends in pre-formed or lamella cores.
Figure 5 shows the force-deflection curve for all tests, where shear failure was achieved (Figure 5). In
many tests, especially with specimens cut from panels of lower heights (50 and 60mm), no shear failure
was obtained, even after reducing the span significantly. In these cases, the failure of the specimens was
obtained due to compression failure of the metal sheet after detachment of the metal sheet from the core
was observed (Figure 6).
923
I. Vayas et al.

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Figure 5: Experimental load – deflection curves for specimen with shear failure.
Figure 6: Failure modes obtained from the shear tests.
3.4 Test to determine the bending moment capacity and stiffness of a simply supported panel
A four-point bending test on a panel (with its full width) is carried out in order to determine the
bending capacity of the simply supported panels (Figure 7). In order to obtain pure bending failure, an
appropriate ratio length/height of the specimen is chosen based on the recommendations of EN 14509.
In the first series of these tests the force is imposed with a hydraulic actuator (with a capacity of ±500
kN) on the profiled face of the panels. In order to achieve uniform distribution of the line load acting on
the trapezoidal profiled face, timber loading platens are used in the troughs of the profile (Figure 8). The
loading platens shall be sufficient to avoid compressive failure of the core below the platens. In the case
of the panels with waved profiled face, special cuts of the same type of panels were used (Figure 8). In
the second series the force is implemented on the flat face of the panels, causing tension to the profiled
face. Figure 9 shows an indicative force-deflection curve, where bending failure was achieved.
Figure 7: Experimental set-up of the four-point bending tests.
924
I. Vayas et al.
Figure 8: Timber loading platens on the trapezoidal profiled face (left) and special cuts of the panels
on the waved profiled face (right).
In the first series of tests, where the flat face is in tension, the wrinkling stress can be determined
based on EN 14509 from equation 2, where the ultimate bending capacity is taken into account:
Mu
σw =
e ⋅ Α1 (2)
,where Mu is the ultimate bending moment recorded in the tests, after correcting for the effect of the self
weight of the panel and the weight of the loading equipment; e is the depth between centroids of the faces
and A1 is the cross-sectional area of the face in compression.
In the second series of tests, where the flat face is in compression, the wrinkling stress can be determined
based on EN 14509 from equation 3, where only a moment component MS arising from the normal forces
F1 and F2 in the faces multiplied by the distance between the centroids e is taken into account:
Ms M − MF2
σw = = u (3)
e ⋅ Α1 e ⋅ Α1
, where MF2 is the bending moment carried by the profiled face and Mu is the ultimate bending moment.
The values of the calculated wrinkling stress are additionally corrected by the correction factors obtained
from the tensile and thickness tests of the metal sheets. The final bending strength for both series of tests
for all types of panels is presented in Table 1.

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Figure 9: Indicative force-deflection curve obtained from the tests.
Table 1: Bending strength of a single span panel.

Bending strength Bending strength
ıw [MPa] ıw [MPa]
Panel type
Profiled face in Flat face in
compression compression
ISORIB 50 198.14 100.90
ISORIB 60 209.52 150.33
925
I. Vayas et al.
ISORIB 80 214.89 152.40

ISOWAVE 65 311.72 174.83
ISOWAVE 95 280.94 110.42
3.5 Test to determine the interaction between bending moment and support force
The bending strength at an internal support of a panel which is continuous over two or more spans is
determined from tests of a single span panel subject to a line load. Similar to the tests performed to
determine the bending moment capacity and stiffness of a simply supported panel, two types of test are
carried out in order to simulate downward load (compression of the flat face) as well as the uplift load
(compression of the profiled face). For the uplift load tests the number and type of screws and washers
are similar to those used in practice. The corresponding wrinkling stress for flat or lightly profiled faces
or the buckling or yield stress for profiled faces is then determined by calculation.
Figure 10: Experimental set-up of the test on of a single span panel subject to a line load.
The load and deflection of the panels, for which bending failure is achieved, is obtained from the
experiments. Figure 11 shows an indicative force-deflection curve. The wrinkling stress is then calculated
with the use of simplified numerical model, which is presented in the next chapter. The final bending
strength for both series of tests for all types of panels, presented in Table 2, are the ones obtained from
the numerical simulation corrected by the correction factors obtained from the tensile and thickness tests
of the metal sheets.

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Figure 11: Indicative force-deflection curve obtained from the tests.
Table 2: Bending strength of the panels at an intermediate support.

Bending strength Bending strength
ıw [MPa] ıw [MPa]
Panel type
Profiled face in Flat face in
compression compression
ISORIB 50 170.72 116.33
ISORIB 60 147.27 103.12
926
I. Vayas et al.
ISORIB 80 179.76 124.21

ISOWAVE 65 236.50 139.81
ISOWAVE 95 161.92 93.35
4 NUMERICAL SIMULATION
4.1 Numerical model

For panels with one profiled face an analytic approach is simple and feasible only for uniform loaded
single span beams. In order to calculate the bending strength of the panels at an intermediate support an
elastic numerical analysis is applied, where the sandwich panel is simulated as a truss beam. The upper
and lower chords are beam elements with the cross section of the profiled and flat face of the panel
respectively (Figure 12). The core of the panel is simulated by the diagonals whose axial stiffness is
defined by equation 4:
Gc ⋅ Ac
EA =
2 ⋅ sin 2 α ⋅ cos α (4)
, where Gc is the shear modulus determined from the experiments, Ac is the area of the polyurethane
core and Į (alpha) is the angle of the diagonals defined by equation 5:
Δz
tan α =
Δx (5)
, where ǻz is the height of the truss (distance between centroids of the faces) and ǻx is the length of
one unit of the truss (Figure 12). The distance ǻx is chosen almost twice the height ǻz in order to obtain
an obtuse angle.
Figure 12 Model for a panel.
The shear stress of the core is equal to:

V
τc =
Ac (6)
, where V is the shear force and Ac is the area of the polyurethane core. The axial stress of the
diagonals is equal to the shear stress of the core:
σ =τ ĺ V
=
V (7)
A ⋅ 2 ⋅ sin a Ac
and the area of the diagonals can be determined from equation 8:
A = Ac 2 ⋅ sin a (8)
The elastic modulus of the diagonals can be determined by equations 4 and 8:
2 ⋅ sin a Gc ⋅ Ac Gc (9)
E= ⋅ =
Ac 2 ⋅ sin 2 α ⋅ cos α sin α ⋅ cos α
927
I. Vayas et al.
4.2 Verification of numerical model

The verification of the numerical model is achieved by comparing the numerical results in terms of
stress and deflection with the analytical method proposed by EN 14509 for a single span panel with
uniform loading. The results presented in Table 3 are for 3 types of panels with the same trapezoidal
profiled face but with different heights (50mm, 60mm, 80mm). All panels have a length of 4m and have a
uniform load of 1kN/m. The difference between the numerical and the analytic results are within
acceptable design limits (99-103%).
Table 3: Comparison of numerical and analytical method.

Numerical
Panel type
Analytic method method
Deflection w (mm) 48.20 47.50
Compression stress of
ISORIB 50 155.00 153.20
profiled face ıw [MPa]
Tension stress of flat face
105.00 106.00
ıw [MPa]
ISORIB 60 130.00 123.00
100.00 97.00
ıw [MPa]
ISORIB 80 89.70 87.20
72.60 71.80
ıw [MPa]
5 CONCLUSION
An experimental investigation of two new types of panels, produced by the company ISOBAU has
been performed. The aim of the tests is to determine and certify the mechanical characteristics and
bearing capacity of these sandwich panels. The experimental procedure is based on the provisions of EN
14509. For the determination of the internal forces, the interpretation of the experimental results and the
design of panels an innovative simplified numerical model is proposed, where the sandwich panel is
simulated as a truss beam. The profiled and flat faces of the panel are simulated as beam elements (the
upper and lower cords of the truss beam) and the core of the panel is simulated by the diagonals. The
axial stiffness of the diagonals is defined by the shear modulus of the core and the angle of the diagonals.
REFERENCES
[1] prEN 14 509 Self-supporting double skin metal faced insulating sandwich panels – Factory made
products –Specification
[2] Davies, J., A Lightweight Sandwich Construction, Oxford: Blackwell Science 2001
[3] Vayas, I., Dasiou, M.-E., Lignos, X. “Experimental Investigation of the behaviour of the wall
panels Isorib ans Isowave”. Technical Report of Research Project, 2009
[4] Lange, J., Mertens, R., “Abminderung der Knitterspannung bei Sandwichelementen mit
Polyurethankern unter erhöhter Temperatur”. Stahlbau, 77(5), 369-377, 2008.
928
IMPERFECTIONS SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF PITCHED ROOF

COLD – FORMED STEEL PORTAL FRAMES
Dan Dubina*, Viorel Ungureanu*, Zsolt Nagy**, Luis Nunes* and Paul Pernes**
* Faculty of Civil Engineering, The “Politehnica” University of Timisoara, Romania

e-mails: dan.dubina@ct.upt.ro, viorel.ungureanu@ct.upt.ro
** Faculty of Civil Engineering, The Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania
e-mail: zsolt.nagy@gordias.ro
Keywords: Imperfections, Pitch roof portal frames, Thin-walled cold-formed steel members, Bolted
joints, Numerical simulations, Full-scale test, General Method for lateral and lateral-torsional buckling.
Abstract. The paper summarizes the results of experimental and numerical simulation programs carried
out on full-scale pitched roof cold-formed steel portal frames of back-to-back lipped channel sections
with bolted joints in order to evaluate the influence of different type of geometrical and structural
imperfections on the structural stability performance of these structures. Double frame units have been
tested under: (1) horizontal load, and (2) horizontal and gravity loadings. For numerical simulations the
imperfections were taken according to the tolerances specified in EN 1090-2 and the provisions of EN
1993-1-1. Based on this, in case of partially lateral restrained frames, the accuracy of General Method
of EN1993-1-1 is investigated.
1 INTRODUCTION
The global behavior of cold-formed steel portal frames of bolted joints were studied experimentally
by Lim [1], Dundu & Kemp [2] and Kwon et al. [3]. All these studies provided evidence of the crucial
importance of joint performance on the global response of frames, which are semi-rigid and in almost all
cases with partial strength [1].
An extensive experimental program on ridge and eaves joints, with three alternative joint
configurations, using welded bracket elements and bolts installed either on webs only or both on webs
and flanges was carried out at the “Politehnica” University of Timisoara. Test on joints have shown their
failure occurs always at the edge of lap between connecting bracket and cold-formed sections. In case of
specimens with bolts on webs only, the failure starts early by local bucking of the web, caused by the high
concentration of compression stresses around bolt holes, and subsequently is extended on the flanges, to
form at the end a local plastic mechanism. Specimens of bolts installed both on the flanges and webs of
connected members are nearly full resistant, but still remain semi-rigid. Detailed results on joint behavior
are reported by Dubina et al. [4]. Based on experimental results, a calculation procedure based on the
component method [5] was adapted for cold-formed joints [6]. Joint stiffness and moment capacity,
obtained using the component method, are used to develop a joint model for global structural analysis.
Two full-scale tests on cold-formed pitched-roof portal frames with bolted joints were performed, with
the primary objective to assess their performance under horizontal (seismic) loading. A procedure to
evaluate the ultimate design capacity of these frames was proposed [7]. In present paper, results of
experimental investigations together with numerical simulations and comparison with analytical
predictions are presented. For numerical simulations the imperfections were taken according to the
tolerances specified in EN 1090-2 and the provisions of EN 1993-1-1. Based on this, in case of partially
lateral restrained frames, the accuracy of General Method of EN1993-1-1 is investigated.
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Dan Dubina et al.
2 FRAME TESTING AND PREVIOUS NUMERICAL ANALYSIS

Following experimental tests on cold-formed joints, two full-scale tests on frames were performed
[8]. Frames dimensions were chosen identical to the ones in the initial design used to establish the
dimensions of tested joints. Considering the poor performance of joints with bolts on web only,
configurations with both web and flange bolts were used for frame construction. Pinned supports were
designed at the column bases. Objective of the full-scale tests was to assess performance of pitched-roof
cold-formed portal frames with moment-resisting joints under horizontal loading, with particular
emphasis on earthquake loading. The test setup consisted of two frames in upward position, located 1.5m
apart. Tie bracings were provided between the two frames in order to provide out-of plane stability.
Purlins and corrugated sheeting were installed on the girders, but no side rails were provided on the
columns. Therefore, the structural systems can be considered as laterally restraint. The schematic
representation of test setup is shown in Figure 1. A reaction frame was used in order to apply lateral load.
Figure 1: Experimental test setup for full-scale tests.
In the case of the first test (C1) only lateral loading was applied. For the second test (C2), gravity
loading corresponding to seismic design situation was applied, followed by increasing lateral load up to
failure. Total gravity loading amounted to 31.2kN per frame, and was applied using 30 corrugated steel
sheets laid on the purlins.
Experimental tests on ridge and eaves joints showed that bolted connections of back-to-back lipped
channel cold-formed members are semi-rigid, even when bolts are provided on the web and flanges of the
lipped channel section. Therefore, deformations can be underestimated if connections are assumed rigid
for global frame analysis. In order to assess the influence of connection stiffness and post-buckling
resistance, three frame models, presented in Figure 2, were analyzed [8]. A nonlinear static analysis under
increasing lateral load, performed with SAP2000 computer code, was applied to the models and the
results were compared to experimental ones.
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2: Considered structural models: (a) rigid connections – M1, (b) elastic-perfectly plastic
connections – M2 and (c) degrading connections – M3.
The first model (M1, see Figure 2a) was the model where connections were considered rigid.
Nominal geometrical characteristics were used to model members. Finite dimensions of brackets were
taken into account. Local buckling of members was modeled by rigid-plastic hinges located at the
extremities of cold-formed members. Analytically determined moment capacity (Mc=117.8kNm) was
considered. The second model (M2, see Figure 2b) was obtained from model M1 by adopting an elastic
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Dan Dubina et al.
perfectly-plastic model of the joint. Initial stiffness (KiniC=5224kNm/rad) and moment capacity
(Mc=117.8kNm) were the ones obtained using the analytical procedure. In the case of M3 model (see
Figure 2c), the elasto-plastic model of the joint was enhanced considering the stiffening effect due to the
wedging and friction between the cold-formed profiles and the bracket in the early stage of loading. Also,
the softening branch in the post-elastic stage was considered. Value of the "slipping" moment Ms was
estimated based on experimental results, as 15% from the connection moment capacity. Following the
initial rigid behavior, connection model consists of an elastic response at the initial stiffness KiniC
(determined using component method), up to the connection moment capacity MC.
Figures 3 and 4 show and display the behavior and response of C1 frame. It can be observed that the
rigid model (M1) provides a good approximation of the initial response of the frame up to lateral forces
of about 10kN. At larger forces, model M2, with semi-rigid connections, provides a better approximation
of the experimental response. The M3 model, incorporating both the initial rigid response and subsequent
semi-rigid behavior shows the best agreement to the experimental results.
(a) (b)
Figure 3: C1 frame: (a) global view and (b) local buckling of the left beam connection.
80
Fpl,Rd
70
Fwb,Rd
60
Feff,Rd
50
F, kN
40
exp (b)
30 exp: conn 2 hinging
exp: conn 5 hinging
20 M1 model
M2 model
M3 model
10 M3: conn 2 hinging
M3: conn 5 hinging
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
(a) Δ , mm (c)
Figure 4: Frame C1: (a) experimental vs. numerical lateral force – deformation curves, (b) position of
local buckling observed experimentally and (c) in the numerical model.
In the case of the C2 frame, gravity loading corresponding to seismic design situation was first
applied, followed by increasing lateral loading up to complete failure of the frame. Figures 5 and 6 show
similar behavior and results as in case of C1 frame. However, global resistance under horizontal loading
was smaller in the case of the C2 frame. It was attained at the first local buckling in the beam near the
right eaves (connection 5, Figure 6b), when the lateral force resistance dropped suddenly. It was followed
by a combined local buckling and lateral-torsional buckling of one of the columns at the mid-height (see
Figure 5a). Finally, local buckling of the beam at the left eaves was observed (at connection 2, Figure 6b).
931
Dan Dubina et al.
(a) (b)
Figure 5: C2 frame: (a) global view and (b) local buckling of the right beam connection.
All numerical models overestimate global frame resistance under lateral loading. The location of first
local buckling was correctly predicted by numerical model (at connection 5, see Figure 6c), column
hinging observed in the experimental test was not confirmed by numerical models. Column hinging can
be explained by the fact that in the experimental test the horizontal load had an eccentricity of 25mm,
which increased the influence of compression force in right side column, combined with the effect of no
lateral restraining at column flanges by side rails. These effects were not present in the numerical model.
80
Fpl,Rd
70
Fwb,Rd
60
Feff,Rd
50
F, kN
40
(b)
30 exp
exp: conn 5 hinging
exp: right column hinging
20 M1 model
M2 model
10 M3 model
M3: conn 5 hinging
M3: conn 2 hinging
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
(a) Δ , mm (c)
Figure 6: Frame C2: (a) comparison of experimental and numerical lateral force - deformation curves, (b)
position of local buckling observed experimentally and (c) in the numerical model.
It can be concluded that the M3 model seems to provide the best agreement to the experimental
results, if initial stiffness, lateral resistance, and post-buckling response are envisaged. Global frame
resistance under lateral loads drops quickly after the first local buckling, when maximum force is reached.
As analytical prediction of design capacity, three methods were proposed to estimate the ultimate
resistance [7] at the edge of bracket-to-rafter lap (e.g. the first local buckling location) of that section
under design loads, i.e.:
- the “effective width” model, Feff,Rd, based on EN1993-1-3 procedure;
- the “plastic” model, based on the local plastic mechanism, Fpl,Rd;
- the “interactive” model, which considers the coupling effect between web crippling, at the edge
of the bracket-to-member lap, and the bearing in the bolt holes in flanges, Fwb,Rd.
In Figures 4(a) and 6(a) the three lines, corresponding to the three methods are presented
comparatively with tests and numerical simulations. As expected, the “interactive” model, fit better with
tests and numerical analysis (M3 model).
932
Dan Dubina et al.
3 GENERAL METHOD FOR LATERAL AND LATERAL TORSIONAL BUCKLING

OF STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
The General Method of EN1993-1-1 [10] may be used where the other methods of EN1993-1-1 do
not apply. It allows the verification of the resistance to lateral and lateral-torsional buckling for structural
components. Overall resistance to out-of-plane buckling for any structural component can be verified by:
χ opα ult , k
≥ 1.0 (1)
γ M1
where: αult.k is the minimum load amplifier of the design loads to reach the characteristic resistance of the
most critical cross-section of the structural component considering its in plane behavior without taking
lateral or lateral-torsional buckling into account however accounting for all effects due to in plane
geometrical deformation and imperfections, global and local, where relevant; χop is the reduction factor
for the non-dimensional slenderness λ op , to take account of lateral and lateral-torsional buckling; γM1 is
the safety coefficient (γM1 = 1).
The global non dimensional slenderness λ op for the structural component should be determined from:
αult , k
λ op = (2)
α cr ,op
where: αcr.op is the minimum amplifier for the in plane design loads to reach the elastic critical resistance
of the structural component with regards to lateral or lateral-torsional buckling without accounting for in
plane flexural buckling. In determine αcr.op and αult.k, Finite Element analysis may be used.
4 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
4.1 Numerical analysis

A GMNIA FE model was calibrated based on experimental tests. One frame only from the set of two
was considered in the analysis (i.e. a plane frame with partial lateral restraints). FE models have been
prepared for each experimental test, e.g.: (1) one for the first experimental test (C1), where only lateral
loading (seismic effect) was applied at left eaves up to failure and, (2) another one for the second
experimental test (C2), where constant gravity loading was applied, simulating the dead and snow loads
corresponding to seismic load combination, followed by the lateral load up to failure. ABAQUS/CAE
v.6.8 was used for these numerical simulations. The features of the FE model used in the study are: (1) 4-
node shell element (S4R) used to model the cold-formed members; (2) 3D solid elements (C3D4) to
model the brackets at the eaves and ridge; (3) nonlinear spring elements to model the effect of purlins
(two springs are used to model the lateral restrains introduced by purlins of type Z150/1); (4) contact
elements to model the gap between the back-to-back cold-formed lipped channels. The mesh size for the
shell elements was around 24x24mm. For the analyses the connections were assumed to be rigid. The
material properties for thin-walled cold-formed elements, determined from coupon tests, are: yield
strength of 486N/mm2, ultimate tensile strength 553N/mm2, Young’s modulus E=210000N/mm2 and a
measured thickness minus zinc coating of 2.93mm. Based on tests results, the material has been
introduced by means of bilinear isotropic elastic-perfectly plastic model.
Few imperfections were measured on site, and only for C2 tested frames; they are synthetically
presented in Figure 7. There are no measured imperfections for frame C1 and no measured imperfections
at the level of members for both tested frames. However, for numerical analyses, global and local
imperfections have been considered according with: (1) tolerances proposed by EN1090-2 [11] or (2)
equivalent imperfections for structural analyses proposed by EN1993-1-1 [10]. The following types of
imperfections have been taken into account: a) global imperfections for frames; b) local imperfections for
individual members (in- & out-of-plane imperfections); c) imperfections at the level of cross-section.
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Dan Dubina et al.
Frame C2.1 Frame C2.2

ǻ1 = 16mm ǻ1 = 0mm
d2
ǻ2 = 20mm ǻ2 = 1mm
ǻ3 = 6mm ǻ3 = 11mm
ǻ4 = 4.76mm ǻ4 = 3.82mm
ǻ5 = 3.59mm ǻ5 = 4.67mm
d2 = 1.9mm
Figure 7: Measured imperfections for frames C2 (for arrangement see Figure 1).
Based on preliminary analyses, in order to emphasize the importance of imperfections shape, only the
imperfections presented in Figure 8 were considered. These are summarized in Table 1 too. It should be
observed that the measured imperfections are covered by the imperfections proposed by the codes.
G1 G2 G3 G4
a) global imperfections for frames (G)
d2
M1 M2 S
b) local imperfections (M) for individual members (in- & out-of-plane); c) section imperfection (S)
Figure 8: Types of imperfections for GMNIA FE model.
Table 1: Values of imperfections according to EN1090-2 and EN1993-1-1.
Frame Columns in-plane Columns out-of-plane Cross-section
EN1090-2 ǻ = h/500 ±h/750 ±h/750 d2 = t
[mm] 8.2 5.5 5.5 3
EN1993-1-1 φ = φo·αh·αm ±h/250 ±h/200 d2 = t
[mm] 20.5 16.8 21 3
Table 2 shows the sensitivity of frame C1, subjected only to a horizontal load applied to left eaves, to
different types of imperfections (single or coupled) according with the shapes presented in Figure 8. The
sizes of imperfections for this parametric study were taken according with EN1090-2, and are given in
Table 1. It should be observed that the analyzed frame is not sensible to imperfections, the difference
being less than 3%.
Table 2: Sensitivity to imperfections of frame C1.
Type of No G1 G2 G3 G4 M1 M2 S G1M1S
imperfection imperf. in plane
Fmax (kN) 73.932 73.364 73.366 72.859 72.169 73.179 73.192 72.611 72.634
934
Dan Dubina et al.
On the following, a more complex combination of imperfections was considered in order to compare
the numerical model with the experimental one, both for frame C1 and frame C2. This combination of
imperfections was considered according to the types of imperfections measured on site for frame C2; it is
the G1M1S model which combines the in- and out-of-plane imperfections, taken according with EN1090-
2 and EN1993-1-1 (see Table 1). Figure 9 displays the experimental and numerical curves. A good
agreement at the level of ultimate force for frame C1 can be observed. For frame C2, the difference in
ultimate force can be explained by the fact that in the experimental test the horizontal load has been
applied with an eccentricity of 25mm, which increased the influence of compression force in right side
column, and due to the fact that there were no lateral restraining at column flanges by side rails, it
induced at the end a localized instability form (see Figure 5a). This imperfection was not considered in
the numerical model. The difference in slope of the experimental and numerical curves is due to the fact
that in the present models the eaves and ridge connections were considered fully rigid. The values of
ultimate horizontal loads are summarized in Table 3.
F, kN Frame C1 F, kN Frame C2
80 80
72,658 73.932 Experimental
70 70,854 71,534 71,401
70 G1+M1+S In&Out-of-plane
63.524
60 60 No imperfections
Experimental
50 No imperfections 50
G1+M1+S In&Out-of-plane
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
Δ , mm Δ, mm
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Figure 9: Experimental vs. numerical G1M1S curve.
Table 3: Frames C1 and C2: comparison of experimental and numerical ultimate forces.
Experimental EN1090-2 imperfections EN1090-2 imperfections
Fu (kN) FEN1090-2 (kN) FEN1993-1-1 (kN)
Frame C1 70.85 72.658 72.629
Frame C2 63.52 71.401 71.316
Figure 10 shows the deformed shape of nonlinear elastic-plastic (G1M1S) model and local plastic
mechanism formed at the edge of bracket-to-rafter lap for Frame C1, similar with the experimental one
presented in Figure 5b.
Figure 10: Frame C1: nonlinear elastic-plastic model and local plastic mechanism.
935
Dan Dubina et al.
4.2 LEA and in-plane GMNIA for General Method of EN1993-1-1

Both linear eigen buckling (LEA) and in-plane nonlinear elastic-plastic (GMNIA) analyses have been
applied for C1 and C2 frames, in order to validate the General Method. The imperfections taken according to
EN1090-2 for in-plane GMNIA analyses are those given in Table 1. Table 4 presents the results obtained via
General Method, for the safety coefficient γM1 = 1, and shows that, at least for the case of these frames (stiff
enough), it gives good results.
Table 4: Frames C1 and C2: General Method.
GMNIA in-plane LEA χ χopαult,k / γM1 1
αult,k αcr,op λop op
Frame C1 1.224 3.990 0.554 0.859 1.051

Frame C2 1.191 4.148 0.536 0.868 1.033
5 CONCLUSION
Frames tested experimentally under horizontal loading only, and horizontal and gravity loadings have
been studied using GMNIA FE model. For numerical simulations the imperfections were taken according
with the tolerances specified EN1090-2 and the provisions of EN1993-1-1. Different types of
imperfections were considered. For the analyzed frames, designed for current load conditions in Romania
(heavy snow, moderate earthquake), the results prove they are less sensitive to imperfections. In the next
step, the General Method of EN1993-1-1 was applied to the analyzed frames and the obtained results encourage
to recommend to use this approach for such a type of structures because it is simply enough and effective.
REFERENCES
[1] Lim, J.B.P., Joint effects in cold-formed steel portal frames. Nottingham Univ., PhD Thesis, 2001.
[2] Dundu, M. and Kemp, A.R., “Strength requirements of single cold formed channels connected
back-to-back”. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 62(3), 250-261, 2006.
[3] Kwon, Y.B., Chung, H.S. and Kim, G.D., “Experiments of cold-formed steel connections and
portal frames”. Journal of Structural Engineering, 132(4), 600-607, 2006.
[4] Dubina, D., Stratan, A., Ciutina, A., Fulop, L. and Nagy, Zs., “Performance of ridge and eaves
joints in cold-formed steel portal frames”, Proc. of the 17th International Specialty Conference,
Orlando, Florida, USA, 727-742, 2004.
[5] EN1993-1-8. Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures – Part 1-8. Design of joints. European
Committee for Standardization, Brussels, 2005.
[6] Nagy, Zs., Stratan, A. and Dubina, D., “Application of component method for bolted cold-formed
steel joints”. Proc. of International Conference on Metal Structures – ICMS 2006 "Steel – A new
and traditional material for building", Poiana Brasov, Romania, 207-215, 2006.
[7] Dubina, D., Ungureanu, V. and Stratan A., “Ultimate design capacity of pitch-roof portal frames
made by thin-walled cold-formed members”, Proc. of the 5th Int. Conf. on Thin-Walled Structures:
Recent Innovations and Developments, Gold Coast, Australia, Vol. 1, 387-394, 2008.
[8] Dubina, D., Stratan, A. and Nagy, Zs., “Full – scale testing of cold-formed steel pitched-roof portal
frames of back-to-back channel sections and bolted joints”. Proc. of the Sixth International
Conference on Steel and Aluminum Structures, Oxford, UK, 931-939, 2007.
[9] EN1993-1-3. Eurocode 3 – Part 1-3: Supplementary rules for cold-formed thin gauge members
and sheeting. European Committee for Standardization, Brussels, 2006.
[10] EN1993-1-1. Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures – Part 1-1: General rules and rules for
buildings. European Committee for Standardization, Brussels, 2005.
[11] EN1090-2. Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures. Technical requirements for the
execution of steel structures. European Committee for Standardization, Brussels, 2008.
936
ULTIMATE LIMIT STRENGTH OF PERFORATED COLD-FORMED

STEELS SECTIONS
Andrei Crisan*,1, Viorel Ungureanu*,** and Dan Dubina*,**
* Faculty of Civil Engineering, The “Politehnica” University of Timisoara, Romania

** Romanian Academy, Timisoara Branch, Laboratory of Steel Structures, Romania
e-mails: andrei.crisan@ct.upt.ro, viorel.ungureanu@ct.upt.ro, dan.dubina@ct.upt.ro
Keywords: Rack upright, Cold-formed, Distortional buckling, Erosion of critical bifurcation load –
ECBL, Distortional-global interaction, Erosion coefficient, Imperfection factor
Abstract. The paper summarizes the results of experimental and numerical investigations, carried out at
the CEMSIG Research Centre (http://cemsig.ct.upt.ro) of PU Timisoara, on compression members of
pallet racks. Members of two different cross-sections, with and without perforations, have been tested on
the aim to calibrate a design approach to evaluate their ultimate strength and, on this basis, to check the
buckling resistance of bar members accounting for distortional-global interaction. The lengths of upright
specimens and testing procedure, for local and distortional buckling, are according to prEN15512 [1]
provisions. Test on base materials and imperfection measurements have been also performed. In order to
study the distortional-global interactive buckling, the ECBL method [2] is used. The paper presents the
main results of these investigations.
1 INTRODUCTION
Pallet rack uprights systems made of thin-walled cold-formed steel are able to carry very high loads
despite their lightness. These pallet rack uprights can also raise considerable height. However,
particularly to these characteristics, such structures, of really complex structural behavior, have to be
carefully designed.
Uprights members have usually mono-symmetrical sections subjected to axial compression together
with bending about both axes. The slenderness of cold-formed sections imposes to consider three
buckling modes, i.e.: local, distortional and global, often at least two of these modes might couple. The
problem is more difficult because these sections usually contain arrays of holes in order to enable beams
to be clipped into position at heights that are not pre-determined before manufacture.
Nowadays, the design of these members is still based on testing programs. This kind of design is very
expensive and is very difficult for the manufacturer to consider all the design parameters in order to
optimize the design of the upright. According to prEN15512 provisions [1] tests for stub columns and
distortion tests of upright sections, of a length equal with the length between two subsequent nodes, are
requested only. However, depending on the cross-section dimensions, the length between two subsequent
nodes can be often larger than distortional critical length; in such cases the test results correspond rather
to the distortional–global interaction, than to pure distortion. For the consistency of testing, with the
target phenomenon, the lengths corresponding to distortional buckling are necessary to be studied, and
after used in the interaction between distortional and overall buckling. On this purpose, and to
characterize the ultimate strength of upright members in the distortional-global interactive buckling, the
Erosion of Critical Bifurcation Load (ECBL) method [2] is used.
1
This research is related to the PhD work of Mr. Andrei Crisan, which is supported by the strategic grant POSDRU
6/1.5/S/13, (2008) of the Ministry of Labor, Family and Social Protection, Romania, co-financed by the European
Social Fund – Investing in People.
937
Andrei Crisan et al.
On this line, present paper displays the results of experimental and numerical investigations carried
out for members of two different cross-sections, with and without perforations, i.e.: RS95×2.6 and
RS125×3.2.
2 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
According to prEN15512:2008 provisions [1], stub column compression tests (e.g. for local buckling)
and tests on upright members to check the effect of distortional buckling on specimens of lengths equal
with the distance between two subsequent nodes, are performed. Two different cross-sections, with and
without perforations – RS95×2.6 and RS125×3.2 – are studied.
2.1 Test specimens
In order to obtain reliable results, a series of tests for each type of section were carried out. The
geometric properties of the specimens and the number of samples testes are show in Table 1 for both,
stub column and uprights.
Table 1: Codification and lengths of specimens; number of samples for each type of section.
Specimen Buckling Number of
Name (RSxx)* Section type Tested for:
length (c)** length (b)** samples
RSNs125×3.2 Perforated 400 510 12
stub column
RSBs125×3.2 Brut 400 510 6
compression
RSNs95×2.6 Perforated 300 410 6
tests
RSBs95×2.6 Brut 300 410 12
RSNu125×3.2 Perforated 1090 1200 10 uprights to
RSBu125×3.2 Brut 1090 1200 5 check the effect
RSNu95×2.6 Perforated 1090 1200 10 of distortional
RSBu95×2.6 Brut 1090 1200 5 buckling
* N/B – net/brut; ** s/d – stub/upright
The cross-section shape, both for brut section and the one with perforations, and the position of
perforations are presented in Figure 1, where for section type RS125×3.2 the ratio is Anet/Abrut = 0.806,
while for section type RS95×2.6 the ratio is Anet/Abrut = 0.760.
121,75 (91.95)
3.2 (2.6)
96,68 (71.28)
Figure 1: Specimen cross-section – brut and perforated.

2.2 Stub column test procedure and test setup
Such a test is used to observe the influence of perforations and the local buckling effect on the
compressive strength of a short column, and is carried out according to Annex A.2.1.2 (Alternative 1) of
prEN15512. The length of the specimens was taken in such a way to respect all the provisions of the
code, i.e.: (1) the length of the specimen shall be greater than three times the greatest flat width of the
section (ignoring intermediate stiffeners); (2) it shall include at least five pitches of the perforations, at
the midway between two sets of perforations. The base and cap plates shall be bolted or welded to each
end of the stub upright. Details of testing set-up and supporting system are presented in Figure 2.
938
Figure 2: Stub column test arrangement.

The end assembly consists of pressure pads of 30mm thick with an indentation of 5mm and a ball
bearing of 40mm diameter. Table 1 presents the length of the specimens (c) together with the buckling
length (b), which includes the base/cap plates (a), the pressure pads thickness and the ball diameter.
Table 2 presents the experimental curves for the tested stub columns and the associated failure modes.
Table 2: Stub column tests: experimental curves and failure modes.
RSBs/RSNs 125×3.2 Fexp = 437.16kN; 390.75kN RSBs 125×3.2 RSNs 125×3.2
500
450 RSBs
400
350
Force [kN]
300
250
200 RSNs
150
100
50
0
0 2 4 6
Displacement [mm]
RSBs/RSNs95×2.6 Fexp = 336.85kN; 273.79kN RSBs 95×2.6 RSNs 95×2.6
400
350 RSBs
300
Force [kN]
250
200
150 RSNs
100
50
0
0 2 4 6
Displacement [mm]
Table 2 presents the experimental curves and the failure modes for one specimen (as example) with
and without perforations, for the two tested cross-sections, and the calculated experimental force, Fexp =
Faver – 2×StDEV, where Faver is the average failure load and StDEV is the standard deviation for all the
stub column specimens.
939
2.3 Distortional buckling test procedure

The tests were carried out in accordance with section 9.7.2 and Annex A.2.2 (A.2.2.2 Test
arrangement and method) of prEN15512. The tests are used to determine the influence of the distortional
buckling mode on the axial load capacity of the upright section. The same test arrangement and settings
as for stub column tests described in the previous paragraph were used.
Table 1 presents the length of the specimens together with the buckling length. The length of the
specimen was calculated according to section 9.7.2c) of prEN15512, which stipulate that column length
shall be equal to the length of the single bracing panel closest to one meter, 1200mm in this particular
case, which represents the buckling length of the upright specimen.
Table 3: Tests on upright: experimental curves and failure modes.

RSBu/RSNu 125×3.2 Fexp = 354.95kN; 324.77kN RSBu 125×3.2 RSNu 125×3.2
400
350 RSBu
300
Force [kN]
250
200
150
100
RSNu
50
0
0 2 4 6 8
Displacement [mm]
RSBu/RSNu 90×2.6 Fexp = 264.28kN 202.00kN RSBu 95×2.6 RSNu 95×2.6
300
250 RSBu
Force [kN]
200
150
100 RSNu
50
0
0 2 4 6 8
Displacement [mm]
Table 3 presents the experimental curves and the failure modes for one specimen (as example), with
and without perforations respectively, for the two tested cross-sections, and the calculated experimental
force, Fexp, calculated as presented in the previous section. It can be observed that for RS95×2.6 cross-
section the failure modes are flexure about minor axis instead o distortion, or coupling of them.
2.4 Imperfections measurements. Tensile test on base material
All tested specimens were measured in order to capture the geometric imperfections. The sectional
imperfections for stub column specimen were measured in 3 sections equally spaced along the length of
specimen, while for the upright specimens the imperfections were measured in 5 sections equally spaced
along the length of specimen.
940
A set of tensile tests on base material were done in accordance with specifications of EN10002-1 [3],
for each thickness, i.e. 2.6mm (RS95×2.6) and 3.2mm (RS125×3.2). Table 4 presents the relevant
properties of base material.
Table 4: Tensile tests on base material

Average yield Tensile
Young Modulus Yield strength Tensile strength
Specimen strength [7] strain
E [N/mm2] fy [N/mm2] fu [N/mm2]
fya [N/mm2] [%]
R95×2.6 207464 461.41 538.90 494.20 15.77
R125×3.2 202941 465.18 537.40 501.15 15.50
3 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

Numerical models for the tested specimens were created using the finite element analysis software
package ABAQUS/CAE v.6.7.1. The models were calibrated to replicate the real tests. 4-node shell
elements (S4R) were used to model the cold-formed members. The base plates were modeled by RIGID
BODY with TIE nodes constraints. The reference point for the constraints was considered the center of
the ball bearing (55mm outside the profile), in the gravity center of the cross-section. The pinned end
bearings allowed rotation about the minor and major axes, while torsion was prevented. Different mesh
refinements were tried in order to find the optimum number of elements from the point of view of
analysis time, and accuracy of ultimate force and deformed shape. The mesh size for the shell elements
was around 5x5mm. The material behavior was introduced according the recorded curves from tensile
tests, with the values presented in Table 4. The measured imperfections were introduced for each
specimen. A static Riks analysis was performed for each analyzed specimen. For calibration a single
reference specimen was chosen, with and without perforations.
The values of ultimate load from numerical simulations in comparison with the experimental ones are
presented in Table 5.
Table 5: Experimental vs. FEA model forces.

Test force FEA model Difference
Specimen
[kN] force [kN] [%]
RSBs 125x3.2 487.05 495.53 1.71
RSNs 125x3.2 413.28 393.70 -4.97
RSBu 125x3.2 386.72 380.50 -1.63
RSNu 125x3.2 347.26 328.51 -5.71
4 ECBL DISTORTIONAL – OVERALL BUCKLING APPROACH

The interactive buckling approach based on ECBL method is largely presented in [2]. The principle
of this method is summarized here only. Assuming the two theoretical simple instability modes that
2
couple, in a thin-walled compression member, are the Euler bar instability mode, N E 1 / O ( O =
relative member slenderness) and the distortional instability mode N D described by means of the
reducing factor of area ND=QD. The resulting eroded curve for coupled instability mode is N (O , QD ,\ )
(see Figure 3).
Critical load maximum erosion (due both to the imperfections and coupling effect) occurs in the
0.5
instability mode interaction point, M (O 1/ QD ) where, the erosion factor \ is defined as:
\ ND N (1)
941
in which N (O , QD ,\ ) is the relative interactive buckling load and QD = ND/fy·A; A = the gross cross-
section area; ND = the ultimate capacity corresponding to distortional buckling; N = N/Npl, the relative
axial load; N, the axial load; Npl = fy·A, the full plastic resistance of the member; O , the relative
slenderness of compression member.
0.5
If O 1/ QD is introduced, it results an imperfection factor corresponding to the distortional-global
buckling:
\2 QD
D (2)
1 \ 1 0.2 QD
Eqn. (2) represents the new formula of D imperfection coefficient which should be introduced in
European buckling curves in order to adapt these curves to distortional-overall interactive buckling.
There are three distinct approaches that can be used to evaluate the \ erosion factor, i.e.
x the analytical approach, having as main goal to compute the decrease of axial rigidity of the related
column in the vicinity of critical bifurcation point;
x the numerical approach based on Finite Element (FE) or Finite Strip (FS) non-linear analysis of the
behavior of thin-walled columns in the vicinity of critical bifurcation point;
x the experimental approach by means of statistical analysis of some representative series of column
test results corresponding to specified cross-section shape, characterized by means of QD factor.
Only the numerical and experimental ways are suitable to obtain practical values of the erosion
factor. The experimental approach was already presented in other publications [2]. In the present paper,
the numerical procedure will be presented only. This procedure includes the following steps:
1. Evaluation of ultimate load of member in the coupling point which is defined by the interactive
slenderness, O Qd 1/ Qd0.5 , and also in the points of O Qd r 0.1 O Qd (see Figure 3).
N=N/Npl Numerical results

1
Local instability mode :ND=Q D Coupled instability

QD M mode: N(O\,Q D)
2
N EULER=1/O
\Q D
N(O\,QD)=(1-\)QD
O= (Q.N pl/N cr)0.5

0
0.2 OQd-0.1 OQd OQd OQd+0.1 OQd
Figure 3: The ECBL interactive buckling model and evaluation of \ erosion factor.
Two different ultimate loads corresponding to f 0 (r1 / 1000) L value of initial global flexural
imperfection, will be calculate in each point. The local equivalent imperfections of type 2 [4], d2 = t, was
considered in all the cases.
2. Compute the individual value of erosion, \ i Qi N i ,num / N i, pl , for the i number, and the mean
n
value of the erosion factor, \ m ¦ \ i / n , for all n members.
i 1
3. Compute the design value of the erosion factor:
\ d \ m 2s\ (3)
where s is the standard deviation which is introduced in order to take into account the randomness of
numerical results.
942
5 ULTIMATE BUCKLING STENGTH OF PERFORATED SECTION IN

COMPRESSION
To apply the previous procedure, first the distortional strength, N D , has to be obtained. One can see,
the experimental procedures in prEN15512, does not always provide that, because the length of
“distortion” specimens could be often larger than critical length for distortion.
In present situation, because the testing program followed strictly the cod provisions, the CUFSM
numerical tool [5] was used to obtain the elastic critical loads and the half-wave length corresponding to
relevant instability modes can be obtained for the two types of cross-sections, so to determine the half-
wave length corresponding to distortional buckling mode for both brut and perforated sections.
For perforated stub columns two methods were used to determine the equivalent thickness, i.e.:
a. Method 1 proposed by Davies et al. [6] has been used. The method consist in determining an
equivalent thickness based on the ratios of gross and net effective width (beff,n / beff). This is than
weighted, taking into account the length of the perforations along the axis of the column. The
following equation has been used:
§ Lp b § L p · bg ·
teq,1 ¨ n ¨1 ¸ ¸t (4)
¨ L bg ¨© L ¸¹ bi ¸¹
©
where: teq,1 is the equivalent thickness of the plate; Lp is the length of perforation multiplied by the
number of perforations along the length of the plate; L is the length of the plate; beff,n is the net effective
width of the plate (beff,n = beff - bp,p); beff is the gross effective width of the plate; b is the actual width of
the plate and t is the actual thickness of the plate.
b. Method 2. The method consists in experimental or, in case, numerical evaluation of equivalent
thickness, as ratios of ultimate compression loads for the section, with and without perforations,
corresponding to distortional buckling length. The following equation will be used:
N D,net
teq,2 t (5)
N D,brut
where: teq,2 is the equivalent thickness of the plate; ND,net and ND,brut are the distortional strength of net
and brut sections, respectively.
The equivalent thicknesses, teq,1 obtained from eqn. (4) and teq,5 obtained from eqn. (5), for both types
of specimens with perforations and the critical half-wave length obtained via CUFSM are presented in
Table 6.
Table 6: Equivalent thickness for specimens with perforations.
t Lcr,D teq,1 Lcr,D teq,2 Lcr,D
Specimen
[mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm]
RS 125x3.2 3.2 560 3.002 580 2.752 600
RS 96x2.6 2.6 480 2.402 500 2.354 510
Next, in order to determine the interactive buckling modes, namely global flexural buckling with
respect to minimum inertia moment axis coupled with distortional buckling, a series of FEA models were
analyzed. The material used was a bilinear approximation, elastic-perfect plastic behavior using the
average yielding strength over the cross-section, fya, via EN1993-1-3 [7].
The procedure described above was used to evaluate the erosion \ and, on this basis the
corresponding D imperfection factor. In Table 7 are presented the imperfection coefficients and erosion
factors based on ECBL procedure for the analyzed cross-sections. In this table RSBteq1 are the brut
section with the equivalent thickness determined using formula (4) and RSBteq2 are the brut section with
the equivalent thickness determined using formula (5). One observes, the value corresponding to positive
bow imperfections , Į+, are more conservative, so, in such a case they have to be taken as reference; in
943
case of test samples, negative and positive bow imperfection may alternate, and have to be considered
correspondingly.
Table 7: Imperfection coefficients and erosion factors based on FEA results

Interactive range
Profile Į- Į+ Ȍ+ Ȍ- Q
[mm]
RSB125x3.2 0.051 0.136 0.256 0.382 0.692 2661 … 3252
RSN125x3.2 0.128 0.161 0.381 0.415 0.677 2901 … 3546
RSBteq1125x3.2 0.091 0.151 0.315 0.420 0.722 2635 … 3221
RSBteq2125x3.2 0.101 0.152 0.354 0.456 0.631 3111 … 3803
RSB95x3.2 0.097 0.194 0.314 0.412 0.747 1786 … 2183
RSN95x3.2 0.136 0.186 0.380 0.427 0.697 1942 … 2374
RSBteq195x3.2 0.059 0.157 0.267 0.432 0.754 1839 … 2248
RSBteq295x3.2 0.102 0.142 0.321 0.420 0.667 2030 … 2482
6 CONCLUSIONS
At the end of this study the following remarks can be presented:
- It is really important to identify correctly the sectional mode (e.g. distortion), and on this purpose
the corresponding critical length must be first evaluated. Consequently, one suggests to complete the
code provisions with the relevant procedures;
- The slender member ultimate capacity in distortional-overall buckling could be evaluated
numerically, by applying the presented ECBL approach, avoiding the complicate testing procedure.
In fact, for a series of upright sections the imperfection factor, Į, can be evaluated and after, used to
apply the current buckling check formulae from design code EN1993-1-3. The equivalent thickness
can be used for design purposes, but it is recommended to be obtained by the experimental
procedure.
As general remark, one can say the perforations effect is stronger at the level of the section, than for
the member, and the upright sections of the shapes of those studied here behave significantly better in
interactive buckling than classical mono-symmetrical sections, such as plane or lipped channels.
REFERENCES
[1] prEN15512. Steel static storage systems - Adjustable pallet racking systems - Principles for
structural design. Published by European Committee for Standardization, Brussels, 2008.
[2] Dubina, D., “The ECBL approach for interactive buckling of thin-walled steel members”, Steel &
Composite Structures, 1(1), 75-96, 2001.
[3] EN10002-1. Tensile testing of metallic materials. Method of test at ambient temperature. Published
by European Committee for Standardization, Brussels, 2001.
[4] Schafer, B.W. and Peköz, T., “Computational modeling of cold-formed steel characterising
geometric imperfections and residual stresses”, Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 47(3),
193-210, 1998.
[5] Davies, J.M., Leach, P., Taylor, A., “The design of perforated cold-formed steel sections subject to
axial load and bending”, Thin-Walled Structures, 29(1-4): 141-157, 1997.
[6] Schafer, B.W., Ádány, S. “Buckling analysis of cold-formed steel members using CUFSM:
conventional and constrained finite strip methods.” Eighteenth International Specialty Conference
on Cold-Formed Steel Structures, Orlando, FL. October 2006.
[7] EN1993-1-3. Eurocode 3 – Part 1-3: Supplementary rules for cold-formed thin gauge members and
sheeting. European Committee for Standardization, Brussels, 2006.
944
ON THE USE OF COLD-FORMED THIN WALLED MEMBERS FOR

VERTICAL ADDITION OF EXISTING MASONRY BUILDINGS
G. Di Lorenzo*, A. Formisano**, R. Landolfo**, F. M. Mazzolani**, G. Terracciano**
* University of Chieti/Pescara “G. d’Annunzio”

e-mail: g.dilorenzo@unich.it
** University of Naples “Federico II”
e-mails: antoform@unina.it; landolfo@unina.it; fmm@unina.it; giusy.terracciano@unina.it
Keywords: Vertical addition, masonry buildings, cold-formed members, sustainability, modal analysis,
dynamic amplification factors.
Abstract. According to the current trend for sustainable constructions in urban area, in this paper
different constructive technologies for vertical addition of existing masonry buildings have been
examined. Based on the analysis methodology of the new technical Italian code (M. D. 14/01/08) for
assessing the behaviour of historical masonry buildings, a FEM model of a structural masonry unit has
been implemented in order to allow for the comparison among different solutions for vertical addition,
namely traditional technologies and innovative ones. A numerical campaign of linear dynamic analyses
has been undertaken by changing both the number of floors (1, 2 and 3) and the strength (fk=1, 3 and 6
MPa) of the base masonry structure. The seismic performance of the analysed structures, expressed in
terms of PGA, has shown that cold-formed steel systems represent the best solution for vertical addition
of existing masonry buildings.
1 INTRODUCTION
In the last years the concept of sustainable development is emerged due to the apparent inadequacy of
energy production to meet consumer demands without causing impact on the earth life quality. The
construction field plays a major role in the environmental issue, since it represent the greatest impact
source [1]. In this policy framework based on the reduction of energy consumption, the requalification of
existing buildings has an important role, since it aims to improve their energetic behaviour. In this
context, it was observed that acting on both the insulation grade and the service systems of the building,
the management of the so-called smart home, which is able to reduce power consumption preserving the
living comfort level, is allowed. Within such a scenario addressed to the energy saving, the difficulty to
find living volumes in cities is recently appearing. This is relevant especially for Italian historic centres,
where the exponential growth of population is remarkable. Therefore, economic and environmental
structural solutions able to mediate the features of existing built heritage with the above new requirements
are needed. Among these, the vertical addition is an alternative to the traditional solutions of growth of
cities, it allowing for: a) the preservation of virgin land for future generations; b) the upgrading of
building energy efficiency through the design of insulated roof; c) the optimization of local resources,
which allows to increase the housing units while maintaining the soil resource; d) the urban renewal,
since the increase of housing units in urban areas may be also the solution both for the overcrowding of
neighbourhoods and the excessive daily mobility of workers towards the cities [2, 3]. On the other hand,
as demonstrated by recent seismic events, vertical addition should be limited to buildings having a
reduced vulnerability, such as good quality masonry structures with plan regularity and a limited number
of stories. Moreover, the realization of added floors may be difficult in the historic centres due to
945
G. Di Lorenzo et al.
problems related to the transportation, assembly and installation of the manufactured products [4]. In this
contest, Italian legislation has drawn up new regulations, which are able to meet the new requirements.
The study presented in this paper is related to this aspect. It deals with the assessment of structural
behaviour of masonry buildings, which are the most common structural type in the South Italy
constructive tradition, subjected to vertical addition by using both traditional and innovative
technologies. The goal of the performed study is to establish, by means of the development of an
extensive campaign of numerical analyses, the effectiveness of each solution adopted and the choice of
the most effective one.
2 COLD FORMED SYSTEMS FOR VERTICAL ADDITION OF EXISTING

BUILDINGS
Many manufacturing technologies could be used for vertical addition of existing masonry buildings.
Besides the obvious solution involving the use of the masonry itself, added stories could be realized by
using different construction technologies, which can be classified into traditional types and innovative
ones (Table 1).
Table 1: Construction technologies for vertical addition of existing masonry buildings.

Traditional Innovative
Timber Glued laminated timber
Reinforced concrete Composite materials with polymeric matrix
Hot - rolled steel Cold formed and/or high-strength steel
In the first category the materials currently used in the Italian and European construction practice
belong to. Glued Laminated Timber is preferred to timber, which was used in the past for erection of
floors, since it allows to obtain sections of general shape with minimal defects and high structural
performance. The possibility of reducing the dimensions of the vertical addition structure members has
led in some cases to the use of reinforced concrete. The use of this technique is permitted by using a tie
beam rigid enough to mitigate the local effects transmitted by columns to masonry walls. A strong
reduction of actions transmitted to the substructure (from 4 to 10 times) can be obtained using high
structural efficiency materials. Excluding structures made of composite materials with polymeric matrix
because of their high costs, a solution widely used also for the retrofitting of existing buildings is the one
based on hot-rolled steel elements [5], organized into either moment resisting frames or pinned ones.
Finally an innovative solution that combines the use of light materials (structural incidence of the order of
0.15 ÷ 0.30 kN/m2) with structural types which distribute the vertical loads uniformly on all the masonry
walls, is represented by the use of Cold-Formed systems (CF) [6]. Depending on the prefabrication level,
three types of cold-formed constructive systems can be identified, namely stick-built constructions,
panelised constructions and modular constructions. Among these, stick-built constructions are certainly
the most suitable for vertical addition, mainly for technological reasons related to the easier installation
and transportation, which are the most important requirements for super elevation within densely
populated areas, as the city centres. This structural type, deriving from wood housing, is made by
assembling vertical members (studs) placed each other at a distance ranging from 300 to 600 mm. In
stick-built constructions the wall studs, which are the vertical load-bearing structural systems, have an
important role. They allow to both transmit gravitational loads to foundations and sustain horizontal
actions due to wind and/or earthquake. The way to transmit vertical loads allows to differentiate the
structural types into balloon frames and platform frames, the studs being continued or interrupted,
respectively. On the other hand, the way to absorb the horizontal actions allows to classify the structural
types into sheathing braced system and x-braced one. In the first, the bracing function is provided by
panels, normally made of wood, attached to the studs by means of special connection systems designed to
ensure some dissipation capability through the screw-panel bearing mechanism [7]. Instead, in the second
946
system, the bracing function is provided by steel diagonal members that, if properly designed by applying
the capacity design philosophy, can ensure satisfied ductility. In this case the closing panels have
protection function against the environmental actions only.
3 SEISMIC ASSESSMENT OF EXISTING MASONRY BUILDINGS ACCORDING

TO THE NEW ITALIAN CODE (M.D. 08)
According to the provisions of the new technical Italian code (M.D. 14/01/08) [8], the structural
safety evaluation of existing buildings, characterized by a level of uncertainty higher than the new ones, is
carried out by means of analysis methods and checks depending on the levels of knowledge of buildings,
which are related to their geometry, construction details and material properties. These knowledge levels
are connected to particular confidence factors, which modify the capacity parameters and the safety factor
to be used in the checks. M.D. 08 defines general criteria for safety assessment of building, providing in
the explanatory circular recently approved [9] guidance on the identification of knowledge levels. Under
this rules, building knowledge can be limited (LC1), adequate (LC2) and accurate (LC3). The analyses
methods of masonry buildings can be either linear or nonlinear, both static and dynamic. With linear
methods, seismic actions are determined on the basis of design spectra, obtained by reducing the elastic
one through the behaviour factor q, which implicitly takes into account the system dissipation capability.
The behaviour factor depends on the type of structure, on the design criteria adopted and on the material
nonlinearity properties. The q factor values for existing ordinary masonry buildings are listed in Table 2
where the ones for new buildings are reported too.
Table 2: Behaviour factors for ordinary masonry buildings.

Regular Not regular
in elevation in elevation
New building Įu/Į1=1.4 (1 story) 2.80 2.24
Įu/Į1=1.8 (2 or more stories) 3.60 2.88
Existing building Įu/Į1=1.5 3.00 2.25
From the table it is apparent the penalty of the q factor because of the structural irregularity. This is
due to the excessive concentration of plasticization in some structural elements, which reduces the overall
dissipation capability. Therefore, the linear analysis methods take into account the structure nonlinear
behaviour through behaviour factors but they are not able to adequately assess both the changes in the
system response due to the plastic behaviour of components and the inelasticity distribution. Instead,
these phenomena can be taken into account by adopting non-linear procedures, which consider the non-
linearity of the material, the geometric non-linearity and the change of structure stiffness and strength,
allowing also to know the location and the evolution of structural elements plasticity until the building
collapse. Despite the difficulty in modelling the material and the geometry of components (piers,
spandrels and nodal panels), the nonlinear static analysis are widely used for the study of masonry
buildings, they allowing, within fixed limits, a more realistic and reliable evaluation of their structural
response. It must be also noted that these procedures, despite push-over analyses are easily implemented
into all computer programs, should be applied to both plan and in elevation regular building only. To this
purpose, it is worth noticing that the change of stiffness in elevation, produced by vertical addition made
of technologies different from masonry, should be considered by performing dynamic analyses.
947
4 SAFETY ASSESSMENT OF SUPERELEVATED MANSONRY BUILDINGS
4.1 Selection of the study sub-structures

According to the provisions of the section 8.7.1 of the M.D. 2008 [8], a single structural masonry unit
extrapolated from a building in line, representative of the building heritage built in Naples at the
beginning of ‘900, has been selected as a study case. The stories of the structural unit have been
considered as variable from 1 to 3. Therefore, appropriate wall thicknesses have been considered, namely
40 cm for the 1-storey structure, 50 cm for the 2-storeys structure and 60 cm, 50 cm, 40 cm for the 1st, 2nd
and 3rd floor, respectively, of the 3-storeys structure. 4.20m and 3.60m have been used as inter-story
height of the ground floor and the other floors, respectively. As a consequence, the aspect ratio of lateral
and central piers has been assumed equal to 1 and 0.5, respectively. The study structural unit have the
potentiality to be superelevated due the following reasons. First of all, the unit was provided with 6 m
spaced load-bearing shear walls (less than 7 m, which is the maximum limit for new buildings) having a
percentage of masonry area, correlated to gross building area, suitable into the two main directions.
Furthermore, the horizontal load-bearing system, made of steel profiles and hollow tiles, is completed
with a slab anchored to the beams by appropriate connectors in order to have a rigid diaphragm. Also tie
beams have been considered in order to both distribute the forces among shear walls and make a box
behaviour building. For the purpose of vertical addition, the demolition of a significant part of the roof
slope slab of the original structural unit has been foreseen, it producing a reduction of the permanent
loads equal to 1.11 kN/m2.
4.2 Parametric study
The possible use of cold-formed systems for vertical addition of existing masonry buildings has been
investigated by means of a parametric study. The FEM models of the selected structural masonry units,
provided with lateral restraints to reproduce the presence of adjacent buildings, have been implemented
by means of the PRO_SAP structural program [10].
First, masonry, reinforced concrete, hot-rolled and cold-formed steels and glued laminated timber,
have been selected as base materials for the one-story vertical addition structure. Later on, the masonry
compressive (fk = 1, 3 and 6 MPa) and shear (fvk0 = 0.10 and 0.15 MPa) resistance of the base material
have been selected as variables for the masonry sub-structure. The main elements of the parametric study
performed with the PRO-SAP software are illustrated in Figure 1 [11].
Type of masonry Number of floors Vertical addition system
Soft masonry IN 03D

blocks IYN 03D 0DVRQU\
Squared masonry IN 03D

blocks IYN 03D
5HLQIRUFHG
FRQFUHWH
Stone I EN 03D IN 03D
Mortar 0 IYN 03D
+RWUROOHG
VWHHO
*OXHG
ODPLQDWHG
WLPEHU
&ROGIRUPHG
VWHHO
Figure 1: Base elements of the parametric study.
948
Once the geometric parameters of the substructure have been fixed, by varying the number of floors,
the kind of vertical addition and the masonry mechanical properties, a numerical simulation program
consisting of 18x3 models has been generated (Figure 2). The vulnerability of the base masonry buildings
has been assessed towards both seismic actions (max PGA at Life Safety Limit State) and gravity loads
(max vertical load at the Ultimate Limit State). In the first case, the seismic vulnerability has been
determined by dynamic analyses with behaviour factor, assuming the earthquake applied along the
direction of major vulnerability. Within this framework, it is apparent that, for buildings belonging to
urban aggregates, the direction of greatest vulnerability is generally represented by the transversal one. In
the second case, the vulnerability under vertical actions, that is the maximum vertical load sustainable by
the superstructure roof when local failure at the interface between the masonry wall and the super
elevation structure occurs, has been estimated.
9HUWLFDOH[WHQVLRQ
Nothing Masonry Reinforced Hot-rolled Glued laminated Cold-formed

concrete Steel timber steel

1XPEHURIIORRUV
Figure 2: Typological matrix of the numerical simulation program.
4.3 Design of the vertical addition system by CF Steel

All the vertical addition structures listed in the Section 4.2 have been designed according to the
prescriptions of M.D. 08 [8]. Omitting for brevity the design process details of traditional constructive
solutions (masonry, reinforced concrete, rolled steel, timber), the design phases involving the CF solution
are herein briefly discussed [12]. The structural type considered is the stick-built one, under form of the
platform frame solution, braced with S235 steel thin strips. The resistant system towards horizontal
actions is designed in accordance with the principles of capacity design: the full plastic behaviour of
tension diagonals represents the system dissipation capability. The not dissipative structural elements of
the system (studs, tracks, connections, shear anchors and hold-downs), are oversized in order to have an
elastic behaviour until collapse. This is achieved by using S275 steel and an adequate thickness of both
studs and tracks (Figure 3). In the numerical model the following actions were considered: a) permanent
structural loads; b) permanent non-structural loads, represented by the insulated panels for coverage; c)
variable load due to snow, equal to 1.00 kN/m2. The earthquake has been represented by means of an
elastic spectrum characterized by a PGA of 0.35 g and increased with a dynamic amplification factor
(DAF) of 2 to take into account the dynamic amplification effect produced by the substructure. According
to recent experimental studies performed on different configurations of x-braced panels [13], in the
modelling of seismic actions the systems dissipative capacity has been considered assuming a behaviour
factor equal to 3.
949
6WHHO 0HPEHUV b
c EĚ
• Stud: C 100x50x25x1.2 a ĨĨĞĐƚŝǀĞ
S 275 • Track: C 100x50x25x1.2 ƐĞĐƚŝŽŶƐ
• Joist: C 150x70x35x1.5 DĚ
S 235 • Diagonal: 2x20
Bracing wall
Ϯ͕ϰϬ
ϲ͕ϬϬ ϰ͕ϴϬ ϯ͕ϯϬ

ϭϮ͕ϬϬ ϰ͕ϴϬ
ϵ͕ϲϬ
Figure 3: Main features of the CF steel vertical addition system.

4.4 Comparison among results
The vulnerability study performed by means of the modal analysis has shown that, except when the
superstructure is made of masonry, all the techniques allow to increase from 7 to 26% the base building
structural performances in terms of PGA (Figure 4). The reasons are double: 1) the removal of the slab
tends to reduce the overall structural system weight. This is due to the fact that the weight reduction due
to the slab removal, approximately equal to 1.10 kN/m2, is higher than the superstructure incidence per
unit area, considering the non-structural weight too, that ranges from 0.60 to 0.80 kN/m2. 2) The added
floor tend to load directly the shear walls of the building, improving their in plane structural performance
in terms of bending-compression and shear behaviour. For masonry buildings characterized by low
mechanical properties (fk = 1MPa and fvk0 = 0.10 MPa), certainly representative of the Neapolitan area
built up, the best solutions in terms of seismic performance are the low-weight ones (Figure 4). In fact, in
this case, a combined bending –compression failure mechanism in lateral piers is occurred.
0.3
PGA
0.25 SU 1 floor
0.2
SU 2 floors
0.15
0.1
SU 3 floors
0.05
Nothing Masonry Reinforced Glued Hot-rolled Cold-formed

concrete laminated steel steel
timber
Figure 4: Max PGA at the Life Safety Limit State (fk = 1 MPa and fvk0 = 0.10 MPa).
However, the dynamic analyses have not shown an unique optimal solution as the number of floors
changes. Instead, if we consider the vulnerability under vertical loads (Figure 5), we can certainly say that
when tie beams having a properly flexural stiffness are absent, the reinforced concrete solution provides
clearly the worst result because of both its high-weight and the considerable stress concentration
produced by the columns at the interface with the masonry structure. This concentration of loads is also
apparent when other superstructures characterized by frame schemes are used. An exception is made for
the cold-formed systems, which are composed of studs close each other realizing panel systems able to
950
transmit uniform loads to the substructure. Therefore, these structures represent the most favourable
solution for vertical addition of existing masonry buildings, since they restore the continuity of walls.
Finally the dynamic analyses have also allowed to estimate the dynamic amplification factors (DAFs)
which the superstructure is subjected to when it is located on the building top instead of the ground floor.
In fact, comparing the response of the superstructure with the same structure located at the ground level,
we can observe that the former undergoes a base shear amplification with an increasing factor ranging
from 1.08 to 4.10. In Table 3 the DAFs to be used for the design of the superstructures neglecting the
presence of the base masonry building are shown.
14
qv [kN/m 2 ]
12
10 SU 1 floor
SU 3 floors
8
2 SU 2 floors
Masonry Reinforced Glued Hot-rolled Cold-formed

concrete laminated steel steel
timber
Figure 5: Max vertical load at the Ultimate Limit State (fk = 1 MPa and fvk0= 0.10 MPa).
Table 3: Dynamic amplification factors.

Base masonry structure
Vertical addition structure material
1 storey 2 storeys 3 storeys
Reinforced concrete 1.72 2.52 2.65
Glued laminated timber 2.53 3.47 2.66
Hot-rolled steel 2.94 3.07 2.69
Cold-formed steel 1.08 3.54 4.10
5 CONCLUSIONS
In this study the comparative analyses of different manufacturing technologies to be used for vertical
addition of existing masonry buildings have been done. In particular, the potential use of cold-formed
steel in spite of traditional solutions, such as masonry, reinforced concrete ordinary steel and glued
laminated timber, has been proved. A single structural masonry unit extrapolated from a building in line
representative of the building heritage built in Naples at the beginning of ‘900 has been selected as a
study case. The stories of the structural unit have been considered as variable from 1 to 3. Once the
geometric parameters of the substructure have been fixed, by varying the number of floors, the kind of
vertical addition and the masonry mechanical properties, a numerical simulation program based on linear
dynamic analyses has been generated. The vulnerability of the base masonry buildings has been assessed
towards both seismic actions (max PGA at Life Safety Limit State) and gravity loads (max vertical load at
the Ultimate Limit State). The achieved results have shown that the dynamic behaviour due to the
difference of stiffness between substructure and superstructure cannot be neglected. In fact if the response
of the superstructure is compared with that of the same structure positioned at the ground level, it is
evident that the former is affected by larger forces with an amplification factor ranging from 1.08 to 4.10,
depending on both the characteristics of the base building and the type of the vertical addition system.
The results of linear dynamic analyses have also indicated that, except for the superstructure made of
951
masonry, all other techniques allow to increase the structural performance of the base building. With
regard to low-strength masonry buildings, the selection of the most effective solution as the number of
floor of the masonry substructure changes is not so simple. If we consider the performance evaluation for
vertical loads, we can certainly say that in all cases, without adequately rigid tie beams, the
superstructures made of a framing scheme are certainly the worst solutions because of the considerable
stress concentration at the columns-masonry structure interface. Instead, the use of cold-formed
structures, realizing panel walls able to both restore the masonry continuity and transmit uniformly the
loads to the base structure, is certainly preferable. As a result, these structures represent the most
favourable solution for vertical addition of existing masonry buildings.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to the “2S.I. Software and Engineering Services” for the free furniture of the
programs PRO_SAP and ALGOR SUPERSAP used in the present study. A special thank is also deserved
to eng. G. Venturini and dr. A. Previati for the technical support provided in the structural analysis.
REFERENCES
[1] Environmental sustainability and construction field (in Italian), http://www.rockwool.it.
[2] Duglas J., Building Adaptation, Butterworth-Heinemann Ed., 2006.
[3] Cukovic-Ignjatovic N., Ignjatovic D, “Some possibilities of extensions in building renovation”,
Proceedings of 23rd Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture, Geneva, September,
2006.
[4] D’Ayala D., Speranza E., “An integrated procedure for the assessment of seismic vulnerability
of historic buildings”, Proceedings of the 12th European Earthquake Engineering, London,
September, 2002.
[5] Mazzolani F.M., Refurbishment by steelwork, Arcelor Mittal Ed., 2009.
[6] Landolfo R., Fiorino L., Di Lorenzo G., “Current trends and further developments for cold-
formed constructive systems” (in Italian), Costruzioni Metalliche, 1, 33-50, 2002.
[7] Fiorino L., Iuorio O., Landolfo R., “Sheated cold-formed steel housing: A seismic design
procedure”, Thin-Walled Structures, 47(8-9), 919-930, 2009.
[8] Ministerial Decree of Public Works published on 2008, January 14th (M.D. 08), New technical
codes for constructions (in Italian), Official Gazette of the Italian Republic, 2008.
[9] Circular n. 617 published on 2009, February 2nd, Instructions for application of “New technical
codes for constructions” (M. D. 14/01/08), Official Gazette of the Italian Republic n. 47
published on 2009, February 26th, Ordinary Supplement n. 27, 2009.
[10] PROfessional Structural Analysis Program (PRO_SAP), http://www.2si.it.
[11] Terracciano G., Formisano A., Mazzolani F.M., Landolfo R., Di Lorenzo G, “Possibility of use
of cold-formed thin walled members for vertical extension of existing masonry building” (in
Italian), XXII CTA Congress: Steel for a sustainable future, Padua, 1005-1018, 28-30
September, 2009.
[12] UNI EN 1993-1-3, Eurocode 3 – Design of steel structures - Parte 1-3: General rules –
Supplementary rules for cold formed thin gauge members and sheeting, 2007.
[13] Al-Kharat M., Rogers C.A., “Inelastic performance of cold-formed steel strap braced walls”,
Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 63(4), 460-474, 2006.
952
THEORETICAL ANALYSIS OF PERFORATED RACK COLUMNS
Arlene M. S. Freitas*, Marcílio S. R. Freitas* and Flávio T. Souza**
* Departamento de Engenharia Civil, Escola de Minas, Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto

e-mails: arlene@em.ufop.br, marcilio@em.ufop.br
** Instituto Federal de Minas Gerais, Campus Congonhas
e-mail: flavio.souza@ifmg.edu.br
Abstract. Industrial Storage Systems are usually built with cold-formed profiles. Their sections, called
“rack sections”, are specially designed with perforations to accommodate connections and bolts for easy
assemblage. This, however, induces unexpected failure modes in other sections. The aim of this research
was to analyze the effects of perforations on column behavior and resistance using the commercial
software ANSYS and the finite element method. The numerical values for this procedure were previously
obtained using the finite strip method and the generalized beam theory. These results were then
calibrated by comparing them to the finite element models of columns without perforation. The element
type, mesh refinement and boundary conditions were carefully chosen to ensure that the finite element
model reproduces actual column behavior. The finite element model was used to evaluate the effects of
perforation size, quantity and distribution on column behavior.
Keywords: Industrial Storage Systems, Thin-walled perforated members, Finite element analysis,
Columns.
1 INTRODUCTION
Industrial Storage Systems are widely used in factories, warehouses and other places where high-
density storage is needed. They are usually built with cold formed profiles, and their “rack” sections are
specially designed for easy assemblage. In addition, their columns have perforations throughout their
length to accommodate connections and bolts. The specially perforated rack sections modify column
behavior and resistance because they induce unexpected failure modes in other sections, as the channel,
for example. These failure modes involve buckling, which can be local, overall, or distortional and can
occur separately or coupled.
There are several works that analyze rack-system behavior. These are focused on the system’s overall
stability and its component behavior (Freitas [1,2], Godley [3,4]).There are also recent works that
consider perforated sets (Moen and Schaffer [5], Eccher, Rasmussen and Zandonini [6]).
The existence of perforations modifies the column’s behavior. Previously this analysis was especially
difficult because the numerical tools available, such as the finite strip analysis (CUFSM [7]) and the
generalized beam theory (GBTul [8]), were only able to evaluate imperforated sections. Nowadays, the
analysis of a perforated rack column can be carried out by using finite element analysis (ANSYS [9]).
Herein, a finite element analysis of rack sections with perforations is presented. This analysis was
developed as follows:
- An imperforated column section was analyzed in CUFSM and GBTul, with pinned ends;
- An imperforated column section was analyzed in GBTul with fixed ends. These boundary
conditions were chosen in order to permit comparison with future experiments;
953
Freitas, A. M. S. et al.
- A finite element model for an imperforated column was created in ANSYS and its results were
compared with the GBTul results. These analyses were carried out in order to validate the finite
element model’s properties, such as mesh refinement, support and loading conditions.
- From procedures developed in the previous step, more finite element models were constructed
for perforated columns, in order to evaluate the influence of the size and number of holes on
column resistance and behavior. The elastic buckling loads were determined in all analyses, and
the buckling modes were compared. Non-linear elastic were carried out in order to verify
column equilibrium paths.
2 THE ANALYSIS AND BEHAVIOR OF IMPERFORATED RACK SECTIONS
2.1. Columns with pinned ends

In this section, the analysis of imperforated rack sections is carried using the finite strip method
(CUFSM), generalized beam theory (GBTul) and finite element method (ANSYS). The first two methods
of analyses were carried out in order to develop a finite element procedure to evaluate imperforated
column behavior and prove its efficiency by comparing it with the other numerical technique results. A
Brazilian-made commercial rack section was chosen (Águia [10]). Section components and dimensions
are shown in figure 1.
Web
Rear Flange
Stiffener
Flange
70
32
26
2,65 20
84 40
Figure 1. Column elements and dimensions in mm.
In the first stage, an overall beam analyses was carried out using the GBTul method and these results
were then compared with results from the finite strip method. This research aimed to compare the GBT
and finite strip results for columns with pinned (free warping) ends. In a second stage, the data obtained
from these analyses were compared to the finite element results for columns with pinned ends; carried out
for a few column lengths. Figure 3 shows the finite element model. The ends support the chosen
conditions for the pinned column simulation when the restriction had translational degrees of freedom in
a perpendicular-to-the-column-axis direction in the end nodes. In order to avoid rigid body displacement,
the degree of freedom in the axial direction of the model’s mid-height node was also constrained.
Loading was applied by compressive forces in all end nodes. An eigenbuckling analysis was carried out
in order to capture the buckling load and the failure mode of the column.
The purpose of this comparison was to choose the finite element type (from ANSYS internal library)
and mesh refinement to be used for the finite element lengths. Simulations for the column were performed
for the first buckling mode where the local mode was 70 mm, the distortional mode was 400 mm, the
torsion flexural mode was 4000 mm and the flexural mode was 5000 mm. The results obtained from these
954
analyses are shown in figure 3. It can be seen that the finite element model, in general, is suitable for
capturing the failure mode and buckling load.
Figure 2. Finite element model with pinned ends.
1400
1200
1000
800
Pcr (kN
600
400
200
GBTul CUFSM ANSYS
0
1 10 100 1000
L (cm)
Figure 3. Comparison of the GBTul, CUFSM and ANSYS results.
Three shell element types were tested to simulate the column: SHELL63, SHELL181 and
SHELL281. They are similar and have the same input data, but SHELL63 is suitable for elastic analysis,
SHELL181 is strongly indicated for plastic analysis and SHELL281 has midway nodes, i.e. this element
has eight nodes, while SHELL63 and SHELL181 have four nodes. Finite element models with lengths of
70 mm (local mode) and 400 mm (distortional mode) were used in this analysis. Results from these
analyses and their comparison with the finite strip method and generalized beam theory results are
presented in tables 1 and 2.
It can be observed that, in both comparisons, SHELL63 showed good efficiency in local mode
prediction, but the same doesn’t occur for the distortional mode. SHELL181 showed bad agreement for
the local and distortional modes. SHELL281 showed good agreement in both buckling modes, and was
chosen to be used in this study.
Once the finite element type was chosen, a mesh refinement suitable for column analysis had to be
determined and this was achieved by comparing the finite strip and generalized beam theory results. For
this, the manual element size set-up available in ANSYS was used. A range of element side sizes were
tested, and the best result agreement was observed when the element size was equal to a 10% web width
(8.4 mm). Table 3 shows finite element results compared to finite strip and generalized beam theory
results.
955
Table 1. Comparison between ANSYS and CUFSM results.

Buckling Load (kN) Deviation (%)
L(mm) CUFSM Shell281 Shell63 Shell181 Shell281 Shell63 Shell181
70 686.0 673.2 695.8 713.9 -1.86 1.43 4.08
400 308.8 295.3 288.3 287.4 -4.36 -6.61 -6.90
Table 2. Comparison between ANSYS and GBTul results.

Buckling Load (kN) Deviation (%)
L(mm) GBTUL Shell281 Shell63 Shell181 Shell281 Shell63 Shell181
70 689.7 673.2 695.8 713.9 -2.39 0.88 3.51
400 315.3 295.3 288.3 287.4 -6.34 -8.55 -8.82
Table 3. Influence of mesh refinement.

Element side size 7mm 10mm 8,4 mm
L=70 mm CUFSM GBTUL Shell281 Shell281 Shell281
B. Load (kN) 674.1 678.3 673.2 678.0
Deviation CUFSM - 0.6 -0.1 0.6
Deviation GBTul -0.6 - -0.8 -0.1
L=400 mm CUFSM GBTUL Shell281 Shell281 Shell281

B. Load (kN) 303.0 306.1 290.0 295.3 304.7
Deviation CUFSM - 1.0 -4.3 -2.5 0.6
Deviation GBTul -1.0 - -5.3 -3.5 -0.4
From Table 3, it can be observed that for the local buckling mode (L = 70 mm), element size does not
have significant influence on the column’s buckling load. For the distortional mode, however, it can be
seen that an element size equal to 10% web width leads to results with excellent agreement with the finite
strip method and the generalized beam theory. These latter results indicate that this mesh refinement
should be used in finite element models.
2.2. Columns with fixed ends
After choosing the element type and mesh refinement, a column with fixed ends was analyzed.
Consideration of this support condition is very important because it is the real situation observed in
experimental tests, where load plates restrict warping effects. For analyzing this, the generalized beam
theory carried out with GBTul is used as reference.
The finite element model developed to carry out this analysis is similar to the model presented in
figure 1. The element SHELL281 and the refinement level presented in section 2.1 were used in the
model. The main difference between models with pinned and fixed ends is that in this latter, the degrees
of freedom (translational and rotational) of the end nodes are all coupled and this assures that all of them
will move equally, completely restricting the warping effects. Two nodes in each column extremity have
translational degrees of freedom restricted in directions perpendicular to the column axis, and a mid-high
node in the column had its axial degree of freedom constrained. Loading was applied on all end nodes.
Figure 4 shows boundary conditions for the fixed members.
956
Figure 4. Fixed ends finite element model.
Various column lengths were simulated in ANSYS by eigenbuckling analysis, in order to obtain a
buckling curve. A comparison between the finite element (ANSYS) and the GBT (GBTul) results is
shown in figure 5. It can be observed that there is an excellent fit between results, which indicates that the
finite element protocol developed is suitable for evaluating columns with perforations.
1200
1000
800
Pcr (kN
600
400
200
GBTul ANSYS
0
1 10 100 1000
L (cm)
Figure 5. Comparison between GBtul and ANSYS with fixed ends.
3 THE ANALYSIS AND BEHAVIOR OF RACK SECTIONS WITH HOLES

In this section, finite element analysis is used to evaluate perforation influence on column resistance
and stability. Moen and Schaffer [5] have done similar analyses to channel sections in ABAQUS. These
studies were conducted in two steps. First, a GBTul analysis of an imperforated section indicated a
column length with potential for mode coupling. This was done by expanding the three first modes. This
analysis showed that for the column length equal to 500 mm, the local and distortional elastic buckling
loads are very near to each other, indicating potential mode coupling.
The analysis is carried out in ANSYS. The model assumptions for fixed ends are presented in section
2. Three models were built. The first is the full imperforated section column. The second has one
rectangular hole, midway in the column length. The other has two rectangular holes, in the column’s end
proximities.
The perforation size is also modified. Perforation length assumes two values: the web width (84 mm)
and half of the web width (42 mm). The width of the hole is always 20% of the web’s width (16,8mm).
957
Figure 6 presents the column used in these analyses. It can be seen that meshes are strictly equal, and only
the elements in the perforated region are discounted.
Figure 6. Web layouts: (a) imperforated; (b) 1 hole = 42 mm; (c) 1 hole = 84 mm; (d) 2 holes = 42 mm;
(e) 2 holes = 84 mm.
The eigenbuckling analysis was carried out for all columns, to determine buckling loads and their
correspondent buckling mode. Some buckling loads were determined from each case, in order to evaluate
buckling evolution. Figure 7 presents buckling modes for columns with 1 and 2 holes (42 mm) and Table
4 presents results from the eigenbuckling analysis.
Figure 7. Columns with 1- and 2-hole (42 mm) buckling modes (Table 4).
From these results, it can be seen that holes with a length = 84 mm significantly reduced column
resistance, due mainly to local effects in the hole region. Holes with a length = 42 mm have less influence
on the column buckling load. It can also be seen that the existence of holes changes the buckling mode. In
958
all specimens with holes, the hole’s region is susceptible to local effects that reduce resistance. It can be
noted that the hole’s position is more important than the number of holes because columns with one
midway hole are less resistant than columns with two holes; each hole being near an extremity.
Table 4. Eigenbuckling results.

Case Mode Critical Load (kN) Buckling modes
No. holes 1 299.8 Local with 7 half-waves

2 300.3 Local with 8 half-waves
3 312.6 Distortional
1 hole (42 mm) 1 280.8 Local at perforation (a)
2 311.4 Local with 8 half-waves (b)
3 314.0 Distortional (c)
2 hole (42 mm) 1 293.8 Local with 7 half-waves (d)
2 299.1 Local at perforation (e)
3 310.3 Distortional (f)
1 hole (84 mm) 1 263.0 Local at perforation
2 288.0 Local at perforation
4 321.0 Distortional
2 hole (84 mm) 1 280.8 Distortional
450
400
350
300
P (kN)
250
200 2 holes =84 mm

without perforation
150
1 hole = 84 mm
100 1 hole = 42 mm
2 hole = 42 mm
50
0
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2
δ (mm)
Figure 8. Column axial displacement.
959
Non-linear elastic analysis was also conducted for the specimens presented above. The target of this
analysis was to evaluate the mode influence on column resistance. Figure 8 shows the column’s axial
displacement. It can be seen that the load x displacement curve follows the tendency appointed by the
eigenbuckling analysis (Table 4). It is clearly seen that the columns with one midway hole have less
resistance and stiffness than their equivalent with two holes; each being near the column’s end.
It can also be observed that with the first buckling load, shown with horizontal lines in the figure, the
line inclination changes. This indicates that every buckling, whether it is local, distortional or even in the
hole’s region, has a strong influence on column behavior. This influence is still greater when holes are
positioned midway in the column’s length.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The numerical analysis conducted in this research demonstrated the influence of perforations in cold-
formed rack sections on their behavior. From eigenbuckling analysis, it was seen that the position and
dimensions of the perforation influence column resistance; inducing buckling modes and reducing
resistance. The existence of holes that are midway in the column’s length is worse than the existence of a
hole at each end of the column. This is understandable because midway in the column length there are no
boundary conditions, so it is more susceptible to the instability phenomena.
The non-linear elastic analysis verified the eigenbuckling observations, and indicates that, in all
analyzed cases, the first buckling occurrence induced resistance and stiffness losses. For the columns with
a hole midway in its length, a local buckling in hole region leads to more accentuated resistance and
stiffness losses than in the other cases. It shows that section weakening in the hole region can be very
determinant in perforated steel rack columns.
REFERENCES
[1] Freitas A.M.S., Freitas M.S.R., Souza F.T. “Analysis of steel storage rack columns”. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research, 61(8):1135-1146, 2005.
[2] Freitas A.M.S., Souza F.T., Freitas M.S.R. “Analysis and behavior of steel storage drive-in racks”.
Thin Walled Structures, 61(8):1135-1146, 2010.
[3] Godley M.H.R. “The behaviour of drive-in storage structures”, Proc. of 16th International
Specialty Conference on Cold-Formed Steel Structures. Orlando, 340-352, 2002.
[4] Godley M.H.R., Beale R.G., Feng X. “Analysis and design of down-aisle pallet rack structures”.
Computers and Structures; 77(4):391-401, 2000.
[5] Moen, C. D., Schaffer, B. W. “Direct Strength Design of Cold Formed Steel Members with
Perforations”. Research Report. The John Hopkins University, 2008.
[6] Eccher, G, Rasmussen, K J R, Zandonini, R. “Linear elastic isoparametric spline finite strip analysis
of perforated thin-walled structures”. Thin-Walled Structures, 46(3): 242-260, 2008.
[7] Schafer, B.W., Ádány, S. “Buckling analysis of cold-formed steel members using CUFSM:
conventional and constrained finite strip methods.” Proc. of 18th International Specialty
Conference on Cold-Formed Steel Structures, Orlando, FL. October 2006.
[8] Bebiano R., Pina P., Silvestre N. and Camotim D. GBTUL – Buckling and Vibration Analysis of
Thin-Walled Members, DECivil/IST, Technical University of Lisbon
(http://www.civil.ist.utl.pt/gbt), 2008.
[9] ANSYS. User´s manual for revision 11. Swanson Analysis Systems Inc.; Houston, PA; 2007.
[10] Águia Industrial Storage Systems. Design of a drive-in storage system. 2004.
960
OPTIMIZATION OF COLD-FORMED STEEL CHANNEL USING THE

DIRECT STRENGHT METHOD AND FINITE STRIP METHOD
Gladimir de Campos Grigoletti*, Ignacio Iturrioz**, Gustavo Mezzomo** and Zacarias

Martin Chamberlain Pravia***
*
Curso de Engenharia Civil, Universidade Luterana do Brasil - Brasil
Curso de Arquitetura e Urbanismo - Centro Universitário Ritter dos Reis - Brasil
e-mail: grigoletti@cpovo.net
**
Departamento de Engenharia Mecânica, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - Brasil
e-mails: ignacio@mecanica.ufrgs.br, mezzomo@portoweb.com.br
***
Curso de Engenharia Civil, Universidade de Passo Fundo - Brasil
e-mail: zacarias@upf.br
Keywords: optimization, direct strength method, cold-formed steel, constrained finite strip method
Abstract. The use of cold-formed steel members has great application at the present time, such as in
standard civil buildings (residential and industrial buildings) and in mechanical structures (structures of
vehicles like: trucks, bus, wagons, etc.). A high structural performance for profiles is a required
economic demand in present days. In this sense, the present work intends to explore the possibilities of
parametric optimization of cold-formed steel channel and lipped channel members when submitted to
compression, with the objective of getting optimum structural performance of the same. The tools used to
accomplish such objective are the method of the Constrained Finite Strip Method and the Direct Strength
Method. An optimization methodology based in genetic algorithms is incorporated in this form of
analysis. Examples considering this methodology show the improvement that could be obtained. Some
conclusions about the potentiality of the used methodology are also presented.
1 INTRODUCTION
Cold-formed steel (CFS) members have a cross section composed of elements with very thin walls,
i.e., the width/thickness ratio of the element is high. This feature makes these profiles be prone to the
phenomenon of structural instability, such as local, distortional and global buckling, as well as the
interaction between them.
Because of this, the determination of the resistance load of this type of profile is directly related to its
stability analysis. Therefore, it is essential identify the critical buckling modes and determine their
respective critical loads.
Project methods, such as Direct Strength Method (DSM) [1, 2], become highly efficient when the
elastic stability analysis is made by any numerical method like: Finite Element Method (FEM), Finite
Strip Method (FSM) or Generalized Beam Theory (GBT), they give a better understanding of the
structural behavior of the CFS members.
The formulation of the DSM with experimental and theoretical researches in constant evolution arises
as a promising method making part, inclusively, since 2004, of AISI [4], as an alternative method to the
Effective Width Method, from which it derives.
An important characteristic of this method is to allow and stimulate the optimization of the cross-
section, because it is applied to any cross-section geometries.
It is common to use FSM [5] as an alternative for the analysis made by FEM.
961
Grigoletti, G.C. et al.
To help the user identify the pure buckling modes (i.e. modes that don’t have any kind of interaction
among them), some software try to solve this problem determining automatically the critical buckling
stress in relation to the half-wavelengths buckling, as it is the case in CUFSM [6]. Despite this we often
find cross-sections where this identification in not obvious [7].
In this context, and with the objective to improve the analysis made by the conventional FSM, Ádány
and Schafer [7-9], incorporated to the FSM method a modal decomposition, which allows the elastic
stability solutions be directed to only one pure buckling mode, and the modal identification, which allows
the elastic stability solution obtained by the conventional FSM be classified as one of the fundamental
buckling modes, being then called Constrained Finite Strip Method (cFSM).
Defining the cross-section shape of a cold-formed steel member is interesting from a structural
viewpoint, and due to the different geometric possibilities in this choice, the problem becomes
challenging in terms of optimization, a subject that has attracted the attention of researchers in this field
[10-14].
The high nonlinear level of the mechanical behavior of the CFS, common optimization schemes
based on gradient (gradient methods), using the deterministic design specifications for the nonlinear
objective function, are highly inefficient and limited in its ability to search the solution space the cross-
section shape, since this type of problem is characterized by having around the optimal solution (global
minimum) several local optimal solutions (local minimum) [13].
It is necessary to use some stochastic optimization method to get around this problem, among others
are include the genetic algorithms (GAs). The GAs use a set of actions that search for global optimum
solution combining deterministic and probabilistic rules with any varying proportion without to require
any other additional information about the behavior of problem (such as derives).
Since the GAs are heuristic techniques, a way to improve its performance is the inclusion of other
optimization methods that are more efficient in the search for local minimum solution, a technique known
as hybridization [15]. This alternative has the capability of global exploration of the feasible region allied
with efficiency in local searches.
In this context, the present paper aims to propose a methodology to optimize the section of the CFS
cross section subjected to compression using GAs.
The tool used in combination with GAs was the cFSM to perform the analysis of elastic stability. The
great advantage of cFSM is that eliminates the problems of modal identification found in conventional
FSM.
2 THEORETICAL FUNDAMENTATION
2.1 Design of cold-formed steel columns using the DSM

The value of axial strength of column is performed using the Direct Strength Method (DSM), which
is part of Appendix 1 of the North American Specification for Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural
Members [4].
2.1.1 Determination of axial strength for columns
The axial strength is: φc Pn where, φc is the resistance factor and Pn is the nominal axial strength, being
the minimum among Pne, Pnl and Pnd values calculated as follows.
Flexural, torsional, or torsional-flexural buckling: The nominal axial strength, Pne, for flexural,
torsional or torsional-flexural buckling is determined using the following formulation:
§ 0,877 ·
( )
Pne = 0,658 λc Py for λc ≤ 1,5 and Pne = ¨¨
2
© λc ¹
2 ¸¸ Py for λc > 1,5 (1)
962
where λ c = Py Pcre , Py = Ag Fy, Pcre = Ag Fe , in this expressions Fe is a critical elastic overall

buckling stress the minimum among the Flexural, Torsional, or Torsional-Flexural Buckling, determined
using analytical solutions given in sections C4.1.1 to C4.1.4 of the AISI [4].
Local buckling: The nominal axial strength, Pnl, for local buckling is
ª P º P
Pnl = Pne for λl ≤ 0,776 or Pnl = «1 − 0,15 ( crl )0,4 » ( crl )0,4 Pne for λl > 0,776 (2)
¬ Pne ¼ Pne
where λ l = Pne Pcrl , Pcrl is a local buckling load in a column and Pne is the nominal axial strength
determined in accordance with equations (1).
Distortional buckling: The nominal axial strength, Pnd, for distortional buckling in a column is
ª P º P
Pnd = Py for λd ≤ 0,561 or Pnd = «1 − 0, 25( crd )0,6 » ( crd )0,6 Py for λd > 0,561 (3)
¬« Py ¼» Py
where λ d = Py Pcrd , Pcrd is a distortional buckling load critical elastic distortional in a column and
Py as defined previously.
2.1.2 Determination of critical elastic local and distortional column buckling load
Although the DSM comes in order to provide to designers a simple and reliable method to determine
the ultimate strength of CFS, its which is based mainly on results provided by analysis of elastic stability,
there are still many situations where the existing methodology presents some limitations.
One of such limitations is the situation where the elastic stability analysis carried out by conventional
FSM is used to accomplish the classification of buckling modes: global (G), distortional (D) or local (L).
One way to do this classification is to analyze the minima values of the graph generated by mean of
the FSM. However, although convenient, this approach is not general and depends on the cross section
and loading specifications. Sometimes the minimum might be not to exist, or more than one minimum
exists [16]. Qualitative definitions of modes are also presented in the "Commentary to the Direct Strength
Method" [17], but up today such classifications are not general.
2.2 Using the modal analysis of the constrained Finite Strip Method (cFSM)
The DSM requires that the buckling modes are properly identified so that their equations can be used
in an appropriate manner.
The development of cFSM [7-9] provided a way to separate the buckling modes (modal
decomposition) and to perform its classification (modal identification). These characteristics make the
DSM win in consistency, since that eliminates uncertainty in identifying the modes of buckling. In other
hand, lets to incorporate the DSM and the cFSM in the optimization scheme of cold-formed steel profiles.
The constrained finite strip method (cFSM) is implemented in the computer program CUFSM -
"Finite Strip Method - Cornell University, version 3.12, developed by Schafer [6], for analysis of elastic
buckling. This program is freeware and can be freely copied to site address:
www.ce.jhu.edu/bschafer/cufsm/.
This software is open source and was development in the Matlab language (Matlab7.6 [18]). These
characteristics let us adequate the CUFSM to carried out the structural elements optimization considering
the CUFSM algorithm to determine in automatic way the critical loads and the MRD to determine the
collapse load.
How have the critical elastic loads chosen?
The current design specifications of CFS are calibrated to use solutions of elastic stability (critical
elastic loads or stress) provided by conventional FSM or FEM, solutions which include the interaction
between all modes of buckling.
963
For this reason up to have the MRD strength curves calibrated with the solution of pure modes of
buckling obtained by cFSM Schafer [16] recommends that:
- the critical half wave length will be determined using MFFr.
- the critical values of force or moment that corresponds with the critical half-wavelength previously
computed with cFSM will be determined with the conventional MFF.
Following this recommendation, is presented below the steps used for calculating the elastic critical
forces:
(i) we determined via cFSM, the half-wavelengths for the minimum of pure buckling modes (Global,
Local, Distortion and Other Modes);
(ii) with the values of half-wavelengths obtained previously, we withdrew from the graphic factor of
load × half-wavelength (generated by conventional FSM, where the modes element interacting) the
factors of load corresponding and consequently the critical stress and;
(iii) finally, we performed the modal classification following the criteria of cFSM. For more details
of this methodology see Grigoletti [19].
3 FORMULATION OF OPTIMIZATION PROBLEM

Taking into account the previous considerations, the aim of this work is to optimize the cross-section
of channel profiles (with or without lips) that resist the axial compression load, F, with the lowest
consumption of material (less weight of steel or, equivalently, the smallest gross section, Ag), for fixed
parameters.
Thus, for the channel sections without lips, hereafter denominated C-section, the design variables are
the dimensions are bw, bf and t (as indicate in figure 1 (a)) and for channel sections with lips, hereafter
simply denominated Clip-section, the design variables are the dimensions designated by bw, bf, D and t (as
in figure 1 (b)). Now we can represent the problem of minimizing the cross-section as:
Minimize: f(x1, x2,..., xn) = Ag (4)
where:
x1 = bw, x2 = bf, x3 = t for C-section and x1 = bw, x2 = bf, x3 = D, x4 = t for Clip-section.
Subject to the following behavioral inequality constraints:
- F ≤ φc Pn, bw / t ≤ 472, bf / t ≤ 159, 4 ≤ D / t ≤ 33, 0,7 ≤ bw / bf ≤ 5, 0,05 ≤ D / bf ≤ 0,41, Ȝ ≤ 200
and the following side constraints:
30 mm ≤ bw ≤ 1000 mm, 30 mm ≤ bf ≤ 1000 mm, 30 mm ≤ D ≤ 1000 mm and 0,614 mm ≤ t ≤ 6,3
mm.
Some explanations of the constraints used are presented below.
bf bf
ri
bw
bw
ri
ri = t
ri = t
D
(a) (b)
Figure 1: Cross-section of columns to be optimized: a) C-section without lips; b) C-section with lips
964
The behavioral inequality constraints were here with the goal that the optimized geometry does not
fall bound outside of the “pre-qualified” columns of table 1.1.1-1 of Appendix 1 of the North American
Specification for Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members [4].
In figure 1 ri is the inner radius of folding.
The side constraints were used for that the dimensions bw, bf, D and t with the goal that to use
commercial acceptable limits and in this way reduce the search space used by the genetic algorithm.
The computational process of optimization of C-sections and Clip-sections employed in the present
study used source codes implemented in Matlab 7.6 [18] and the toolbox "Genetic Algorithm and Direct
Search Toolbox" [20], which uses the method of Genetic Algorithms.
This toolbox, as well as, the CUFSM are open source codes and allow the implementation of new
functions.
4 VALIDATION OF THE PROPOSED METHODOLOGY

We consider as reference the results of eight profiles tested by Chodraui [21], to validate the propose
implementation.
F = Nexp Material Properties

Ux = 0
Uy = 0 Effective lengths factor Modulus of elasticity
θx = 0 for buckling E = 205 GPa
θz = 0 Ky = 1,0
Yield strength
Kx = Kt = 0,5 fy = 375 MPa
Cross-Sections Ultimate tensile strength

fu = 513 MPa
L
y y
Poisson’s ratio
Ux = 0
Ȟ = 0,3
Uy = 0
Uz = 0 z x x
θx = 0
θz = 0
x
Figure 2: Reference system and boundary conditions of the columns optimized
In the optimization of each profile we fixated the load capacity obtained experimentally (Nexp). The
boundary conditions, length, type C-section (either with or without lips) and mechanical properties
adopted are shown in figure 2. We consider as variables in the optimization process bf, bw and t for both
types of section and also D to the Clip-section. The cross-sectional area of the profile is a variable
dependent on the dimensions presented here, i.e., Ag = f(bf , bw, t, D).
In Grigoletti [19] was performed the numerical modeling of the tests performed by Chodraui [21]
using finite elements considering its mechanical and geometric non-linearities as well as geometric
imperfections.
The comparison between the experimental and theoretical results obtained by FEM is shown in
column 10 of table 1. This table also presents the results of the optimization in terms of the ratio between
the area of optimized profile and the area of reference profile (Aopt/Aref).
Thus, in the column 5 of table 1 values smaller than unity indicate that the section obtained shows
better performance than the reference section. In column 6 of table 1 the percentage reduction of the area
obtained in the optimization is also presented optimization.
965
Table 1: Comparison of results for profiles under pure axial compression

Reference sections Optimum profiles
ref ref
Cross- L ref
N MEF* N exp Aopt Aopt Red. NNAS opt
N MEF N exp ref
N MEF*
sections (mm) (kN) (kN) (mm2) Aref (%) (kN) (kN) N opt
MEF
opt
N MEF
1,015 141 168 507 0.82 17.79 168 140 1.20 1.01
Clip-
1,575 129 132 446 0.72 27.69 117 111 1.19 1.16
sections
2,130 92 75 318 0.52 48.46 60 70 1.07 1.31
2,700 60 63 316 0.51 48.78 47 53 1.19 1.13
850 101 119 392 0.86 14.30 100 98 1.21 1.03
1,320 106 89 362 0.79 20.76 70 78 1.14 1.36
C-sections
1,800 66 55 298 0.65 34.78 40 37 1.49 1.78
2,270 42 44 296 0.65 35.24 30 24 1.83 1.75
ref
N MEF* - load capacity obtained by ANSYS to reference sections
ref
N exp - load capacity obtained experimentally [21] to reference sections
NNAS - load capacity obtained according with American standard [22] to the optimum profiles
opt
N MEF - load capacity obtained by ANSYS to optimized sections
Clip 125 × 50 × 25 × 2,38 Aref = 617 mm2 and C 100 × 50 × 2,38 Aref = 457 mm2
5 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS5
Of the results presented in Table 1, we can make the following observations:
- Since the boundary conditions of the reference profile respect to x-axis are fixed and with respect to
the y-axis is hinged, the slenderness ratio in relation to the y-axis ( λy) is greater than ( λx), for this reason
was consistent that the optimization searched a section with minor λy, and this tendency was confirmed.
-Table 1 also shows that when we determine the load capacity (strength) of the profiles Clip-section,
ref opt
optimized by FEM, the relationship N exp / N MEF is between 1.07 and 1.20 (column 9 of table 1, which are
acceptable, since this dispersion also happened in calibration of the finite element model (see Grigoletti
[19]).
But when we determine the load capacity (strength) of the profiles C-section, optimized by FEM, we
ref opt
verified that the relationship N exp / N MEF is between 1.21 and 1.83 (column 9 column of table 1).
In this case the values are acceptable only for the lengths of 850 and 1320 mm, not worth it for the
profiles C-sections of lengths 1800 and 2270.
The explanation for this sensible difference (49 and 83%), for profiles with lengths of 1800 and 2270
mm, can be explained for: (i) the curves of DSM are not calibrated for the pure modes (buckling modes
that have neither kind of interaction); (ii) the C-sections are not yet, pre-qualified sections by DSM (this
would to require a coefficient of resistance more conservative. In the present work the comparisons were
made with a nominal resistances) and; (iii) depending on the relationships between the dimensions of the
section, the C-section can have the critical elastic buckling mode ranked by cFSM how distortional mode,
i.e., in disagreement with the classification given by standards design, where the C-sections without lips
admit only local buckling. This it implies that instead of using the resistance curve of the local buckling
the curve of distortional buckling is used, that in this case overestimates the load capacity (strength) of
the optimized profiles by DSM.
966
- The table 1 also is presented the strength nominal values obtained by mean of the American
opt
standard [22], that confirm the values obtained through MEF ( N MEF ), and in this case also appear the
opt
same phenomenon observed when comparing the experimental reference value with ( N MEF ).
- It is important point out that in the case of a perfectly correlation between the results the ratio
ref opt
N exp / N MEF = 1 will be expected, but values differences between 14 to 21% are waited as discussed in [19]
and [21].
- In the comparison between the optimized profiles and the references profiles, we can to observe a
great area reduction, (14% a 48%), as is appreciated in column 6 of the table 1, without considering the
length 1800 and 2270 of the profiles C-section.
As a final commentary, it is important to say that the problems founded in the profiles C-section
analysis could be avoided simply admitting that the classified buckling mode as distortional for cFSM,
will be considered as local and then to use the strength curve corresponding to this mode, but this way is
against the cFSM philosophy.
6 CONCLUSION
In this paper we proposed a methodology to optimize cold-formed steel members, via GAs, using the
direct strength method (DSM) working with the constrained finite strip method (cFSM). From the
obtained results, in different steps of this paper, we conclude that:
- Regarding the methodology used for the elastic stability solution: (i) the utilization of cFSM has
demonstrated to be a useful tool to help the DSM, because it solves modal identification problems that
are present when we use the conventional FSM or FEM; (ii) although the cFSM doesn’t give necessarily
the same results obtained via conventional FSM (which considers all modes interacting), it can be used
together with the DSM, once the methodology explained by Grigoletti [19] is used to determine the
critical loads; (iii) a difficulty of philosophical character in the utilization of cFSM is the fact that the
mechanical definitions used to classify the buckling modes are not always in accordance with the classical
concepts used for these modes, causing sometimes some confusion;
- Regarding the methodology used for the column load capacity (strength) determination: (i) the
DSM has demonstrated to be an adequate tool to optimize profiles, as it incorporates naturally every form
of collapse that the CFS are submitted to; (ii) although we only optimized C-section and Clip-section
profiles, the implemented methodology is general, so that it can also be used for other kinds of profiles;
- Regarding the methodology used to optimize the cross-section form: (i) during the simulation, the
utilization of the hybrid function demonstrated to be an excellent tool to refine the search for optimum
solution. This affirmation was proved through several optimization runs, coming from different points
and looking for the best result. In practically all the runs the hybrid function, using the solution given by
the GAs converged to the same value of the global minimum; (ii) a difficulty found was the processing
time spent in the optimization as the cFSM passes the several half-wavelengths (50 at least to have an
accurate result), executing to each half-wavelength an eigenvectors stability analysis.
REFERENCES
[1] Schafer, B. W.; Peköz, T., “Direct Strength Prediction of Cold-Formed Steel Members Using
Numerical Elastic Buckling Solutions”. Thin-Walled Structures, Research and Development, Eds.
Shanmugan, N.E, Liew, J. Y. R., and Thevendran, V., Elsevier, p. 137-44, 1998.
[2] Schafer, B. W., “Review: The direct strength method of cold-formed steel member design”. Journal
of Constructional Steel Research, v. 64, p.766-78, 2008.
[3] Bebiano R., Pina P., Silvestre N. and Camotim D., GBTUL - Buckling and Vibration Analysis of
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<http://www.civil.ist.utl.pt/gbt>.
967
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Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members - Appendix 1, Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural
Members Using Direct Strength Method”. Washington, DC, 2007.
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[6] Schafer, B. W., CUFSM: Elastic buckling analysis of thin-walled members by finite strip analysis,
CUFSM v3.12, 2006. Available in: <www.ce.jhu.edu/bschafer/cufsm/index.htm>.
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sections” In: Proceedings of the fourth international conference on coupled instabilities in metal
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Helsinki University of Technology, 2003.
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columns”. Thin-Walled Structures, v. 42, n. 6, p. 785-801, 2004.
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Steel Structural Members Using Direct Strength Method”. Washington DC, 2007.
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Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members”. Washington DC, 2007.
968
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF HIGH STRENGTH

COLD-FORMED SUPACEE® SECTIONS IN SHEAR
Cao Hung Pham * and Gregory J. Hancock*
* School of Civil Engineering, the University of Sydney, Australia

e-mails: caohung.pham@sydney.edu.au, gregory.hancock@sydney.edu.au
Keywords: Cold-Formed, SupaCee® Sections, High Strength Steel, Effective Width Method, Direct
Strength Method, Shear Test, Tension Field Action.
Abstract. The paper will describe tests of SupaCee® Sections in Shear. These high strength (450 MPa) C-
profile steel sections contain additional return lips and web stiffeners which enhance the bending and
shear capacity of the sections.They are used widely in Australia as purlins in roof and wall systems.
Design methods for these sections are normally specified in the Australian/New Zealand Standard for
Cold-Formed Steel Structures [1] or the North American Specification for Cold-Formed Steel Structural
Members [2]. Both the Effective Width Method (EWM) and the Direct Strength Method (DSM) can be
used for the design of C-sections although rules for the DSM in shear are not provided in either
standard/specification. The paper summarises shear tests on SupaCee® sections performed at the
University of Sydney and compares the results with the EWM rules. The paper also demonstrates tension
field action in the sections tested leading to post-buckling strength which is included in newly proposed
DSM rules for Shear.
1 INTRODUCTION
High strength cold-formed steel sections are commonly used in a wide range of applications which
include lipped C and Z-purlin sections in roof and wall systems. Sections are normally made from high
strength steel up to 550 MPa yield stress. With the resulting reduction of thicknesses of high strength
steel, the failure modes of such sections are mainly due to instabilities such as local, distortional and
flexural-torsional buckling modes or the interaction between them. SupaCee® sections [3] are another
type of purlin section which can increase buckling capacity and ultimate strength of thin-walled channel
sections by introducing multiple longitudinal web stiffeners and return lips. For compression of columns
and bending for beams, the actions causing buckling such as flexural, flexural-torsional, distortional or
local buckling, are well understood.
For shear, the traditional approach has been to investigate shear plate buckling in the web alone and
to ignore the behaviour of the whole section including the flanges. There does not appear to be any
consistent theoretical or experimental investigation of the whole section buckling of thin-walled sections
under shear. Recently, Pham and Hancock provided solutions to the shear buckling of complete channel
sections [4] and plain C- lipped sections with an intermediate web stiffener [5] loaded in pure shear
parallel with the web by using a spline finite strip analysis [6].
As sections become more complex with additional multiple longitudinal web stiffeners and return lips
as designed on SupaCee® sections, the computation of the effective widths becomes more complex. For
the EWM, the calculation of effective widths of the numerous sub-elements leads to severe complications
with decreased accuracy. In some special cases, no design approach is even available for such a section
using the EWM. The DSM appears to be more beneficial and simpler by using the elastic buckling
stresses of the whole complex channel sections such as SupaCee® section.
969
In order to further understand the DSM in shear, an experimental program has been recently
performed at the University of Sydney for SupaCee® sections. The tests, which are described as
predominantly shear test series (V-series) in this paper, consist of two different commercially available
depths and three different thicknesses of SupaCee®. The basic design of the test rig was developed by
LaBoube and Yu [7]. The test results are plotted and compared with the existing EWM rules for shear.
Experimental results are also utilized to recommend new design rules for the DSM of design in shear.
New DSM shear curves excluding and including tension field action are proposed.
2.1 Test series

The experimental program comprised a total of twelve tests conducted in the J. W. Roderick
Laboratory for Materials and Structures at the University of Sydney. All tests were performed in the 2000
kN capacity DARTEC testing machine, using a servo-controlled hydraulic ram. Two different
commercially available SupaCee® sections of 150 mm and 200 mm depths were chosen with three
different thicknesses of 1.2 mm, 1.5 mm and 2.4 mm. Although the tests described in LaBoube and Yu
[7] contained straps at the loading points as described later, tests both with and without straps are
included in the test program described in this paper.
2.2 Specimen Nomenclature and Dimensions
The test specimens were labeled in order to express the series, test number, channel section, depth
and thickness. Typical test label “V1-SC15012” is defined as follows:
x V indicates the predominantly shear test series.
x “1” indicates the test “with” straps and “w” expresses the test “without” straps adjacent to
loading points.
x “SC150” indicates a SupaCee® section (SC-SupaCee Section) with the web width of 150 mm
(alternatively “SC200”).
x “12” is the thickness times 10 in mm (alternatively “15” and “24”).
The average measured dimensions for the V-series are shown in Fig. 1 and in Table 1 respectively.
The Young’s modulus of elasticity (E) was also calculated from stress-strain curves. The calculated mean
value of the Young’s modulus of elasticity is 206.6 GPa.
Figure 1. Dimensions of SupaCee® Sections
970
Table 1. V-Series Specimen Dimension and Properties

t D B l lr GS S ș1 ș2 fy
Test Section
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (0) (0) (MPa)
V1 SC15012 1.2 153.56 41.87 5.09 6.22 63.85 41.37 55.5 84.5 589.71
Vw SC15012 1.2 153.89 42.05 5.83 6.27 63.44 40.79 53.5 84.5 589.71
V1 SC15015 1.5 152.64 42.49 4.78 5.83 63.48 41.28 55.5 81.5 533.88
Vw SC15015 1.5 153.65 42.48 4.74 5.99 64.68 42.33 54.0 80.5 533.88
V1 SC15024 2.4 153.66 44.49 4.81 4.99 60.84 42.19 51.5 81.5 513.68
Vw SC15024 2.4 153.63 43.77 5.31 5.56 60.93 42.57 51.5 82.0 513.68
V1 SC20012 1.2 205.45 54.61 6.96 6.15 109.43 42.54 55.5 84.0 593.30
Vw SC20012 1.2 205.69 54.58 7.08 6.54 109.53 42.06 54.5 86.0 593.30
V1 SC20015 1.5 203.77 54.19 7.28 6.88 109.46 42.41 54.5 87.5 532.03
Vw SC20015 1.5 203.88 54.34 7.36 6.91 109.24 42.13 54.5 85.5 532.03
V1 SC20024 2.4 204.16 54.67 6.57 8.35 111.48 41.36 55.0 85.5 504.99
Vw SC20024 2.4 203.25 54.34 6.59 8.64 111.28 41.49 54.0 84.0 504.99
Internal Radius r = 5 mm
2.3 Coupon Tests

Eighteen coupons were taken longitudinally from the centre of the web of each channel section
member. The tensile coupon dimensions conformed to the Australian Standard AS 1391 (Standards
Australia 1991) for the tensile testing of metals using 12.5 wide coupons with gauge length 50 mm. Full
details of the coupon tests are given in Pham and Hancock [8].
2.5 Test Rig Design
Photos of the test set-up are shown in Fig. 2 for the V-series with the ratio of span to depth of 1:1.
The channel section members were tested in pairs with flanges facing inwards and with a gap between
them to ensure inside assembly was possible. At the supports, the test two beam specimens were bolted
through the webs by vertical rows of M12 high tensile bolts. These rows of bolts were connected to two
channel sections 250x90x6CC with stiffeners. Steel plates of 20 mm thickness were used as load transfer
plates which were also bolted through the flanges of the channel sections 250x90x6CC with stiffeners.
These load bearing plates rested on the half rounds of the DARTEC supports to simulate a set of simple
supports. At each bolt, a nut was located between the SupaCee® and CC sections so that the SupaCee®
did not attach directly on the CC thus minimizing restraint to the web.
At the loading point at mid-span, the DARTEC loading ram has a spherical head to ensure that the
load is applied uniformly on the bearing plate, and moved at a constant stroke rate of 2 mm/min
downwards during testing. The load was transferred to two channel sections 250x90x6CC with stiffeners
which were connected to the test beam specimens by two vertical rows of M12 high tensile bolts. The
distance between these two vertical rows of bolts is 50 mm. As for the support points, a nut was located
on the bolt between the SupaCee® and CC sections. Further, the beam specimens were also connected by
four 25x25x5EA equal angle steel straps on each top and bottom flanges adjacent to the loading point and
reactions. Self-tapping screws were used to attach these straps to the test specimens. The object of these
straps was to prevent section distortion at the loading points. The channel sections 250x90x6CC with
stiffeners were introduced to prevent a bearing failure at the loading point and supports which could be
caused by using conventional bearing plates. For the 150 mm section, four bolts were used at each
support and eight at the load point, and for the 200 mm deep section, five and ten bolts were used
respectively.
971
Figure 2. V - Series Configuration (Dimensions for 150 mm Depth SupaCee® Section)

2.5 Test With and Without Straps Configurations
For the predominantly shear (V) test series, six of the twelve tests had four 25x25x5EA straps
connected by self-tapping screws on each of the top and bottom flanges adjacent to the loading point and
reactions as shown in Fig. 3(a). Six remaining tests were tested without the two 25x25x5EA straps
adjacent to the loading points on the top flange as shown in Fig. 3(b). The purpose of these two straps is
to prevent distortion of the top flanges under compression caused by bending moment. The distortion
may be a consequence of unbalanced shear flow or distortional buckling.
(a) With Straps (b) Without Straps

Figure 3. V - Series Configuration with and without Straps adjacent Loading Point
3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DIRECT STRENGTH METHOD (DSM) OF

DESIGN FOR SHEAR PROPOSALS
3.1 Direct Strength Method based on AISI in DSM Format in Shear without Tension Field Action
The equations in Section 3.2.1 of the North American Specification [2] which are expressed in terms
of a nominal shear stress Fv have been changed to DSM format by replacing stresses by loads as follows:
972
For Ov d 0.815 : Vv Vy (1)
For 0.815 Ov d 1.231 : Vv 0.815 VcrV y (2)

For Ov ! 1.231 : Vv Vcr (3)
where Ov Vy / Vcr , V y = yield load of web = 0.6 Aw f y ,
kvS 2 EAw
Vcr = elastic shear buckling force of web = 2
§d ·

12 1 Q 2 ¨¨ 1 ¸¸
© tw ¹
d1 = depth of the flat portion of the web measured along the plane of the web,
t w = thickness of web, Aw = area of web = d1 u t w ,
kv = shear buckling coefficient for whole SupaCee® Sections.
To account for the shear buckling of the whole section rather than simply the web, the shear buckling
coefficient k v can be back-calculated from the shear buckling load Vcr of the whole section as described
in Pham and Hancock [4] by using the Spline Finite Strip Method.
Figure 4. V – Dimensions of 150 mm and 200 mm Depth SupaCee® Sections and

Buckling Mode Shape of 150 mm Depth SupaCee® Section
Both 150 mm and 200 mm depth SupaCee® channel sections with the thickness of 2 mm as shown in
Fig. 4 are investigated. A shear distribution similar to that which occurs in practice allowing for section
shear flow is used for modeling sections in pure shear resulting from a shear force parallel with the web.
All edges of the end cross-section are simply supported. The results of the buckling analyses of
SupaCee® sections are shown in Table 2 by using the Spline Finite Strip Method. The presence of
multiple longitudinal web stiffeners and return lips contribute significantly to the shear elastic buckling
capacity of the SupaCee® channel sections. The corresponding buckling mode shape of the 150 mm depth
SupaCee® channel section is also shown in Fig. 4.
Table 2. Shear Buckling Coefficients of SupaCee® Sections

Span : Panel Depth = 1:1
Sections kv kv
150 mm 200 mm
Depth Sections Depth Sections
SupaCee® Channels 12.204 11.709
973
3.1 Direct Strength Method based on AISI in DSM Format in Shear with Tension Field Action
All results of tests for the predominantly shear (V) test series of SupaCee® sections are summarized in
Table 3. Fig. 5 shows all test data and nominal shear capacity curves which include the Tension Field
Action (TFA) curve [9], the existing Effective Width Method (EWM) shear curve without TFA (based on
AISI), elastic buckling curve (Vcr) (Eqs. 1-3) and new DSM proposed curve for shear (Vv) including TFA.
The DSM nominal shear capacity (Vv) is proposed based on the local buckling (Msl) equation where
Msl, Mol and My are replaced by Vv, Vcr and Vy respectively as follows:
ª 0.4 º 0.4
§ · § ·
Vv «1 0.15¨ Vcr ¸ »¨ Vcr ¸ Vy (4)
« ¨ Vy ¸ »¨ V y ¸
¬ © ¹ ¼© ¹
where V y is yield load of web V y = 0.6 Aw f y ,

k v S 2 EAw
Vcr is elastic shear buckling force of web Vcr = 2
,
§ d1 ·

12 1 Q ¨¨ ¸¸ 2

© tw ¹
k v is shear buckling coefficient for the whole channel sections (Table 2).
Fig. 5 shows that all SupaCee® V-series tests lie close to the proposed DSM nominal shear capacity
with Tension Field Action (see Eq. 4). The DSM proposed shear equation with tension field action
therefore gives a good mean fit to the V-series tests. They lie well above the AISI in DSM format
equations (see Eqs. 1–3) presumably because significant tension field action was developed.
Table 3. V-Series Test Results of SupaCee® Sections
VT Vy(AISI) Vcr Vy VT
Test Section Ov
(kN) (kN) (kN) Vcr Vy
V1 SC15012 42.13 59.93 27.00 1.490 0.703

Vw SC15012 39.33 60.08 26.94 1.493 0.655
V1 SC15015 55.58 67.10 53.32 1.122 0.828

Vw SC15015 51.87 67.58 52.94 1.130 0.768
V1 SC15024 97.99 102.71 219.62 0.684 0.954

Vw SC15024 92.92 102.69 219.66 0.684 0.905
V1 SC20012 46.48 82.47 18.95 2.086 0.564

Vw SC20012 45.55 82.57 18.92 2.089 0.552
V1 SC20015 62.07 91.35 37.44 1.562 0.679

Vw SC20015 61.65 91.40 37.42 1.563 0.675
V1 SC20024 124.21 137.70 154.52 0.944 0.902

Vw SC20024 117.31 137.04 155.26 0.939 0.856
974
1.2
0.8
AISI-Shear Curve-without TFA
Elastic Buckling Curve-Vcr
VT 0.6 Tension Field Action (TFA) Curve
Vy DSM Proposed Curve for Shear-with TFA
SC15012
0.4
SC15015
SC15024
0.2 SC20012
SC20015
SC20024
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2
Vy
Ov
Vcr
Figure 5. DSM Proposed Nominal Shear Curve and Shear Test Data
The development of tension field action may be a result of the bolts connecting the webs of the
channels spanning the full depth of the section for both 150 mm and 200 mm tests. The two vertical rows
of bolts have increased the restraints to the web panel and act as web stiffeners. These increased restraints
have improved the post-buckling strengths of the web for the V-series. It is interesting to note that the
slender sections (e.g. SC15012, SC20012 and SC20015) are more conservative than stockier sections.
This fact shows that the more slender sections have more tension field action contribution to the ultimate
strength of the sections in shear. In tests where full tension field action is not developed, the results may
lie below Eq. 4. Investigation of other test results such as those from LaBoube and Yu [7] will be
required to confirm these design curves for all situations. Figs 6(a) and 6(b) show the corresponding
buckling mode shapes of the SupaCee® section members with and without straps respectively for the V-
series.

Figure 6. Buckling Mode Shape of SupaCee® Section Members
V-Series – With and Without Straps
975
3 CONCLUSION
An experimental program was carried out to determine the ultimate strength of high strength
SupaCee® cold-formed channel sections subjected to predominantly shear. A total of twelve tests of two
different depths and three different thicknesses have been performed at the University of Sydney. While
six tests were conducted with straps at the loading points, the remaining tests were tested without straps.
The shear capacity, Vv, is based on the DSM proposals with and without tension field action. The shear
buckling load, Vcr, used in the DSM equations is based on the shear buckling coefficient of the full
section and not just the web buckling in shear. The tests show that the DSM proposal curve for shear with
tension field action gives a good mean fit to the V-series tests and more accurate prediction on post-
bucking strength of SupaCee® sections in shear.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Bluescope Steel for supply of the test specimens and financial
support for the project performed at the University of Sydney. Thanks are also extended to all technicians
at the J. W. Roderick Laboratory for Materials and Structures at the University of Sydney. The first
author is supported by GJ Hancock Innovation Fund and Centre for Advanced Structural Engineering
scholarships.
REFERENCES
[1] Standards Australia “Cold-Formed Steel Structures.” AS/NZS 4600:2005, Standards Australia/
Standards New Zealand, 2005.
[2] American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) “North American Specification for the Design of Cold-
Formed Steel Structural Members.” AISI S100-2007, 2007 Ed.
[3] Lysaght., “NSW SupaCee® is trademark of Bluescope Steel Limited.” Bluescope Steel Limited
trading as Bluescope Lysaght, 2003.
[4] Pham, C. H., and Hancock, G. J., “Shear Buckling of Thin-Walled Channel Sections” Journal of
Constructional Steel Research, Vol 65, No 3, 578-585, 2009.
[5] Pham, C. H., and Hancock, G. J., “Shear Buckling of Thin-Walled Channel Sections with
Intermediate Web Stiffener.” Proceedings, Sixth International Conference on Advances in Steel
Structures, Hong Kong, 417-424, 2009.
[6] Lau, S. C. W. and Hancock, G. J., “Buckling of Thin Flat-Walled Structures by a Spline Finite
Strip Method.” Thin-Walled Structures, Vol. 4, 269-294, 1986.
[7] LaBoube, R. A., and Yu, W. W., “Cold-Formed Steel Web Elements under Combined Bending and
Shear.” Proc., 4th Int. Specialty Conf. on Cold-Formed Steel Structures, University of Missouri-
Rolla, St Louis, Missouri, U.S.A, 1978.
[8] Pham, C. H., and Hancock, G. J., “Experimental Investigation of High Strength Cold-Formed
SupaCee® Sections in Combined Bending and Shear”, Research Report No R907, School of Civil
Engineering, The University of Sydney, NSW, Australia, December, 2009.
[9] Basler, K., “Strength of Plate Girders in Shear.” Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 87,
No. ST7, 151-180, 1961.
976
EFFECTIVE DESIGN OF COLD-FORMED THIN-WALLED CHANNEL

BEAMS WITH BENT EDGES OF FLANGES
Ewa Magnucka-Blandzi* and Krzysztof Magnucki**
* Institute of Mathematics, Poznan University of Technology, Poland

e-mail: ewa.magnucka-blandzi@put.poznan.pl
** Institute of Applied Mechanics, Poznan University of Technology, Poland
e-mail: krzysztof.magnucki@put.poznan.pl
Keywords: Channel Beams, Elastic Buckling, Effective Design, Steel Structures.
Abstract. An analytical and numerical elastic buckling study and an effective design of cold-formed thin-
walled channel beams with various flange bend shapes under pure bending are presented. Flanges of
these beams are with open or closed bends. Buckling problems of flanges or webs of the beams are
considered. Mathematical models of critical states for these beams are formulated and critical loads
determined. Moreover, critical loads are calculated with the use of the Finite Strip Method – FSM and
compared to analytical solution. Results of the numerical investigations are presented in figures.
Effective design problem of thin-walled beams is formulated. A criterion includes two problems:
maximization of the load and minimization of the beam cross section area. Results of the solution of the
effective design problem are presented in figures.
1 INTRODUCTION
Strength and stability problems of thin-walled beams with open cross sections are intensively
investigated since 1940’s and described in many monographs of the 20th century, for example in
chronological order [1] - [7]. Numerical calculations of stresses and critical states of thin-walled beams
are carried out with the use of the finite strip method (FSM) [8] or the finite element method (FEM). The
fundamental numerical study of the local, distortional, and flexural-torsional buckling of I-beams with
the use of the finite strip method is presented in [9]. Stability problems of thin-walled members are also
at present investigated, selected papers are the following: [10]-[33]. Global and local/distortional
buckling problems are described with consideration of the Generalized Beam Theory (GBT). Moreover,
optimal design problems are also intensively developed. The first paper on optimal design of a thin-
walled beam with open cross section concerned an I-beam under pure bending [34]. Results of later
studies of these problems are presented in the following papers: [35]-[53]. Solutions of the optimization
tasks of thin-walled beams take into account the strength and stability constraints.
Flanges and webs of cold-formed C-sections or I-sections are variously shaped in order to improve
their stiffness. Evolution of section shapes of these beams is presented for example in the papers [15],
[30] and [53]. The subject of the study includes thin-walled channel beams with open or closed bends of
flanges under pure bending. Geometric properties are described with consideration of warping functions.
2 GEOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF TWO CROSS SECTIONS

Geometric properties of two cross sections of cold-formed channel beams are determined with
respect to the principal axes y, z. The origin (the point O) and the shear centre (the point C) are located on
the z-axis of symmetry. Scheme of two mono-symmetrical C-sections of channel beams with open or
closed bends of flanges are shown in figure 1.
977
Figure 1: Cross sections of two channel beams with open or closed bends of flanges.
Geometric properties of two cross sections are defined by the following dimensionless parameters
b c d t
x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 . (1)
a b b b
where: a and b – dimensions of the cross section, c and d – dimensions of the bend, t – thickness of
the wall, H 2a t a 2 x1 x4 - depth of the beam.
2.1 C-section with open bends of flanges
The total area and geometric stiffness for Saint-Venant torsion of the cross section
2 3
A 2at f 0 xi , J t at f 0 xi , where f 0 xi 1 x1 1 2 x2 x3 x4 . (2)
3
The location of the centroid
f1 xi
, where f1 xi x1 ª«1 x2 1 x3 1 2 x2 x3 2 x4 º» .
1
zB b (3)
f 0 xi ¬ 2 ¼
Moments of inertia of the plane area with respect to the y and z axes
º f x ½°
° ª 2 2
1
Jy 2a 3t f 2 xi , f 2 xi x12 ® x1 « x 2 1 x3 2 1 3 x2 x3 3 x4 » 1 i ¾ , (4)
°̄ ¬ 3 3 ¼ f 0 xi °¿
2 ª2 §2 ·º 1
Jz 2 a 3 t f 3 xi , f 3 x i x1 1 x1 x2 2 « x1 ¨ x 2 x3 ¸» 1 x1 x4 3 . (5)
3 ¬ 3 © 3 ¹¼ 3
The location of the shear centre (the point C)

1 1 f 4 xi
z BC , where ~
b~ , f 4 xi - composite function.
z B zC
Jz ³Z
A
B ydA z BC x1
2 f 3 xi
(6)
The warping moment of inertia
JZ
³ Z dA
2
2a 5t f 5 xi , where f 5 xi
3
>
1 2 ~2
@
x1 Z1 x1 Z~12 Z~1Z~2 Z~22 , (7)
A
and dimensionless warping functions: Z~1 ~z BC , Z~2 1 ~z BC , Z~3 1 x1 x2 ~z BC 1 x1 x2 ,

Z~4 1 x1 x2 x3 ~z BC 1 x1 x2 , Z~5 2 x1 x2 x3 1 x1 x4 1 x3 ~z BC 1 x1 2 x2 x4 .
978
2.2 C-section with closed bends of flanges

The formulas for geometric properties of the C-section are analogous to the ones of the C-section
with open bends of flanges. The geometric stiffness for torsion and the warping moment of inertia are
differently defined.
The geometric stiffness for torsion
2
2 3 x1 § x2 x3 ·
Jt at f t xi , where f t xi 1 x1 1 x3 6 ¨ ¸ . (8)
3 x2 x3 ¨© x4 ¸¹
The location of the shear centre (the point C)

1 1 f 4 xi
z BC , where ~
b~
z B zC
Jz ³Z
A
B ydA z BC x1
2 f 3 xi
, (9)
and f 4 xi 1 x3 Z~B 2 x3 2 x1 x2 Z~B3 Z~B 4 , Z~B 2 1 x3 , Z~B 3 1 x3 §¨1 1 x1 x2 ·¸ .

© 2 ¹
The warping moment of inertia
JZ
³ Z dA
2
2a 5t f 5 xi , where f 5 xi
3
>
1 2 ~2
@
x1 Z1 x1 1 x3 Z~12 Z~1Z~2 Z~22 2 x1 x3 Z~32 , (10)
A
and dimensionless warping functions: Z~1 ~z BC , Z~2 1 x3 ~z BC ,

Z~3 1 x3 1 0.5 x1 x2 ~z BC 1 0.5 x1 x2 , Z~4 1 0.5 x1 x2 1 2 x3 ~z BC 1 0.5 x1 x2 .
3 GLOBAL BUCKLING
The global buckling problem of thin-walled beams is described for example in [3], [5] and [6]. The
lateral buckling moment of thin-walled beam under pure bending
Glob SE J y Jt ª S 2 JZ º
M CR «1 21 Q 2 », (11)
L 21 Q ¬« L J t »¼
where: E – Young’s modulus, Ȟ – Poisson ratio, L – length of the beam.
4 DISTORTIONAL BUCKLING
The local and distortional buckling problems are described in the papers [11], [14], [15], [17], [20]
and [26]. This problem is also studied for thin-walled channel beams with open or closed bends of
flanges. Scheme of displacements for distortional buckling is shown in figure 2.
Figure 2: Theoretical shape of distortional buckling mode.
979
Functions of deflections of the flange and the web
b rSz mSx a § Sy Sy · mSx

v x, z T 0 sin sin , w y, z T 0 ¨ 2 cos sin ¸ sin , (12)
rS b L 2S © 2a a ¹ L
where: T 0 – angle of rotation (figure 2), r – real number, m – natural number, b1 b d 2 , and
coordinates 0 d z d b1 , a d y d a .
The elastic strain energy U H and the work W of the load for the beam under pure bending are
described with the functions (12). Taking into account the principle of minimum of the total potential
energy G U H W 0 takes the elastic distortional buckling stress in the following form
° f fp f fb f w ½°
V xDist
,CR
min ® H f H w H ¾ E , (13)
m ,r °̄ fV f V °¿
where:
§ t · r 2 °§ º ½°
2 2 2
S2 1 · sin 2Sr ª«§ 1 · m b1
f H fp ¨ ¸¸ ®¨ X1 ¸ ¨¨ X 1 ¸¸ 4Q » ¾ , X1 ,

12 1 Q 2 ¨b
© 1 ¹ 2 °¯©
¨ X 1 ¸¹ 2Sr «©
¬
X1 ¹ »°
¼¿
r L
ª 1 J tb J b º
f H fb Sr 2 « cos 2 Sr z3 X 12 sin 2 Sr » ,
¬« 21 Q b 1
3
t b1 t ¼»
2 2 3
S2 § t · §r· § ·§ a · a
f Hw ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ 5 X 22 4 5 ¸¨ ¸ , X2 m ,

12 1 Q 2 © a ¹ © 2 ¹ ¨
© 4 X 22 ¸¨ b ¸
¹© 1 ¹ L
3 2
1 § sin 2Sr · § 1 ·A 128 § a · §r·
fV f ¨1 ¸ ¨1 x1 x2 ¸ b sin Sr ,
2
fVw ¨¨ ¸¸ ¨ ¸ ,
2© 2Sr ¹ © 2 ¹ b1t 9S 2 © b1 ¹ © 2 ¹
2 3 c 2d 2 1 2 §1 ·
J tb t c d , J tb J tbclosed 2t
J tbopen , J zb c t ¨ c d ¸ , Ab 2t c d .
3 cd 2 ©3 ¹
Numerical calculation is performed for the example steel channel beams with open or closed bends of
flanges: E 205 GPa , Q 0.3 , a 100 mm , b 100 mm , c 15 mm , 10 mm d d 25 mm ,
t 1.4 mm . Values of critical stresses of distortional buckling are calculated from the formula (13) and
with the use of the finite strip method (FSM-Cufsm – B. Schafer). The comparison of results of both
methods is shown in figure 3. Differences in critical stresses values are below five percent.
Figure 3: Critical stresses of distortional buckling of channel beams
980
5 EFFECTIVE SHAPING OF C-SECTIONS

Minimal manufacturing cost, minimal mass or maximal safe load are usually criterions for effective
constructions design. The optimization criterion with regard to the papers [42], [45], [46], [47] and [53] is
formulated in the following form
Mj
max^)1 xi , ) 2 xi , , ) 5 xi ` ) max , and the objective function ) j xi , (14)
xi EA3 2
where:
J
M 1 2 z V all - the allowable moment from the strength condition (j=1),
H
Glob
M CR
M2 - the allowable moment from the lateral buckling condition (j=2),
c s1
J z Dist
M3 V x ,CR - the allowable moment from the distortional buckling condition (j=3),
cs 2 a
J z Flange
M4 V x ,CR - the allowable moment from the local buckling condition for the flange (j=4) ,
cs3a
J z Web
M5 V x,CR - the allowable moment from the local buckling condition for the web (j=5),
cs 4 a
2
S 2E § t ·
V Flange kf ¨ ¸ , kf 4 - the critical stress of the flange plate [3],
x ,CR

12 1 Q 2

¨ bp
©
¸
¹
2
S 2E § t · 81 2
V xWeb kw ¨ ¸ , kw S - the critical stress of the web (obtained from (13)),
,CR

12 1 Q 2
© 2a ¹ 32
V all - allowable stress, cs1 ,, cs 4 - safety coefficients, b p b - open bend, b p b d - closed bend.
Strength and buckling conditions ( M 0 d M 1 , where M 0 is the moment-load) are formulated for the
simply supported beam under pure bending.
Effective shaping of cold-formed thin-walled channel beams with bent edges of flanges is realized for
the family of beams: V all E 0.0012 , Q 0.3 , cs1 1.2 , cs 2 c s 3 cs 4 1.3 , and relative length
O L H 7.5, 10.0, 15.0, 20.0, 25.0 . Results of the numerical calculations of dimensionless functions
) max are shown in figure 4.
Figure 4: The comparison of effective channel beams with open or closed bends of flanges
981
6 CONCLUSION
The shapes of cross sections of cold-formed thin-walled beams are rather complicated. Strength and
buckling resistance are strictly related with the shapes of cross sections. Effective design of beams with
respect to the criterion and the dimensionless objective function (14) enables improving the structures.
This criterion is a quality measure for beams. Values of objective function ) max for the beam with closed
bends of flanges are greater than the values for the beam with open bends of flanges (fig.4). Thin-walled
channel beams with closed bends of flanges are decidedly better than the ones with open bends of
flanges.
The formula (13) described the elastic distortional buckling stress of the channel beams with open or
closed bends of flanges. Values of stresses calculated with the use of (13) approximate the values
calculated with the use of finite strip method (FSM-Cufsm – B. Schafer).
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984
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992
LOAD-BEARING CAPACITY OF PERFORATED

TRAPEZOIDAL SHEETING
Versuchsanstalt für Stahl, Holz und Steine, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

e-mails: thomas.misiek@kit.edu, helmut.saal@kit.edu
Keywords: Trapezoidal sheeting, Corrugated sheeting, Perforation, Web crippling.
Abstract. Thin-walled perforated sheeting is used for sound absorption in buildings. The perforation may
extend over the whole surface or only parts of the sheeting, e.g. webs. So far only reduction factors for
the in-plane stiffness and the bending stiffness of fully perforated sheets with an equilateral triangular
perforation pattern are included in EN 1993-1-3 and EN 1999-1-4. These factors only apply to
perforation patterns in form of equilateral triangles, because of the isotropy assumed during derivation.
Furthermore, the equations provide only information on stiffness and not on the stability behaviour of
thin-walled components. The insufficient and misleading formulations of these regulations are overcome
by the investigations presented here. Design rules for trapezoidal sheeting which are fully or partly
perforated with equilateral triangular or square perforation patterns are given. The design rules take
into account the beneficial effect of the post-buckling behaviour of the sheeting. They also cover web
crippling at supports or under local loads.
Starting with the basic aspects of the load-bearing behaviour, the parameters required for capturing the
influence of the perforation are defined and determined for the different perforation patterns. By
introducing these parameters into the design procedures for the calculation of the load-bearing capacity
of thin-walled structural components being at risk of buckling failure, the use of these procedures is
expanded to fully perforated structural components. Numerical investigations with the finite-elements-
method allow the verification of these theoretically derived calculation procedures.
Based on comprehensive numerical and experimental investigations on web crippling, it can be shown
for fully and partially perforated trapezoidal profiles, that the influence of the perforation can be
captured by multiplying the capacities according to EN 1993-1-3 and EN 1999-1-4 with a factor Cp for
fully perforated profiles and Ctp for partially perforated profiles. A calculation procedure for these
factors is given.
The recalculations of more than 600 experimental tests with perforated trapezoidal and corrugated
sheeting which were performed since the 1980s at the University of Karlsruhe show the good correlation
between the calculation procedure and the test results.
1 INTRODUCTION
The rules and standards recently given in EN 1993-1-3 [1] and EN 1999-1-4 [2] include approaches
for determining reduction factors for membrane or bending stiffness as a basis for a verification by
calculation of the cross-section. Due to lack of other published investigations, the basis of these equations
are numerical investigations by Schardt and Bollinger [3]. These equations, however, only apply to
perforation patterns in form of equilateral triangles, because of the isotropy assumed during derivation.
993
Furthermore, the equations provide only information on stiffness and not on the stability behaviour of
thin-walled components. This was the reason for starting the investigations presented here.
Corresponding to the envisaged field of application of the results, the investigations restrict to perforation
patterns with a continuous arrangement as equilateral triangle or as a square (Figure 1), with equal hole
diameters d and spacings c. The perforation pattern is defined by the hole diameter d and the distance of
the hole centres c. With regard to their mechanical properties, triangular perforation patterns are isotropic
- the alignment of the perforation patterns to the load direction does not play any role. Based on the
orthotropy, orientation must be considered for the quadratic perforation pattern. For this pattern, the most
prevalent orientation is the alignment of the row holes parallel and rectangular or with an inclination of
45° to the main stress directions.
60° d
d
c
c0 = c - d
d c c
c
c
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 1: Perforation patterns
2 STIFFNESS
The perforation reduces the stiffness of the sheet. For the orthotropic sheet with the quadratic hole
pattern, the stiffness matrix is:
ª m11 º ª K 11, p K 12, p 0 º ª N 11 º
« » « » « »
m K
« 22 » « 12, p K 11, p 0 » « N 22 » (1)
«¬ m12 »¼ « 0 0 » « »
K 44, p ¼ ¬ 2 N 12 ¼
¬
In the present case with equal hole diameters d and spacings c, the following applies in addition:
K 11, p K 22, p (2)
The reduced stiffness is expressed with the normalised effective bending stiffnesses k11, k12 and k44
related to the bending stiffness of the unperforated sheet.
E1 t3 E t3
K 11, p k11 K 11 k11 2
(3)
1 Q 12 Q 21 12 1 Q 12
Q 12 E 2 t 3 Q E t3
K 12, p k12 K 12 k12 (4)
1 Q 12 Q 21 12 1 Q 2 12
and
t3 t3 E t3
K 44, p G12 k 44 K 44 k 44 G k 44 (5)
12 12 2 1 Q 12
As in [3], it is assumed that the membrane and bending stresses are decoupled and the effective
stiffnesses are determined with the basic elements of which the perforated sheet is composed. In addition
to [3], on the one hand also quadratic perforation patterns are considered and on the other hand, to get a
complete stiffness matrix, also the stiffnesses K12,p and K44,p are determined.
The related effective bending stiffnesses decrease with increasing ratio d/c. Figure 2 shows in
addition, that the plate thickness t (expressed by the ratio t/c) also has an influence on the bending
stiffness. Figure 2 shows also, that for a constant d/c kij = Kij,p/Kij may be approximated by the geometry
994
function *. This function *describes the ratio of torsion stiffness to bending stiffness. Thus, only
effective bending stiffnesses for a very small and a very large ratio t/c or t/c0 have to be determined
between which an interpolation is performed by means of the geometry function
§1 t · t
° 3 ¨¨ ¸
°° c d 1
§t· ° © 3 5 c 0 ¸¹ 0
*¨ ¸ ® 2 for ® t (6)
© c ¹ ° § 1 c0 · § c0 · ° ! 1
°3 ¨¨ 3 5 t ¸¸ ¨¨ t ¸¸ ¯° c 0
¯ © ¹ © ¹
The related bending stiffnesses between which an interpolation has to be performed are in the
following called kij,mint and kij,maxt. Then, the following applies:
§ d t · ª § d ·º °ª § d ·º ª § d ·º ½° § t ·
k ij ¨ , ¸ «k ij ¨ ¸» ®«k ij ¨ ¸» «k ij ¨ ¸» ¾ *¨ ¸ (7)
© c c ¹ ¬ © c ¹¼ max t °̄¬ © c ¹¼ min t ¬ © c ¹¼ max t °¿ © c ¹
0,55 1,0
beam, rotation at the
support
0,54 0,9
q M
0,53 0,8
beam, deflection
0,52 0,7 q
w
k11 = K11,p/K11
0,51 0,6 basic element, rotation
0,50 0,5
*
M
0,49 0,4 basic element, deflection
0,48 0,3
M
w
0,47 0,2 approximation
0,46 0,1
0,45 0,0 §t·

*¨ ¸
0,001 0,01 0,1 1 10 ©c¹
t/c
Figure 2: Interpolation between k11,mint and k11maxt for different values t/c.
The normalised effective stiffnesses kij as a function of t/c can be found in [4] - [6] for the different
perforation patterns. The effective bending stiffnesses are given for a “very large” and a “very small”
plate thickness by kmaxt and kmint. Then, an interpolation with equations (6) and (7) has to be performed.
3 LOAD-BEARING CAPACITY OF PLANE CROSS-SECTION PARTS

The ideal buckling stress of orthotropic rectangular plates under constant uniaxial compressive stress
is given by:
K 11 K 22 S2
V cr kV (8)
b2 t
as a function of the stiffnesses K11 and K22. The buckling coefficient
§ m2 D 2 ·
kV ¨ 2 2 ¸ 2 9 (9)
¨ m ¸
©D ¹
995
for a rectangular plate with all edges simply supported depends on the corrected aspect ratio
K 22 a K 22
D D 4 4 (10)
K 11 b K 11
and the stiffness coefficient
K 12 2 K 44 k 44 0.3 k12 k 44
] (11)
K 11 K 22 k11
Using the minimum value of equation (9), the ideal buckling stress of the rectangular plate with all
edges simply supported subjected to compression is obtained by
V cr , p k V , p V e (12)
with the minimum of the effective buckling value
k V , p 2 >k11 k 44 0.3 k12 k 44 @ (13)
This effective buckling coefficient refers to Euler´s stress Ve of the unperforated plate. The
normalisation with regard to the unperforated plate is only to simplify the application since all reducing
influences of the perforation are then included with the buckling coefficient. This simplification is only
possible for this case, in which a plate under constant uniaxial compressive stress is treated. The effective
buckling coefficient for the actual value of t/c can be plotted versus d/c for the three perforation patterns
described in Figure 1. If the values kV,p,mint and kV,p,maxt are already known for a plate under constant
uniaxial compressive stress, the value kV,p for the actual value of t/c is also obtained by interpolation with
the function * according to (6) and (7) with kV,p,mint and kV,p,maxt instead of kij,mint and kij,maxt. The values
kV,p,mint and kV,p,maxt can be taken from Figure 3 depending on ration d/c, but they can also be calculated
with equation (13), using the parameters kij presented in [4] – [6]. Compressive stresses varying along the
width of the plate are dealt with in [6].
4,0 4,0
60° dashed line
3,5 3,5 d
c
3,0 3,0
d c
c
c
2,5 2,5
kmint kmint
kV,p
kV,p
2,0 2,0
kmaxt kmaxt
1,5 1,5 d
1,0 1,0
c
0,5 0,5 c
continuous line
0,0 0,0
0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0
d/c d/c
Figure 3: Buckling value kV,p for different perforation patterns.
Starting from the effective buckling stress Vcr,p of the perforated sheet the slenderness for calculating
the effective width is determined from
c0 fy
O p, p (14)
c V cr , p
996
corresponding to the procedure for the unperforated sheet. The reduction of the yield strength with
the factor c0/c corresponds to the use of the gross cross-section when determining the stress in the
perforated cross-section. When the effective width beff is determined, the weakening of the cross-section
by the perforation is taken into account with the adaptation of the equation of Winter which for example
for steel sheeting is:
beff c 0 §¨ 1 0.22 · c
U ¨ 2 ¸¸ d 0 (15)
b c ¨ O p, p O p, p ¸ c
© ¹
Equation (15) shows even better than equation (14) that the factor c0/c is necessary to present the
controlling net cross-section by the gross cross-section. Since c0/c can be reduced from (15), there is no
change of the limiting slenderness at which no buckling of the perforated sheet occurs and for which
yielding becomes controlling:

O p ,lim d 0.5 1 0.12 0.673 (16)
4 WEB-CRIPPLING
For trapezoidal profiles, the supporting force at the end support or intermediate support that can be
transmitted to the substructure is limited by the failure mode web crippling (Figure 4). This load-bearing
capacity primarily depends on the stiffness and strength of the webs. If trapezoidal profiles have a
perforation extending completely or partly over the webs, the associated reduction of the cross-section
and the stiffness results in a reduced web-crippling resistance.
Figure 4: Web-crippling failure at supports.
The equations of EN 1993-1-3 and EN 1999-1-4 for calculating the supporting force for trapezoidal
profiles made of steel or made of aluminium respectively can be generalized as follows:
R B C t 2 C fy C r C bB CI (17)
with
C constant factor
t sheet thickness
Cfy strength and stiffness
Cr influence of the bending radii
CbB support width or length of the load application
C) slope of the web relative to the flanges
The factors Ci describe – with the exception of the constant factor C as well as the factor Cfy – the
influence of geometry and load-bearing capacity. The influence of perforation can be included using a
997
further factor Cp for fully perforated trapezoidal profiles. If the failure by web-crippling is considered as a
buckling problem with kV = 4.0, we obtain with equation (13)
c0 kV , p c 0 k11 k 44 0.3 k12 k 44
Cp (18)
c 4 c 2
Analogous to this factor Cp for fully perforated webs, a factor Ctp can be determined for partially
perforated webs. The factor Ctp was determined by FE-analysis, because the influence of the various
geometrical parameters demanded for such a detailed study. Figure 5 shows qualitatively how the
parameter Ctp depends on the ratio of width b1 to the support width bB. The necessary geometrical
parameters are also presented in Figure 5.
Ctp
1.0 b3
rk b3
rm
b2 b2
sw
C*tp b1 b1
C*tp,k
RdB Detail Radius
Cp b1
bB bB r I
r tan I/2 btp b
Etp = E = tp,k r tan I
bB bB tp,k bB 2
Figure 5: Ctp in dependence of b1 to bB and the corresponding dimensions of the sheeting.
For large widths b1 there is no reduction of the load-bearing capacity. Starting at a width b1 = Etp bB
it approximately decreases linearly with decreasing b1/bB. This applies until the perforation reaches the
radius. From there on with b1 d r tan (I/2) a very strong reduction of the load-bearing capacity occurs.
For these cases with b1 d r tan (I/2) the profile can be considered as fully perforated, i.e. the simplifying
approach Ctp = Cp applies. The results of the numerical investigations presented in [7] lead to:
1.0 b1 ! E tp b
° § ·
° E1 s w E s I
Ctp ® Ctp* ¨1 1 w ¸ for r tan b1 d E tp b B (19)
E b ¨ E b ¸ 2
° tp B © tp B ¹
° Cp I
¯ b1 d r tan
2
with
c0 kV , p
Ctp* 0.59 0.41 (20)
c 4
and
2
§ r ·¸ §¨ §I · ·
E tp2.57 ¨ 0.70 0.09 0.57 0.37 ¨ ¸ ¸ (21)
¨ t ¸¹ ¨ © 90 ¹ ¸¹
© ©
bB has to be limited to sw in equation (19) as well as in the criteria for differentiation. A statistical
evaluation was performed to take into account the scatter in results. For design purposes, the
characteristic values
C tp* , k 0.92 C tp* (22)
and
998
1 C tp* , k
E tp , k E tp (23)
1 C tp*
should be used in connection with equation (19). Thus, the load-bearing capacity results in:
R dB ,tp C tp R dB (24)
with RdB according to EN 1993-1-3 or EN 1999-1-4.
5 COMPARISON WITH TEST RESULTS

2,5 25
bending resistance: mid-support reaction:
material steel material steel
fully perforated flanges and webs partially perforated webs
2,0 all perforation patterns 20 all perforation patterns
d/c = 0.385 up to 0.571 d/c = 0.385 up to 0.571
t = 0.88 mm up to 1.25 mm t = 0.75 mm up to 1.25 mm
RdB,tp,test [kN]
Mp,test [kNm]
1,5 15
1,0 10
0,5 5
0,0 0
0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 0 5 10 15 20 25
a b
Mp,calc [kNm] RdB,tp,calc [kN]
6 1,25
mid- and end-support reaction:
material steel and aluminium
5 fully perforated flanges and webs
all perforation patterns 1,00
d/c = 0.250 up to 0.667
RdA,p,test and RdB,p,test[kN]
4 t = 0.70 mm up to 1.00 mm
Mp,test/Mp,calc
0,75
0,50 interaction of support reaction

2 and bending:
material steel
fully perforated flanges and webs
0,25
1 both quadratic perforation pattern
d/c = 0.385 up to 0.571
t = 0.88 mm up to 1.00 mm
0 0,00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0,00 0,25 0,50 0,75 1,00 1,25
c RdA,p,calc and RdB,p,calc[kN] d RdB,p,test/RdB,p,calc
Figure 6: Comparison of calculated load-bearing capacities with test results.
999
Figures 6a to 6d show a comparison of calculated load-bearing capacities with test results for
different applications. From this it is obvious that theory matches praxis, showing the usual scatter for
interaction of support reaction and bending (Figure 6d).
6 CONCLUSION
Thin-walled perforated sheeting is used for sound insulation in buildings. Unfortunately, the
regulations of the EN 1993-1-3 and EN 1999-1-4 for perforated sheeting are insufficient and partly
misleading. This paper overcomes these insufficiencies. The results of these improvements which also
take into account the post-buckling resistance is expressed such that the calculation of the load-bearing
capacity of thin-walled structural elements being at risk of buckling failure is correct and easy. This is
achieved by introducing parameters kij into the design procedures of EN 1999-1-3 and EN 1999-1-4.
Based on comprehensive numerical and experimental investigations on web crippling, it could be
shown for fully and partially perforated trapezoidal profiles, that the influence of the perforation can be
expressed with the application of a factor Cp for fully perforated webs and Ctp for partially perforated
webs to the capacities of the unperforated sheeting according to EN 1993-1-3 and EN 1999-1-4. A
calculation procedure for these factors is described.
In [4], the previously mentioned facts are presented in such a way that they can easily be adopted in
design codes. In addition, further topics such as shear buckling and corrugated sheeting are covered.
REFERENCES
[1] EN 1993-1-3:2006: Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures – Part 1-3: General rules –
supplementary rules for cold-formed members and sheeting.
[2] EN 1999-1-4:2010: Eurocode 9: Design of aluminium structures – Part 1-4: Cold-formed structural
sheeting.
[3] Schardt, R., Bollinger, K., „Zur Berechnung regelmäßig gelochter Scheiben und Platten“ (On the
calculation of periodically perforated plates). Bauingenieur, 56(6), 227–239, 1981.
[4] Kathage, K., Misiek, Th., Saal, H., “Stiffness and critical buckling load of perforated sheeting”.
Thin-Walled Structures, 44(12), 1223–1230, 2006.
[5] Misiek, Th., Saal, H., Kathage, K., “Tragfähigkeit perforierter dünnwandiger Bauteile” (Design
resistance of perforated trapezoidal sheeting). Stahlbau, 78(5), 318-323, 2009.
[6] Misiek, Th., Tragverhalten dünnwandiger Bauteile aus perforierten Blechen (Load-bearing
behaviour of thin-walled building components made of perforated sheets). Berichte der
Versuchsanstalt für Stahl, Holz und Steine der Universität Fridericiana in Karlsruhe, 5. Folge Heft
21, Karlsruhe, Germany, 2008.
[7] Misiek, Th., Albiez, M., “Stegkrüppeln bei voll- und teilperforierten Trapezprofilen” (Web
crippling at fully perforated and partly-perforated trapezoidal sections). Stahlbau, 77(2), 87-92,
2008.
1000
TRAPEZOIDAL SHEETING MADE OF STAINLESS STEEL –

TWO AMENDMENTS TO COMPLETE THE DESIGN CODES
Thomas Misiek*, Helmut Krüger*, Karsten Kathage** and Thomas Ummenhofer*
* Versuchsanstalt für Stahl, Holz und Steine, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

e-mails: thomas.misiek@kit.edu, helmut.krueger@va.uka.de, thomas.ummenhofer@kit.edu
** Deutsches Institut für Bautechnik
e-mail: kka@dibt.de
Keywords: Trapezoidal sheeting, Stainless steel, Buckling, Stiffeners, Web crippling.
Abstract. Trapezoidal sheeting made of stainless steel can be used for applications with high require-
ments on visual appearance or corrosion resistance. The calculation of the load-bearing capacity of thin-
walled structures including trapezoidal sheeting normally follows the procedures of EN 1993-1-3 and
similar codes. EN 1993-1-4 complements this standard concerning thin-walled structures made of stain-
less steel. This standard relies on many publications on thin-walled structures made of stainless steel. But
unfortunately these publications almost all focus on thin-walled beams and columns and therefore some
topics that are specific to trapezoidal sheeting are not recognized.
The results of the presented research results on the load-bearing behaviour of thin-walled trapezoidal
sheeting made of stainless steel are closing this gap: With the proposed additions to the existing design
formulae, the complete calculation of the load-bearing capacity of trapezoidal sheeting made of stainless
steel is possible.
1 INTRODUCTION
For high demands on the optical appearance and on the corrosion resistance, trapezoidal profiles are
made of stainless steel. Bases for a mathematical determination of the load-bearing capacity, however,
have not been available up to now. Together with EN 1993-1-3, EN 1993-1-4 shall facilitate the mathe-
matical determination of the load-bearing capacity of trapezoidal sheeting made of stainless steels. Since
EN 1993-1-4 has not been established for thin-walled components, especially for trapezoidal sheeting,
typical problems were not treated. Therefore, the aim of the investigations was to examine the applica-
bility of the rules of EN 1993-1-3 in connection with EN 1993-1-5 for the design of trapezoidal sheeting.
At the same time, these regulations could be tested for completeness and to close possible gaps. As an
example, the lacking buckling curves for stiffeners of flat cross-section parts such as flanges and webs
should be mentioned. An influence of the non-linear stress-strain relationship of stainless steel on the
buckling curve can be assumed since there are significant differences between the buckling curves for
trapezoidal sheeting made of non-alloy structural steel and made of aluminium, which also shows a non-
linear stress-strain relationship. A further example are the regulations for the verification of the maximum
supporting forces (web crippling).
2 CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS
In EN 1993-1-4, the formulation according to [1] is recommended for the description of the non-
linear material law.
1001
Thomas Misiek et al.
n
V §V ·
° 0.002 ¨ ¸ V d fy
° E ¨f ¸ for (1)
H © y¹
® m
° fy V fy § V fy · V ! fy
°0.002 E E Hu ¨ ¸
¨f f ¸
¯ y © u y ¹
E (2)
Ey
1 0.002 n E
fy
fy (3)
Hu 1
fu
fy (4)
m 1 3.5
fu
This material law was also applied in the scope of the investigations presented below. The parameters
fy and n were determined from tension-compression tests using a test setup according to [2]. The determi-
nation of the parameters from the test was done through variation to fit the test results (Figure 1).
400
300
200
100
V [N/mm²]
0
-0,6 -0,4 -0,2 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8
-100
-200
-300
-400
H [%]
Figure 1: Stress-strain-curve.
The material (stainless steel sheet 1.4301 with thicknesses between 0.50 mm and 0.80 mm) used in
the further tests showed yield strengths of fy = 280 MPa to 300 MPa and exponents of n = 11 to 13. The
parameter fu was determined by standard tensile tests and varies from 650 MPa to 690 MPa.
3 PLANE CROSS-SECTION PARTS WITH INTERMEDIATE STIFFENERS
3.1 Mechanical model

The determination of the load-bearing capacity of plane cross-section parts with intermediate stiffen-
ers is performed by the determination of the effective width of partial areas adjacent to the stiffener, and
the subsequent determination of the compressive load-bearing capacity of the compression member
1002
formed through stiffening. The geometry of the compression member is composed of the stiffener itself
and the adjacent effective areas (Figure 2).
b
bp,1 bp,3 bp,2
b1,e1 b1,e2 br b3,e1 b3,e2 br b2,e1 b2,e2
hs
b s1
b s2
b
bp,1 bp,3
b1,e1 b1,e2 br b2,e1 b2,e2
hs
bs
b
bp,1 bp,3 bp,2
b1,e1 b1,e2 br b3,e1 b3,e2 br b2,e1 b2,e2
hs
hs
bs1 bs2
Figure 2: Flange cross-sections with stiffeners.
The compression member can be regarded as a column on elastic foundation (Figure 3). Due to the
connection with the neighbouring plane cross-section parts, the spring stiffness results from the static
system in transverse direction, i.e. from the bearing on the adjacent webs for the flange of a trapezoidal
sheeting. The compressive load capacity is limited by buckling of this elastically supported compression
member.
column on elastic
local buckling global buckling bending stiffness EIs
foundation
of the column
spring
stiffness c
Figure 3: Column on elastic foundation.
3.2 Design according to EN 1993-1-3 and its backgrounds

The buckling curve given in EN 1993-1-3 for the determination of the load-bearing capacity of stif-
feners has been introduced by Höglund in [3] for the first time. Interestingly this curve does not base on
the Ayrton-Perry equation often used in other respects. The formulation is
1003
1.0 O d d 0.65
° for (5)
Fd ®1.47 0.723 O d 0 .65 d O d d 1.38
° 0.66 O d 1.38 d O d
¯
Although in [3] no indications for the determination of the buckling curves are included, it can be as-
sumed that they have been determined by recalculation of bending tests on trapezoidal sheeting. Assump-
tions regarding the effective width in the web and in the plane cross-section parts of the flanges adjacent
to the stiffeners are partly necessary. An assumption has also to be made for the actual stress in the area
of the stiffener. The determination of the effective width of a plane cross-section part is effected by the
supposition that the yield strength is reached at the edges of the plane cross-section part. If this plane
cross-section part is adjacent to a stiffener that buckles before reaching the yield strength, this assumption
for determining the effective width is on the safe side (Figure 4). The effective width, which exists when
reaching the load-bearing capacity of the stiffener, is bigger than primarily assumed, but in fact the exist-
ing stress is smaller. Regarding the above component tests, for the recalculation of the load-bearing ca-
pacity of the stiffener a stress of the value V = fy on the stiffener can be assumed.
Figure 4: Stress distribution.
Within the scope of design, the smaller existing stress can be considered in a further calculation step
by determining the effective width with the yield strength reduced by the factor Fd according to equation
(5). Then, new cross-section values for determining the load-bearing capacity of the stiffener are re-
ceived. Neither in [3] nor in the national standards being based upon, for example StbK-N5 (Sweden) or
DIN 18807 (Germany), an iteration is provided. Therefore, for the determination of the buckling curve
presented in the following, it has been assumed that no iteration will be performed. Within the scope of
the recalculation of the results from tests and FE analyses no iteration was performed.
3.2 Determination of the buckling curve
The determination of the buckling curve was effected using the Finite Element Method. The FE-
model was built-up from 4-node structural shells using the software package ANSYS. Both local and
global imperfections were applied, using the geometry of the corresponding eigenmodes. For calibrating
the models applied, the buckling curve for components of non-alloy steel given in EN 1993-1-3 was
recalculated at first. In addition, the results from buckling tests on plane cross-section parts with stiffen-
ers were recalculated (Figure 5).
1004
Figure 5: Tests with stiffened plates: local and global buckling.
The application of a geometrical imperfection of lb/400 for global buckling given in EN 1995-1-5 and
the usual local imperfection [4] of w0/t = 0.1 resulted in a good correlation between calculated results and
comparative test data. In the investigated slenderness range, the last mentioned value slightly deviates
from the indications given in EN 1993-1-5. For the stress-strain relationship according to equations (1) to
(4), the parameters fy = 230 MPa, n = 5 and fu = 540 MPa were used. The reduction factor Fd was deter-
mined from the load-bearing capacities calculated for the two plane cross-section parts and the stiffener.
For the evaluation, the effective widths were calculated according to [5], since comparative calculations
on unstiffened plates showed a good agreement between Finite Element results and [5]. The values are
presented in Figure 6.
1,00
aluminium
non-alloy steel
0,75
stainless steel
Euler hyperbel
Fd
0,50
0,25
0,00
0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0
Od
Figure 6: FE results and proposal for the buckling curve.
1005
The higher scatter in the results for higher slenderness results from differences in behaviour: Some
geometries show a post-critical behaviour which is typical for plates and some behave more like columns.
The evaluation was done using a lower boundary curve. Maintaining the fundamental formulation ac-
cording to Höglund, the proposed equation for the buckling curve is
° 1.0 for O d d 0.542 (6)

Fd ®0.542
°̄ Od 0.542 d O d
Compared to Höglund, the linear part is missing. The proposal for the buckling curve has been in-
cluded in Figure 6 which also shows the curves for non-alloy steel and aluminium. For the typicl applica-
tion range, the created curve is quite similar to the one used for aluminium.
4 WEB CRIPPLING
4.1 Design according to EN 1993-1-3 and testing procedures

The load-bearing capacity of a trapezoidal sheeting for web crippling (Figure 7) at the intermediate
support is determined by using
R w, Rk
0.15 t 2 f y E 1 0.1 r t 0.5 0.02 l a t 2.4 I 90
2
(7)
For determining the load-bearing capacity at the end support, the constant factor must be set to 0.075
and calculated with la = 10 mm for considering the rotation of the end tangent. Within the scope of verifi-
cation the interaction with the hogging moment has to be considered, since already small bending mo-
ments result in a significant reduction of the transmissible reaction force at the intermediate support.
Figure 7: Web crippling failure at intermediate support.
4.2 Verification for the design of trapezoidal sheeting made of stainless steel
Equation (7) is based on test results and was checked for its applicability concerning the safety level
within the scope of the investigations documented in [6] (trapezoidal sheeting made of non-alloy steel)
and [7] (trapezoidal sheeting made of aluminium). For this purpose a test setup was selected that directly
transfers the forces into a second support of the width la (direct carriage). If so, no additional bending
moments occur.
A verification of equation (7) for the design of trapezoidal sheeting made of stainless steel is missing
and has to be done. To facilitate a direct comparability with the results of [6] and [7], the tests were also
performed with direct carriage, despite both EN 1993-1-3 and EN 1999-1-4 require for this loading situa-
tion a reduction of the constant factor in equation (7) to the half.
1006
Figure 8 shows a comparison between the test results as well as between results from Finite Element
analyses and equation (7).
12 12
Ftest FFEM
10 10
c la Rmean c la Rmean
180 tests 60 calc.
8 8
Rk Rk
FFEM [kN]
Ftest [kN]
6 6
4 4
2 2
n=3
n = 6 and n = 10
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Rw,Rk [kN] Rw,Rk [kN]
Figure 8: Comparisons of test and numerical results with equation (7).
For both, the test results and the calculations are below the characteristic values according to equation
(7). This is especially the case for the geometries of the main application range. Variations between
equation (7) and the results especially appear for small plate thicknesses t, big web heights sw and small
exponents n. For the support width la, no clear correlation could be found. A statistical evaluation accord-
ing to [6] has shown, that, compared to trapezoidal sheeting made of non-alloy steel or aluminium, the
safety level is lower. To obtain the same safety level, the load-bearing capacity calculated according to
equation (7) should be multiplied with 0.75.
4.3 Re-calculation of test setups
Additional comparative calculations have been performed assuming sheeting made of non-alloy steel
and stainless steel. In this case, the usual setup for an intermediate support was used which is a three-
point bending test for which an interaction with the bending moments exists. Therefore a direct verifica-
tion of equation (7) by the results of this test or calculation is not possible with: An extrapolation towards
M = 0 ought to be done, which results in unreliability upon checking, causing unreliability in the verifica-
tion. Therefore the results of this recalculation were not compared with equation (7) but with the capaci-
ties obtained for a trapezoidal sheeting made of non-alloy steel for which the safety level of equation (7)
has been already verified.
The results are shown in Figure 9. It shows only small differences between the sheeting made of dif-
ferent materials. The non-linear material behaviour does not seriously affect the load-bearing capacity.
The investigations on web-crippling of trapezoidal sheeting made of stainless steel can therefore be
summarized as follows: The level of safety when using equation (7) for the calculation of the web crip-
pling capacity of trapezoidal sheeting made of stainless steel might be smaller than for sheeting made of
non-alloy steel or aluminium. But this level of safety is still high enough to permit the use of equation
(7).
1007
12
F
10 la
lE lE
2 2
2 x 45 calc. r = 0,90
FFEM, stainless steel [kN]

8
r = 1,11
6 r = 1,00
2
FFEM,stainless
r=
FFEM,non-alloy steel
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
FFEM, non-alloy steel [kN]
Figure 9: Comparisons of web-crippling resistance for stainless steel and non-alloy steels.
5 SUMMARY
In conjunction with EN 1993-1-3, EN 1993-1-4 shall facilitate the determination of the load-bearing
capacity of trapezoidal sheeting made of stainless steels. Since EN 1993-1-4, however, is not specifically
prepared for trapezoidal sheeting, typical problems concerning thin-walled components are not treated,
especially for trapezoidal sheeting. Therefore, the aim of the presented investigations was to check the
applicability of the regulations given in EN 1993-1-3 in conjunction with EN 1993-1-5 for the design of
trapezoidal sheeting.
The performed investigations show that the applicability is given. For the calculation of the buckling
load of the stiffeners it is recommended, however, to use a different buckling curve. A proposal is given
by equation (6) within this paper.
REFERENCES
[1] Rasmussen, K., Full-range stress-strain curves for stainless steel alloys, Department of Civil Engi-
neering, University of Sydney, Australia, 2001.
[2] Gehring, A. and Saal, H., „Kennwertermittlung für die Simulation des Walzprofilierens von Dünn-
blech“, Tagung Werkstoffprüfung 2006 - Fortschritte der Kennwertermittlung für Forschung und
Praxis, M. Borsutzki and S. Geisler (eds.), Stahlinstitut VDEh, Düsseldorf, 109-114, 2006.
[3] Höglund, T., Design of trapezoidal sheeting provided with stiffeners in the flanges and webs, Swed-
ish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, Sweden, 1980.
[4] Huck, G., Das Konzept der wirksamen Breite bei Bauteilen aus elastoplastischem Material, Berich-
te der Versuchsanstalt für Stahl, Holz und Steine der Universität Fridericiana in Karlsruhe, 4. Folge
Heft 27, Karlsruhe, Germany, 1993.
[5] Bezkorovainy, P., Burns, T., Rasmussen, K.; Strength curves for metal plates in compression,
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Sydney, Australia, 2001.
[6] Shin, T.S., Untersuchung der Tragfähigkeit von Stahltrapezprofilen unter einer örtlich konzentrier-
ten momentenfreien Lasteinleitung, Wissenschaft & Technik Verlag, Berlin, Germany, 1995.
[7] Baehre, R. Holz, R., Huck G, Ladwein Th., Vergleich empirischer und berechneter Tragfähigkeiten
von Aluminiumtrapezprofilen, Fraunhofer IRB Verlag, Stuttgart, Germany, 1990.
1008
PULL-TROUGH RESISTANCE OF TENSILE-LOADED SCREW-

FASTENINGS OF THIN-WALLED SHEETING AND SANDWICH PANELS
Thomas Misiek*, Saskia Käpplein* and Karsten Kathage**
* Versuchsanstalt für Stahl, Holz und Steine, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

e-mails: thomas.misiek@kit.edu, saskia.kaepplein@kit.edu
** Deutsches Institut für Bautechnik
e-mail: kka@dibt.de
Keywords: Screw, Fastening, Trapezoidal sheeting, Sandwich panel.
Abstract. Fixings of different thin-walled building components differ in load-bearing behaviour and load-
bearing capacity, even if identical screw fasteners are used. This is most pronounced for fixings under
tensile loading. In this case, the differences are caused by the differences in geometry and material
properties of the thin-walled building components, leading to differences in local deformation behaviour
and therefore local stressing. We discuss the influence of parameters such as geometry and material on
load-bearing behaviour and pull-trough resistance of fixings with screw fasteners. A comparison between
the different thin-walled building components is made, also focusing on the difference between sheeting
made of steel and made of aluminium. The conclusions of this discussion have to be taken into account
when designing test set-ups for the determination of the characteristic resistance values of such
connections. A short review of the new ECCS-Recommendations dealing with testing of fixings is done.
For thin-walled trapezoidal sheeting and corrugated sheeting design equations can be obtained by
evaluating a huge number of test results. These equations are presented and compared with theequations
in design codes. For sandwich panels, a equation allowing analysing the influence of material and
geometrical parameters on the load-bearing resistance is presented.
1 INTRODUCTION
Trapezoidal and corrugated sheeting as well as linear trays and sandwich panels are typical building
components of lightweight building construction. It usually involves building components made of steel
sheet with a thickness of 0.40 mm to 1.50 mm. Sandwich panels as composite systems have an insulation
core made of polyurethane foam, polystyrene foam or of mineral wool. Except for linear trays, they are
also often made of aluminium with plate thicknesses of 0.40 mm to 1.00 mm.
For fixing of these building components mostly thread-forming screws are applied, for one thing self-
tapping screws, where pre-drilling is necessary when applying them, for another thing self-drilling screws
allowing for drilling and thread forming in one operation. The screws mostly consist of stainless steel. In
applications were they are not exposed to weather also zinc-plated non-alloy steel are used. Since the
above mentioned building components mostly involve external wall or roofs exposed to weather, washers
with a scorched EPDM sealing (so-called sealing washers) or sealing EPDM rings are necessary. The
metallic part of the sealing washers also consist of stainless steel, they rarely consist of aluminium.
In principle, the same fasteners are applied for all building components. As a rule, the fastener itself
is not decisive for the load-bearing capacity of the connection, but pull-through of the washer and the
head through the component to be attached, i.e. the geometry and the mechanical properties of the
building components are decisive for the load-bearing capacity. Therefore, in the following, we will look
1009
at the dependency in load-bearing capacity of connections subjected to tensile loading for different
building components and the resulting consequences for the determination of the load-bearing capacity
values.
2 LOAD-BEARING BEHAVIOUR
2.1 Trapezoidal and corrugated sheeting

Based on the high stiffness and strength of the sheet made of steel, tensile loading of the connection
only results in a local stress in the trough adjacent to the substructure. The webs being connected to the
trough hardly deform. In case of a too high stressing, bending of the flange occurs, running in the
longitudinal direction of the profile. Failure also appears through a crack in longitudinal direction. The
only influencing parameters on the load-bearing capacity determined through the profile are therefore
tensile strength, plate thickness as well as flange width or rather the position of the fastening location in
the flange.
Figure 1: Examples of screw fasteners and failure mode for fixings of steel sheeting.
For trapezoidal and corrugated profiles made of aluminium fixed in the trough an additional strong
influence of the profile geometry turns out. This influence is manifested for example through a failure
mode depending on the profile geometry. As a rule, failure occurs as pull-trough with four radial cracks
(Figure 2a) starting from the borehole under 90°. In case of wide chords, however, they can move around
rectangular to the tension direction up to the web (Figure 2b). In case of a very small width of the
adjacent chord in proportion to the washer diameter, the cracks under 45° run to the tension direction and
then they can continue to run along the line chord to web (Figure 2c). For corrugated sheeting it is to be
considered that the load-bearing capacity must not compulsorily increase with the washer diameter, since
the local stress of the corrugated sheeting can reduce the load-bearing capacity through the edges of the
washer being rigid in contrast. In [1] a detailed look is taken on the failure modes and influencing
parameters for trapezoidal and corrugated sheeting made of aluminium that are fastened in the trough.
The crest-fixing of trapezoidal or corrugated sheets is mostly done with saddle washers. Without
these saddle washers, the sheet of the flange not supported by a substructure would strongly deform
under the point load. The saddle washer induces the forces of the screw, at least in parts, directly into the
stiffer webs. Therefore, the stiffness of the saddle washer in this direction has a wide influence, for which
reason the saddle washers are mostly stiffened with transverse ribs. Thus, the stressing conditions are
lying between that of a rigid support comparable to that for the transversal load at a support and a point
load introduced into the flange like a fixing without saddle washer [2]. Therefore, the failure of the
connection is a combined failure from crippling of the webs and cracks in transverse direction starting
from the borehole (Figure 2d). For this reason, design approaches such as those presented in [3] assume a
dependence on the yield strength instead of the tensile strength.
1010
a b
c d
Figure 2: Failure modes of fixings of aluminium trapezoidal sheeting.
2.2 Sandwich panels

For sandwich panels, the load-bearing behaviour and the load-bearing capacity are influenced by the
core supporting the often flat or only slightly profiled faces. Depending on the ratio of bending stiffness
of the face and elastic modulus of the core, the stresses occurring in the faces vary. Nevertheless, failure
of fixings of sandwich panels is a rather local failure and its form of appearance is always quite the same
(Figure 3), as far as no hidden fixings are used. Failure will finally occur by cracking of the face,
therefore an increasing elastic modulus and compression strength of the core increases the load-bearing
capacity.
Figure 3: Failure mode for fixings of sandwich panels.
1011
3 DETERMINATION OF THE LOAD-BEARING CAPACITY THROUGH TESTS

The determination of the load-bearing capacity of fixings of steel sheeting through tests can be done
on the basis of [5] for example. Since the profile geometry for the profiled steel sheets treated in [5] has
no or negligible influence, the load-bearing capacity can be determined on a standardised V-shaped
specimen (Figure 4) retracing to [6].
Figure 4: Test set-up according to [5] and failure mode for fixings of steel sheeting.
Wind loads result in a repeated loading of the connection, reducing the resistance of the connection.
The first edition of the ECCS Recommendations [5] suggested a reduction factor of Dcycl = 0.5 which can
also be found in EN 1993-1-3. Since this value has initially been determined in [6] to Dcycl = 2/3 and a
reduction factor of Dcycl = 2/3 is also applied in European Technical Approvals, this has been corrected in
the new second edition of the ECCS Recommendations to Dcycl = 2/3. In addition, reduction factor are
available for special cases of application. The factors DE listed in Table 1 are taken from EN 1999-1-4 for
aluminium sheeting, but they are basically the same for steel sheeting.
Table 1: Reduction factor DE for special cases of application.
bu d 150: 0.9
1.0 0.7 0.9 0.7 0.7 1.0 0.9
bu > 150: 0.7
Alternatively, a test with a sheeting is presented that can also be used for the determination of the
pull-through bearing capacity of the fasteners regarding profiled aluminium sheets, since the influence of
the profile geometry is taken into account.
screw with
support stiffener support
sealing washer
l2 2 br
l section at support section at midspan
Figure 5: Test set-up for fixings of steel and aluminium sheeting.
1012
The Recommendations [5] do not give a special test set-up for crest-fixings. Several proposals for test
set-ups can be found in different (predominantly national) standards. Resistance values obtained for
trough fixing should not be used for crest-fixing, because of the lower resistance of this connection due to
web-crippling effects.
3.2 Sandwich panels
The determination of the load-bearing capacity through tests can be effected on the basis of [7] for
example. The tests are performed with a specimen made form a panel and the test-setup complies with
the one shown in figure 5. A special remark is given that as there is also an effect of thickness of the
panels core material. Also, the reduction factor Dcycl should be determined trough tests with repeated
loading.
4 DETERMINATION OF THE LOAD-BEARING CAPACITY BY CALCULATION

The pull-through resistance of fixings of steel sheeting can be calculated according to EN 1993-1-3
with
Rk t d w f u (1)
Thereby t is the sheet thickness, fu is the tensile strength and dw is the diameter of the washer or the
head of the fastener. This value must be reduced by multiplication with Dcycl if the connection is
subjected to tensile forces due to wind loading and with DE for special cases of application.
On the basis of this approach – other approaches resulted in only slightly better correlations with
increasing complexity – tests with V-shaped specimens according to [5] have been recalculated and
evaluated statistically. Considering the variances of the input parameters with VRm = 0,076, Vt = 0,0195
and Vdw = 0,00008, the characteristic value of the load-bearing capacity resulted in
Rk 1.12 t d w f u (2)
a value being slightly above that of EN 1993-1-3. The above mentioned tests have all been performed
with sealing washers. Thus, the increased load-bearing capacity compared to that in EN 1993-1-3 can be
ascribed to the influence of the EPDM of the sealing washer that weakens local stress peaks.
12
Rmean
10
550 tests
8
Rk
Ftest [kN]
RkDcycl
4
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Rmean [kN]
Figure 6: Comparison of calculated load-bearing capacity with test results.
1013
The parameter range of equation (2) includes:

- thread forming tapping screws with hexagon head, width across flat 8 and collar diameter 10.5 mm,
hexagon head, width across flat 3/8” (9.5 mm) or comparable head diameter.
- sealing washers made of stainless steel with vulcanised EPDM sealing, 11 mm d dw d 22 mm.
- sheet thicknesses of 0.40 mm to 1.50 mm and tensile strength of Rm = 360 N/mm² to 450 N/mm².
For aluminium sheeting, the pull-through resistance can be calculated with
dw
fu Rk 6. 1 t (3)
22
according to EN 1999-1-4. This value has to be multiplied with the reduction factors DE for special
applications (Table 1), DM for the metallic material of the sealing washer (DM = 1 for stainless steel and
DM = 0,8 for aluminium) and DL to take the effects of flexural tensile stresses at support fastenings into
account (see EN 1999-1-4 for details). For unknown reason the factor Dcycl is already included in (3).
Since, however, the influence of the profile geometry is not registered, in this case an equation is
involved providing results that are on the safe side. An alternative design proposal for aluminium
trapezoidal profiles with fixing in the trough has been presented in [1]. In the meantime, this proposal
could be extended with regard to the field of application based on further test results being available,
especially on trapezoidal profiles with a very small thickness. As a result, minimal modifications ensued
in the pre-factors. The characteristic value of the resistance of fixings of trapezoidal sheeting is:
§ d ·
Rk t Rm ¨¨ 0.394 d w 7.42 t w ¸¸ (4)
© bu ¹
The characteristic value of the resistance of fixings of corrugated sheeting is
§ h d ·
Rk t Rm ¨¨1.263 d w 10.00 t 11.67 t w ¸¸ (5)
© br r ¹
To theses values the same reduction factors as for equation (3) apply. In addition to these, they have
to be multiplied with Dcycl and with the factor DO = 0,82 for stucco embossed sheets. Figure 7 shows the
comparison between test results and calculated values.
8 8
7 7
820 tests Rmean 390 tests Rmean
6 6
Rk
5 5
Rk
Ftest [kN]
Ftest [kN]
4 RkDcycl 4
RkDcycl
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Rmean [kN] Rmean [kN]
Figure 7: Comparison of load-bearing capacity with test results.
1014
For the equations (4) and (5), the following parameter range applies:
- thread forming tapping screws with hexagon head, width across flat 8 mm and collar diameter 10.5
mm, hexagon head, width across flat 3/8‘‘ (9.5 mm) or comparable head diameter. For a larger head
diameter, the results are on the safe side.
- sealing washers made of stainless steel or aluminium with vulcanised EPDM sealing, 10 mm d dw d
29 mm (corrugated profiles: 10 mm d dw d 16 mm)
- trapezoidal sheets with heights of 20 mm d h d 80 mm and widths of the connected trough of 20 mm
d bu d 180 mm
- corrugated sheets with heights of 17 mm d h d 55 mm, rib widths 75 mm d br d 180 mm and radii of
24 mm d r d 50 mm
- sheet thicknesses of 0.35 mm (corrugated profiles: 0.50 mm) to 1.50 mm and tensile strengths up to
Rm = 300 N/mm².
- geometrical parameters according to Figure 8.
a bo b
bu br
br
Figure 8: Geometrical parameters for equations (4) and (5).
All approaches listed here basically refer to fixing in the trough. It can be revert to [3] or to test
results for crest fixing.
4.2 Sandwich panels
Based on the complex interaction of geometrical and mechanical properties of the faces with the
(normally anisotropic) mechanical properties of the core material, the load-bearing capacity can be only
insufficiently concentrated in a simple design equation. In [4], the simple approach
Rk 2.21 ECc f Cc d w2 0.65 t f u d w (6)
is presented, which has been previously derived from calibrated numerical calculations on test results on
quasi-flat wall panels with a core of polyurethane foam. This approach should rather serve for assessing
the relative influence of individual parameters on the load-bearing capacity. A comparison of equations
(1) or (2) with (6) shows best the differences in load-bearing behaviour and capacity between trapezoidal
sheeting and sandwich panels: The constant factor in (6) to scale the share of the face in the load-bearing
capacity is approximately half as much as the constant factor in equations (1) or (2). So using test results
obtained with V-shaped specimens for the design of fixings of sandwich panels tends to be
unconservative, although this was sometimes done in the past. Fortunately there is also an amount of
load-bearing capacity associated with the core material and the reduction factor Dcycl for fixings of
sandwich panels is approximately Dcycl | 1,0, both balancing the differences in the constant factor.
Figure 9 shows the relative share of the face in the load-bearing capacity of the connection in
dependence on the compressive modulus ECc of the core layer for two compressive strengths fCc of the
core layer, and different sheet thicknesses t of the faces adjacent to the sealing washer. Both compressive
strengths 0.1 N/mm² and 0.2 N/mm² represent the lower limit and upper limit of common applications.
The tensile strength Rm = 360 N/mm² has been applied for the evaluation, the value of dw = 19 mm usual
for sandwich panels has been applied for the washer diameter. As expected the influence of the face (and
the material properties of the face) on the pull-trough resistance declines with increasing stiffness of the
core material. Practically, it should be reverted to results from tests according to [7] for the design, which
is mostly inevitable due to the strongly varying parameters of geometry and the mechanical properties.
1015
1,0
t = 0.75 mm
0,9 t = 0.50 mm
t = 0,40 mm
Rk,face/Rk [-]
0,8
0,7
fCc = 0.1 N/mm²

fCc = 0.2 N/mm²
0,6
2 3 4 5 6
ECc [N/mm²]
Figure 9: Fraction of load-bearing resistance given by the face in dependence on material properties of
the core and faces.
5 CONCLUSION
For the connection and fastening of building components such as trapezoidal and corrugated sheeting
as well as linear trays and sandwich panels mostly thread-forming screws are applied. Despite
principially identical screw fasteners are used, the fixings of these different building components differ in
load-bearing behaviour and load-bearing capacity. The effect of these difference was discussed with
regard to testing and design of the connections. The test set-up has to be designed accordingly. We
recommend to use a test set-up according to Figure 5 for tests with aluminium trapezoidal sheeting or
sandwich panels. For steel trapezoidal sheeting a V-shaped specimen is sufficient.
REFERENCES
[1] Misiek, Th., Saal, H., “Durchknöpftragfähigkeit der Verbindungen von Aluminiumtrapezprofilen
und Aluminiumwellprofilen bei Befestigung im anliegenden Gurt”. Stahlbau, 77(7), 515-523, 2008.
[2] Holz, R.; Kniese, A., “Stahltrapezprofile mit Obergurtbefestigung”. Stahlbau, 57(3), 71-79, 1988.
[3] Mahaarachchi, D.; Mahendran, M., “Finite element analysis and design of crest-fixed trapezoidal
steel claddings with wide pans subject to pull-through failures”. Engineering structures, 26(11),
1547-1559, 2004.
[4] Hassinen, P., Misiek, Th., “Fixings of sandwich panels in building applications”, Nordic Steel
Construction Conference 2009 – Proceedings, 263-271, 2009.
[5] ECCS TC 7, The Testing of Connections with Mechanical Fasteners in Steel Sheeting and Sections,
ECCS publication no. 124, Brussels, 2009.
[6] Klee, S., Seeger, T., Vorschlag zur vereinfachten Ermittlung von zulässigen Kräften für
Befestigungen von Stahltrapezprofilen, TH Darmstadt, Institut für Stahlbau und
Werkstoffmechanik, Darmstadt, Germany, 1979.
[7] ECCS TC 7 & CIB W56, Preliminary European Recommendations for testing and design of
fastenings for sandwich panels, CIB Report publication 320 / ECCS publication no. 127,
Rotterdam/Brussels, 2009.
1016
T. Gao, C.D. Moen
THE COLD WORK OF FORMING EFFECT

IN STEEL STRUCTURAL MEMBERS
Tian Gao and Cristopher D. Moen
The Charles E. Via, Jr. Department of Civil and Environment Engineering, Virginia Tech
e-mails: gaot@vt.edu, cmoen@vt.edu
Keywords: Cold-Formed Steel, Residual Stresses, Isotropic Hardening, Kinematic Hardening.
Abstract. A finite element parameter study was conducted to explore the influence of cold bending on
steel column load-deformation response. Residual stresses and effective plastic strains, calculated by
hand with a recently introduced mechanics-based approach, were input into finite element simulations to
define the column’s initial state, including the increased yield stress from strain hardening. The column
was then loaded to failure in compression with either an isotropic or combined isotropic-kinematic
plasticity law. The model with isotropic hardening led to an increased apparent yield stress and a
higher column capacity when compared to the baseline case of ignoring cold bending effects. The load-
deformation response for the model with a combined isotropic-kinematic hardening law was almost
identical to the baseline case, an unexpected result, where the increased yield stress from strain
hardening was negated by the shifted Mises yield surface, i.e. the Bauschinger effect. The study
highlights an inconsistency in common finite element modeling protocols and design approaches, which
rely on the increased yield stress from cold bending for extra capacity without considering residual
stresses or kinematic hardening.
1 INTRODUCTION
Cold bending is a versatile and cost effective fabrication technique for achieving desired structural
shapes and geometries. Composite floor beams are cold cambered to accommodate dead load
deflections[1-2] (figure 1a). Steel plates are cold bent and welded to form HSS structural sections (figure
1b) [3]. Thin-walled steel columns and joists are manufactured for residential and commercial
construction markets by roll-forming flat steel sheet fed from a coil (figure 1c). For all of these
applications, the concept of cold bending is the same - apply brute force to yield the steel, and then
release the force to achieve a new, permanently deformed shape.
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1: Cold bending applications: (a)floor beams (photo courtesy of Hydradyne Hydraulics), (b) HSS
columns (photo courtesy UTSK Tube Company), (c) light gauge (photo courtesy of Bradbury Group).
1017
T. Gao and C.D. Moen
When steel is cold-worked, i.e. stretched or compressed above its proportional limit, the steel yield
stress increases and ductility (area under the stress-strain curve) decreases due to restrained dislocation
mobility in steel’s polycrystalline microstructure [4]. Cold bending also results in residual stresses
resulting from the imbalance between the partially plastic stress distribution and the elastic stress
distribution from unloading (figure 2) [5]. The existence of cold bending residual stresses has been
confirmed with experimental measurements at the bent corners of square cold-formed HSS sections [6]
and Cee-sections [7-8] and in roller-bent wide flange structural steel beams [9]. Experimental results are
supported by computation simulations of cold bending which demonstrate nonlinear residual stress
distributions through the depth (thickness) of the member [10].
M M M
B r
My tension compression
+ =
AB - Partially BC - Elastic unloading Residual stresses from

plastic yielding (springback) plastic bending
A 1/r
C
Figure 2: Residual stresses imposed by cold bending.
The mechanics surrounding cold bending are complex, and their treatment in research and design is
often inconsistent. Some researchers have observed that nonlinear finite element simulations match
experimental results most consistently when cold bending is ignored [11] while others recommend
modeling protocols that include residual stresses and an increased yield stress at the cold-bent locations
of a member cross-section [12]. The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) North American
Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members [13] allows for increased member
capacity based on the ‘cold work of forming effect’ [14] with empirically derived equations from tests on
strain hardened tensile coupons [4], however the presence of residual stresses is not explicitly considered
or discussed. The inconsistent treatment of cold bending is at least partially rooted in the mathematical
complexity of plasticity-based residual stress predictions [15-16] which limit practical implementation.
The research described herein utilizes finite element simulations to describe in accessible terms how
cold bending influences structural behavior. The mechanics that define cold bending residual stresses
and plastic strains are introduced, including classical metal plasticity laws, e.g. isotropic and kinematic
hardening, which play an important role in simulating structural behavior including the influence of cold
bending. Parameter studies are performed on a cold-bent compression member to study how plastic
strains and residual stresses affect load-deformation response. Several different treatments are compared,
ranging from the baseline case of ignoring the effects of cold bending to implementing metal plasticity
and defining residual stresses and plastic strains as part of a member’s initial state. The results from this
study can be used by researchers to make informed decisions regarding their nonlinear finite element
modeling protocols and can guide future code revisions toward a more accurate account of the cold-work
of forming effect in design.
2 RESIDUAL STRESSES AND PLASTIC STRAINS FROM COLD BENDING

At the location of cold-bending, residual stresses develop in the direction of the applied bending
moment, i.e. the X-direction in figure 3. The nonlinear stress distribution is self-equilibrating for axial
force and moment through the thickness. Residual stresses also develop in the longitudinal Z-direction
from the plane strain conditions for a member that is long relative to its width [17]. (Note that the
1018
direction of loading in service is also typically the Z-direction.) A recently introduced mechanics-based
prediction method provides hand calculations that can approximate the magnitude and shape of the
residual stress and plastic strain distributions for sheet steel or plate [18].
Commercial finite element programs allow a user to input residual stress and plastic distributions as
part of the model’s initial state. In ABAQUS [19], the cold bending residual stresses V1 and V3 can be
defined at section points through the thickness of shell elements. (Note that V2 is assumed equal to zero,
see [18].) The effective plastic strain, Hp, is input in von Mises strain space and defines the magnitude of
preexisting strain hardening (figure 3) from cold bending.
Top
Y(2)
Y(2) rz
Top
Bottom Z(3)
Z(3) X(1)
X(1) Bottom
Figure 3: Residual stresses and plastic strains in a cold-bend region of a steel plate or sheet.
3 METAL PLASTICITY LAWS: ISOTROPIC VERSUS KINEMATIC HARDENING

The choice of metal plasticity theory implemented in a finite element model determines how user
input residual stresses and plastic strains from cold bending are interpreted. There are two common types
of metal plasticity laws available in commercial finite element codes, isotropic or kinematic hardening.
Both plasticity laws are defined in the von Mises stress space and are applicable to ductile metals such as
steel [20]. Isotropic hardening is typically implemented for a single loading condition, i.e. compressing
a column to failure, while kinematic hardening is useful for simulating cyclic loadings or combining
different loading states, e.g., cold bending followed by loading to collapse.
3.1 Isotropic Hardening

Isotropic hardening is represented with an expansion of the von Mises ellipsoid as the effective stress,
Ve, exceeds the yield stress, Vyield (figure 4), where:
1
Ve (V 1 V 2 ) 2 (V 2 V 3 ) 2 (V 3 V 1 ) 2 . (1)
2
When steel is cold bent, it follows OAB and then springs back along BR as shown in figure 4a and figure
4b. The slope of the lines in figure 4b is equal to Poisson’s ratio, Ȟ, which is assumed equal to 0.30 for
elastic deformation and 0.50 for plastic deformation. The presence of residual stresses after cold bending
is denoted with the offset of point R from the origin.
ı1 B ı1 B
ıe
A A
ǻı1
B
ǻı3
ıyield A
O R
*O’
R
* ı3 O* ı3
.R
O İ
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 4: Hardening with residual stresses from cold bending: (a) stress-strain curve, (b) isotropic
hardening with expanding yield surface, and (c) kinematic hardening with shifting yield surface.
1019
3.2 Kinematic Hardening

Kinematic hardening is defined with the same von Mises ellipsoid employed for isotropic hardening.
However as the stresses exceed Vyield along AB in figure 4c, the center of the yield surface permanently
shifts to accommodate the imposed stress. The shifting yield surface is a fundamentally different type of
yielding behavior than isotropic hardening (figure 4b). The new location of the yield surface is defined
by the backstress components 'V1 and 'V3.
After the yield surface has shifted, unloading occurs elastically along B to R, terminating at a nonzero
residual stress. If the steel is now loaded again in the same direction as the original loading (again along
the line OA in figure 4c), the apparent yield stress is increased. However, if the steel is loaded in the
opposite direction along OA (i.e. V1 and V3), the yield surface (dashed ellipsoid) is reached with a
lower apparent yield stress. This asymmetric yield behavior has been documented in experiments and is
commonly referred to as the Bauschinger effect [4]. It is hypothesized that the cyclic nature of the
loadings applied to cold-bend members, initiating with plastic bending, followed by elastic springback,
and then applied load in service, requires a combination of isotropic and kinematic hardening to
accurately simulate structural behavior. A finite element parameter study follows which explores how
the choice of plasticity law and the inclusion or exclusion of residual stresses and effective plastic strains
from cold-bending influences load-deformation response.
4 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF A COLD-BENT STEEL COLUMN

A parameter study considering residual stresses and metal plasticity was conducted by considering
the load-deformation response of a cold-bent steel column obtained with nonlinear finite element
analyses in ABAQUS. The column length is 130 mm with a sheet thickness of 2.6 mm and a centerline
radius rz=305 mm. The steel column was modeled with S9R5 nine node reduced integration thin shell
elements. All nodes were restrained in the X- and Y-directions to eliminate buckling. The modulus of
elasticity was assumed as 203.4 GPa, and the elastic Poisson’s ratio, v, as 0.30. The column was loaded
from one end with displacement control employing the modified Riks nonlinear solution method [21].
Four analyses were performed to evaluate the influence of hardening laws and residual stresses on load-
deformation response as discussed in the following sections.
800
700
C
600 B
Stress (MPa) Strain (mm/mm)
0.000 0.00000
True Stress (MPa)
500 404.0 0.00200 A

X,Y restrained at all nodes
442.3 0.00543
Edge displaced in Z 470.3 0.01043
400 A
to compress column 496.6 0.01543
537.6 0.02543
300 566.8 0.03543
591.0 0.04543
Edge restrained in Z 609.5 0.05543 B
200 625.6 0.06543
Y 638.7 0.07543
650.6 0.08543
Z 100 660.7 0.09543
670.1 0.10543
X O D
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
True Strain (mm/mm)
(a) (b)
Figure 5: (a) Finite element model boundary conditions and loading and (b) assumed stress-strain curve.
4.1 NORS: Isotropic hardening with virgin stress-strain curve

The baseline case for comparison in this study, NORS, assumes that the effect of cold bending is
negligible, i.e. there are no residual stresses present and the virgin yield stress is unchanged. Isotropic
hardening was implemented with the true stress-strain curve OABC in figure 5b.
1020
4.2 MAT: Isotropic hardening with modified stress-strain curve to simulate increased yield stress
The MAT protocol assumes that cold bending has occurred along the stress-strain path OABD in
figure 5b, with a resulting plastic strain of OD. When the column is compressed, the stress-strain curve is
then DBC, resulting in an apparent increased yield stress. The virgin stress-strain curve OAC was
replaced with the curve DBC in ABAQUS (*MATERIAL definition) with the point D shifted to the
origin (i.e., zero stress, zero strain).
4.3 ISO – Isotropic hardening including residual stresses and effective plastic strains
For the ISO modeling protocol, the residual stresses (in Cartesian stress space) and effective plastic
strain (in von Mises strain space) were directly defined in ABAQUS (*INITIAL CONDITION definition)
considering 99 sections (integration points) through the thickness. The residual stresses and plastic strain
distributions, described in Figure 6 and Table 1, were obtained with the hand calculations described in
[18]. Note that defining Hp explicitly establishes the initial size of the von Mises yield surface, which is
approximately equivalent to manually inputting the stress-strain curve DBC in the MAT protocol.
Y Y Y
+0.5 ıyield -0.05 ıyield İp
T-1 1/99
T-2 20/99 Top
(Compression)
+ıyield T-3 +0.5 ıyield 49/99

-ıyield X B-3 -0.5 ıyield Z 51/99
Bottom
(Tension)
B-2 80/99
B-1 99/99
-0.5 ıyield +0.05 ıyield İp
(a) Residual stress, ı1 (b) Residual stress, ı3 (c) Effective plastic strain, İp
Figure 6: Residual stress and plastic strain distributions imposed in ABAQUS.
Table 1: Residual effective stresses and plastic strains at defined through-thickness section points.
T -1 T -2 T -3 Center B-1 B-2 B-3
V e . MPa 213.0 80.0 349.0 0.0 213.0 80.0 349.0
V 1. MPa 202.0 -39.0 -404.0 0.0 -202.0 39.0 404.0
V 3. MPa -20.0 -92.0 -202.0 0.0 20.0 92.0 202.0
Hp 0.11 0.068 0.0024 0 0.11 0.068 0.0024
4.4 COM – Isotropic-kinematic hardening including residual stresses and equivalent plastic strains
The COM protocol employs a combined isotropic-kinematic hardening law in ABAQUS and defines
the initial size and location of the von Mises yield surface after cold bending. The size of the yield
surface is established in the same way as Section 4.3 for the ISO protocol, i.e. with the user input of Hp
varying through the thickness.
The location of the yield surface requires the calculation of the backstress components 'V1 and 'V3 :
'V 1 V 1B V 1A (2)
'V 3 V 3B V 3A (3)
B
The applied stress during cold bending, V1 , is calculated from the effective plastic strain during cold
bending:
2 § Y ·¸
H Bp ln¨1 (4)
3 ¨© rz ¸¹
1021
The effective stress, VeB is read from OABC in figure 5b at a strain H =Hyield +HpB and then converted to
V1B by rearranging Eq. (1) and assuming V3B =vV1B where v=0.5 for plastic deformations [18, Appendix]:
V eB
V1B (5)
Q2 Q 1
The stress components V1A and V3A in Cartesian space that result in Ve =Vyield (point A in figure 5b) can be
obtained by assuming V3A = vV1A, v=0.3 for elastic deformation up to yield, and solving Eq. (1) for V1A .
5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The load-deformation response of the cold-bent compression member for the NORS, MAT, ISO and
COM cases are compared in figure 7. The peak compressive load predicted by the MAT is approximately
40% higher than the baseline NORS protocol, simply because the stress-strain curve input into ABAQUS
has a yield stress that is 40% higher than the virgin yield stress, Vyield. The ISO protocol produces a
similar load-deformation response to the MAT protocol with the effective plastic strain defining the
initial size of the von Mises yield surface. The ISO curve softens at the yield knee because of the
presence of the through-thickness residual stresses imposed as part of the initial state.
A more detailed look at the behavior of the cold-bent compression member when modeled with the
ISO protocol is provided in figure 8a by tracking the effective (Mises) stresses, Ve, through the loading
sequence. The through-thickness stress magnitudes vary initially based on the residual stresses created
by cold bending. As the compression load increases, the yield stress of the T-1 layer and its opposing
layer B-1 are higher than the virgin yield stress (figure 8a), as every point on an ellipse in the ı1 and ı3
coordinate system (figure 9a) has the same yield stress. In other words, for isotropic hardening, the yield
stress in opposing layers (e.g. T-1 and B-1) are increased by cold bending. The softening of the curve
from MAT to ISO results from the residual stresses (V3) which place T-1, T-2, and T-3 in compression
and B-1, B-2, and B-3 in tension. The variation in residual stresses results in a yield lag, with the B
layers yielding later in analysis than the T layers.
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
P/Py (MPa)
0.8
0.6
0.4 NORS
MAT
0.2 ISO
COM
0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012
Engineering Strain (mm/mm)
Figure 7: Cold-bent column load-deformation response. (Engineering strain on the x-axis is calculated as
column shortening divided by the original column length.)
Returning to figure 7, it is observed that the COM modeling protocol (combined isotropic-kinematic
hardening) is consistent with the baseline load-deformation response NORS, an interesting and
unexpected result. Figure 8b demonstrates that a decrease in apparent yield stress occurs for all layers
except T-3 and B-3. The decrease in yield stress results because of the combined effect of residual
stresses and a shift in the yield surface (figure 9b). For example, the T-3 yielding surface shifts slightly
as the plastic strain from cold bending is small near the center of the sheet thickness. However the V1
1022
residual stresses from cold bending are near +0.50 Vyield (figure 6b), and when the column is loaded in
compression in the 3 direction, the distance to the yield surface is decreased when compared to loading
from the origin O. It is concluded the COM load-deformation response is consistent with the NORS
protocol because in most locations through the thickness the isotropic hardening effect, i.e. boost in yield
stress, is partially to fully negated by the shifted yield surface and the presence of residual stresses.
800 800
700 700
600 600
Mises Stress (MPa)
Mises Stress (MPa)

500 500
400 400
T-1 T-1
300 300
T-2 T-2
T-3 T-3
200 200
Center Center
B-3 B-3
100 100 B-2
B-2
B-1 B-1
0 0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01
Engineering Strain (mm/mm) Engineering Strain (mm/mm)
(a) ISO (b) COM

Figure 8: Effective (Mises) through-thickness stresses: (a) ISO protocol and (b) COM protocol.
ı1 (B) ı1 (B)
(T): Top (B): Bottom

(T) Layer #1
Layer #2
(B) Layer #3 R3
(T)
R3
(T) R: Residual stress (B)
(T)
R2 R2
(B)
ı3 (T) ı3 (B) ı3 (T) ı3 (B)
(B) (T)
R1
(B) R1
(B) R2 (T)
Yielding Yielding
ı1 (T) of B-2 of T-2 ı1 (T)
(a) Isotropic (b) Kinematic
Apparent yield stress
Figure 9: Through-thickness Mises yield surfaces: (a) ISO protocol and (b) COM protocol (note that
only kinematic hardening is represented)
6 CONCLUSIONS
A nonlinear finite element parameter study considering residual stresses and plastic strains from
cold bending demonstrates that load-deformation response is sensitive to the choice of metal plasticity
law and the consideration of residual stresses and plastic strains. A combined isotropic-kinematic
hardening law and user input residual stresses and effective plastic strains produce a load-deformation
response consistent with the baseline case which ignores the effects of cold bending. The common finite
element modeling practice of increasing the yield stress at the location of cold bending neglects to
capture the yield lag from the presence of residual stresses and the shifting yield surface (i.e. the
Bauschinger effect), and highlights that the current design treatment of an increased yield stress from the
cold work of forming effect is inconsistent with the mechanics of cold bending.
1023
REFERENCES
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[2] Winters-Downey E., "Steel Wise "Specifying Camber"," American Institiute of Steel Construction,
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[3] Packer J. A., Henderson J. E., Hollow Structural Section: A Design Guide. 2nd ed. Canadian
Institute of Steel Construction, Alliston, Ontario, 1997.
[4] Chajes A., Britvec S. J., Winter G. "Effects of cold-straining on structural steel sheets," Journal of
the Structural Division, ASCE, 89(ST2), 1-32, 1963.
[5] Shanley F. R., Strength of Materials. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY, 1957.
[6] Key P., Hancock G. J. "A Theoretical Investigation of the Column Behaviour of Cold-Formed
Square Hollow Sections," Thin-Walled Structures, 16, 31-64, 1993.
[7] Weng C. C., Peköz T. "Residual Stresses in Cold-Formed Steel Members," ASCE Journal of
[8] De Batista E. M., Rodrigues F. C. "Residual stress measurements on cold-formed profiles,"
Experimental Techniques, 16(5), 25-9, 1992.
[9] Spoorenberg R. C., Snijder H. H., Hoenderkamp J. C. D. "Experimental investigation of residual
stresses in roller bent wide flange steel sections," Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 66(6),
737-47, 2010.
[10] Quach W. M., Teng J. G., Chung K. F. "Finite element predictions of residual stresses in press-
braked thin-walled steel sections," Engineering Structures, 28, 1609-19, 2006
[11] Moen C. D., "Direct Strength Design for Cold-Formed Steel Members with Perforations," Ph.D.
Thesis, Johns Hopkins University, 2008.
[12] Sivakumaran K. S., Abdel-Rahman N. "Finite element analysis model for the behaviour of cold-
formed steel members," Thin-Walled Structures, 31(4), 305-24, 1998.
[13] AISI-S100, North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural
Members. American Iron and Steel Institute, Washington, D.C., 2007.
[14] Hancock G. J., Murray T., Ellifritt D., Cold-formed steel structures to the AISI specification.
Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, NY, 2001.
[15] Hill R., The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity. Oxford University Press, London, England, 1950.
[16] Quach W. M., Teng J. G., Chung K. F. "Residual stresses in steel sheets due to coiling and
uncoiling: a closed-form analytical solution," Engineering Structures, 26, 1249-59, 2004
[17] Ugural A. C., Fenster S. K., Advanced Strength and Applied Elasticity, Fourth Edition. Prentice
Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2003.
[18] Moen C. D., Igusa T., Schafer B. W. "Prediction of Residual Stresses and Strains in Cold-Formed
Steel Members," Thin-Walled Structures, 46(11), 1274-89, 2008.
[19] ABAQUS, "ABAQUS/Standard Version 6.9-2.," Dassault Systèmes, <http://www.simulia.com/>,
2009.
[20] Chen W. F., Han D. J., Plasticity for Structural Engineers. Springer-Verlag, New York, NY, 1988.
[21] Ramm E., "Strategies for tracing nonlinear response near limit points," Springer, 1981.
1024
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSES OF HIGH STRENGTH

COLD-FORMED SUPACEE® SECTIONS IN SHEAR
Cao Hung Pham * and Gregory J. Hancock*
* School of Civil Engineering, the University of Sydney, Australia

e-mails: caohung.pham@sydney.edu.au, gregory.hancock@sydney.edu.au
Keywords: Cold-Formed, SupaCee® Sections, High Strength Steel, Effective Width Method, Direct
Strength Method, Shear Test, Tension Field Action, Finite Element, ABAQUS.
Abstract. The paper will describe finite element analyses using the program ABAQUS of SupaCee®
Sections in Shear. These high strength (450 MPa) C-profile steel sections contain additional return lips
and web stiffeners which enhance the bending and shear capacity of the sections. They are used widely in
Australia as purlins in roof and wall systems. The results of nonlinear analyses by the finite element
method (FEM) depend heavily on the imperfections assumed for the analysis of the thin-walled members.
Different buckling modes (Mode 1 Anti-Symmetric and Mode 2 Symmetric) are assumed with different
magnitude levels of imperfection as proposed by Camotim in Portugal and Schafer in the USA. The paper
summarises the results of the finite element nonlinear simulations of the shear tests on SupaCee® sections
performed at the University of Sydney and described in a separate paper. The FEM results are compared
with the tests to calibrate the imperfection magnitudes and modes against the tests. Conclusions
regarding the size and type of imperfection are made in the paper.
1 INTRODUCTION
Numerical simulation using the Finite Element Method (FEM) of thin-walled cold-formed steel
sections undergoing buckling depends substantially on assumption regarding boundary condition, initial
geometric imperfection, element mesh and type. For high strength sections in compression [1], accurate
simulations have been achieved by using ABAQUS [2]. For sections in bending, Yu [3] provided
complete details of the finite element models consisting of shell elements to investigate the influence of
the test setup on the buckling modes of cold-formed steel members in bending and additional nonlinear
analysis is also included. For sections in shear, and combined bending and shear, an accurate simulation
[4] has been recently reported to calibrate against tests of an experimental investigation on normal C-
section steel purlins performed at the University of Sydney [5]. As sections become more complex with
additional multiple longitudinal web stiffeners and return lips as designed on SupaCee® sections [6], the
computation of the effective widths becomes more complex. In order to further understand the behavior
high strength cold-formed channel sections in shear, another experimental program has been recently
performed at the University of Sydney for SupaCee® sections. The tests, which are described as
predominantly shear test series (V-series) in this paper, consist of two different commercially available
depths and three different thicknesses of SupaCee® sections.
This paper presents the modeling and analysis of the experimental specimens of V test series by using
the Finite Element Method (FEM) program ABAQUS. The effect of initial geometric imperfection has
been investigated. Experimental data from [7] was utilized to evaluate the performance of the FE model.
The accurate results of the numerical simulation show that the finite element analysis can be utilized to
predict the ultimate loads which include the post-buckling behavior of cold-formed purlin in shear.
1025
2 FINITE-ELEMENT SIMULATION
2.1 General
A detailed FE model has been developed to study the structural behavior of high strength cold-
formed SupaCee® sections in shear. In order to obtain realistic models, for the finite element non-linear
analysis, plastic strains are included. Tensile coupons were tested to determine the stress-strain curves
and the plastic strain data of the sections tested by Pham and Hancock [7].
The commercially available software package ABAQUS/Standard [2] version 6.8-2 was used to
develop the FE models. The simulation consists of two steps. In the first step, an elastic buckling
analysis, called a Linear Perturbation analysis, was performed on a perfect purlin to obtain its buckling
modes (eigenmodes). This shows the possible buckling modes of the structure. The second step was a
non-linear analysis using the modified Riks method. Material plasticity strains and geometric
imperfection based on the eigenmodes are included in the analysis to obtain the ultimate failure loads and
failure modes of purlins in shear. Although, the channel section members were symmetrically tested in
pairs with flanges facing inwards and with a gap between them to ensure inside assembly was possible,
only one channel beam was modeled in order to save computational time.
2.2 Material Properties
In the non-linear analysis, ABAQUS requires the input of the material stress-strain curves in the form
of true stress Vtrue versus true plastic strain Ht. The true stress (Vtrue) and true plastic strain (Htrue) were
converted from the engineering stresses (V) and engineering strains (H) as follows:
V true V (1 H ) (1)
V
H true ln(1 H ) - true (2)
E
where E is the Young’s modulus, V and H are engineering stress and strain respectively [2]. The
measured stress and strain curves were based on tensile coupon tests conducted by Pham and Hancock
[7] for each of the section sizes tested. The yield stress fy was obtained by using the 0.2 % nominal proof
stress.
2.3 Test Rig Configuration and Specimen Boundary Conditions
The experimental program comprised a total of twelve tests conducted in the J. W. Roderick
Laboratory for Materials and Structures at the University of Sydney. The basic design of the test rig was
developed by LaBoube and Yu [8]. All tests were performed in the 2000 kN capacity DARTEC testing
machine, using a servo-controlled hydraulic ram. Two different commercially available SupaCee®
sections of 150 mm and 200 mm depths were chosen with three different thicknesses of 1.2 mm, 1.5 mm
and 2.4 mm. A photo of the test set-up is shown in Fig. 1 for the V-series with the ratio of span to depth
of 1:1. The channel section members were tested in pairs with flanges facing inwards and with a gap
between them to ensure inside assembly was possible.
At the supports, the test two beam specimens were bolted through the webs by vertical rows of M12
high tensile bolts. These rows of bolts were connected to two channel sections 250x90x6CC with
stiffeners. Steel plates of 20 mm thickness were used as load transfer plates which were also bolted
through the flanges of the channel sections 250x90x6CC with stiffeners. These load bearing plates rested
on the half rounds of the DARTEC supports to simulate a set of simple supports as shown in Fig. 2(a).
At the loading point at mid-span, the DARTEC loading ram has a spherical head to ensure that the
load is applied uniformly on the bearing plate. The load was transferred to two channel sections
250x90x6CC with stiffeners which were connected to the test beam specimens by two vertical rows of
M12 high tensile bolts. For the 150 mm section, four bolts were used at each support and eight at the load
point, and for the 200 mm deep section, five and ten bolts were used respectively.
1026
Figure 1. V - Series Configuration (Dimensions for 150 mm Deep Section)
Half round
Center
“CONN3D2”
connector
(a) Test (b) FE Model

Figure 2. Specimen and ABAQUS Boundary Conditions (Dimensions for 200 mm Deep Section)

Figure 3. V - Series Configuration with and without Straps adjacent Loading Point
For the predominantly shear (V) test series, six of the twelve tests had four 25x25x5EA straps
connected by self-tapping screws on each of the top and bottom flanges adjacent to the loading point and
reactions as shown in Fig. 3(a). Six remaining tests were tested without the two 25x25x5EA straps
adjacent to the loading points on the top flange as shown in Fig. 3(b). The purpose of these two straps is
to prevent distortion of the top flanges under compression caused by bending moment. The distortion
may be a consequence of unbalanced shear flow or distortional buckling.
This test rig is modelled explicitly by using 3D deformable solid members which were made using
normal steel properties. All M12 high tensile bolts of 830 MPa for Grade 8.8 were pretensioned up to 90
kNm torque to prevent slip under initial loading. In order to model these contacts, the “tie” constraints
were used to model contacts between the specimens and rigs where the the channels were the slave
surfaces and the rigs were the master surfaces.
1027
At the supports, the simply supported boundary conditions of the loading bearing plates resting on the
half rounds of DARTEC supports were simulated in ABAQUS model as shown in Fig. 2(b).
“CONN3D2” connector elements were used to connect the bearing plates to the centre of the half round.
Both ends of connector elements are hinges and the length of the shortest connector member is the radius
of half round. At the loading point at mid-span, in the ABAQUS model, loads were directly applied at the
bolt positions to simulate the load transfering from the loading ram to the channel section via the
250x90x6CC channel sections.
2.4 Initial Geometrical Imperfection
In the non-linear analysis, imperfections are usually introduced by perturbations in the geometry.
Initial geometrical imperfections are added onto the “perfect” model to create out-of-plane deformations
of the plate elements. In the ABAQUS model, there are three methods to define the geometric
imperfections. Firstly, the geometric imperfections can be defined by the linear superposition of buckling
eigenmodes. Secondly, specifying the node number and imperfection values directly on the data lines
gives a method of direct entry. The final method is defined by the displacements from an initial
*STATIC analysis, which may consist of the application of a “dead” load.
In this paper, the first method employing the linear superposition of buckling modes is used. An
initial analysis is carried out on a perfect mesh using the elastic buckling analysis to generate the possible
buckling modes and nodal displacements of these modes. The imperfections are introduced to the perfect
mesh by means of linearly superimposing the elastic buckling modes onto the mesh. The lowest buckling
modes are usually the critical modes and these are, therefore, used to generate the imperfections. The
coordinates of the eigenmodes obtained from this analysis are by default stored in a file with extension
*.fil and can subsequently be used as input for the *IMPERFECTION command in the actual simulation
with different scaling factors with respect to the thickness of the channel. The imperfection magnitudes
were based on two scaling factors of 0.15t and 0.64t with both positive and negative signs where t is the
thickness of channel section. These two factors were proposed by Camotim and Silvestre [9] and Schafer
and Pekoz [10] respectively.
2.5 Eigenvalue Buckling Analysis Prediction and Post-buckling Analysis
Eigenvalue buckling analysis is generally used to estimate the critical buckling loads of a stiff
structure. ABAQUS uses the subspace iteration eigensolver when the *BUCKLE analysis is carried out.
Eigenvalues, also known as load multipliers, are extracted in this analysis and the lowest values are
important. The buckling mode shapes are the most useful outcome in the eigenvalue analysis, since they
predict the likely failure mode of the structure.In the analysis in this paper, two buckling mode shapes
were chosen. The first mode is normally an antisymmetric buckling shape whereas the second is normally
symmetric. Buckling modes with both positive and negative signs are also considered in this paper.
Tables 1 shows the buckling modes shapes of: V-predominantly shear test series. Modes 1 are generally
anti-symmetric about the centerline of the member, and Modes 2 are generally symmetric.
Table 1. Buckling Modes of V –Shear Test Series

Mode 1 Mode 2
With Straps Without Straps With Straps Without Straps
1028
A structure which has material and geometrically nonlinearity or unstable postbuckling response
requires a load-displacement analysis to be performed. This analysis is known as the “Modified Riks
Method” and generally used to predict unstable, geometrically nonlinear collapse of a structure. The Riks
method uses the load magnitude as an additional unknown; it solves simultaneously for loads and
displacements. ABAQUS uses the “arc length” along the static equilibrium path in load-displacement
space to measure the progress of solution. This method provides solutions regardless of whether the
response is stable or unstable. Riks [11, 12] proposed an incremental approach to deal with the buckling
and snapping problems. The Riks method works well in snap-through problems in which the equilibrium
path in load-displacement space is smooth and does not branch. The Riks method can also be used to
solve post-buckling problems both with stable and unstable post-buckling behaviour. However, the exact
post-buckling problem cannot be analysed directly due to the discontinuous response at the point of
buckling. To analyse this problem, the model has to have a continuous response instead of bifurcation.
This effect can be accomplished by adding initial imperfections to create a perturbed mesh. There is
therefore some response in the buckling mode before the critical load is reached. Herein, the *STATIC,
RIKS procedure was used to perform the collapse or post-buckling analysis.
2.5 Element Mesh
The element sizes were 8 mm. The 4-node shell element with reduced integration, type S4R, was
selected from the ABAQUS element library. This element uses three translation and three rotational
degrees of freedom at each node. The element accounts for finite membrane strains and arbitrarily large
rotations. Therefore, it is suitable for large-strain analyses and geometrically nonlinear problems. The
other elements with five degrees of freedom such as S4R5 can be more computationally economical.
However, they cannot be used in finite-strain applications. According to the Simpson rule, reduced
integration was carried out by using five integration points through the shell thickness. Since S4R is a
linear element, the hourglass control settings needed to be activated.
3 COMPARISONS OF TEST LOADS WITH FINITE-ELEMENT MODELING

The results of the test and ABAQUS ultimate loads are given and reproduced in Table 2 for the V –
shear test series. As can be seen in Fig. 4, the test loads with straps are comparable with ABAQUS results
over both geometric imperfections of amplitude 0.15t and 0.64t. The differences in the results between
ABAQUS and the tests are less than approximately 10%. In the case of the symmetric Mode 2 with
magnitude 0.15t and -0.64t, the ABAQUS results are in the best agreement with the test results.
Table 2. V – Shear Test Series and ABAQUS Results

Test PT/ABAQUS Load
Section
(PT) Mode 1 Mode 1 Mode 1 Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 2 Mode 2 Mode 2
V-Series (kN) Imp=0 0.15t 0.64t -0.15t -0.64t 0.15t 0.64t -0.15t -0.64t
SC15012 168.539 0.908 0.920 0.938 0.919 0.938 0.925 0.943 0.892 0.941
SC15012w 157.307 0.928 0.963 1.000 0.968 1.061 0.941 0.958 0.961 1.012
SC15015 222.317 0.966 0.985 1.017 0.980 1.018 1.006 1.032 0.943 1.008
SC15015w 207.484 0.973 1.001 1.075 0.999 1.054 1.054 1.024 1.017 1.069
SC15024 354.291 0.890 0.897 0.975 0.897 0.940 0.903 0.951 0.907 0.947
SC15024w 355.512 0.968 0.974 1.008 0.976 1.008 0.962 0.962 0.980 1.026
SC20012 185.936 0.946 0.950 0.956 0.945 0.958 0.947 0.942 0.952 0.962
SC20012w 182.212 1.011 1.042 1.056 1.041 1.064 0.964 0.973 1.057 1.074
SC20015 248.260 0.980 0.989 0.993 0.987 0.996 0.984 0.987 0.979 0.980
SC20015w 246.612 1.017 1.061 1.082 1.069 1.084 1.016 1.018 1.057 1.085
SC20024 496.826 1.039 1.068 1.101 1.068 1.101 1.058 1.093 1.013 1.053
SC20024w 469.235 1.037 1.076 1.117 1.069 1.142 1.045 1.081 1.068 1.126
1029
Fig. 5 shows similar comparisons to Fig. 4 except that it applies to the tests without the straps. The
results are generally less accurate and more variable than the tests with the straps especially with
imperfection magnitude of 0.64t. It appears that the imperfection of the top flange adjacent to the loading
points obtained by buckling analysis causes the reduction of the ABAQUS results especially with a large
imperfection magnitude of 0.64t. As can be seen in Fig. 5, the ABAQUS results with antisymmetric
Mode 1 and imperfection magnitude of 0.15t give the best predictions on average in comparison with the
tests.
The load-vertical displacement curve for the V – shear test series with straps of the SC20015 sections
and ABAQUS results are illustrated in Figs. 6. When the load increases up to about 120 kN, the load
increases linearly and matches with that of the ABAQUS model. The explanation is due to the contacts
between the channel members and the test rig. In the test, two beam specimens were bolted through the
webs by vertical rows of M12 high tensile bolts. Further displacement when the load exceeds 120 kN is
due to the slip between the beam specimens and the test rig.
After the peak load in the ABAQUS model, the curves with Mode 1 imperfection where the buckling
mode is antisymmetric drop more sharply than those with Mode 2 symmetric imperfection. It can be
explained by the stress redistribution at only one span of the V – shear test which causes failure mode in 1
span only. Fig. 8(a) shows the corresponding failure mode shapes of V – shear test with straps of the
SC20015 section for the test and ABAQUS model. The failure modes are identical and symmetrical for
both test and ABAQUS. As can also be seen in Fig. 6, soon after the peak load, the load-vertical
displacement curves of the test are of the same shape as the ABAQUS curves with Mode 2 symmetric
imperfection.
1.20
V-SC15012
1.15
Test Load/AQUS Load
1.10 V-SC15015
1.05
V-SC15024
1.00
V-SC20012
0.95
0.90 V-SC20015
0.85
V-SC20024
0.80
Imp=0 M1 M1 M1 M1 M2 M2 M2 M2
0.15t 0.64t -0.15t -0.64t 0.15t 0.64t -0.15t -0.64t
Buckling Modes and Geometric

I f i
Figure 4. Comparison of Test and ABAQUS Loads – V Series – With Straps
1.20
V-SC15012w
1.15
Test Load/AQUS Load
1.10 V-SC15015w
1.05
V-SC15024w
1.00
V-SC20012w
0.95
0.90 V-SC20015w
0.85
V-SC20024w
0.80
Imp=0 M1 M1 M1 M1 M2 M2 M2 M2
0.15t 0.64t -0.15t -0.64t 0.15t 0.64t -0.15t -0.64t
Buckling Modes and Geometric

Figure 5. Comparison of Test and ABAQUS Loads – V Series – Without Straps
1030
280
240
200
160
V-SC20015-Test
Load
V-SC20015-Imp=0
120 V-SC20015-M1-Imp=0.15t
V-SC20015-M1-Imp=0.64t
V-SC20015-M1-Imp=-0.15t
V-SC20015-M1-Imp=-0.64t
80 V-SC20015-M2-Imp=0.15t
V-SC20015-M2-Imp=0.64t
V-SC20015-M2-Imp=-0.15t
40 V-SC20015-M2-Imp=-0.64t
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Vertical Displacement
Figure 6. Load and Vertical Displacement Relations of V-SC20015 – With Straps
280
240
200
160
Load
V-SC20015w-Test
120 V-SC20015w-Imp=0
V-SC20015w-M1-Imp=0.15t
V-SC20015w-M1-Imp=0.64t
V-SC20015w-M1-Imp=-0.15t
80 V-SC20015w-M1-Imp=-0.64t
V-SC20015w-M2-Imp=0.15t
V-SC20015w-M2-Imp=0.64t
40 V-SC20015w-M2-Imp=-0.15t
V-SC20015w-M2-Imp=-0.64t
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Vertical Displacement
Figure 7. Load and Vertical Displacement Relations of V-SC20015w – Without Straps
Fig. 7 shows the load-vertical displacement curves for the V – shear test series without the straps for
the SC20015 section and the ABAQUS results. For the test, there are additional deflections up to about 5
kN compared with ABAQUS. The reason is due to the test assembly. The two load transfer plates did not
rest evenly on the half rounds because of slight twist after assembly. The load is then fairly matched with
ABAQUS up to 100 kN. After this point up to peak load, the bolts start to slip and lead to the further
increase in the displacements of test in comparison with that of ABAQUS. The explanation is the same as
above due to slip and local bearing failure. As can be seen in Fig. 8(b) which shows the corresponding
failure mode shapes of the V – shear test without the straps of the SC20015w section for the test and
ABAQUS model, the failure mode is Mode 1 antisymmetric imperfection. The load-vertical displacement
curve of the test after peak load is similar to the ABAQUS model with Mode 1 anti symmetric buckling
mode.

Figure 8. Mode Shapes of Test and ABAQUS Model of V-SC20015-With Straps
1031
3 CONCLUSION
A series of ABAQUS simulations was carried out on high strength C-section cold-formed steel
purlins. The simulations are compared with and calibrated against predominantly shear (V) test series on
high strength cold-formed C-section purlins. The FE study was conducted for different effects of initial
geometric imperfection. Two scaling factors of 0.15t and 0.64t with both positive and negative signs
where t is the thickness of channel section were used for initial geometric imperfection input. The use of
the FE program ABAQUS for simulating the behavior of high strength C-section cold-formed purlins is
successful since the ABAQUS results were generally in good agreement with experimental values. FE
results show that the effect of initial geometric imperfection is not significantly sensitive for V-
predominantly shear. ABAQUS can therefore be used for further investigation to design and optimize
thin-walled sections of high strength steel.
REFERENCES
[1] Yang, D., and Hancock, G. J., “Numerical Simulation of High-Strength Steel Box-Shaped Columns
Failing in Local and Overall Buckling Modes.” Journal of Structural Engineering, American
Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 132, Issue 4, 541-549, 2006.
[2] ABAQUS/Standard Version 6.8-2; Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, Dassault Systèmes Simulia Corp.,
Providence, RI, USA, 2008.
[3] Yu, C., “Distortional Buckling of Cold-Formed Steel Members in Bending.” Ph.D. Dissertation,
Johns Hopkins Univ., Baltimore, 2005.
[4] Pham, C. H., and Hancock, G. J., “Numerical Simulation of High-Strength Cold-Formed Purlins in
Combined Bending and Shear”, Research Report No R904, School of Civil Engineering, The
University of Sydney, NSW, Australia, October, 2009.
[5] Pham, C. H., and Hancock, G. J., “Experimental Investigation of High Strength Cold-Formed C-
Section in Combined Bending and Shear”, Research Report No R894, School of Civil Engineering,
The University of Sydney, NSW, Australia, April, 2009.
[6] Lysaght., “NSW SupaCee® is trademark of Bluescope Steel Limited.” Bluescope Steel Limited
trading as Bluescope Lysaght, 2003.
[7] Pham, C. H., and Hancock, G. J., “Experimental Investigation of High Strength Cold-Formed
SupaCee® Sections in Combined Bending and Shear”, Research Report No R907, School of Civil
Engineering, The University of Sydney, NSW, Australia, December, 2009.
[8] LaBoube, R. A., and Yu, W. W., “Cold-Formed Steel Web Elements under Combined Bending and
Shear.” Proc., 4th Int. Specialty Conf. on Cold-Formed Steel Structures, University of Missouri-
Rolla, St Louis, Missouri, U.S.A, 1978.
[9] Camotim, D. and Silvestre, N., “GBT-based Analysis of The Distortional Postbuckling Behaviour
of Cold-formed Steel Z-section Columns and Beams.” Proc., 4th Int. Conf. on Thin-Walled
Structures, Loughborough, 243-250, 2004.
[10] Schafer, B. W. and Peköz, T., “Computational modeling of cold-formed steel: characterizing
geometric imperfections and residual stresses.” Journal of Constructional Steel Research, Vol 47,
193-210, 1998.
[11] Riks, E., “The Application of Newton’s Method to The Problem of Elastic Stability.” Journal of
Applied Mechanics, Vol 39, 1060-1066, 1972.
[12] Riks, E., “An Incremental approach to The Solution of Snapping and Buckling Problems.”
International Journal of Solids Structures, Vol 15, 529-551, 1979.
1032
CLASSIFICATION OF STABILITY FAILURE MODES OF

SANDWICH PANELS UNDER COMPRESSION LOADING:
GLOBAL AND LOCAL BUCKLING, CRIPPLING AT
SUPPORT LINE
Versuchsanstalt für Stahl, Holz und Steine; Karlsruhe Institut of Technology (KIT)
e-mails: kaepplein@kit.edu, thomas.ummenhofer@kit edu
Keywords: sandwich panels, axial force, buckling, wrinkling.
Abstract. Traditionally, sandwich panels are designed as unidirectional spanning flexural members,
transferring the load to a skeletal substructure. As a recent development, sandwich panels are used
without substructure. In this application the panels have to transfer normal forces in addition to
transverse loads. The paper introduces a design model for axial loaded sandwich panels. Additionally,
the basic failure modes at the area of load application were illustrated and a mechanical model is
presented.
1 INTRODUCTION
Sandwich panels used in industrial buildings consist of two metallic faces and a core layer made of
thermal insulating materials (hard foam PUR, PS or mineral wool). The application being common
practice up to now, is restricted to the brick partition; i.e. the panels only transfer transverse loads (wind,
snow) acting on them to the substructure by bending. In the panel only the stress resultants of the bending
moment M and transverse force V are effective.
A recent tendency, especially in the area of smaller buildings (Fig. 1) – such as cooling chambers,
climatic chambers and clean rooms – is to apply the panels without substructure.
D
Figure 1: Cross-section of a sandwich panel; Building without substructure
In this application the wall panels have to transfer normal forces in addition to the stress resultants
arising from transverse loads. This results in the question for the load-bearing capacity of the panels in
the areas of load application, i.e. on the lower ends of the panel and on the connection between wall and
ceiling, where the superimposed loads from the ceiling are applied as normal force into the wall panels
(Fig. 2).
1033
Figure 2: Connection between wall and ceiling and lower ends
In addition to the load application areas, also the load-bearing capacity of the panels subjected to
normal force load or rather a combination from normal force and bending moment is to be verified. Since
the loads at the connection between wall and ceiling are usually transferred into the inner face, a fixed-
end moment always exists, and therefore a pure axial load of the wall panel is also rather unusual for
lacking transverse load.
2 FAILURE MODES
In flat and lightly profiled sandwich panels, bending moments are transferred in both faces by a force
couple. The bending load capacity of a sandwich panel is mostly restricted by the wrinkling stress of the
face subjected to compression (Fig. 3a). Wrinkling concerns a stability failure of the compressed face,
which is elastically supported by the core material. In rare cases, failure can also occur by reaching the
yield strength in the face subjected to tension.
A further possible failure mode is the shear failure of the core, e.g. in the considered wall panel itself
or in the ceiling panel which applies the load (Fig. 3b).
In the end region of the panels, normal forces have to be applied on the free cut edge of the face.
Failure may occur by “crippling” of the edge or by “long-wave buckling” (Fig. 3c). This problem is
naturally similar to wrinkling, the edge, however, is not supported and imperfections of the contact area
may reduce the load-bearing capacity for uneven edges.
The ceiling panel is only supported by the inner face of the wall panel, corresponding to a knife-edge
support. This may result in incising of the inner face of the ceiling panel above the support line (Fig. 3d).
b
a c d
Figure 3: Wrinkling, shear failure, failure at load application, incising of the ceiling panel
3 GLOBAL FAILURES: BUCKLING AND WRINKLING OF THE WALL PANELS
3.1 Basic principles

Considering the elastic buckling load of the faces Nki and the elastic buckling load of the core GA,
the elastic buckling load Ncr of a sandwich panel subjected to centric axial load can be calculated to
N ki
N cr (1)
N
1 ki
GA
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The load at which wrinkling of both facings occur under centric axial load, can be calculated to
Nw V w 2 AF (2)
Thus, the slenderness of a sandwich panel can be calculated to
Nw
O N cr
O2ki OGA
2
(3)
With
Nw Nw
Oki N ki
; OGA
GA
(4)
For axially loaded sandwich panels, a buckling failure occurs for O > 1. This is only the case for
panels with higher slenderness. Therefore, the panels must be thin and the faces must have a large
stiffness, so that a buckling failure occurs.
Calculating the global load-bearing capacity of the panels subjected to axial loads, there is basically
the possibility of determining the stress resultants according to the theory of second order and furnishing
proof of the stress level using the wrinkling stress as limit stress. In addition, design according to the
equivalent member method by buckling curves is possible.
3.2 Design according to the theory of second order
The stress resultants according to the theory of second order can be calculated approximately with the
amplification factor D.
M II M I D (5)
V II V I D (6)
N II NI (7)
With
1
D (8)
N
1
N cr
MI M 0 N ( e0 wT ) (9)
M0 = bending moment from transverse load (for ex. wind loading)

N = normal force
e0 = pre-deformation from geometric initial imperfection
wT = deflection due to temperature differences between inside and outside
Then, the structural analysis is done on the stress level.
M II N
V dVw (10)
AF D 2 AF
With transverse load, the shear load capacity of the core material can become decisive.
1035
V II
W d f Cv (11)
AC
This procedure facilitates the consideration of transverse loads and fixed-end moments acting on the
panels as well as the deflection due to temperature difference.
For checking the applicability of the procedure described above, tests and numerical calculations
were performed. The tests showed the problem of load application. In order to avoid a failure at the load
application position, thus at the cut edges of the panels, panels with very high, practically rather unusual
slendernesses have to be used. This results in a global failure of the panel by global buckling or wrinkling
of the compressed face in mid-span, Therefore, the performed tests served as a source for checking the
FE-model. In addition, the FE-Model was calibrated by a comparison of the wrinkling stress and the
elastic buckling load using the corresponding theoretical characteristic value.
In the FE analyses, a short-wave imperfection (Fig. 4a) corresponding to the natural buckling mode
when reaching the wrinkling stress was applied as local geometrical imperfection on the face subjected to
pressure. As a global imperfection, a deflection e0 corresponding to the first natural buckling mode of the
axial loaded panels was applied (Fig. 4b). The initial deformation e0 was assumed to be
1
eo l (12)
500
according to the maximum allowable imperfection value in compliance with EN 14509.
a b
Figure 4: Local and global imperfections in the FE analyses
In the FE analyses, the failure stresses of axial loaded sandwich panels were determined using the
above described local and global geometrical imperfections. Furthermore, the failure stress for
transverese load was determined as a comparative value. Fig. 5 shows for example wrinkling stresses of
two different panels with different local imperfections.
Figure 5: Wrinkling stresses
1036
Obviously, the failure stress for axial load or rather for interaction of axial and transverse load
corresponds approximately to that for pure bending. Thus, the wrinkling stress usually determined in
simple bending tests can be used as limit stress for the design of panels subjected to axial or combined
load.
3.3 Design via buckling curves
Alternative to a calculation according to the theory of second order, a design by means of the
equivalent member method would also be possible. But a buckling curve is necessary. The reduction
factor N would in turn use the wrinkling stress as reference stress.
N Rk N Nw (13)
The reduction factor N can be calculated according to the following formulae:
1
N (14)
I I 2 O2
I 0 ,5 [ 1 D O2 OGA
2
O2 ] (15)
The imperfection coefficient D depends on the cross-section geometry and the material parameters of
the considered sandwich panel as well as on the length-dependent imperfection e0, and can be calculated
to
2e0 BS
D S (16)
D Nw
Fig. 6 shows for example the buckling curve for a sandwich panel. For the verification of the method,
some points of the buckling curve were additionally determined by FE analyses.
Figure 6: Buckling curve for a sandwich panel
In order to be able to consider also moments from transverse loads or from eccentric axial loads, in
addition to pure axial forces, the equation given above can be extended by a ratio following EN 1993-1-1.
N M
k yy d1 (17)
N Nw Mw
1037
With
Mw D AF V w (18)
N
k yy C my ( 1 0 ,8 ) (19)
N Nw
Cmy = Equivalent uniform moment factor according to EN 1993-1-1, Table B.3
In Table 1, some calculations performed by means of the above described equivalent member method
are compared with the results of a FE analysis and a calculation according to the theory of second order.
Table 1: Nmax/Nw calculated by equivalent member method, theory of second order and FE
N/Nw calculated by
M/Mw Equivalent Theory of
FE
member method second order
0,20 0,46 0,46 0,45
0,39 0,31 0,32 0,31
0,79 0,10 0,10 0,10
0,19 0,47 0,46 0,46
0,39 0,33 0,32 0,33
0,78 0,12 0,10 0,11
4 LOCAL FAILURES: DELAMINATION AND CRIPPLING AT LOAD

APPLICATION AREA
4.1 Tests on load application

For investigating the load-bearing capacity of sandwich panels at the area of load application, tests on
connection details were performed. Failure mostly occurred by crippling of the loaded face, directly
below the cut edge. Especially tests on panels with faces made of GFRP resulted in a long-wave buckling
in combination with delamination of the face (Fig. 7).
Figure 7: Failure modes at load application
Since the loads are directly applied on the free cut edge, this edge is especially sensitive to
imperfections. At the cut edge, imperfections mainly develop through sawing of the cut in the wall panel.
During sawing cracks often occur between core and face, which disturb the composite between core and
face. Uneven cut edges result in contact imperfections and thus in peak stresses at the load application.
1038
The sensitivity of the cut edge against these imperfections can be reduced by an angle, which is stuck
on the face and on the core of the wall panel (Fig. 8a). Then, failure does no longer occur by crippling of
the edge, but by a long-wave buckling (Fig. 8b), which rises the load-bearing capacity of the edge. In
addition to an increase of the load-bearing capacity of the cut edge, the reinforcement by an angle is also
advantageous for the supported ceiling panel. Then, the panel is no longer lying on a cutting edge, but on
the arm of the angle, by means of which a failure of the ceiling panel by impressing the face can be
prevented.
a b
Figure 8: Corner detail with stuck angle
4.2 Mechanical model

The failure mode in the load application area is related to wrinkling of a face in mid-span. Wrinkling
in mid-span concerns an elastically supported plate, the two ends of which are supported. The face of the
wall panel, to which the load is applied from the ceiling, also concerns an elastically supported plate, in
which the cut edge represents an unsupported end (Fig. 9). Based on the deflection of the ceiling panel
under superimposed load, the load application area of the ceiling panel is not exactly at right angles to the
inner face of the wall panel. This results in an additional horizontal load F2. Further equivalent loads due
to imperfections could be considered in F2 as well. Effects from the theory of second order result in an
increase of the equivalent load F2. Possibly existing stiffeners at the load application area, such as stuck
angles or C-sections, can be considered by an additional horizontal spring.
Figure 9: Mechanical model of load application
Based on the free end, the stress level that can be carried by the edge is below the wrinkling stress.
Since there is a relation to the wrinkling stress, it is appropriate to perform the calculation of the load
application through the relation to the known flexural wrinkling stress. In Fig. 10, the stresses in the inner
face determined by the tests are compared to the flexural wrinkling stress.
1039
Figure 10: Comparison of wrinkling stress and stress at load application
4.3 Glued connections

Especially in cold storage house construction it is common to glue together the core material of the
panels at the connections between wall and ceiling. Especially for faces made of GFRP, also the faces are
sometimes glued together with each other. Tests on connection details with glued core material show that
despite bonding at the connection no moment is transferred, thus, the connection can be furthermore
regarded as hinged. The ceiling load is applied as normal force into the inner face.
Bonding can cause or change stiffness and restraints in the core material. Bonding of the core often
even leads to the disadvantage of an early failure of the core due to tension and shear stresses resulting
from additional stiffness due to bonding (Fig. 11).
Figure 11: Failure of glued corner details

4.4 Lower ends
The problem of load application into the faces does not only exist at the connection between wall and
ceiling, but also at the lower ends of the wall panels. It could be shown that both faces do not interact.
Therefore, the load-bearing capacity of both faces can be added for determining the load-bearing capacity
of a lower end.
5 SUMMARY
In addition to the usual application of sandwich panels for enclosures, sandwich panels in small
buildings are also partly applied without supporting substructure. This results in question on the load-
bearing capacity of the wall panels being now also stressed by axial loads as well as on the load-bearing
capacity of panels in the area of load application, such as at the connection between wall and ceiling or at
the lower ends. It could be shown by FE analyses that the wall panels stressed by normal forces can be
calculated with the wrinkling stress as limit stress according to the theory of second order. The basic
failure modes at the load application area were illustrated and a mechanical model was developed.
The presented research has been done within the framework of the EASIE project. Further research is
going on. The EASIE project has received financial support from the European Community’s Seventh
Framework Programme FP7/NMP2-SE-2008 under grant agreement No 213302.
1040
REFERENCES
[1] EN 1993-1-1:2005: Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures – Part 1-1: General rules and rules for
buildings.
[2] Davies, J.M., “Axially loaded sandwich panels”, Journal of Structural Engineering, 133/11, 2212-
2230, 1987.
[3] Allen, H.G., Analysis and design of structural sandwich panels, Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1969.
[4] Plantema, F.J., Sandwich construction: the bending and buckling of sandwich beams, plates, and
shells, Now York: Wiley, 1966.
[5] Wadee, M.A., “Experimental evaluation of interactive buckle localization in compression sandwich
panels”, Journal of Sandwich Structures and Materials 1, 230-254, 1999.
[6] Wadee, M.A., “Localized buckling in sandwich struts with pre-existing delaminations and
geometrical imperfections”, Journal of Mechanics and Physics of Solids 50, 1767-1787, 2002.
1041
Nobutaka Shimizu et al. (Eds.)
STRENGTH ESTIMATION OF END FAILURES

IN CORRUGATED STEEL SHEAR DIAPHRAGMS
Nobutaka Shimizu*, Kikuo Ikarashi**
* Nippon Steel Corporation

e-mail: shimizu.nobutaka@nsc.co.jp
** Tokyo Institute of Technology
e-mail: ikarashi.k.aa@m.titech.ac.jp
Keywords: Corrugated Steel Sheet, Diaphragm, Shear Strength, End Failure.
Abstract. Shear tests on corrugated steel sheets were carried out to examine the effects of shape and
thickness of profiles on the end failure action in lateral sway that may occur at the ends of flutes in shear
diaphragms. Based on the test results, the previous shear deformation model for stiffness estimation was
reviewed, and the deformation model was developed into a new shear strength model with application of
yield-line hinges. The strength design formula was derived from the strength model through a limit
analysis technique. Comparison with the test results showed that the derived formula provided
appropriate strength estimation.
1 INTRODUCTION
Structural design methods for corrugated steel sheets under in-plane shear force are systematized
as ”diaphragm design” and summarized in guidelines such as ECCS [1] and SDI [2]. These design
guidelines allow rational structural systems, such as roof decks that resist shear force due to wind
pressure or seismic loading without an additional bracing structure. In the structural design, global and
local buckling of sheets, failure at the seam between sheets, and failure in sheet-to-frame fasteners are
commonly estimated. Besides these failure modes, end failures, which may occur at the ends of flutes in
corrugated shear diaphragms, are occasionally critical in deeper roof decks.
To use deeper decks as shear diaphragms as shown in Fig. 1a, Davies [3] proposed the strength design
formula of end failures based on test results, in which the ends of flutes failed in lateral sway mode (Fig.
1b) or in web crippling mode (Fig. 1c). But the formula leans to give too conservative estimation
especially for lateral sway, because the formula uses a factor based on test results in which almost all the
specimens failed in web crippling mode.
In this study, end failure actions in lateral sway are examined through shear panel tests, and the
effects of shape and thickness of profiles on lateral sway actions are clarified. Based on the test results,
the previous shear deformation model for stiffness estimation is developed into a yield mechanics model
for strength estimation. The strength design formula is derived from the model to improve the precision
of strength estimation for deeper roof decks where end failure in lateral sway can occur.
(a) Shear diaphragm (b) Lateral sway (c) Web crippling

Figure 1: End failure in a corrugated steel shear diaphragm
1043
Nobutaka Shimizu et al.
2 PREVIOUS STRENGTH DESIGN FORMULA OF END FAILURE

Davies [3] proposed a strength formula of end failure based on shear diaphragm tests with actual
deeper roof decks. Figure 2 expresses the relationships between the shape of the profile and the end
failure mode of each specimen, in which specimens with fastener failure are excluded. The horizontal
axis in Fig. 2 indicates the ratio of profile-height h to profile-pitch q, and the vertical axis indicates the
ratio of profile-height h to profile-thickness t. The circles represent lateral sway, and the triangles
represent web crippling. Specimens of Davies’ study are plotted with open symbols, and in this study,
they are plotted with closed symbols. Figure 2 shows that many specimens of Davies’ test collapsed in
web crippling, and this trend is clearer in the range of h/t over 100 and h/q over 0.5.
Although Davies investigated theoretical approaches to lateral sway mode and web crippling mode,
identical strength design formula cP0 was finally applied for both end failure modes as follows:
c P0 D V y t1.5 b q 0.5 (1)
where Vy is the yield stress of the profile material, b is the length of the diaphragm, and D is a non-
dimensional factor defined as 0.5 in reference [3] and as 0.9 in reference [1] to give conservative strength
estimation for the profiles fastened to the frame in every trough of corrugation.

h/t Lateral sway [3]
Web crippling [3]
Lateral sway [This study]

t h
q
h/q
Shape of profile

Figure 2: Relationship between profile shape and failure mode
3 SHEAR DIAPHRAGM TESTS
3.1 Outline of tests

The end failure actions of corrugated steel sheets with various shapes of profile were investigated by
shear diaphragm tests using the setup shown in Fig. 3a. Every taught of the sheets was connected by a
bolt (M6) on a steel frame (Fig. 3b) to make a friction-bolted joint. Static-monotonous shear force P was
loaded to the frame by a hydraulic cylinder, and shear deformation G was measured.
800mm
800mm
Pin
Fixed Beam Steel Frame

Support M6 Mechanical Pin Bush
Hydraulic Cylinder
Specime
G 60mm 95mm
P
Loading Beam
M6 Steel Frame
Support Steel Frame
(a) Loading system (b) Steel frame

Figure 3: Test setup
The test specimens were corrugated steel sheets defined by the shapes according to the size symbols
shown in Fig. 4a: a is the width of the diaphragm, b is the length of the diaphragm, q is the pitch of the
1044
profile, h is the height of the profile, t is the thickness of the profile, e is half of the lower flange width, f
is the upper flange width, g is the web projection width, and l is addition of the upper flange width and
the web projection width. The sheets were bolted on the frame with a washer, whose width was j as
shown in Fig. 4b, to secure a friction surface. A bolted connection is adopted to avoid connection failures,
and a sheet without seams is used to avoid seam fastener failures in this test.
16mm b = 800mm 16mm
Washer Bolt (M6) Washer Bolt (M6)
R=t h
t
g f g j Steel Frame j Steel Frame
e l e 2e 2e
q
(a) Diaphragm size and shape of profile (b) Connection between sheet and frame
Figure 4: Specimen
Table 1 shows a list of the test parameters. The aim of Series I is to identify the effect of the shape of
the profile: the upper flange width f, the height of profile h, and the thickness of profile t. The aim of
Series II is to identify the effect of the width of washer j. Typical shapes of the specimens, like t04-h20-
25 or t04-h20-f32, correspond with one-third scale roof deck in Japan. As shown in Fig. 2, profile shape
ratios h/t and h/q for this test lie in the range of 25–100 and 0.25–0.5, respectively.
Table 1: Test parameters

a b t q f e g h l 2e j
Series Specimen name
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
t04-h20-f40 800 800 0.4 80 40 20 0.0 20 40 40 34
t04-h20-f25 800 800 0.4 80 25 20 7.5 20 40 40 34
t04-h20-f15 800 800 0.4 80 15 20 12.5 20 40 40 34
t04-h20-f0 800 800 0.4 80 0 20 20 20 40 40 34
I
t04-h30-f25 800 800 0.4 80 25 20 7.5 30 40 40 34
t04-h40-f25 800 800 0.4 80 25 20 7.5 40 40 40 34
t06-h20-f25 800 800 0.6 80 25 20 7.5 20 40 40 34
t08-h20-f25 800 800 0.8 80 25 20 7.5 20 40 40 34
t04-h20-f32 800 800 0.4 80 31.6 15.8 8.4 19.6 48.4 31.6 28
II
t04-h20-f32J 800 800 0.4 80 31.6 15.8 8.4 19.6 48.4 31.6 12
The steel plates used for fabrication of the specimens are common between Series I and II, and their
mechanical properties are shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Mechanical properties of steel plates
Thickness(mm) Yield strength Tensile strength Elongation
Nominal Measured (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (%)
0.4 0.41 267 366 37.9
0.6 0.58 277 373 38.4
0.8 0.77 251 353 41.2
3.2 Test results

Almost all the specimens deformed elastically under shear force with elastic distortion of the flute cross
sections at initial loading, and as shown in Fig. 5a, the distortion then moved to plastic end failure action
1045
with lateral sway, which determines the ultimate strength. Viewed from a vertical angle as shown in Fig.
5b, every flute deformed linearly along the ridge lines and symmetrically around the center point of the upper
flange. Therefore, the distortional deformation of the cross sections linearly decreased as they approached
the centerline of the diaphragm length (A-A’ section).
(a) Lateral sway in a horizontal angle (b) Lateral sway in a vertical angle (c) After lateral sway
Figure 5: Observation of end failure (t04-h20-f25)
Load-deformation (P-G relationships for all the specimens are shown in Fig. 6. After showing linear
deformation behavior during the early loading stage, almost all the specimens showed gradual yielding
and reached the ultimate strength determined by end failure in lateral sway. When loading advanced
further from the status of Fig. 5a and 5b, the lateral sway changed into web crippling at the inclining
sides; furthermore, the local tension field action mode of the steel plate around the bolted connection as
shown in Fig. 5c, so that the specimens maintained strength in the load-decreasing range after reaching
the ultimate strength.
The experimental values shown in Table 3 are obtained by the definition in Fig. 6e: The initial
stiffness eK is defined as secant rigidity at shear deformation angle 1/800, the ultimate strength ePu is
defined as the maximum strength determined by lateral sway, and the yield strength ePy is defined as the
load corresponding to displacement of the intersecting point between a line drawn parallel to the
horizontal axis passing through the point of ePu and a line indicating eK.
40 30 60 30
P(kN) P(kN) P(kN) t08-h20-f25 P(kN) P
t04-h20-f0 t04-h20-f25
50 t04-h20-f32
30 t04-h20-f15 e Pu
t04-h30-f25
20 40 20
t04-h20-f25 t06-h20-f25
20 30 e Py
t04-h20-f25 e Py
10 20 10
10
Py e Py t04-h40-f25 Py t04-h20-f32J
e
t04-h20-f40 10 e
e K
G (mm) G (mm) G (mm) G (mm) G
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25 G=1mm
(a) Upper flange f (b) Height h (c) Thickness t (d) Washer j (e) Definition
Figure 6: Load-deformation (P-G relationship
Figure 6 shows that obvious differences due to the effect of the test parameters were identified in the
initial stiffness, the yield strength, the ultimate strength, and load reduction after reaching ultimate
strength. Furthermore, the P-Grelationship of t08-h20-f25 shows fluctuation of the load because of slip
action in the friction-bolted connections.
Figure 6 and Table 3 show the effects of the experimental parameters as follows:
Effect of upper flange width f (Fig. 6a): The narrower the upper flange width is, the more the initial
stiffness increases. The yield and ultimate strength rise as the upper flange width decreases, but the
ultimate strength shows a slight difference between a width of 15 mm and a width of 0 mm. Furthermore,
the load reduction tends to be rapid as the ultimate strength becomes higher.
1046
Effect of profile height h (Fig. 6b): The higher the profile height is, the more the initial stiffness
decreases. The yield and ultimate strength decrease as the profile height increases. In addition, the load
reduction tends to be moderate as the ultimate strength becomes lower.
Effect of plate thickness t (Fig. 6c): The thicker the plate thickness is, the more the initial stiffness
increases. The yield and ultimate strength rise as the thickness increases. Additionally, the load reduction
tends to be somewhat rapid as the ultimate strength becomes higher.
Effect of the washer width j (Fig. 6d): The larger the washer width is, the more the initial stiffness
increases, while there is no evident difference in the yield and ultimate strength as the washer width
increases.
4 STRENGTH ESTIMATION OF END FAILURES IN LATERAL SWAY
4.1 Stiffness formula of distortional deformation

The previous stiffness formula of the corrugated shear diaphragms is reviewed to develop its deformation
model into a strength model for a strength formula of end failure in lateral sway. When corrugated sheets
receive shear force, distortional deformation of the flute of the cross section, as well as in-plane shear
deformation of the plate elements, causes deformation of shear diaphragms. This distortional action is modeled
as the deformed mechanics shown in Fig. 7a by Davies [4], in which it is assumed that the cross section receives
bending moment and deforms linearly along the ridge lines and symmetrically around the center point of the
upper flange. Based on equilibrium between the internal energy of the deformed mechanics and the external
energy produced by the shear force, shear stiffness dK for the distortional deformation is obtained as follows:
E t 3 b3
d K (2)
144 D h3 f 2
where E is Young’s modulus and D is the factor of the profile shape that is expressed in following
equation:
8e3 8e 2 w 4e f w 2 f 2 w f 3
D (3)
12h(l 2e) 2
Then, shear stiffness sK for in-plane shear deformation of the plate elements is given by the following
equation:
b t E
sK (4)
2( f 2w 2e)(1 Q)
where Qis Poisson’s ratio. Using stiffness values dK and sK per flute, the estimation formula of shear stiffness
cKof the corrugated steel diaphragm, which has n number of flutes, is obtained as follows:
1
§ 1 1 · 1
cK ¨ ¸ (5)
© dK sK ¹ n
4.2 Strength formula of end failure in lateral sway

The yield mechanics model shown in Fig. 7b is assumed by defining the yield-line hinges on the
ridge lines of the profile, at which the bending moment of the cross section is maximized in the deformed
mechanics model shown in Fig. 7a. The yield mechanics model, as well as the deformed mechanics model,
is symmetrical around the center point of the upper flange. A new strength formula is derived from
equilibrium between internal energy cUi absorbed in the yield-line hinges and external energy cUe
1047
produced by shear force cP and shear deformation cG. In calculating the internal energy, the steel plate is
considered to have the material properties of rigid plastic on the basis of the limit analysis technique.
The internal energy cUi is given by plastic moment per unit length mp ( t 2 V y / 4) and the hinge
rotation angles of web T w and upper flange T f at both ends of diaphragm length b as Equation (6),
considering the geometrical condition of the mechanics whereby the hinge rotation angles linearly vary
so as to fall to zero at the center of diaphragm length in which no cross section deformation occurs.
b
cU i m p (4Tw 2T f ) (6)
2
T w and T f are associated in Equation (7) considering displacement difference v between both ends on the
upper flange and the continuous web.
v f Tf 2w Tw cos I (7)
cUi is obtained by substituting Equation (7) for Equation (6) as follows:
§ w · b
cU i 4m p ¨ 1 cos I ¸ Tw (8)
© f ¹ 2
Moreover, cG and T w are associated by the assumption that the upper flange rotates as a rigid body, so
that the external energy cUe is given as follows:
cU e c P cG 2 f w Tw sin I b c P (9)
Consequently, cP is obtained from the equilibrium between cUi and cUe as follows, corresponding to
ultimate strength cPu:
b2 § w ·
cP ¨1 cos I ¸ m p c Pu (10)
f w sin I © f ¹
In addition, yield strength cPy is given by replacing the plastic moment mp in Equation (10) with yield
moment my ( t 2 V y / 6) as follows:
b2 § w ·
c Py ¨1 cos I ¸ m y (11)
f w sin M © f ¹
Yield line
dP
cP
y A point of symmetry
dy d G
cG
ph(l-2g) w
w࡮ T ࡮sin I
' p f
mx 2(l+2e) T w
T
p/2 x p /2
phe w I
g f g ph l+2e ph T
e l e l+2e l+2e mp
g f g
(a) Assumed deformed mechanics (b) Assumed yield mechanics

Figure 7: Estimation model
1048
4.3 Correspondence between test results and formulas

Table 3 shows a comparison between test values (eK, ePy, and ePu) and calculated values (cK, cPy, cPu,
and cP0 with D=0.9). Figure 8 and Fig. 9 indicate the relationships between the profile shape and the
estimation result for stiffness and strength, respectively, for Series I. In these figures, the closed diamond,
the closed square, and the closed circle indicate eK, ePy, and ePu, respectively, and the open diamond, the
open square, the open circle, and the open triangle indicate cK, cPy, cPu, and cP0, respectively.
Figure 8 shows that the previous stiffness formula cK can provide appropriate estimation of the
experimental initial stiffness eK when the profile shape varies, excluding the specimen with the upper
flange width set to zero (t04-h20-f0). Furthermore, Figure 9 shows that the previous strength formula cP0
has low sensibility toward the test parameters and provides too conservative estimation of the
experimental yield and ultimate strength (ePy and ePu). By contrast, the proposed strength formulas cPy
and cPu have favorable sensibility toward the test parameters and provide better estimation of ePy and ePu
than of cP0.
Regarding Series II, Table 3 shows that calculated values give suitable estimation for the test results,
but the specimens with small washer width (t04-h20-f32J) tend to give slightly higher calculated stiffness
cK than experimental stiffness eK.
30 15 40
K (kN/mm) K (kN/mm) K (kN/mm) e K
t04-h20-f25
t04-h20-f15 t08-h20-f25
30 c K
20 10 t04-h30-f25
t04-h20-f25 t06-h20-f25
t04-h40-f25 20
t04-h20-f40 t04-h20-f25
10 5
t04-h20-f0
10
f (mm) h (mm) t (mm)

0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
(a) Upper flange f (b) Height h (c) Thickness t

Figure 8: Estimation of stiffness
40 30 70
P (kN) P (kN) P (kN) Py
t04-h20-f15 t04-h20-f25 t08-h20-f25 e
60
30 t04-h30-f25
e Pu
t04-h20-f25 50 t06-h20-f25
20 c Py
t04-h40-f25 40
20 t04-h20-f40 Pu
t04-h20-f25 c
30
t04-h20-f0 c P0
10
10 20
10
f (mm) h (mm) t (mm)
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
(a) Upper flange f (b) Height h (c) Thickness t

Figure 9: Estimation of strength
Table 3: Comparison between test result and calculation

Test result Calculation Test result / Calculation
Name eK ePy ePu cK cPy cPu cP0 eK ePy ePy ePu ePu
(kN/mm) (kN) (kN) (kN/mm) (kN) (kN) (kN) cK cPy cP0 cPu cP0
t04-h20-f40 3.93 9.1 13.1 2.74 5.98 8.98 5.64 1.43 1.52 1.62 1.46 2.32
t04-h20-f25 8.17 13.9 18.7 7.86 12.4 18.7 5.64 1.04 1.11 2.45 1.00 3.31
t04-h20-f15 12.4 21.9 25.5 14.6 29.3 43.9 5.64 0.85 0.75 3.88 0.58 4.51
t04-h20-f0 16.2 28.2 29.2 26.8 - - 5.64 0.61 - 5.00 - 5.18
I
t04-h30-f25 4.42 10.0 14.3 3.63 8.3 12.4 5.64 1.22 1.20 1.77 1.15 2.53
t04-h40-f25 3.14 7.5 10.9 1.92 6.22 9.34 5.64 1.64 1.21 1.33 1.17 1.93
t06-h20-f25 15.1 26.4 35.8 16.8 25.8 38.8 9.85 0.90 1.02 2.68 0.92 3.63
t08-h20-f25 23.1 38.8 53.7 28.5 41.3 61.9 13.7 0.81 0.94 2.84 0.87 3.93
t04-h20-f32 7.27 13.2 18.8 6.34 9.78 14.7 5.64 1.15 1.35 2.33 1.28 3.34
II
t04-h20-f32J 4.47 12.7 18.4 6.34 9.78 14.7 5.64 0.71 1.30 2.25 1.25 3.26
1049
The precision of estimation of stiffness and strength seems to be lower as the upper flange width f
decreases because the deformed mechanics model and the yield mechanics model tend to be determined
by not only bending moment across the section but also in-plane axis force due to truss action. Improving
the estimation accuracy of the mechanics model controlled by the truss action is a problem to be solved
hereafter. Furthermore, the effect of the ratio of profile-pitch q to diaphragm-length b, which may
influence the bending action across the section, ought to be investigated.
5 CONCLUSION
The effects of shape and thickness of the profile on end failure in lateral sway were examined through
shear diaphragm tests on corrugated steel sheets. Based on the test results, the previous shear stiffness
formula was reviewed and developed into a strength formula for end failure in lateral sway. The
conclusions and findings are summarized as follows:
1. Almost all the specimens deformed elastically under shear force with elastic distortion of the flute
cross section at initial loading, and the distortion moved to plastic end failure action with lateral
sway, in which every flute deformed linearly along the ridge lines and symmetrically around the
center point of the upper flange. Obvious differences due to the effect of shape and thickness of
the profile were identified in the initial stiffness, the yield strength, and the ultimate strength of
end failure action with lateral sway.
2. Based on the test observation of end failure in lateral sway, the yield mechanics model is
assumed by defining the yield-line hinges on the ridge line of the profile, at which the bending
moment of the cross section is maximized in the previous deformed mechanics model. The
strength formula was derived from equilibrium between the internal energy of the yield-line
hinges and the external energy of the shear force using a limit analysis technique. Comparison
between the test results and the formulas shows that the previous stiffness formula and the
proposed strength formula provide appropriate estimation in contrast to the excessive
conservativeness of the previous strength formula.
3. The precision of estimation of stiffness and strength tends to be lower as the upper flange width
becomes smaller because the deformed mechanics and the yield mechanics tend to be
determined by not only bending moment across the section but also in-plane axis force due to
truss action. Improving the estimation accuracy of the resistance mechanism determined by both
bending and truss action is a problem left for future study.
REFERENCES
[1] European Convention for Construction Steelwork (ECCS), European Recommendations for the
Application of Metal Sheeting acting as a Diaphragm, 1995.
[2] Steel Deck Institute (SDI), Diaphragm Design Manual Third Edition, 2004.
[3] J.M. Davies, J. Fisher, End failure in stressed skin diaphragms, Proc. Instn Civ. Engrs, Part2, 275-
293, 1987.
[4] J.M. Davies, R.M. Lawson, The Shear Deformation of Profiled Metal Sheeting, International
Journal for Methods in Engineering, Vol.12, 1507-1541, 1978
[5] J.M. Davies, A General Solution for the Shear Flexibility of Profiled Sheets. I & II, Thin-Walled
Structures 4, 41-68 and 141-161, 1986
1050
PLATE BUCKLING ACCORDING TO EUROCODE 3.

COMPARISON OF THE EFFECTIVE WIDTH METHOD AND THE
REDUCED STRESS METHOD
Prof. Jose M. Simon-Talero*, Mrs. Ana Caballero **
* Civil Engineer, ETS Ingenieros de Caminos (UPM-España) – Torroja Ingenieria S.L.

** Civil Engineer, Imperial College (London)
e-mails: jsimontalero@torroja.org ; ana.caballero05@imperial.ac.uk
Keywords: plate buckling, reduced stress method, effective width method, steel structure stability
Abstract. The Eurocode 3 section 1-5 (EC3 1-5) on plated structures presents two approaches to
calculate the ultimate resistance of compressed plated elements affected by plate buckling (class 4): the
effective width method and the reduced stressed method. Given its complexity, the latter of these methods
has not been the subject of much research until now. Therefore, the scope of its applicability as well as
its relative advantages and disadvantages with respect to the other methods remain to a large extent
uncertain. The aim of the present paper is to contribute to a better understanding of the background and
practical use of these methods. To that end, a brief introduction to the background of these methods, as
well as their application to non-stiffened and stiffened plated structures is first included. Then, the article
reproduces a comparative evaluation of these methods, based on the parametric study carried on the
paper ‘Estudio comparativo de los métodos de cálculo propuestos en los artículos 4 y 10 del EN1993-
1.5’ [1]. Finally, the main conclusions of this study are summarised at the end of the article.
1 INTRODUCTION
Eurocodes are produced in the EU to harmonise different types of structures and building materials.
Steel structures are included in Eurocode 3 (EN 1993). Section 1-5 of Eurocode 3 [2] on plated structures
presents two approaches to calculate the ultimate resistance of compressed plated elements affected by
plate buckling (class 4): the effective width method and the reduced stressed method. Given its
complexity, the latter of these methods has not been the subject of much research until now [3], [4].
Therefore, the scope of its applicability as well as its relative advantages and disadvantages with respect
the other methods remain to a large extent uncertain.
The paper ‘Estudio comparativo de los métodos de cálculo propuestos en los artículos 4 y 10 del
EN1993-1.5’ [1], which can be downloaded from [A], contributes to a better understanding of the
implications of using these alternative calculation methods and covers a comparative evaluation of the
methods. This article summarizes the main points of the paper, in order to give a concise but clear
introduction to the subjcet. To that end, the background of each method is first presented, in particular the
fundamental concepts of the reduced stress method. This document covers the case of non-stiffened as
well as stiffened plates. Then, the results of the application of each method to a particular case are
reproduced. Finally, the comparative evaluation of the effective width and reduced stress methods is
achieved by a parametric study. The parameters and conclusions of this study are summarized at the end
of the article. The parametric study was performed using an EXCEL spreadsheet, which can be
downloaded from [A].
1051
Prof. José M. Simón-Talero, Mrs Ana Caballero
2 BACKGROUND THEORY OF THE EC3 1-5 APPROACHES
2.1 The effective width method
a) Non-stiffened plates
This approach was first developed by Von Karman (1932) and subsequently modified by Winter
(1947). It is included in section 4 of Eurocode 3, part 1-5.
The effective width approach is based on the fact that a plate subjected to in-axial compressive
stresses will go through a post-buckling stage where higher stresses will be transferred to the stiffer areas
of the plate due to the membrane effect (Figure 1). Therefore, the strength of a plate affected by buckling
can be assumed to be that of an imaginary plate of reduced breadth, beff, not subjected to buckling.
According to this, the plate will fail when compressive stresses reach the maximum strength (yield
strength, fy) of the reduced plate.
Figure 1: Stress transfer
The behavior of a plate under compression stresses depends to a large extent on the ratio of its
principal dimensions. Considering a thin plate of length a, width b and thickness t mm (a,b<<t), if a is of
the same magnitude as b (square shaped plate) its response will be similar to that of a compressed plate
and will be therefore governed by the plate-buckling theory. However, if a is significantly smaller than b
its response will be better described by the column buckling theory [5], [6]. These responses are known
as the plate and the columns mechanisms respectively. The theory of this mechanisms is fully covered on
section 4.1.2 a and 4.1.2 b of EN1993-1.5 (EC3 1-5) [2].
In fact, the actual response of a compressed plate falls between these two mechanisms and the greater
influence of one above the other depends purely on the plate’s dimensions. The EC3 1-5 takes this fact
into consideration and suggests an interpolation formula between the two mechanisms in order to obtain a
more realistic value of the plate’s strength:
Uc ( U F c )[ (2 [ ) F c (1)
where Uand Fc are the reduction factors for the plate and column mechanisms respectively, and [is a
‘measure’ between the critical strength of the plate mechanism and that of the column mechanism given
by
V cr , p
[ 1 (2)
V cr ,c
where Vcr,p and Vcr,c are the critical stresses according to the plate mechanism and the column mechanism,
respectively. Figure 2 represents the interpolation between the two mechanisms according to [
1052
Figure 2: Interpolation between the column behaviour and the plate behaviour
b) Stiffened plates
Plate girder
The first step in the calculation of the critical strength of a compressed plate girder by applying the
effective width approach is to study the buckling effects in every individual plate that conforms the plate
girder and its stiffeners. This is known as local plate-buckling study. Subsequently, the study of the plate-
buckling phenomenon of the whole plate takes place. To this end, the effective width method refers to the
interpolation between the column mechanism and the plate mechanism [7], [8]. The column mechanism
establishes imaginary ‘cuts’ in the plate between two stiffeners that eliminates its parts affected by
buckling. Thus, the remaining parts of the plate along with each stiffener can be treated as a column
under an axial compressive force. This mechanism assumes that columns do not receive any support from
the adjacent one but are able to buckle in a direction normal to their plane (Figure 3a). The plate
mechanism is based on the fact that these ‘cuts’ do not exist and therefore the column will be supported
by the adjacent columns (Figure 3b).
Figure 3a: Column mechanism Figure 3b: Plate mechanism
The reduction factor for the plate mechanism is determined from:
U >O 0,055(3 \ )@ 1 2

O
where O is the slenderness of the plate expressed as:
E A,c f y
O (4)
V cr , p
1053
EA,c being the ratio between the effective area and the gross area of the stiffened plate, in order to take
into account the effects of plate buckling in the parts between the stiffeners. The term Vcrѽ,pҏ ҏrepresents ҏthe
ҏcritical stress according to the plate mechanism, which in Annex A of EN 1993. 1-5 is given by:
V cr , p kV , pV E
where
kV ,cp
>
2 (1 D 2 ) 2 J 1 @
when Dd J
D 2 (\ 1)(1 G )
a)
kV ,cp

41 J when Dt J (6b)
\ 11 G
The column mechanism will apply the European curves for buckling, in which the coefficient Dgiven
by
0,09
D D
i/e
takesҏ theҏ values D =0,49 or D=0,34 depending on whether the stiffeners are open or closed. In the
column mechanisms calculations, each longitudinal stiffener will be treated as a separate ‘column’, since
they are simply supported between two transversal stiffeners.
To conclude, the effective width approach is based on an interpolation between the two mechanisms
using equation (8), yielding the final reduction factor, Uc. This factor is applied to the effective area of the
plate girder (i.e. the resultant area of the plate girder after the local plate-buckling study) to obtain the
total effective area:
§ bc , eff ·
Aeff ,T , p Uc Ac, eff ,loc 2¨¨ ¸t
¸ (8)
© 2 ¹
Webs
The application of the effective width method to stiffened webs remains analogous to that of the plate
girder except for a number of adjustments arising from its linearly varying stress distribution: in the local
plate-buckling analysis, the reduction factor applied to each subplate will depend on its particular stress
distribution, \. Therefore the dimensions of the subplates parts adjacent to each stiffener will vary along
the web. The EN-1993-1.5 [2] presents the effective width of the subplates as a function of the stress
distribution in Table 5.3.2.
2.2.- Reduced stress method
a) Non-stiffened plates
This method is briefly covered in section 10 of EC3 1-5 as an alternative to the effective width
method.
The reduced stress method states that the strength of a plate affected by buckling can be obtained by
applying a reduction factor to the entire section with no reduction due to plate buckling. In this way, the
plate could be treated as a ‘class 3’ element without carrying any reduction in its dimensions. The
reduction factor is a function of the coefficient Vult,k, relating the applied stress to the yield stress of the
1054
plate. The latter may be obtained by one of the established stresses criteria, like the Von Mises criterion,
which is the criterion adopted in the EC3 1-5.
In contrast with the effective width method, the reduced stress method depends on both the normal
and the shear stress. This increases the complexity of its application to compressed plates, specially in the
case of webs, since they concentrate the majority of the shear stresses. This explains its limited of use in
common engineering practice.
The coefficient Dult,k which when applied to the design stress, VEd, leads to yielding of the most
compressed point of the plate, can be obtained from:
2 2 2
1 § V x , Ed · § V z , Ed · § V x , Ed ·§ V z , Ed · § W Ed ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸¨ ¸ 3¨ ¸ (9)
2
D ult ¨ f y ¸ ¨ f y ¸ ¨ f y ¸¨ f y ¸ ¨ f y ¸
,k © ¹ © ¹ © ¹© ¹ © ¹
In an analogous manner, the coefficient Dcrit, given as the scaling factor that when applied to the
design stress, VEd, yields the critical stress, is determined from:
1/ 2
ª 2 º
1 1 \ x 1 \ z «§¨ 1 \ x 1 \ z ·
¸ 1 \ x 1 \ z 1 »
(10)
D crit 4D crit , x 4D crit , z «¨© 4D crit , x 4D crit , z ¸
¹
2
2D crit ,x
2
2D crit ,z
2
D crit ,W
»
¬ ¼
The slenderness of the plate will be given by the ratio of these coefficients:
V max D ult , k
O (11)
V crit D crit
Subsequently, the reduced stress method accounts for the effects of plate buckling by introducing a
reduction factor, U ҏwhich can be either the minimum of the reduction factor obtained by the interpolation
formula, Uc, and the reduction factor due to shear stresses, Fv, or the value obtained by interpolating
between these factors. The final verification of this approach is expressed as follows:
V Ed V Ed
d1 (12)
V Rd D ult , kV Ed
U
J M1
b) Stiffened plates
Plate girder
The application of the reduced stress method to a stiffened plate girder proves to be relatively simple
due to the fact that it is only subjected to normal compressive stresses. Therefore, the coefficient Dult,k
will only be a function of the applied normal stress Vx,Ed ,
2
1 § V x , Ed ·
¨ ¸
2
D ult ¨ fy ¸
,k © ¹ (13)
And the coefficient Dcrit is given by
1/ 2
ª 2 º
1 1 \ x «§¨ 1 \ x ·
¸ 1 \ x 1 »

D crit 4D crit , x «¨© 4D crit , x ¸
¹
2
2D crit ,x
2
D crit ,W
»
¬ ¼ (14)
1055
Webs
Webs concentrate the majority of the shear stresses of a section. Therefore, in addition to the
complexity of the variant distribution of normal stress, the incorporation of the shear stresses in
calculations appears as a new difficulty. The coefficient Dult,k will in this case be expressed as a function
of the design normal stress, Vx,Ed, and the shear stress, WEd:
2 2
§ V x , Ed · § ·
1 ¨ ¸ 3¨ W Ed ¸ (15)
2
D ult ¨ fy ¸ ¨ fy ¸
,k © ¹ © ¹
and the coefficient Dcrit remains

1/ 2
ª 2 º
1 1 \ x «§¨ 1 \ x ·
¸ 1 \ x 1 »

D crit 4D crit , x «¨© 4D crit , x ¸
¹
2
2D crit ,x
2
D crit ,W
»
¬ ¼ (16)
3.- APPLICATION TO A PARTICULAR CASE (REFERENCE CASE)

In order to illustrate all the steps involved in the effective width method and in the reduced stress
method, they have been applied to a particular case of plate girder and webs issued from a common
bridge cross-section. The dimensions of these elements are represented in figures 4 and 5, respectively.
Figure 4: Plate girder dimensions (mm)
Figure 5: Web dimensions (mm)
1056
The detailed calculations as well as the EXCEL spreadsheet used to perform these calculations [1]
can be downloaded from [A]. The results issued from this particular study are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1: results for the application of the effective width method and the reduced stress method to a
particular example of plate girder and web (reference case)
Effective width method Reduced stress method
Plate girder Ac, eff Ac , eff 54.487,34 V Rd 262,89
0,768 0,740
Abruta Ac ¦ bextremost 65.550 450 12 fy 355
Web Weff 19.631.758,6 V Rd V Rd ,c 141,46

0.856 0,398
Wbruto 22.927.995,2 fy fy 355
4.- PARAMETRIC STUDY

In order to evaluate the accuracy of both methods, a parametric study has been performed. In this
study [1], each method is applied to a number of different symmetries and dimensions of stiffened plate
girders and webs. As it has been said, all these calculations have been performed using an EXCEL
spreadsheet, which can be downloaded from [A].
4.1.- Case studies
The parametric study includes 12 cases studies based on 4 examples of plate girders and 8 examples
of webs derived by varying the thickness of the reference case. Every case study is divided in groups of
analysis: 3 for the plate girder and 1 for the webs. Each group covers the application of each method
when varying a single dimension parameter from the reference case: the width, b, length, a, and number
of stiffeners, N, will be the varying parameters for the plate girder, and the height, h, for the web’s case.
For each group, the effective area, Ac,eff, (or effective modulus Wc,eff in the case of webs) and the reduced
strength, Vult,d, will be obtained. Finally the comparison of the two methods will follow from
Ac ,eff / Abruta
the analysis of a number of graphs showing the variation of the results ratio when
varying each dimension. V ult ,d /( f y / J M 1 )
Plate girder
The 4 study cases are based in a plate girder of thickness 12, 16, 20 and 25 mm respectively. For all
the study cases, the values for the varying parameters of each group are:
- width b: from b=4000mm to b=5000 at 200mm intervals, and from b=5000mm to b=10000
at 500mm intervals
- length a: from a=1000mm to a=10000 at 1000mm intervals
- Number of stiffeners N: N=4, 5, 6, 7
Webs
The parametric study includes 8 case studies considering webs of thickness tw= 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20,
25 and 30mm. Two types of flanges were considered: flanges of different dimensions (using the
dimensions of the reference case) and flanges of equal dimensions. The study will involve only one group
of analyses, with the height of the web h as the varying parameter. This parameter will take values from
h=1500 to h=4000mm at 250mm intervals. It is important to note that the stiffeners dimensions also vary
as the height of the web increases, as can be seen in the results.
1057
4.2.- Analysis of the study’s results

In the parametric study the ‘loss of strength’ of a compressed element has been quantified, in the case
of the effective width method and the reduced stress method respectively, by the following ratios:
Ac,eff V ult , d
Abruta fy / J M1 (17a) (17b)
Ac ,eff / Abruta
In order to compare the results of each method the ratio has been computed for each
V ult ,d /( f y / J M 1 )
group of analysis and plotted in a graph against its corresponding varying parameter. Consequently, a
ratio>1 implies that the effective width method yields higher estimations of post-buckling strength than
the reduced stress method.
Plate girder
The following graphs show the ratio of the reduced strengths obtained with the effective width and
Ac ,eff / Abruta
the reduced stress methods, , when varying the width, b, and the length, a, of the plate.
V ult ,d /( f y / J M 1 )
1.2
1.6
(Ac,eff/Abruta)/(Vult,d/(fy/M)
1.4
(Ac,eff/Abruta)/(Vult,d/(fy/M)
1.0
1.2
0.8
1.0
0.6 0.8
tf=12mm 0.6 tf=12mm
0.4 tf=16mm tf=16mm
0.4
tf=20mm tf=20mm
0.2 tf=25mm 0.2
tf=25mm
0.0
0.0
4000 4400 4800 5500 6500 7500 8500 9500 b (mm) 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 a (mm)
Figure 6a: Plate girder. Results depending on the Figure 6b: Plate girder. Results depending on the
width (b) length (a)
Web
The following graphs show the ratio of the reduced strengths obtained with the effective width and
Wc ,eff / Wbruta
the reduced stress methods, , when varying the height, h, of the webs.
V ult ,d /( f y / J M 1 )
4.5
3.5
(Wc,eff /Wbruta )/(Vult,d/(fy/J 0
4.0
3.0
(Wc,eff/Wbruta)/(V ult,d/(fy/J M1 ))
3.5 tw = 6mm
tw = 6mm
tw = 8mm
3.0 tw = 8mm 2.5
tw = 10mm
tw = 10mm
2.5 2.0 tw = 12mm
tw = 12mm tw = 16mm
2.0 tw = 16mm 1.5 tw = 20mm
tw = 20mm tw = 25mm
1.5
tw = 25mm 1.0 tw = 30mm
1.0 tw = 30mm
0.5
0.5
h (mm) 0.0 h (mm)
0.0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Figure 7a: Web with equal flanges. Results Figure 7b: Web with different flanges. Results
depending on the height (h) depending on the height (h)
1058
5.- CONCLUSIONS
5.1.-Conclusions relatives to the plate girder case
- As the width, b, of the plate girder increases (fig. 7a), the reduction factors obtained by each
Ac , eff / Abruta
method converges (i.e. | 1,00 ) until b=6000mm. For higher values of b, the
V ult , d /( f y / J M 1 )
slenderness of the plate becomes excessive and the reduced stress method proves to be less
conservative than the effective width method. This can be most clearly observed in the case of
the slenderest plate girder, of tf=12mm and b=10000mm, for which the reduction factor yielded
by the effective width method is 0,625 times that yielded by the reduced stress method.
- When varying the length of the plate girder the opposite conclusion is derived: the ratio
between the reduction factor remains constant up to a value of a=6000mm and then, for higher
values, the effective width method gives less conservative values that the reduced stress
method. In particular, the reduction factor for the effective width method is 1,345 times that of
the reduced stress method for the case of a plate girder of tf=25mm and b=10000mm.
- Varying the number of stiffeners implies varying the width of the subplates. In this case, the
outcomes of each method are very similar since the slenderness of the subplates is never
excessive, remaining within the range 10,5 d b t f d 50 .However, for significantly small
slenderness ( b t f | 10 ), the effective width method becomes too conservative, yielding a
reduction factor 0,529 times the reduction factor obtained by the reduced stress method
5.2.- Conclusions relatives to the web with different flange dimensions
- The slenderest webs, with thickness tw between 6 and 10mm, are highly unstable against
normal stresses and therefore their strength is significantly reduced when applying the reduced
strength method. However, the effective width method allows for the redistribution of the
centre of gravity, so that the strength is less reduced. Therefore, this method leads to resistances
up to 3 times that obtained with the reduced stress method for the case of h=4000mm.
- For thicker elements, of thickness between tw=12 and 30mm, the same conclusion is obtained.
However, the difference between the two methods is less pronounced, the reduction factor for
the effective width case been only 1,5 times that of the reduced strength case for h=4000mm
6.- REFERENCES
[A] www.torroja.es
[1] Caballero A. and Simon-Talero J.M., “Estudio comparativo de los métodos de cálculo propuestos
en los artículos 4 y 10 del EN1993-1.5”, Final Year Report, ETS Ingenieros de Caminos MADRID
– Imperial College LONDON, 2009
[2] European Committee for standardization, EN 1993-1-5. Eurocode 3, Design of steel structures –
Part 1-5. Plated structural elements, CEN, Bruselas, 2006
[3] Asociación para la promoción técnica del acero – APTA, “Manual de Proyecto COMBRI. Puentes
competitivos mixtos de acero y hormigón”, APTA, España, 2009
1059
[4] Johansson B., Maquoi R., Sedlacek G., Muller C., Beg D., “Commentary and worked examples to
EN 1993-1-5 “Plated Structural Elements”, JRC-ECCS, Luxembourg, 2007
[5] Millanes F., La flexión en estructuras metálicas: Análisis de esfuerzos y control de secciones,
E.T.S. de Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Madrid, 1999
[6] Simón-Talero, J.M., Introducción al cálculo de estructuras metálicas según el Eurocódigo 3,
Madrid, 2000
[7] Quintero, F., “La pieza aislada. Inestabilidad - Curso de Estructuras Metálicas II”, UNED –
Fundación Escuela de la Edificación, Madrid, 2004
[8] Simón-Talero, J.M., “Bases para el estudio de la inestabilidad de placas cargadas en su plano”
Jornadas COMBRI sobre puentes competitivos de acero y mixtos, Burgos, 2008
1060
DSM DESIGN OF LIPPED CHANNEL COLUMNS UNDERGOING

LOCAL/DISTORTIONAL/GLOBAL MODE INTERACTION
Nuno Silvestre*, Pedro B. Dinis*, Dinar Camotim* and Eduardo M. Batista**
* Civil Engineering Department, IST-ICIST, Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal

{nuno.silvestre;dinis;dcamotim}@civil.ist.utl.pt
** Civil Engineering Program, COPPE, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
batista@coc.ufrj.br
Keywords: Cold-formed steel columns, Lipped channels, Local/distortional/global mode interaction,

Ultimate strength, Direct Strength Method (DSM).
Abstract. This work aims at contributing towards extending the domain of application of the available DSM,
by making it capable of estimating the ultimate strength of cold-formed steel lipped channel columns affected by
local/distortional/global interaction. The current DSM expressions, as well as those applicable to interactive
buckling design, are first introduced and an extensive numerical (shell finite element) study involving fixed
columns is reported − the column geometries are selected in order to have nearly coincident local, distortional and
global buckling loads. The numerical ultimate strength values obtained are then used to assess the accuracy of
the DSM expressions. As a preliminary recommendation, the current DSM expressions are adequate to
estimate the collapse load of lipped channel columns affected by local/distortional/global interaction.
1 INTRODUCTION
The Direct Strength Method (DSM) has already been included in the most recent versions of the North
American and Australian/New Zealander cold-formed steel design specifications. DSM provides an efficient
approach to estimate the ultimate strength of cold-formed steel members experiencing global (flexural, flexural-
torsional), local (L) or distortional (D) collapses, or failing in mechanisms that involve L/G interaction. The
column nominal global (fne), local (fnl) and distortional (fnd) strengths are given by
§ λ2g ·
°f y ¨ 0.658 ¸ if λ e ≤ 1 .5
° © ¹ fy
f ne =® § · where λe = (1)
° fy ¨ 0 . 877 ¸ if f cre
λ e > 1 .5
° ¨© λ2g ¸¹
¯
fy if λ l ≤ 0.776
°° 0.4 ª 0.4 º fy
f nl = ® §¨ f crl ·¸ §
«1 − 0.15¨ f crl
·
¸ » where λl = (2)
°f y ¨ f ¸ if λ l > 0.776 f crl
« ¨ fy ¸ »
¯° ©
y ¹ © ¹
¬ ¼
fy if λ d ≤ 0.561
°° 0.6 ª 0.6 º fy
f nd = ® §¨ f crd ·¸ §
«1 − 0.25¨ f crd
·
¸ » where λd = , (3)
f
° y¨ f ¸ if λ d > 0.561 f crd
« ¨ fy ¸ »
°¯ © y ¹ ¬ © ¹ ¼
1061
Nuno Silvestre et al.
where (i) fy is the yield stress and (ii) fcre, fcrl and fcrd are the global (flexural or flexural-torsional), local and
distortional critical buckling stresses. The current DSM version stipulates the need to perform two separate safety
checks, regardless of the member critical buckling mode nature: (i) one against a distortional failure, involving
Eq. (3), and (ii) another against a local/global (interactive) failure, given by
f ne if λ le ≤ 0.776
°° § 0.4 ª 0.4 º f ne
f nle =® f · §f · where λ le = , (4)
f ¨ crl ¸ «1 − 0.15¨ crl ¸ » if λ le > 0.776
° ¨f ¸
ne
« ¨f ¸ »
f crl
¯° ©
ne ¹ © ne ¹
¬ ¼
where fne is obtained from Eq. (1), using fnd instead of fy. Since one has fnle ≤ fne, the column nominal strength
always corresponds to the minimum value of the local/global (fnle) and distortional (fnd) failure stresses (minimum
obtained from Eqs. (3) and (4)). The current DSM cannot be applied to members affected by interaction
phenomena involving distortional buckling. In a similar way to the L/G interaction (Eq. (4)), Schafer [1] tested
expressions to estimate the ultimate strength of columns experiencing L/D interaction, given by
f nd if λ ld ≤ 0.776
°° 0.4 ª 0. 4 º f nd
f nld = ® § f crl · §f
«1 − 0.15¨ crl
·
»
where λ ld = . (5)
f ¨ ¸ ¸ if λ ld > 0.776
° nd ¨ f ¸ « ¨f ¸ »
f crl
°¯ © nd ¹ ¬ © nd ¹ ¼
This approach was then used by Yang and Hancock [2], Silvestre et al. [3] and Kwon et al. [4]. In a
similar way, the nominal strength against distortional/global interactive failure (fnde) may be given by
f ne if λ de ≤ 0.561
°° 0.6 ª 0.6 º f ne
f nde = ® § f crd · §f
«1 − 0.25¨ crd
·
»
where λ de = , (6)
f ¨ ¸ ¸ if λ de > 0.561 f crd
° ¨f ¸
ne
« ¨f ¸ »
°¯ © ne ¹ ¬ © ne ¹ ¼
where fne is obtained from Eq. (1), using fne instead of fy. Finally, when the three buckling modes (global,
local and distortional) occur simultaneously, the column strength is expected to be affected by the three buckling
stresses (fcre, fcrl, fcrd). Very recently, Dinis et al. [5, 6] started an investigation on the post-buckling behaviour and
ultimate strength of lipped channel columns experiencing L/D/G interaction, comprising both numerical
and experimental results – to the authors’ best knowledge, there are virtually no other studies available on this
subject. Following an approach similar to the previous ones, the ultimate strength of cold-formed steel columns
experiencing (triple) interaction between global (FT – flexural-torsional), local (L) and distortional (D)
buckling modes can be determined from the expression
f nde if λ lde ≤ 0.776

°° § f crl ·
0.4 ª §f ·
0.4 º f nde
f nlde =® where λ lde = , (7)
f ¨ ¸ «1 − 0.15¨ crl ¸ » if λ lde > 0.776 f crl
° nde ¨ f ¸ « ¨f ¸ »
°¯ © nde ¹ ¬ © nde ¹ ¼
where fnde is obtained from Eq. (6). The aim of this work is to assess the performance of these approaches in
estimating the ultimate strength of fixed lipped channel columns exhibiting nearly coincident global, local and
distortional buckling stresses, through the comparison with the numerical results obtained from shell finite element
analyses performed in the code ABAQUS [7].
2 COLUMN PROPERTIES, FE RESULTS AND DSM ESTIMATES

Since the existing DSM expressions were calibrated against experimental results concerning mostly
fixed columns (rigid plates attached to their end sections), it was decided to analyse also a set of fixed lipped
1062
channel columns with geometries (cross-section dimensions and lengths) that are highly prone to L/D/G
interaction. In order to estimate the ultimate strength of a given column the DSM requires the evaluation of its
local (fcrl), distortional (fcrd) and global (fcre) critical stresses. In fixed columns, it is well known that semi-
analytical finite strip analyses provide lower bounds for fcrl, fcrd and fcre − exact values can only be obtained
using either GBT or shell finite element (SFE) analyses. In this work, the SFE code ABAQUS [7] is used to
determine both the critical stresses (fcrl, fcrd, fcre) and the “exact” (numerical) ultimate strengths (fn) of the
columns experiencing L/D/G interaction.
The column cross-section dimensions and lengths were previously selected to ensure nearly coincident
critical stresses (fcre≈fcrl≈fcrd) and a wide range of (local, distortional and global) slenderness values, adopting
the following procedure: (i) the cross-section dimensions were first chosen, by a trial-and-error procedure, to
exhibit nearly coincident fcrl and fcrd values (equal minima), and (ii) the length was then selected to ensure that,
for this critical stress level, the column also buckles in a global (flexural-torsional) mode. The steel sheet
thickness is t=1.1 mm for all cross-sections and the column geometries obtained with this procedure are shown in
Table 1 − bw, bf, bs, L and A are the web height, flange width, lip width, column length and cross-section
area. These cross-section dimensions fall into the 46≤bw/t≤75, 36≤bf/t≤71, 9≤bs/t≤11, 1.0≤bw/bf≤1.4 and
0.15≤bs/bf≤0.25 ranges − since the current DSM limits for pre-qualified columns are bw/t<472, bf/t<159,
4<bl/t<33, 0.7<bw/bf<5.0 and 0.05<bl/bf<0.41, one readily notices that all columns satisfy the geometrical
requirements. Table 1 also displays the stress values corresponding to the first local (L), distortional (D) and
flexural-torsional (FT) buckling modes, obtained from SFE analyses (E=210×103 N/mm2, ν=0.3). With one
exception (column C4), the maximum difference between the first (fcr.1) and third (fcr.3) buckling stresses never
reaches 3%. The SFE column ultimate strength values were calculated by means of the following procedure:
(i) Columns C1 to C6: flexural-torsional initial geometrical imperfections with a very small amplitude
(L/2000) and six yield stress values (fy) were considered. Four of these values correspond to specific
column flexural-torsional slenderness values (λe=1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, with f y = λ2e f cre ) and the remaining
two are equal to fy=265 and 340 N/mm2. A total of 36 columns were analysed and Table 2 provides their
yield stresses and numerically obtained ultimate stresses (fu).
(ii) Columns C7 to C17: flexural-torsional initial geometrical imperfections with a small amplitude L/1000 and
seven yield stresses were considered, four of them corresponding to flexural-torsional slenderness values
λe=1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, and the remaining three equal to fy=235, 350 and 520 N/mm2. A total of 77 columns
were analysed and Tables 3.1 (C7-C11) and 3.2 (C12-C17) show their yield and ultimate stresses.
Table 1: Cross-section geometries and critical stress values (fcr)
Colum bw bf bs L A fcr.1 fcr.2 fcr.3
Mode Mode Mode
n (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2)
C1 60 42 10 1380 180.4 366.4 L 371.4 D 372.7 FT
C2 76 60 10 2360 237.6 194.8 D 195.4 FT 199.5 L
C3 62 50 10 1600 200.2 289.3 D 292.2 FT 304.0 L
C4 52 47 11 1200 184.8 388.2 D 392.1 FT 425.1 L
C5 71 60 11 2100 234.3 221.2 D 221.5 L 221.5 FT
C6 75 65 11 2370 249.7 190.4 D 191.9 FT 195.3 L
C7 51 40 10 1100 166.1 441.5 D 444.4 FT 444.5 L
C8 62 50 10 1600 200.2 292.0 FT 293.0 D 295.1 L
C9 69 55 10 1950 218.9 234.7 D 238.7 FT 240.8 L
C10 76 60 10 2350 237.6 194.9 D 195.8 FT 199.5 L
C11 82 65 10 2750 255.2 166.2 D 166.9 FT 170.4 L
C12 52 47 11 1200 184.8 386.1 D 390.5 FT 396.1 L
C13 62 55 11 1650 213.4 275.4 D 278.7 FT 281.7 L
C14 71 60 11 2100 234.3 221.2 D 221.5 L 221.6 FT
C15 75 65 11 2350 249.7 190.4 D 194.5 FT 195.3 L
C16 82 70 11 2800 268.4 161.4 D 162.4 FT 164.4 L
C17 81 78 12 2850 287.1 149.4 D 152.7 L 153.6 FT
1063
Table 2: Columns C1 to C6: yield (fy) and ultimate (fu) stresses and DSM estimates (fn) – N/mm2
Column fy fu fnd fnd/fu fne fne/fu fnle fnle/fu fnde fnde/fu fnlde fnlde/fu
C1-1.0 363 286 275 0.96 242 0.84 235 0.82 212 0.74 212 0.74
C1-1.5 818 329 430 1.31 326 0.99 288 0.88 257 0.78 245 0.75
C1-2.0 1454 337 570 1.69 327 0.97 288 0.86 258 0.76 245 0.73
C1-2.5 2272 355 702 1.98 327 0.92 288 0.81 258 0.73 245 0.69
C1-265 265 234 225 0.96 197 0.84 197 0.84 183 0.78 183 0.78
C1-340 340 275 264 0.96 232 0.84 228 0.83 206 0.75 206 0.75
C2-1.0 193 146 145 1.00 128 0.87 125 0.86 112 0.76 112 0.76
C2-1.5 435 169 227 1.34 171 1.01 153 0.91 135 0.80 130 0.77
C2-2.0 773 187 301 1.61 171 0.92 153 0.82 135 0.72 130 0.70
C2-2.5 1208 197 370 1.88 171 0.87 153 0.78 135 0.69 130 0.66
C2-265 265 161 175 1.08 150 0.93 140 0.87 124 0.77 123 0.76
C2-340 340 167 200 1.20 164 0.98 149 0.89 131 0.79 128 0.77
C3-1.0 287 220 216 0.98 190 0.86 188 0.85 166 0.75 166 0.75
C3-1.5 646 256 337 1.32 256 1.00 230 0.90 201 0.79 195 0.76
C3-2.0 1148 278 447 1.61 256 0.92 230 0.83 201 0.72 196 0.70
C3-2.5 1794 309 550 1.78 256 0.83 230 0.75 201 0.65 196 0.63
C3-265 265 211 206 0.97 181 0.86 181 0.86 161 0.76 161 0.76
C3-340 340 236 239 1.01 209 0.89 200 0.85 177 0.75 177 0.75
C4-1.0 385 297 290 0.98 255 0.86 255 0.86 223 0.75 223 0.75
C4-1.5 866 353 453 1.28 344 0.97 313 0.89 270 0.77 266 0.75
C4-2.0 1540 378 600 1.59 344 0.91 313 0.83 270 0.72 266 0.70
C4-2.5 2407 383 738 1.93 344 0.90 313 0.82 270 0.71 266 0.69
C4-265 265 233 228 0.98 200 0.86 200 0.86 187 0.80 187 0.80
C4-340 340 276 268 0.97 237 0.86 237 0.86 211 0.77 211 0.77
C5-1.0 219 165 165 1.00 145 0.88 141 0.86 127 0.77 127 0.77
C5-1.5 494 192 258 1.34 194 1.01 172 0.90 153 0.80 147 0.76
C5-2.0 878 199 342 1.72 194 0.98 172 0.87 153 0.77 147 0.74
C5-2.5 1372 204 421 2.06 194 0.95 172 0.85 153 0.75 147 0.72
C5-265 265 178 184 1.04 161 0.90 152 0.85 136 0.76 135 0.76
C5-340 340 186 212 1.14 179 0.96 163 0.88 145 0.78 142 0.76
C6-1.0 189 142 142 1.00 125 0.88 123 0.86 109 0.77 109 0.77
C6-1.5 425 165 222 1.35 168 1.02 150 0.91 132 0.80 128 0.77
C6-2.0 755 180 294 1.63 168 0.93 150 0.83 132 0.74 128 0.71
C6-2.5 1180 185 362 1.96 168 0.91 150 0.81 132 0.72 128 0.69
C6-265 265 158 173 1.09 149 0.94 138 0.87 122 0.77 121 0.77
C6-340 340 163 198 1.21 162 0.99 146 0.90 129 0.79 126 0.77
(iii) Columns C18 to C20: to enable a fruitful comparison between the above two column sets, the columns C1,
C4 and C6 (see Table 1) were also analysed with a flexural-torsional initial imperfection with amplitude
L/1000 (instead of L/2000). To avoid confusion with the previous columns, these three new columns are
labelled as C18, C19 and C20. The seven yield stresses described in the previous item (columns C7-17)
were considered, which corresponds to a total of 21 columns analysed − their yield and ultimate stresses
are given in Table 4.
The relations between the elastic modulus (E=210×103 N/mm2) and the adopted yield stress values fall into
the range 76 ≤ E/fy≤ 1405. Note that, since the current DSM limit for pre-qualified columns is E/fy >340, 48 out
of the 134 columns analysed do not satisfy this material requirement − nevertheless, these columns were
1064
considered, in order to cover high slenderness values. The above tables also include the DSM estimates,
namely (i) distortional (fnd − Eq. (3)), (ii) global (fne − Eq. (1)), (iii) local/global (fnle − Eq. (4)), (iv)
distortional/global (fnde − Eq. (6)) and (iv) local/distortional/global (fnlde − Eq. (7)) ultimate strengths, as
well as their ratios with respect to the numerical values (fu). Finally, Figure 1 shows the five DSM design curves
(distortional, global, local/global, distortional/global and local/distortional/global), as well as the variation of
the numerical (“exact”) fu/fy values with the global slenderness λe (note that λe≈λd≈λl) − the black circles,
white circles and grey triangles correspond to the C1-C6, C7-C17 and C18-C20 columns. The analysis of these
numerical and predicted results prompts the following remarks:
(i) Obviously, the DSM predictions decrease as one travels from the distortional (D) to the local/distortional/global
(LDG) design curves, following the order given above.
Table 3.1: Columns C7 to C11: yield (fy) and ultimate (fu) stresses and DSM estimates (fn) – N/mm2
C7-1.0 442 313 331 1.06 291 0.93 284 0.91 254 0.81 254 0.81
C7-1.5 993 382 517 1.35 390 1.02 346 0.91 307 0.80 294 0.77
C7-2.0 1766 411 685 1.67 390 0.95 346 0.84 307 0.75 294 0.72
C7-2.5 2759 423 842 1.99 390 0.92 346 0.82 307 0.73 294 0.69
C7-235 235 207 218 1.05 188 0.91 188 0.91 183 0.88 183 0.88
C7-350 355 277 289 1.04 254 0.92 254 0.92 231 0.83 231 0.83
C7-520 520 335 365 1.09 319 0.95 302 0.90 270 0.81 269 0.80
C8-1.0 293 200 220 1.10 193 0.96 188 0.94 168 0.84 168 0.84
C8-1.5 659 245 343 1.40 256 1.05 228 0.93 202 0.83 194 0.79
C8-2.0 1172 273 455 1.67 256 0.94 228 0.84 202 0.74 194 0.71
C8-2.5 1831 267 559 2.09 256 0.96 228 0.85 202 0.76 194 0.73
C8-235 235 178 192 1.08 168 0.94 168 0.94 153 0.86 153 0.86
C8-350 355 217 246 1.13 213 0.98 201 0.93 180 0.83 179 0.83
C8-520 520 236 303 1.29 247 1.05 222 0.94 198 0.84 191 0.81
C9-1.0 235 161 176 1.09 156 0.97 152 0.94 135 0.84 135 0.84
C9-1.5 528 200 275 1.37 209 1.05 186 0.93 164 0.82 158 0.79
C9-2.0 939 226 364 1.61 209 0.93 186 0.82 164 0.73 158 0.70
C9-2.5 1467 222 448 2.02 209 0.94 186 0.84 164 0.74 158 0.71
C9-235 235 162 176 1.09 156 0.96 152 0.94 135 0.84 135 0.84
C9-350 355 185 223 1.21 190 1.03 175 0.94 155 0.84 152 0.82
C9-520 520 200 273 1.36 209 1.04 186 0.93 164 0.82 158 0.79
C10-1.0 195 133 146 1.10 128 0.97 126 0.95 112 0.84 112 0.84
C10-1.5 439 166 228 1.37 172 1.03 153 0.92 135 0.82 130 0.79
C10-2.0 780 187 302 1.62 172 0.92 153 0.82 135 0.72 130 0.70
C10-2.5 1218 209 372 1.78 172 0.82 153 0.73 135 0.65 130 0.62
C10-235 235 143 163 1.14 142 0.99 135 0.94 120 0.84 120 0.84
C10-350 355 156 205 1.31 166 1.07 150 0.96 133 0.85 129 0.82
C10-520 520 173 249 1.44 172 0.99 153 0.89 135 0.78 130 0.75
C11-1.0 166 111 125 1.12 110 0.99 107 0.97 96 0.86 96 0.86
C11-1.5 374 136 195 1.43 146 1.08 131 0.96 115 0.85 111 0.82
C11-2.0 665 158 258 1.63 146 0.93 131 0.83 115 0.73 111 0.70
C11-2.5 1039 162 317 1.96 146 0.90 131 0.81 115 0.71 111 0.69
C11-235 235 127 152 1.20 130 1.03 121 0.95 107 0.84 106 0.83
C11-350 355 139 189 1.36 146 1.05 130 0.94 115 0.83 111 0.80
C11-520 520 152 229 1.51 146 0.96 131 0.86 115 0.76 111 0.73
1065
Table 3.2: Columns C12 to C17: yield (fy) and ultimate (fu) stresses and DSM estimates (fn) – N/mm2
C12-1.0 386 269 290 1.08 255 0.95 250 0.93 222 0.83 222 0.83
C12-1.5 869 336 452 1.35 342 1.02 305 0.91 269 0.80 259 0.77
C12-2.0 1544 365 599 1.64 342 0.94 305 0.84 269 0.74 259 0.71
C12-2.5 2413 388 737 1.90 342 0.88 305 0.79 269 0.69 259 0.67
C12-235 235 198 210 1.06 183 0.92 183 0.92 174 0.88 174 0.88
C12-350 355 257 275 1.07 243 0.94 241 0.94 215 0.84 215 0.84
C12-520 520 302 344 1.14 298 0.99 278 0.92 246 0.82 244 0.81
C13-1.0 275 187 207 1.10 182 0.97 178 0.95 159 0.85 159 0.85
C13-1.5 620 236 322 1.37 244 1.04 218 0.92 192 0.81 185 0.78
C13-2.0 1102 259 427 1.65 244 0.94 218 0.84 192 0.74 185 0.71
C13-2.5 1721 283 525 1.86 244 0.86 218 0.77 192 0.68 185 0.65
C13-235 235 171 187 1.10 165 0.97 165 0.97 148 0.87 148 0.87
C13-350 355 206 239 1.16 208 1.01 195 0.95 173 0.84 172 0.84
C13-520 520 226 294 1.30 238 1.05 214 0.95 189 0.84 183 0.81
C14-1.0 221 149 166 1.11 146 0.98 142 0.95 127 0.85 127 0.85
C14-1.5 498 186 259 1.39 194 1.05 172 0.93 153 0.82 147 0.79
C14-2.0 885 201 343 1.71 194 0.97 172 0.86 153 0.76 147 0.73
C14-2.5 1383 197 422 2.14 194 0.99 172 0.88 153 0.78 147 0.74
C14-235 235 153 172 1.12 151 0.99 145 0.95 130 0.85 130 0.85
C14-350 355 174 217 1.25 182 1.04 165 0.95 147 0.84 143 0.82
C14-520 520 188 265 1.41 194 1.03 172 0.92 153 0.82 147 0.78
C15-1.0 190 128 143 1.12 126 0.99 124 0.97 110 0.86 110 0.86
C15-1.5 428 163 223 1.37 170 1.05 151 0.93 133 0.82 128 0.79
C15-2.0 762 181 295 1.63 171 0.94 152 0.84 134 0.74 128 0.71
C15-2.5 1190 184 363 1.97 171 0.93 152 0.82 134 0.73 128 0.70
C15-235 235 140 161 1.15 142 1.01 134 0.95 119 0.85 118 0.85
C15-350 355 154 202 1.31 165 1.07 148 0.96 131 0.85 127 0.82
C15-520 520 170 246 1.44 171 1.00 152 0.89 134 0.79 128 0.75
C16-1.0 161 107 121 1.13 106 1.00 104 0.97 93 0.87 93 0.87
C16-1.5 363 137 189 1.38 142 1.04 127 0.93 112 0.82 108 0.79
C16-2.0 646 152 250 1.65 142 0.94 127 0.83 112 0.74 108 0.71
C16-2.5 1009 170 308 1.81 142 0.84 127 0.75 112 0.66 108 0.63
C16-235 235 123 150 1.22 128 1.04 118 0.96 105 0.85 103 0.84
C16-350 355 154 187 1.21 142 0.92 127 0.82 112 0.73 108 0.70
C16-520 520 170 226 1.33 142 0.84 127 0.75 112 0.66 108 0.63
C17-1.0 149 98,5 112 1.14 99 1.01 97 0.99 86 0.88 86 0.88
C17-1.5 336 128 175 1.37 135 1.05 119 0.93 105 0.82 101 0.79
C17-2.0 598 145 232 1.60 135 0.93 119 0.82 105 0.73 101 0.70
C17-2.5 934 158 285 1.80 135 0.85 119 0.76 105 0.67 101 0.64
C17-235 235 115 145 1.26 124 1.08 113 0.98 100 0.87 97 0.85
C17-350 355 129 180 1.39 135 1.04 119 0.92 105 0.82 101 0.78
C17-520 520 139 217 1.56 135 0.97 119 0.86 105 0.76 101 0.73
(ii) The distortional DSM estimates are generally very unsafe and highly scattered − the fnd/fu values have average
and standard deviation equal to 1.37 and 0.32. Only a few C18-C20 columns with low slenderness have
fu/fy values lying above the DSM distortional curve.
(iii) The global DSM predictions are generally quite accurate and exhibit a rather low scatter − the fne/fu values have
1066
Table 4: Columns C18 to C20: yield (fy) and ultimate (fu) stresses and DSM estimates (fn) – N/mm2
C18-1.0 378 264 281 1.07 247 0.94 239 0.90 215 0.81 215 0.81
C18-1.5 850 317 439 1.38 327 1.03 288 0.91 258 0.81 245 0.77
C18-2.0 1512 336 581 1.73 327 0.97 288 0.86 258 0.77 245 0.73
C18-2.5 2362 336 714 2.13 327 0.97 288 0.86 258 0.77 245 0.73
C18-235 235 199 208 1.04 180 0.91 180 0.91 171 0.86 171 0.86
C18-350 355 256 271 1.06 238 0.93 233 0.91 210 0.82 210 0.82
C18-520 520 294 338 1.15 290 0.99 266 0.90 239 0.81 233 0.79
C19-1.0 388 268 291 1.09 257 0.96 256 0.96 223 0.83 223 0.83
C19-1.5 873 343 454 1.32 344 1.00 313 0.91 270 0.79 266 0.77
C19-2.0 1553 376 602 1.60 344 0.91 313 0.83 270 0.72 266 0.71
C19-2.5 2426 384 741 1.93 344 0.90 313 0.82 270 0.70 266 0.69
C19-235 235 199 210 1.06 183 0.92 183 0.92 174 0.88 174 0.88
C19-350 355 257 276 1.07 243 0.95 243 0.95 215 0.84 215 0.84
C19-520 520 302 345 1.14 298 0.99 284 0.94 247 0.82 247 0.82
C20-1.0 190 127 143 1.12 126 0.99 123 0.97 110 0.86 110 0.86
C20-1.5 428 162 223 1.38 168 1.04 150 0.93 132 0.82 128 0.79
C20-2.0 762 179 295 1.65 168 0.94 150 0.84 132 0.74 128 0.71
C20-2.5 1190 201 363 1.81 168 0.84 150 0.75 132 0.66 128 0.63
C20-235 235 139 161 1.16 141 1.01 133 0.96 118 0.85 118 0.85
C20-350 355 153 202 1.32 164 1.07 147 0.96 130 0.85 126 0.82
C20-520 520 169 246 1.45 168 1.00 150 0.89 132 0.78 128 0.75
1.0
SFE results
0.8 D curve – Eq. (3) C1-C6 columns

C7-C17 columns
G curve – Eq. (1) C18-C20 columns
0.6
Ultimatestress
Yield stress
0.4 LG curve – Eq. (4)
DG curve – Eq. (6)

0.2
LDG curve – Eq. (7)
0.0 λe
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Figure 1: DSM design curves and variation of numerical fu/fy values with the global slenderness λe
average and standard deviation equal to 0.96 and 0.06. Almost all of the unsafe estimates correspond to
columns with moderate slenderness (1.0<λe1.5).
(iv) All DSM estimates associated with interactive failure (LG, DG and LDG) are safe and exhibit the same low
scatter (0.06 standard deviation). However, they are increasingly less accurate (overly conservative) − the
averages of the fnle/fu, fnde/fu and fnlde/fu values are equal to 0.89, 0.79 and 0.77.
(v) The DSM global estimate ratios fne/fu are (v1) less accurate (slightly safer) for the C1-6 columns (0.92 average
and 0.06 standard deviation) and (v2) more accurate (and still safe) for the C7-17 columns (0.98 average and
0.06 standard deviation). The C18-20 columns are in an intermediate situation (0.96 average and 0.05
standard deviation).
1067
(vi) The DSM local/distortional/global curve is clearly too conservative, even when fy is much higher than
fcrl≈fcrd≈fcre and there is enough room for elastic coupling effects to develop before yielding causes the column
failure. This is due to the fact that the small (almost negligible) global post-buckling strength governs the
column behaviour collapse, which precludes the occurrence of a meaningful interaction between the
global buckling mode and the local and/or distortional buckling modes.
(vii) Figure 1 shows that the numerical values correlate fairly well with (ii1) the DSM global curve, for λe>1.5
(high slenderness), and (ii2) the DSM local/global interactive curve, for 1.0<λe1.5 (moderate
slenderness). In the low slenderness range (λe1.0), the fu/fy values lie well above DSM global curve and,
moreover, they approach the DSM distortional curve as λe decreases.
(viii) Recalling that 12 C1-6 and C18-20 columns only differ in the initial imperfection amplitude (L/2000
vs. L/1000), the comparison between the corresponding fne/fu values makes it possible to assess how
imperfection-sensitive are the DSM estimates. The maximum percentage difference between the two sets of
fne/fu values is equal to 11.0% and occurs for C1-1.0/C18-1.0, C4-1.0/C19-1.0 and C6-1.0/C20-1.0,
which means that the DSM estimates are more imperfection-sensitive for columns with low
slenderness (λe1.0). This can be confirmed by looking at Figure 1, where the black circles and grey
triangles are slightly more apart in the low slenderness range.
(ix) There was also good numerical/DSM agreement for the 48 columns not satisfying E/fy >340 (high slenderness).
This preliminary study indicates that this requirement may be too restrictive for high strength steels.
3 CONCLUSION
A numerical (shell finite element) investigation on the ultimate strength and DSM design of fixed lipped channel
columns experiencing local/distortional/global interaction was reported. A total of 134 columns were analysed, all
exhibiting nearly coincident L, D and G buckling stresses, containing low or moderate imperfections and displaying a
wide range of slenderness values. The following aspects deserve to be highlighted:
(i) For the imperfections considered (global with L/1000 or L/2000 amplitudes), good (always safe and fairly
economic) ultimate stress predictions are provided by the DSM local/global design curve. However, for λe<1.0
(stocky columns), these predictions are overly conservative and the DSM global curve becomes a better choice.
(i) Although the DSM local/distortional/global design curve yields excessively conservative estimates, it should be
noted the consideration of higher (probably “more realistic”) imperfection amplitudes will inevitably lower the
column ultimate strengths, thus bringing the numerical results closer to this design curve.
Finally, the authors recognise that experimental investigations are crucial to confirm and/or improve the findings
presented in this study. In this context, fixed lipped channel column experimental tests were recently performed [6]
and further tests are currently under way, as reported in another paper included in these Proceedings.
REFERENCES
[1] Schafer BW, “Local, distortional and Euler buckling in thin-walled columns. Journal of Structural Engineering
(ASCE), 128(3), 289-299, 2002.
[2] Yang D., Hancock G.J., “Compression tests of high strength steel channel columns with interaction between
local and distortional buckling”, Journal of Structural Engineering (ASCE), 130(12):1954-1963, 2004.
[3] Silvestre N, Camotim D, Dinis PB, “Direct strength prediction of lipped channel columns experiencing local-
plate/distortional interaction”, International Journal of Advanced Steel Construction, 5(1):49-71, 2009.
[4] Kwon YB, Kim BS, Hancock GJ, “Compression tests of high strength cold-formed steel channels with buckling
interaction”, Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 65(2):278-289, 2009.
[5] Dinis PB, Camotim D, “Local/distortional/global buckling mode interaction in cold-formed steel lipped channel
columns”, Proceedings of SSRC Annual Stability Conference (Phoenix, 1-4/4), 295-323, 2009.
[6] Dinis PB, Camotim D, Batista E, Santos E, “Local/distortional/global mode coupling in fixed lipped channel
columns: behaviour and strength”, Proceedings of 6th International Conference on Advances in Steel
Structures (ICASS’09 − Hong Kong, 16-18/12), SL Chan (ed.), 19-34, 2009.
[7] DS Simulia Inc. ABAQUS Standard (version 6.7), 2007.
1068
BRACING STIFFNESS AND STRENGTH IN

SHEATHED COLD-FORMED STEEL STUD WALLS
Luiz C. M. Vieira Jr.* and Benjamin W. Schafer*
* Johns Hopkins University

e-mail: luizvieirajr@gmail.com and schafer@jhu.edu
Keywords: cold-formed steel, wall stud, sheathing, translational stiffness, diaphragm stiffness
Abstract. The objective of this paper is to provide the stiffness and strength characteristics for cold-
formed steel stud walls stabilized by sheathing. The primary stability resistance is provided by
translational (lateral) stiffness supplied at fastener locations along the cold-formed steel studs. This
translational stiffness has two parts: local and diaphragm. To analyze the local stiffness, an experimental
study consisting of small-scale stud-fastener-sheathing assemblies is conducted. Results are sensitive to
the design variables (stud, fastener, sheathing, spacing) as well as the environmental and construction
conditions. A simple analytical model for the translational stiffness supplied by the sheathing diaphragm
action is proposed and validated. The importance of including both local and diaphragm stiffness is
illustrated with a test on a full-scale cold-formed steel stud wall. This paper provides a comprehensive
bracing model for sheathing-braced stud walls that includes both local and diaphragm stiffnesses.
1 INTRODUCTION
This work is part of a larger investigation on walls framed from cold-formed steel studs, Figure 1. A
potentially efficient solution to the bracing of the studs in a wall is to utilize the attached sheathing
(Figure 1b), as opposed to bridging and blocking (Figure 1a). The sheathing is generally composed of
OSB, plywood and/or gypsum board. The connection between the stud and the sheathing is made at
regular intervals by fasteners, typically self-drilling screws. The fastener-sheathing system braces the
cold-formed steel studs; as such the stiffness and strength of this system is of interest for characterizing its
role as a brace.
2 BACKGROUND
Since at least the 1940s, the additional resistance supplied to a cold-formed steel stud due to its
connection to sheathing has intrigued researchers and designers. The connection stiffness is typically
divided into two parts: rotational and translational (Figure 1d). The rotational stiffness (kφ) is engaged
when the stud flange tries to rotate against the sheathing, causing an axial force in the fastener and a
compression force at the stud flange edge in contact with the sheathing (creating a moment couple
resisting further rotation) [1]. The translational stiffness (k, Figure 1c,d), which is the focus of this paper,
is engaged when the stud flange tries to translate (shear) relative to the sheathing resulting primarily in
bearing resistance at the fastener location supported by diaphragm resistance of the sheathing as a whole.
1069
Figure 1 – Stud bracing, practice and models
In 1947 George Winter, with his students and colleagues, was the first to formalize the increase of
stud capacity due to its connection to sheathing in cold-formed steel studs [2]. In 1962 the AISI
Specification [3] incorporated the design method of [2] which Winter expanded in [4]. The approach
focused on flexural buckling of the studs, and a companion experimental method for determining the
lateral (translational) stiffness (k) of the connector and sheathing. The approach is known as Winter’s
method, or the local method, and the testing reported herein is motivated strongly by this early work.
In 1976 an alternative to Winter’s method was developed by Simaan and Peköz that considered the
sheathing as a shear diaphragm both analytically and in terms of the proposed testing [5]. This method
was ultimately adopted by the AISI Specification in 1980, and then later abandoned by the AISI
Specification in 2004. As reported in [6] comparisons between Winter’s local test results and Simaan and
Peköz’s more involved diaphragm tests are possible, and the differences in stiffness are found to be
relatively small. This is explained by the fact that the major contributor to the diaphragm stiffness is local
deformations at the fasteners, well captured in Winter’s simple shear test.
Recently their has been renewed interest in Winter’s method and the related testing; including tests on
gypsum board sheathing [7] and cyclic loading with a variety of sheathing conditions [8] and [9]. The
bulk of available data has been compiled in [6]. Recent tests, conducted by the authors and provided in a
test report [10] are, in part, the subject of this paper.
3 LOCAL MODEL FOR TRANSLATIONAL STIFFNESS AND STRENGTH

3.1 Test setup
Winter’s method for determining the translational stiffness of a stud-sheathing assembly employs a
simple symmetrical shear test, as illustrated in Figure 2. Two sections of studs are connected by identical
sheathing on both sides and then pulled laterally (perpendicular to the long direction of the studs), such
that shear must develop in each of the fasteners to resolve the applied tension. In the testing reported here
to minimize bending of the studs under the applied force the stud webs are “sandwiched” between 5/16
in. thick steel plate and two angles ¼ in. thick, bolted together at 10 locations along the length of the stud
(see Figure 2.c section A-A). The plate is attached to two hot-rolled 1½ by 1½ by ¼ in. angles that are
then bolted to a larger structural WT section (WT 11 x 9) which connects to the actuators in the universal
test frame. A 100 kip MTS actuator with 6 in. stroke is utilized to apply the loads.
The studs used in the test are 362S162-68’s ([11]) throughout. This is the same stud utilized in a
larger experimental project on sheathed walls ([12]). The stud spacing, w, fastener spacing, s, and edge
distance, e, are varied in the testing. Two types of sheathing are employed: OSB (7/16 in., rated 24/16,
1070
1071
The lateral support supplied by a connecter-sheathing assembly with dry OSB has greater initial
stiffness and ultimate strength than one with humid (saturated) OSB. The cases with humid (saturated)
OSB show an average percent reduction of 22% in stiffness and 47% in strength. Under normal
conditions the gypsum board has a significant initial stiffness and is able to carry 85.9 lb/fastener. In the
humid or dry condition the gypsum board suffers significant stiffness loss and is only able to sustain
about ¼ the fastener capacity. Given the low deformation capacity as well, in the dry or humid condition
the gypsum board essentially ceases to behave as a structural material. The substantial variation of
gypsum board to environmental conditions means its structural properties must be treated with great care
in design.
For the studied fastener spacing, neither the initial stiffness nor the strength varied significantly as a
function of fastener spacing. This strongly suggests that the developed deformations and failure
mechanisms are local to the fastener. During installation it is possible that the fastener will be overdriven,
aware of this possibility a series of tests were conducted with fasteners intentionally overdriven by a
uniform 1/8 in.. Overdriving the fasteners increases the initial stiffness (32% on average), but at a cost,
the strength and deformation capacity decrease (29 and 45% on average, respectively).
From the standpoint of providing bracing for a wall, the increased stiffness is likely beneficial enough
(higher stiffness actually lowers the needed bracing forces) to outweigh the decreased capacity, and one is
likely to find that over-driving has little impact. However, for a shear wall or other situation where the
strength of the fasteners limits the capacity, the increased stiffness only drives more load to the fastener,
and the precipitous loss in capacity means it fails earlier. The impact of overdriving the fastener thus
depends significantly on the controlling limit state.
The influence of overdriven fasteners was also studied in specimens sheathed with gypsum board. At
first glance the conclusions are the same as in the OSB: overdriving increases the stiffness, but decreases
the strength and deformation capacity. Indeed this is true, but the strength available in the overdriven case
may be as little at 67 lb/fastener or less. It is not clear if this is generally adequate for providing bracing
resistance; further study is required to determine if the available strength of overdriven fasteners is
sufficient in an actual wall. Similarly, the deformation capacity is reduced down to a range that may make
it difficult for the fastener to provide bracing under any meaningful deformations of the stud.
4 DIAPHRAGM MODEL FOR TRANSLATIONAL STIFFNESS

Consider a wall where the studs are buckling in global flexural buckling, as illustrated in Figure 4. If
the sheathing deforms in a manner compatible with the flexural buckling it undergoes predominately a
shear demand. That is, the sheathing must behave like a shear diaphragm. Simaan and Peköz [5]
postulated that this shear deformation of the panel is the key component of bracing resistance that the
sheathing supplied to the studs. This observation was used in an energy solution for the stability of the
cold-formed steel studs that included the energy from the shear diaphragm (driven by the shear modulus
of the sheathing material) and was utilized from 1980-2004 in the AISI Specification.
The Simaan and Peköz analytical model ignored (simplified) the fact that the shear diaphragm must
be resolved through the fasteners and only included flexibility from the diaphragm (the sheathing) itself.
However, they partially resolved this issue by employing a test method for determining the diaphragm
stiffness. The test method, depicted in Figure x, requires forcing a large panel into simple shear and
measuring the panel distortion. Since the panel must be connected to a testing rig the local fastener
deformations are thus included in determination of the panel shear stiffness. Recent comparisons show
that these tests primarily are controlled by local fastener stiffness, as the local stiffness resulting in these
tests is similar to that from Winter’s tests [6]. The goal here is to isolate the shear diaphragm stiffness
from the local stiffness so that both may be considered independently. And determine the stiffness the
shear diaphragm (independent of the local fastener stiffness) supplies to the stud at each fastener location.
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Figure 4 – Plate model
4.1 Analytical model for diaphragm stiffness

Consider again the sheathed wall under flexural buckling of Figure 4. The lateral deformation, u, is:
u = sin(πy / L ) (1)
The stiffness at a fastener location is the force at the fastener, developed from an integration of the
shear stress over the tributary area of the fastener, divided by the deformation, u, at the fastener location.
Determination of the shear stresses in the sheathing may be understood as if the sheathing has a low shear
modulus or the sheathing panel is wide and short, all of which are commonly the case, then the stresses
are controlled by shear deflections consistent with diaphragm action
Thus, the shear stress at any point is simply
τ = Gθ (2)
From the free body diagram of Figure 4,the force in the fasteners, Ff, at height yf, with fasteners spaced df
apart for sheathing of width, b, thickness, t, bracing n studs, is
nF f = τ ( y f + 12 d f )bt − τ ( y f − 12 d f )bt (3)
where the parentheses indicate the height at which τ is determined. The stiffness at the fastener location is
simply
kd = F f / u f (4)
where uf is the deformation u at height yf (the fastener location). Noting θ = du/dy, then Eq. (1) may be
differentiated and substituted into Eq. (2), then τ of Eq. (3) may be evaluated at the appropriate locations,
and substituted into Eq. (4), leading after simplification to:
2πGbt § πd f · π Gbtd f
2
kd = sin¨ ¸≅ (5)
Ln © 2L ¹ L2 n
4.2 Finite element comparison of diaphragm stiffness

Physical testing of the diaphragm stiffness does not typically provide a meaningful comparison to kd,
because isolation of kd from the local fastener stiffness is difficult to impossible in conventionally detailed
sheathed walls. To provide examination of the derived expressions a finite element model of a panel
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undergoing a half sine-wave deformation (i.e., Figure 4) is completed in ABAQUS [13]. The model
consists of a plate, 96 in. x 96 in., modeled using linear four-node shell elements (S4R) elements. The
boundary conditions are consistent with Figure 4 and include a sine curve applied at every inch in the y
direction on both edges (right and left). Assuming 7/16’’ OSB, the panel material is modeled as
orthotropic with a Young’s modulus of 900 ksi [14]. The shear modulus, G, is systematically varied;
however, note, the recommended value of G is 45 ksi [14] and for an isotropic homogenous material with
ν=0.3, G would be 346 ksi. The developed diaphragm fastener stiffness in the FE model (kdFE) is
compared to kd in Figure 5. At G = 45 ksi, kdFE = kd ; thus direct use of kd is reasonable for practical
situations. At G = 346 ksi, kdFE ~ kd; thus kd is sufficiently accurate up to the isotropic limit.
Figure 5 – Diaphragm stiffness compared with FE Figure 6 – Limitation of tributary area for kd
4.3 Multiple studs with fasteners differently spaced

Generalization of Eq. (5) is needed because fastener spacing may not be uniform; in particular, the
boundary studs are commonly at a tighter fastener spacing than the studs in the field of the board. It is
proposed that the tributary area for each fastener be employed, therefore b/n of Eq. (5) is replaced by wtf,
the fastener tributary width, and df is the fastener spacing, and may vary:
2πGtw tf § πd f · π 2Gtd f w tf
kd = sin¨ ¸≅ (6)
L © 2L ¹ L2
The model of the previous section is exercised to explore the validity of Eq. (6). The edge fastener
spacing is 1 in., and the field fastener spacing is varied from 1 in. to 48 in., results are provided in Figure
6. The fastener stiffness is consistent with the tributary area, up to tributary areas in the field that are 6 x
greater than the edge tributary area. As the distance between fasteners in the field is increased over this
limit the edge fasteners act as if there were no fasteners in the field and the stiffness goes back to the case
of only being connected at the edges. The observed limitation is not a practical problem since the relation
between tributary areas is typically no greater than 4 x (e.g., 6 in. on the edge, 12 in. in the field).
5 FULL SCALE TEST

As reported in [12] the authors tested 8 ft by 8 ft cold-formed steel stud walls comprised of five
362S162-68 (50 ksi) studs spaced 24 in. o.c. and 362T125-68 (50 ksi) track in compression. Without
bridging, blocking, or sheathing the walls fail in global flexural buckling at a load of 56.33 kips. When
sheathed with OSB on both sides the walls fail in local buckling at a load of 109.55 kips. The enormous
1074
difference shows the positive benefit of the sheathing, both in terms of increasing the strength and
limiting global buckling failure modes.
Winter’s model assumes that the critical bracing stiffness and strength that sheathing supplies to the
stud is derived at the fastener location in direct shear. In essence, arguing that only local deformations
must be understood to design the brace. Recently, as part of the larger testing program on full-scale
sheathing braced walls [12] the authors put this hypothesis to the test. Instead of sheathing with full
boards, OSB strips (2 in. wide) were connected to the studs, see Figure 7a. The use of strips negates the
shear diaphragm resistance (i.e., kd). The wall failed in flexural buckling at 69.53 kips, supplying only the
local fastener stiffness provided a small increase in axial capacity, but no change in limit state. Thus,
providing evidence that sheathing bracing derives from both the local and diaphragm resistance.
Figure 7 – Effectiveness of strips compared to Bare-Bare and OSB-OSB
6 COMBINED LOCAL AND DIAPHRAGM MODEL

Sheathing provides bracing to studs. Characterization of this bracing has proven historically difficult,
in part because the two competing models for the explanation of the bracing: local and diaphragm, draw
such different conclusions on the behavior. For example, diaphragm stiffness is influenced strongly by the
stud spacing and the fastener spacing; while the local stiffness is not. Full-scale testing has provided, what
to date was considered contradictory evidence, sometimes indicating these variables are important
sometimes not. However, if one realizes that the local stiffness is in series with the diaphragm stiffness
then the explanation becomes clear. If local stiffness is low enough (and just as importantly diaphragm
stiffness high enough) one will only see the local stiffness in the response and stud and fastener spacing
will be largely irrelevant. Conversely, if local stiffness is high enough, say for example from a welded
specimen with a steel sheet (and diaphragm stiffness low enough) then only the diaphragm stiffness will
be important and stud spacing will be enormously important. Mathematically this may be handled by
realizing k of Figure 1 may be approximated as
−1
§1 1·
k=¨ + ¸ (7)
© l
k kd ¹
where kl is determined experimentally, and kd utilizes Eq. 5 or 6. For bracing strength the local model
(and its associated testing) includes the most critical strength limiting failure modes: bearing, tilting, edge
pull-out, and screw shear. Failure of the sheathing itself, in shear, and not at the connector location is
possible (e.g. in a shear wall), but is generally not an expected failure mode for sheathing only acting as
bracing. Thus, the testing for k" also may be used to determine the bracing strength along with the
Specification equations [15].
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7 FUTURE WORK
The developed bracing model is currently being compared with existing full-scale tests. An extensive
finite element study, where the bracing performance can be varied to illustrate the concepts herein is
underway. Extension to studs undergoing flexural-torsional buckling has begun. Development of a
comprehensive design approach for sheathing braced design is the ultimate objective of this work.
8 CONCLUSIONS
Sheathing may provide adequate bracing for axial load bearing cold-formed steel stud walls. The
sheathing may be considered to “brace” the studs at fastener locations. The sheathing bracing derives
from both local fastener deformations and global shear diaphragm behavior. Experiments on the local
fastener stiffness (and strength) indicate the relative stiffness and strength difference between fasteners
attached to studs through OSB and gypsum. The sensitivity, particularly of gypsum, to environmental and
installation conditions is illustrated in the local fastener testing. Analytical formulae are provided and
verified for the shear diaphragm stiffness. A full-scale wall test using strips of OSB sheathing instead of a
full OSB board is completed to demonstrate that the sheathing bracing derives from both the local and
diaphragm stiffness, not just the local stiffness (or the diaphragm stiffness) as had been classically
assumed. A combined bracing model whereby the local and diaphragm bracing are treated as two springs
in series is proposed for modeling sheathing-braced studs.
9 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are indebted to AISI (American Iron and Steel Institute) for the grants awarded, Simpson
Strong-Tie for the fasteners donated, and Nickolay Logvinovsky for all the help during the lab tests.
REFERENCES
[1] Schafer, B.W., Vieira Jr, L. C. M., Sangree, R.H., Guan Y. (2010). “Rotational Restraint and Distortional
Buckling in Cold-formed Steel Framing Systems” Revista Sul-Americana de Engenharia Estrutural (In press)
[2] Green, G. G.,Winter, G., Cuykendall, T.R. (1947). “Light Gage Steel Columns in Wall-Braced Panels”
Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, Engineering Experimental Station, Bulletin Number 35, Part 2.
[3] AISI (1962). Light Gage Cold-Formed Steel Design Manual. American Iron and Steel Institute, New York,
NY (now Washington, D.C.)
[4] Winter, G. (1960). “Lateral Bracing of Beams and Columns.” ASCE Transactions, Paper No. 3044, per
footnote “published in 1958 in the Journal of the Structural Division”.
[5] Simaan, A., Peköz, T. (1976). “Diaphragm Braced Members and Design of Wall Studs.” ASCE, Journal of
the Structural Division, 102 (ST1) 77-92.
[6] Iourio, O., Schafer, B.W. (2008). “Report: Compilation of k values” http://www.ce.jhu.edu/bschafer/
[7] Miller, T., Peköz, T. (1994). “Behavior of Gypsum-Sheathed Cold-Formed Steel Wall Studs.” ASCE,
Journal of Structural Engineering. 120 (5) 1644-1650.
[8] Fiorino, L., Della Corte, G., Landolfo, R. (2006). “Experimental tests on typical screw connections for cold-
formed steel housing.” Eng. Struct. Elsevier Science. Vol. 29, No. 8, pp. 1761–1773.
[9] Okasha, A.F. (2004), Performance of steel frame/wood sheathing screw connections subjected to monotonic
and cyclic loading, MSc. Thesis, McGill University, Montreal.
[10] Vieira Jr, L. C. M., Schafer, B.W. (2009). Report: “Experimental Results for Translational Stiffness of Stud-
Sheathing Assemblies”, website: http://www.ce.jhu.edu/bschafer/
[11] SSMA. (2001). "Product Technical Information, ICBO ER-4943P." Steel Stud Manufacturers Association.
[12] Vieira Jr, L. C. M., Schafer, B.W. (2009). Report: “Full-scale testing of sheathed cold-formed steel wall stud
systems in axial compression”, website: http://www.ce.jhu.edu/bschafer/
[13] ABAQUS. (2007). "ABAQUS/Standard Version 6.7-1.", Dassault Systemes, http://www.simulia.com/.
[14] APA (1997) “Panel Design Specification”, APA – The Engineered Wood Association.
[15] AISI-S100. (2007). North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members,
American Iron and Steel Institute, Washington, D.C.
1076
SHEAR BEHAVIOUR OF TRAPEZOIDAL SHEETING WITHOUT SHEAR

PANEL CONSTRUCTION
J. Lindner*, F. Seidel**
* Consulting Engineer, formerly : Technical University of Berlin, Department of Steel Structures

**Consulting Engineer
e-mails: j.lindner-berlin@t-online.de, Seidel-f@web.de
Keywords: Steel Structures, Trapezoidal Sheeting, Shear Stiffness, Stability, Lateral Torsional
Buckling, Full Scale Tests, Finite Element Model, Screws.
Abstract. The stiffening effect of trapezoidal sheeting had been used for a long period of time. If
according to the present state of standardization the shear stiffness S is considered the construction of a
shear panel is necessary. Therefore all four edges of the trapezoidal sheeting must be connected to the
substructure. That might cause difficulties in construction especially in industrial buildings where main
beams and secondary beams are often not present at the same height level. This paper deals with the
problem that the trapezoidal sheeting is connected only at two edges with their substructure, e.g. ,-
beams. Full scale tests were carried out on the basis of which a finite element model was developed.
Extensive parameter studies using this model delivered parameters for a simplified strut model leading
to the stiffening effect of a special shear stiffness S. This stiffness S may be incorporated in a calculation
to show sufficient safety against lateral torsional buckling.
1 INTRODUCTION
I-beams may be subjected to lateral torsional buckling where lateral deflections and twisting occur,
figure 1. But unsupported beams as usually assumed in codes are very rare in practice. Therefore the
unfavourable effect of this stability problem can be minimized by taking into account the positive effects
of constructional details. In roof or wall structures trapezoidal steel sheeting often occurs and can be used
as stiffening structural element. Hereby the stiffening is given by two effects : the rotational spring
stiffness c- and the shear stiffness S [1] - [3]. But if the shear stiffness S is taken into account as
stiffening action the construction of a shear panel is necessary according to the present state of
standardization. Therefore all four edges of the trapezoidal sheeting must be connected to the
substructure. In the following a solution is presented in case the trapezoidal sheeting is connected only at
two edges with their substructure.
Figure 1: Lateral torsional buckling of beams: a) laterally unsupported, b) laterally supported
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Twelve full scale tests were carried out on two types of trapezoidal steel sheetings using different
kinds of fasteners. Based on the measurements and results a finite element model was developed and
calibrated on the test result. The calculations show excellent agreement with the experimental results,
allowing the use of this FE model for extensive parameter studies. In order to cover a broad spectrum of
possible systems in practice the following parameters were varied : type of trapezoidal sheeting, sheet
thickness, profile length, length and bending stiffness of the beam to be stiffened, stiffness of the
fasteners at the connection to the beam and the connections between the sheetings itself.
2 BASIS CONSIDERATIONS
2.1 Shear stiffness under the assumption of a shear panel

Analytical solutions were presented e.g. by Schardt and Strehl [4] and Davies, Bryan, Lawson,
Baehre leading to the European recommendations [5]. The first method is especially used in Germany
and takes into account bending within the cross section, torsion of the panels, stressing by shear and
warping of the end sections. Internationally more important is method [5] because the influence of the
fasteners are also accounted for. In [6] the different methods were compared. The solution of Strehl [4],
[11] is later used as reference solution because for a great number of trapezoidal profiles the shear
stiffness S can numerically calculated in a simple way.
2.2 Connectors
Different types of connectors may be used in practical applications. Each of them have a special
nonlinear load-deflection behaviour as shown in figure 2. Fore simplification the straight lines proposed
by ECCS may be used. It must be kept in mind that the curves depend also on the thickness of the
sheeting as well as on the type of trapezoidal profiles investigated.
Figure 2: Example for load-deflection curves for different kinds of fasteners, a thickness of sheeting tN =
0.75 mm and a profile 39/183 mm [8]
3 TEST RESULTS
3.1 General
Full scale tests were carried out in order to achieve information about the load carrying behaviour of
trapezoidal steel sheets fastened at two edges. The investigated roof construction consists of different
elements. Therefore many combinations of these elements are possible. Within the tests the following
components were used .
- trapezoidal sheeting Arcelor HSA 39/183, tN = 0.75 mm and UB 85/280, tN = 0.75 mm
- sheet/member fasteners : shot fired pins Hilti ENP 19L15, self drilling screws EJOT-JT2-8-5,5-
V16, seam fasteners : steel blind rivets EJOT 4,8
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In order to get sufficient interpretation of the test it is also neccessary to make tests on components
such as
- tension tests on samples cut from the trapezoidal sheeting which show a linear elastic – ideal
plastic behaviour, leading to a characteristic strength of fy,k = 390 N/mm2 and a Youngs modulus
of E = 195000 N/mm2
- shear tests on the fasteners mentioned before following mainly the test set up according to [5]. In
all cases the stiffness is higher as proposed by ECCS and the deflection capacity is higher than
0.5 mm, see figure 2.
3.2 Full scale tests

The tests should show the stiffening effect of trapezoidal sheeting connected to beams at two edges
only. In real constructions the beams may be open sections like IPE which tend to fail by lateral torsional
buckling. In this failure state lateral forces occur which are distributed approximately parabolic or
sinusoidal. Therefore a frame was constructed, see figure 3 b), where the sheeting is connected to two
main beams consisting of a cross section U180 with an additional plate t = 3 mm leading to a hollow
section, see figure 3. Both main beams are connected horizontally to each other. The parabolic
distribution of the lateral forces are simulated by three lateral point loads, where also the deformations
are measured.
Figure 3: Test setup, a) : shear panel construction, stressed by shear, at 4 edges connected to substructure,
b) beam construction, stressed by transverse forces, at 2 edges connected to substructure
This test setup differs from that which is usually used if the shear deformation J of a four sided
hinged frame is determined which becomes deformed to a parallelogram, see figure 3 a), [7]. This is the
basis for determining the shear stiffness S of a shear panel.
12 tests were carried out, details see [8]. Load-deflection curves were measured, both without and
with trapezoidal sheets. Because the trapezoidal sheets were used more than once different stick out
beyond the support lines were accounted for.
4 DESCRIPTION AND VERIFICATION OF A FINIT ELEMENT MODEL

The FE model should take into account all important parameters for this problem, which are:
dimension of the whole construction, geometry (height, thickness,..) of trapezoidal sheeting, material,
number of panels and number of joints, seam fasteners and their distance, type and number of member
fasteners, dimension and material of the beams, support and loading conditions.
The program system Ansys 10.0 [9] taking into account different types of elements (SHELL93,
SHELL43, COMBIN39) is used. In order to verify the FE model different methods were used :
a) recalculations of tests :
- the 12 tests described in chapter 3.2 where the trapezoidal sheet was supported at two edges
only,
- 2 shear penal tests of Dürr [7], one with supports at two edges, one with supports at four edges,
- 6 shear penal tests of Walter [10] using different types of fasteners.
1079
In all these cases excellent or at least good agreement with the experimental load-deflection curves
are recognized.
b) comparison of theoretical values :
- analytical values for the shear stiffness S using the method of Strehl [4], [11] for an ideal shear
panel. 5 different profiles (39/183, 85/280, 135/310, 160/250 and 200/420) and 3 thicknesses
(0.75, 1.0, 1.25 mm) were investigated. The relation between the results of the FE model and the
value due to [11] of the 15 cases show a mean value of 0.986 with a maximum of 1.019 and are
therefore extremely sufficient.
In general it is shown that the proposed FE model show excellent agreement with the values
compared, allowing the use of this FE model for extensive parameter studies.
5 PARAMETRIC STUDIES
Two different types of loading are taken into account: shear panel loading and sinusoidal transverse
lateral loading. in both cases the results are called SS respectively SE. In order to cover a broad spectrum
of possible systems in practice the following parameters were varied: type of trapezoidal sheeting, sheet
thickness, profile length, length and lateral bending stiffness Iz of the beam to be stiffened, different
stiffnesses of the seam fasteners and the member fasteners. Especially the two interesting support
conditions: two edges supported and four edges supported are investigated. The results show that all these
parameters influence the outcomes and must be taken into account in order to get sufficient results.
As a next step only those cases were investigated where sinusoidal transverse lateral loading can be
observed and the trapezoidal sheet is supported at two edges with a stick out of 5 cm above the support
lines leading to the shear stiffness SE. Again it can be seen that an analytical function to cover the results
is not possible.
6 MECHANICAL MODEL
6.1 General
The mechanical model consists of two steps: in the first step a simplified strut model is used, see
figure 4 a), in order to determine the stiffness S*, see eq. (1). There is a bedding between the equivalent
beam having the stiffness S* and the cross beam having the stiffness 2. Iz. In the second step this strut
model is modified in such a way that another equivalent beam having the stiffness Sbeam is connected
rigidly with the cross beam having the stiffness 2. Iz , see figure 4 b).
Figure 4: strut models, a) for calculation of S*, b) for determination of Sbeam

The equivalent beam stiffness S* is calculated by eq.(1) with Ctot as the total stiffness.
S* LCtot (1)
where
1 1 1 1
(2)
C tot C sheet C cross C con
1080
For a qualified solution the assumption about the stiffnesses Csheet and Ccross is decisive because they
very much depend on the type of the trapezoidal sheeting. Therefore two different solutions are proposed
given in chapters 6.2 and 6.3
If the stiffness S* due to eq. (1) is known a second step is necessary in order determine the stiffness
Sbeam of the equivalent beam. This is done by investigating the system of figure 4 a) taking into account
the sinusoidal lateral force q(x) which leads to a lateral deflection um at midspan. From the system of
figure 4 b) one gets eq. (3).
2§ 4·
F
S beam
§L·
2¨ ¸ ¨ Amp EI §¨ S ·¸ ¸ (3)
z
©S ¹ ¨ um © L ¹ ¸¹
©
6.2 Special solution for selected types of trapezoidal sheeting
The stiffness of the seam fasteners of the connection of two sheets side by side:
c S L s 2C Q *
C con (4)
nT 1
with nT = number of sheets and Ls = length of the sheeting.

Stiffness of the member fasteners:
2
Ls
C cross (5)
eQ
2L
CQ *
The modified stiffness CQ* of the member fasteners connected to the cross beams:
CQ * mC Q
n CQ (6)
where the values of m and n depend on the special type of trapezoidal sheeting, they should be taken
from table 1.
Table 1: coefficients m, n, a, b and c for use in eqs.(6) and (8)
thickness
profile m [cm/kN] n[-] a [kN/m²] b [kN/m] c [kN]
tN [mm]
HSA 39/183 0.88 -0.0043 1.07 1548 4587 -5032
HSA 39/183 1 -0.0045 1.10 1917 7301 -7857
HSA 39/183 1.25 -0.0040 1.12 2562 15674 -16313
UB 85/280 0.88 -0.0049 1.27 825 2204 -3450
UB 85/280 1 -0.0048 1.27 1074 3497 -5232
UB 85/280 1.25 -0.0045 1.30 1611 7692 -10805
EKO 160/250 0.88 -0.0054 1.26 245 456 -1098
EKO 160/250 1 -0.0054 1.30 332 726 -1616
EKO 160/250 1.25 -0.0048 1.32 548 1630 -3247
The stiffness Csheet of the trapezoidal sheeting:

S S 4s
C sheet (7)
L
1081
This value SS4s is the value for a shear panel which is supported at all four edges but takes into
account a stick over above the support lines of e = 5 cm, which always appears in construction, see figure
5.
Figure 5: sketch concerning the stick over above support line
The usual methods following chapter 2.1 of calculating the shear stiffness S = SS4s does not consider
the stick over. Therefore this value must be calculated separately. Unfortunately it depends significantly
on the type of profile and can not be generalized. For 7 profiles (35/207, 39/183, 85/280, 106/250,
135/310, 150/280 and 160/250) and 4 thicknesses (0.75, 0.88, 1.0, 1.25 mm) often used in practice and
partly mentioned in chapter 4 the necessary parameters a, b, c in order to calculate SS4s due to eq. (8) are
known [8], due to the lack of place only some are given in table 1.
2
S S 4 s aL s bL s c (8)
The admissibility of this simplified strut model was verified by the parameter studies of
approximately 6800 analyses for the profiles and thicknesses mentioned before. The relation E = SE/Sbeam
varies from 0.90 to 1.20 with a mean value of m = 1.001 and a standard deviation of s = 0.056 leading to
a lower statistical value of ßs = 0.91. For practical use a value of ß = 0.9 is chosen and therefore the shear
stiffness S can be calculated by eq. (9).
S 0.9 S beam (9)
6.3 General solution valid for all types of trapezoidal sheeting

Because the method used in chapter 6.2 needs special parameters, see eqs. (6) and (8), and is
therefore restricted to the profiles mentioned there. A general method is necessary for all other types of
profiles of trapezoidal sheeting.
The stiffness of the seam fasteners of the connection of two sheets:
c S L s 2C Q
C con (4a)
nT 1
with nT = number of sheets and Ls = length of the sheeting

The stiffness Ccross is calculated due to eq. (5a) which is similar to eq. (5).
Ls 2
C cross (5a)
eQ
2L
CQ
The stiffness Csheet of the trapezoidal sheeting is now calculated due to eq. (7a)
S Strehl
C sheet (7a)
L
where SStrehl is the theoretical shear stiffness mentioned in chapter 2.1: shear panel supported at four
edges, without a stick over above the support lines. This value is known for a great number of trapezoidal
sheeting profiles or can easily be calculated following [11].
Again the admissibility of this simplified strut model was verified by the parameter studies of
approximately 6800 analyses already mentioned in chapter 6.2. The relation E = SE/Sbeam varies from 0.78
to 1.45 with a mean value of m = 1.15 and a standard deviation of s = 0.12 leading to a lower statistical
1082
value of ßs = 0.95. But if the profile 35/207 is taken into account only the statistical value becomes ßs =
0.82. Therefore for practical use and simplified application a value of ß = 0.8 is proposed in general and
the shear stiffness S should be calculated by eq. (9a).
S 0.8 Sbeam (9a)
7 EXAMPLE
7.1 Analysis of the shear stiffness S

The system shown in figure 6 is investigated.
member fasteners :
screws with neoprene washer in each trough : CQ = 66.7 kN/cm, (1/ CQ) = 0.15 mm/kN
seam fasteners :
screws in a distance of 30 cm, stiffness 0.25 mm/kN, cS = 1/(0.025 . 30) = 1.33 kN/cm2
Lateral transversal load with an amplitude of Famp = 1 kN/cm : q(x) = 2 sin( Sx/L) kN/cm
Figure 6: example
Special solution corresponding to chapter 6.2 :

eq.(6): CQ* = 66.7 ( -0.0048 . 66.7 + 1.27) = 63.4 kN/cm
which leads to the bedding CQ* / eQ = 63.4/28 = 2.264 kN/cm2
. 2 .
eq.(8): SS4s = 1074 4 + 3497 4 – 5232 = 25940 kN
eq.(7): Csheet = 25940 / 896 = 29.0 kN/cm
eq.(4): Ccon = (1.33 . 400 + 2 . 63.4) / (8-1) = 94.3 kN/cm
eq.(5): Ccross = 4002 . 63.4 /(2 . 896 . 28) = 202 kN/cm
eq.(2): Ctot = 1/(1/29.0 + 1/94.3 + 1/202) = 20.0 kN/cm
eq.(1): S* = 20.0 . 896 = 17900 kN
The analysis of the system of figure 4a) leads to um = 12.23 cm and from eq.(3)
Sbeam = 2(896/ S)2 ^ 1/12.23 – 21000.1320(S /896)4 ` = 12620 kN
eq.(9): S = 0.9 . 12620 = 11400 kN
General solution corresponding to chapter 6.3 :

The analysis is similar to the one shown before, but using:
bedding CQ / eQ = 66.7/28 = 2.382 kN/cm2, shear stiffness SStrehl = 17440 kN
Csheet = 19.5 kN/cm, Ccon = 95.1 kN/cm, Ccross = 213 kN/cm, Ctot = 15.0 kN/cm,
S* = 13440 kN, um = 14.39 cm, Sbam = 10620 kN, S = 8500 kN
7.2 Effect of the shear stiffness S on the lateral torsional buckling load
The determined values for the shear stiffness S are used to calculate the lateral torsional buckling
load according to EN 1993-1-1, chapter 6.3.2.3 [1]. It is assumed that the beams IPE 400 S235 are
subjected to a vertical load q acting on the upper chord. Using the values S from chapter 7.1 the elastic
critical moments Mcr are determined [12] neglecting the rotational spring stiffness c-.
-S=0 : Mcr = 117 kNm, O LT = 1.624, FLT,mod = 0.3420, qu = 10.5 kN/m
1083
- S = 0.5 . 8500 = 4250 kN : Mcr = 1115 kNm, O LT = 0.525, FLT,mod = 0.9540, qu = 29.2 kN/m
- S = 0.5 . 11400 = 5700 kN : Mcr = 1400 kNm, O LT = 0.468, FLT,mod = 0.9850, qu = 30.1 kN/m
It can be seen, that generally the value S has a very great influence on Mcr, but the difference between
the two methods of 6.2 and 6.3 results only in 3 % of the ultimate load qu.
8 CONCLUSION
I-beams are prone to fail by lateral torsional buckling. Adjacent members like trapezoidal steel
sheeting have positive effects on the stabilization of the beams especially by their shear stiffness S. When
considering S usually a shear panel must be present, and all 4 edges of the sheet must be connected to
the substructure. This may cause difficulties in practical applications. In this paper a simplified
calculation method is proposed to calculate a modified shear stiffness S assuming that only two edges are
connected to the substructure. It also must be recognized that the sheet is not stressed by shear forces but
by lateral transverse forces occuring when lateral torsional buckling takes place. The application is shown
in an example, where the great effect of S can be recognized.
REFERENCES
[1] EN 1993-1-1, Design of steel structures, part 1-1, general rules and rules for buildings, 2005
[2] Boissonnade, N, Greiner, R., Jaspart, J.P., Lindner, J., Rules for member stability in EN 1993-1-1,
background documentation and design guidelines. ECCS/EKS publ. No. 119, Brussels, 2006
[3] Lindner, J. : Zur Aussteifung von Biegeträgern durch Drehbettung und Schubsteifigkeit (beams in
bending restraint by rotational spring stiffness and shear stiffness). Stahlbau 77 (2008), S. 427-435
[4] Schardt, R., Strehl, C. : Stand der Theorie zur Bemessung von Trapezblechscheiben (theory for the
design of trapezoidal sheeting). Stahlbau 49 (1980), S. 325-334
[5] ECCS TC 7 : European Recommendations for the application of Metal Sheeting acting as a
Diaphragm. ECCS publication No 88, Brüssel, 1995
[6] Baehre, R., Wolfram, R. : Zur Schubfeldberechnung von Trapezprofilen (shear panel of
trapezpoidal sheeting). Stahlbau 55 (1986), S. 175-179
[7] Dürr, M., Kathage, K., Saal, H.: Schubsteifigkeit zweiseitig gelagerter Stahltrapezbleche (shear
stiffness of trapezoidal steel sheets with two edges fastened), Stahlbau 75 (2006), S. 280 bis 286
[8] Seidel, F. : Scheibentragverhalten von Trapezprofilen ohne Schubfeldausbildung (Behaviour of
panels without shear panel construction). Ph.D., TU Berlin 2009
[9] Ansys Release 10.0, ANSYS Inc., CAD-FEM GmbH, München 2005
[10] Walter, E.: Systemintegrierte Befestigungstechnik - Untersuchungen des statischen und
dynamischen nichtlinearen Verhaltens von Elementen zur Befestigung der Ausbauelemente, sowie
deren Einfluss auf das Last-Verformungsverhalten eines Gebäudes, Dissertation Universität
Innsbruck, 1994
[11] Strehl, C.: Bestimmung der Schubsteifigkeitswerte von Trapezprofilen mit Tabellen-
Kalkulationsprogramm, Stahlbau 74 (2005), S. 708 bis 716
[12] Bamm, D., Lindner, J.: KIBAL - EDV-Programm zur Berechnung der idealen Biegedrillknicklasten
von beliebig gelagerten geraden Stabsystemen (program for the analysis of the elastic lateral
torsional buckling load of any supported straight system) - Fassung Lindner KIBL2F, TU Berlin
2004
1084
THIN BEAM STATIC STABILITY ANALYSIS BY AN IMPROVED

NUMERICAL METHOD
A. Khelil
Nancy Université-Institut Jean-Lamour UMR 7198, IUT Nancy Brabois – Génie Civil
54601 Villers Les Nancy, France
Abdel.khelil@iutnb.uhp-nancy.fr
Keywords: Finite Volume, Meshless Local Petrov-Galerkin, Static Stability, Thin Beam.
Abstract. The finite volume meshless local Petrov-Galerkin (FVMLPG) method is a new meshless
method for the discretization of governing differential equations. The motivation for developing this new
method is to unify advantages of meshless methods and finite volume methods (FVM) in one scheme. The
purpose of this paper is to develop and use of the FVMLPG method for static stability of thin beam
problems. In this method, the weak formulation of a conservation law is discretized by restricting it to a
discrete set of test functions. In contrast to the usual Finite Volume approach, the test functions are not
taken as characteristic functions of the control volumes in a spatial grid, but are chosen from a
Heaviside step function. The present approach eliminates the expensive process of directly differentiating
the MLS interpolations in the entire domain. This method was evaluated by applying the formulation to a
thin beam problem. The formulation successfully reproduced exact solutions. Numerical example
demonstrates the present method yields accurate results for the critical loads.
1 INTRODUCTION
The finite volume meshless local Petrov-Galerkin (FVMLPG) method is a new meshless method for
the discretization of governing differential equations. The motivation for developing this new method is
to unify advantages of meshless methods and finite volume methods (FVM) in one scheme. The basic
idea in the FVMLPG is to incorporate elements of the FVM into a meshless local Petrov-Galerkin
(MLPG) method [1,2].
Meshless methods are very flexible because they are free of using mesh. The need for meshless
methods typically arises if problems with time dependent or very complicated geometries are under
consideration because the handling of mesh discretization becomes technically complicated or very time
consuming. Fluid flows with structural interaction or fast moving boundaries like an inflating air-bag are
of that kind for instance.
Advantages of meshless methods are to overcome some of the disadvantages of mesh-based methods
such as discontinuous secondary variables across inter-element boundaries and the need for remeshing in
large deformation problems [3-7]. Extensive research on meshless methods, in particular, the meshless
local Petrov-Galerkin (MLPG) method recently exists in literatures. There is analysis of thin beam
problems using a Galerkin implementation of the MLPG method [9]; a generalized moving least squares
(GMLS) approximation is used to construct the trial functions, and the test functions are chosen from the
same space. References [8] and [9] showed good performance of the MLPG method for potential and
elasticity problems and a good performance for beam problems. However, these methods need a large
number of calculations to compute the first and second order derivatives of the moving least squares
(MLS) trial functions that are required in the weak form and special procedures were needed to integrate
the weak form accurately.
1085
A. Khelil
The purpose of this paper is to develop and use of the FVMLPG method for static stability of thin
beam problems. The method is evaluated by applying the formulation to an example.
The outline of the paper is as follows. First, the FV form of the governing differential equation is
derived in a general sense, and a system of algebraic equations is developed from this FV form. Next, the
MLPG method is used to descritize these formulations and to obtain the FVMLPG form of the governing
differential equation. Finally, the performance of the FVMLPG method is investigated by implying to an
example.
2 MESHLESS INTERPOLATION
In general, meshless methods use a local interpolation, or an approximation, to represent the trial
function, using the values (or the fictitious values) of the unknown variable at some randomly located
nodes in the local vicinity. The moving least-square method is generally considered to be one of the best
schemes to interpolate data with a reasonable accuracy. Basically the MLS interpolation does not pass
through the nodal data. Consider a domain in question with control points for boundaries (i.e. nodes on
boundaries) and some scattered nodes inside, where every node has its undetermined nodal coefficient
(fictitious nodal value) and an influence radius (radius for local weight function). Now for the
distribution of trial function at any point x and its neighborhood ȍs located in the problem domain ȍ,
uh(x) may be defined by
u h ( x ) = pT ( x ) a ( x ) ∀x ∈ Ω s (1)
where pT (x) = [p1(x), p2(x), . . . , pm(x)] is a complete monomial basis of order m, and a(x) is a vector
containing coefficients aj(x), j=1, 2, . . . , m which are functions of the space co-ordinates x. The
commonly used bases in 1-D are the linear basis (m=2), due to their simplicity. In the present 4th order
problem, we will also employ the quadratic basis (m=3)
pT ( x ) = ª¬1 x x 2 º¼
(2)
and the cubic basis (m=4)
pT ( x ) = ª¬1 x x2 x3 º¼ (3)
The coefficient vector a(x) is determined by minimizing a weighted discrete L2 norm, which can be
defined as
N
J ( x) = ¦ w ( x ) ª¬p ( x ) a ( x ) − uˆ º¼
I 2
I I (4)
I =1
where wI (x), is a weight function associated with the node I, with wI (x) > 0 for all x in the support of wI
(x), xI denotes the value of x at node I, N is the number of nodes in ȍs for which the weight functions wI
(x) > 0. Here it should be noted that ûI , I=1, 2, . . . , N, in equation (4), are the fictitious nodal values
(undetermined nodal coefficients), and not the exact nodal values of the unknown trial function uh(x), in
general.
1086
A. Khelil
Solving for a(x) by minimizing J in equation (4), and substituting it into equation (1), give a relation
which may be written in the form of an interpolation function similar to that used in the FEM, as
N
u h
( x ) = ¦ φI ( x ) uˆ I u h ( xI ) ≡ u I ≠ uˆ I , x ∈ Ω s (5)
I =1
where
m
φI ( x ) = ¦ p ( x ) ª¬A
j =1
j
−1
( x ) B ( x )º¼ jI (6)
with the matrix A(x) and B(x) being defined by
N
A ( x) = ¦ w ( x) p ( x ) p
I =1
I I
T
( xI ) (7)
B ( x ) = ª¬ w1 ( x ) p ( x1 ) , w2 ( x ) p ( x2 ) , , wN ( x ) p ( xN ) º¼ . (8)
The nodal shape function is complete up to the order of the basis. The smoothness of the nodal shape
function ĭI(x) is determined by that of the basis and of the weight function. The choice of the weight
function is more or less arbitrary as long as the weight function is positive and continuous. The following
weight function is considered in the present work
§ dI ·
2
§ dI ·
3
§ dI ·
4
°1 − 6 ¨ ¸ + 8 ¨ ¸ − 3 ¨ ¸ 0 ≤ d I ≤ rI = ρ I hI
° © rI ¹ © rI ¹ © rI ¹
wI ( x ) = ® (9)
°
°0 d I > rI = ρ I hI
¯
where dI = |x − xI | is the distance from node xI to point x, hI in the nodal distance, ȡI is the scaling
parameter for the size of the subdomain ȍItr.
3 FVMLPG APPROACH
Consider a thin beam as shown in figure 1. The governing equation of an Euler-Bernoulli beam
under a compressive axial force N is written as, [10]
1087
A. Khelil
N N
u
Figure 1: Transverse deformation of a thin beam under axial compression
d 4u d 2u
+N = 0 in global domain ȍ (adimensional form) (10)
dx 4 dx 2
Where u is transverse displacement of the beam.
We use the FVMLPG method to solve the homogeneous differential equation (10). The local weak form
of Eq (10) can be obtained by multiplying a test function in this equation and integrating over
subdomains
§ d 4u d 2u ·
³ ¨ 4
©
Ω s dx
+ N ¸ vdx = 0
dx 2 ¹
(11)
To obtain an accurate and efficient meshless method, one should decrease the order of the derivatives of
the trial function in the local weak forms. Now a FVMLPG method is presented by redefining the original
problem, Eq. (10), in terms of four first-order equations, with the variables ĭi, (i=1, … , 4) as
d φ1 d φ2 d φ3 d φ4
u = φ1 , = φ2 , = φ3 , = φ4 , =1
dx dx dx dx
(12)
In matrix notation, Eq.(11) can be written as the following form
1 0 0 0 ½ φ1 ½′ 0 −1 0 0 ½ φ1 ½ 0 ½
° °° ° ° °° ° ° °
°0 1 0 0 °°φ2 ° °0 0 −1 0 °°φ2 ° °0 °
® ¾® ¾ + ® ¾® ¾ = ® ¾
°0 0 1 0 °° φ3 ° °0 0 0 −1°° φ3 ° °0 °
°¯0 0 0 1 °°
¿ ¯φ4 °¿ °¯0 0 0 0 °°
¿ ¯φ4 °¿ °¯1 °¿
or Aij φ′j + Bij φ j = fi (13)
Each of ĭj is interpolated through an MLS scheme, as

N
φ j ( x) =
¦ φ ( x ) φˆ ;
I =1
I
j
I
j x ∈ Ωs (14)
1088
A. Khelil
Using a test function which is a Heaviside Step function in each ȍs [i.e., xk-1 x xk, which may be
overlapping subdomains as in the finite volume method], the following simple linear equation system is
obtained for the nodal values of φˆ I j
xk xk
³ ³
x
ª ′ º ª º ª º k
¬ Aij φ j + Bij φ j ¼ dx = ¬ Bij φ j ¼ dx + ¬ Aij φ j ¼ xk −1 = 0 (15)
xk −1 xk −1
Equation (11) involves only the MLS interpolations for each ĭi, (j=1, …,4), but not their derivatives.
Thus, the Finite Volume Meshless Local Petrov-Galerkin (FVMLPG) method presented in this article is
entirely analogous to the finite volume method [11-13]. This equation may also be written in discrete
form
N
§ xk ·
¦³
xk
¨ Bij φ Ij ( x ) dx + ª Aij φ Ij ( x ) º ¸ φˆ Ij = 0 (16)
¨ ¬ ¼ xk −1 ¸
I =1 © xk −1 ¹
The linear system of equations are obtained for the first term, as
d 4u
= Kij a j (17)
dx 4
where Kij is defined by
N
§ xk ·
¦³
xk
Kij = ¨ Bij φ Ij ( x ) dx + ª Aij φ Ij ( x ) º ¸ (18)
¨ ¬ ¼ xk −1 ¸
I =1 © xk −1 ¹
with the same approach, we may obtain the similar equations for the second term, as
d 2u
N = NCij a j (19)
dx 2
By adding the equations (17) and (19), we may obtain the system equations for the linear buckling
problems, as
( Kij + NCij ) a j = 0 (20)
Equation (10) is a generalized eigenvalue problem. Its nontrivial solutions, i.e. the eigenvalues and the
corresponding eigenvectors ( N , a ) , are the critical loads and the corresponding buckling modes,
i
j
respectively. The procedure of calculation for this method is implemented in a computer code developed
in MATLAB. The developed code was validated on a certain number of test cases by comparison with
analytical solutions. The buckling mode shapes are shown in figures 2, 3, 4 and 5. They agree with the
analytical solution very well. The eigenvalues of the problem are represented in the following table.
1089
A. Khelil
Table 1 Four Eigenvalues of simply supported beam
Eigenvalue 1 2 3 4
FVMLPG 39.4816 157.9342 355.3735 631.8252
Exact 39.4784 157.9137 355.3058 631.6547
Error % 0.008 0.013 0.019 0.027
As indicated in Table 1, the method can obtain good results in eigenvalues for the bucking of the simply
supported thin beam.
0.8
First Mode
0.6
0.4
FVMLPG
0.2
Exact
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
x/L
Figure 2: The first buckling mode shapes of the simply supported beam
0.6
Second Mode
0.2
-0.2
-0.6
-1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
x/L
Figure 3: The second buckling mode shapes of the simply supported beam
1090
A. Khelil
Third M ode 0.6
0.2
-0.2
-0.6
-1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
x/L
Figure 4: The third buckling mode shapes of the simply supported beam
0.6
Fourth Mode
0.2
-0.2
-0.6
-1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
x/L
Figure 5: The four buckling mode shapes of the simply supported beam
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A. Khelil
4 CONCLUSION
This paper presented the FVMLPG method applied to thin beam stability analysis. The FVMLPG
method unifies the major advantages of meshless methods and finite volume methods in one single
scheme. In the local weak form (LWF) of the governing differential equation, a moving least squares
(MLS) interpolation was used to form the approximations to the solution known as trial functions. Test
functions, also needed for the LWF were chosen from a different space than the trial functions, making
the method a Petrov-Galerkin method. This choice of test functions led to unsymmetric stiffness
matrices. The essential boundary conditions were enforced by a collocation method, and numerical
integration was used to evaluate the integrals in the system matrices. With the FVMLPG, it is not
necessary to differentiate the shape function. In addition, the continuity requirement on the trial function
reduces by three-order then it is possible to use a smaller support size in the meshless approximations
with a lower-order polynomial basis. The FVMLPG method was applied to and passed several patch test
problems. Very good results for both the variables were obtained. A smooth distribution of the secondary
variable was obtained without the use of elaborate post processing techniques.
REFERENCES
[1] Moosavi M.R., Khelil A., Accuracy and Computational Efficiency of the Finite Volume Method
Combined with the Meshless Local Petrov-Galerkin in Comparison with the Finite Element Method
in Elasto-static Problem, ICCES, Vol. 113, no. 1, pp. 1-28, 2008.
[2] M.R.Moosavi, A. Khelil, “Finite Volume Meshless Local Petrov-Galerkin Method in Elstodynamic
Problems”, Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements, vol.33, pp 1016-1021, 2009.
[3] Nayroles B., Touzot G., and Villon P., Generalizing the finite element method: diffuse approximation
and diffuse elements, Computational Mechanics, 10, pp. 307-318, 1992.
[4] Belytschko T., Lu Y. Y., and Gu L., Element-free Galerkin methods, International Journal for
Numerical Methods in Engineering, 37, pp. 229-256, 1994.
[5] Kim D.W., Liu W.K., Yoon Y.-C., Belytschko T., Lee S.-H., Meshfree Point Collocation Method
with Intrinsic Enrichment for Interface Problems, Computational Mechanics, 40(6), pp. 1037-1052,
2007.
[6] Kim D.W., Yoon Y.-C., Liu W.K., Belytschko T., Extrinsic meshfree approximation using asymptotic
expansion for interfacial discontinuity of derivative, Journal of Computational Physics, 221, pp. 370-
394, 2007.
[7] Li S, Liu WK, Rosakis AJ, Belytschko T, Hao W., Mesh-free Galerkin simulations of dynamic shear
band propagation and failure mode transition, International Journal of Solids and Structures, 39(5),
pp. 1213-1240, 2002.
[8] Atluri S. N. and Zhu T., A new meshless local Petrov-Galerkin (MLPG) approach in computational
mechanics, Computational Mechanics, 22, pp. 117-127, 1998.
[9] Atluri S. N., Cho J. Y., and Kim H. -G., Analysis of thin beams, using the meshless local Petrov-
Galerkin method, with generalized moving least squares interpolations, Computational Mechanics,
24, pp. 334-347, 1999.
[10] Reddy J. N., An introduction to the finite element Method, McGraw-Hill, USA, 2006.
[11] Oñate E., Cervera M., Zienkiewicz O. C., A finite volume format for structural mechanics, Int. J.
Numer. Methods Engrg. 37, pp. 181-201, 1994.
[12] Demirdzic I, Muzaferija S., Finite volume method for stress analysis in complex domains, Int. J.
Numer. Methods Engrg., 37, pp. 3751-3766, 1994.
[13] Jasak H., Weller H. G., Application of the finite volume method and unstructured meshes to linear
elasticity, Int. J. Numer. Methods Engrg. 48, pp. 267-287, 2000.
1092
INVESTIGATION OF THE TEST METHOD FOR DISTORTIONAL

BUCKLING OF COMPRESSED PALLET RACK MEMBERS
Miquel Casafont*, Magdalena Pastor*, Francesc Roure* and Teoman Peköz**
* E.T.S. d’Enginyeria Industrial de Barcelona, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Av. Diagonal 647,
08028, Barcelona, Spain.
e-mails: miquel.casafont@upc.edu, m.magdalena.pastor@upc.edu, francesc.roure@upc.edu
** School of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, N Y 14853, USA
e-mail: tp26@cornell.edu
Keywords: Distortional buckling, rack structures, experimental tests, Generalized Beam Theory.
Abstract. An investigation of the test methods for distortional buckling of perforated pallet rack members
subjected to compression is presented. One of the key points of this test is the length of the specimen.
According to the AISI Test Standard S910-08, the specimen length should be sufficiently short to
minimize overall column effects, and sufficiently long to minimize end effects during loading. The aim of
the investigation is to set a procedure for determining the specimen length according to this condition.
Four different pallet rack sections are analysed and tested. Testing lengths are chosen from results of
finite element linear buckling analyses and Direct Strength Method calculations. Distortional buckling
was expected to be the dominant failure mode for some of the specimens tested. However, in the end, all
experimental failures showed a significant participation of global buckling modes. The paper presents a
discussion on the specimen behaviour observed in the tests, and some considerations concerning the
effect of end support conditions on the experimental results.
1 INTRODUCTION
Uprights of pallet rack structures contain a large amount of holes uniformly distributed along their
length. These holes make easy the connection between the uprights and the other members of the rack
structure. However, from the design point of view, the presence of the holes is a problem. Although many
investigations of the effect of perforations on the strength of members have been performed, a definitive
solution for pallet rack members has not yet been found. As a consequence, current standards recommend
determining the load carrying capacity of uprights from experimental tests [1], [2].
This paper presents part of an investigation focused on the compression test that should be performed
to determine the distortional buckling strength of uprights. The two main goals of the whole research
work are: to check the effect of different end supports on the results of tests; and to determine the length
of the specimens to capture the distortional buckling mode. Two different end boundary conditions will
be investigated: the first one is pinned with respect to the global flexural modes of buckling, and fixed
with respect to the torsional mode (as it is prescribed in the European standards [1]); while in the second
one, all global modes are fixed (as it is prescribed in the American standards [2],[3]). However, at the
moment of writing the present paper, only experimental results on the second type of end connection are
available. For this reason, only fixed end supports (globally fixed end supports) are considered herein. In
both tests setups, the end supports are fixed with respect to the distortional buckling mode (locally fixed),
since warping of the end cross section is fully restrained. Actually, it is difficult in practice to carry out
compression tests with locally pinned end supports.
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Miquel Casafont et al.
It should be noticed that in an actual upright frame (see figure 1), the supports of the compressed
members are neither fixed nor pinned with respect to the global modes and, most important, they are not
locally fixed. For this reason, tests should be performed in such a way that the fixed distortional end
conditions do not significantly increase the experimental ultimate load. This can be achieved by carrying
out tests on long members, where several distortional half-sine waves can develop (see [4]). However, at
the same time, very long members should also be avoided because the participation of distortional
buckling in the failure mode becomes smaller as the member length increases. The problem can be
summarized as follows: “the specimen length should be sufficiently short to minimize overall column
effects, and sufficiently long to minimize end effects during loading” (AISI test Standard S910-08 [3]).
Figure 1: Pallet rack frame.
The part of the investigation presented in this paper is mainly focused on finding a way to determine
the length of the specimens to be tested. Four different pallet rack cross-sections of medium load carrying
capacity are chosen for analysis and testing (see figure 2). Tests are carried out on members of different
lengths, expecting that the distortional mode of failure will be captured in such a way that the above
mentioned condition is accomplished. The first step of the investigation was to choose the lengths of the
specimens. These lengths were set on the basis of results of linear buckling analyses performed via the
Finite Element Method. Afterwards, approximate Direct Strength Method calculations, carried out taking
into account the effect of perforations, were performed to verify that distortional buckling failures would
occur for the member lengths chosen. The results of these analyses and calculations are explained in the
second section of the paper. Afterwards, compression tests were performed on the four cross-sections.
The test setup and the experimental results are shown in Section 3. Sections 4 and 5 present a discussion
on the specimen behavior observed in the tests. The deformation of the members, which was measured
during loading, is analyzed. The investigation is still in progress, but some conclusions can be drawn
from the work carried out until now. These conclusions are included in Section 6.
76 mm 49 mm 79 mm 81 mm
53 mm
63 mm
63 mm
69 mm
2 mm
1.8 mm
1.8 mm 1.8 mm
S1 S2 S3 S4
Figure 2: Cross-sections investigated.
2 SPECIMEN LENGTH
The specimen length will be expressed in terms of the critical distortional length, LcrD, that can easily
be calculated via the Finite Strip Method (CUFSM [5]) or the Generalized Beam Theory (GBTUL [6]).
Figure 3a shows the result of the linear buckling analysis carried out to cross-section S4 by means of the
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CUFSM program. The critical length is highlighted with an arrow. In the present investigation, LcrD is the
length of the minimum elastic distortional stress of a simply supported member.
a) b)
Figure 3: Results of linear buckling analyses of S4: a) CUFSM; b) FEM.
The CUFSM linear buckling analyses were carried out two times: first without considering the effect
of perforations, modeling the gross cross-section of the member (LcrD in table 1); and second taking into
account the holes by means of an equivalent thickness of the perforated web of the cross-section (LcrDp in
table 1) (see [7]):
L p bwnp Lp
te 1 t, (1)
L bw L
where: Lp is the length of the perforated part of the member; L is the length of the member; bw is the web
width; and bwnp is the non-perforated part of the web. Alternative approaches to determining the effects of
perforations are being studied by the authors at the present time.
Table 1: Results of the preliminary calculations.

LcrD: critical distortional length calculated with t; LcrDp: critical distortional length calculated with te;
Lti: specimen length expressed in terms of LcrDp; First G: minimum length for critical/failure mode.
Cross- LcrD LcrDp Lt1 Lt2 Lt3 First G First G
section (mm) (mm) (·LcrDp) (·LcrDp) (·LcrDp) FEM DSM
(·LcrDp) (·LcrDp)
S1 570 630 2.06 2.61 3.09 2.06 2.61
S2 230 270 2.77 3.24 3.70 3.70 3.24
S3 420 450 2.00 2.46 - 2.46 >2.46
S4 520 610 1.96 2.45 2.95 1.96 2.95
Afterwards, linear buckling finite element analyses of the members were carried out. Perforations
were included in the model together with the test boundary conditions (fixed ends). Figure 3b shows the
result of the analysis performed to cross-section S4. The arrows point to the member lengths chosen for
the tests (see table 1 for the other cross-sections). The idea is to test at the end of the interval where the
symmetric-distortional mode is critical. Members as long as possible are tested to minimize the effects of
end supports. This is the reason why the lowest specimen length was limited to 2·LcrDp. (Note that the
critical mode of cross-sections S1 and S4 for this length is not SD. This length is just at the beginning of
their global interval.)
The next step was to apply the Direct Strength Method (DSM) to the four cross-sections. Column
FIRST G DSM of table 1 shows the first length whose DSM predicted failure mode is global. It can be
observed that the specimen lengths chosen are at the end of the length interval where distortional mode is
1095
dominant, and at the beginning of the global mode interval. The DSM calculations were performed
applying the equivalent thickness te (1).
3 TEST SETUP AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

The first step of the experimental campaign was to carry out tensile coupon tests to determine the
material properties of the steel of each profile. Afterwards, two sets of compression tests on uprights were
performed. In the first set, all four sections of figure 2 were tested, while in the second one tests were
only carried out on sections S1 and S4. The test setup of the first series is slightly simpler than in the
second one. At each end of the specimen loading plates with special grips are fixed to the upright, so that
the in plane deformation of the end cross-sections is locally restrained (see figure 4a). The specimens are
placed horizontally in the rectangular frame shown in figure 4b. The loading plate of one end is directly
bolted to the frame and, consequently, has all its degrees of freedom restrained. The loading plate of the
other end is bolted to a 200 kN hydraulic jack, and has all its degrees of freedom restrained, except the
axial displacement. Both ends are considered locally and globally fixed. The test is load controlled and
the loading rate applied is 150 N/s.
a) b)
Figure 4: Test setup: a) Specimen end support with grip; b) Testing frame.
In this first set of tests only the applied load was measured by means of a load cell. Table 2 shows the
ultimate loads and the failure modes of the specimens observed at the end of each test.
In the second set of compression tests, displacement transducers were placed at the end plates to
measure the shortening of the specimen, and at the midpoint of the member to measure the cross-section
deformation (figure 4b). Furthermore, tests were performed with two different types of loading plates:
plates with special grips, such as those shown in figure 4a; and plates welded to the end cross-sections of
the member. The idea was to check if similar results are obtained with both end plates. Another
improvement was introduced to the test setup: the load plates are initially pinned (with a steel ball placed
at the effective centre of gravity of the cross-section), a pre-compression is applied, and the end plates are
allowed to self-align and compensate the specimen perpendicularity errors. Then the plates are blocked in
this position with four bolts (figure 4a). Finally the compression test can be started. This type of fixed-
adjustable plate device has the advantage that no precise machining of the ends of the upright are needed.
Table 3 shows the results of the second set of tests.
4 DEFORMATION OF THE CENTRAL CROSS-SECTION

During the first set of tests, it was observed that in some specimens the final failure seemed to be a
combination of distortional and global buckling modes. Mainly anti-symmetric distortional mode (AD)
combined with torsional flexural buckling mode (TF). This combination was already observed when
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Table 2: Experimental results of the first set of tests.

SD: symmetric distortional mode; AD: anti-symmetrical distortional mode; TF: torsional flexural mode.
1st specimen 2nd specimen 3rd specimen

Cross-
Lti/LcrDp
section Nu Mode of Nu Mode of Nu Mode of
(N) failure (N) failure (N) failure
2.06 126509 AD+TF 122095 AD+TF 123458 SD-->TF
S1 2.61 125303 TF 118887 TF 120358 TF
3.09 94401 TF 92351 TF 94764 TF
2.77 65501 SD+TF 71014 SD+TF 65108 AD+TF
S2 3.24 57417 (AD+) TF 58153 AD +TF 73761 AD+TF
3.70 54190 (AD+) TF 52548 TF 60076 TF
2 94548 AD (+TF) 85778 AD (+TF) 92243 SD (+TF)
S3
2.46 77204 (AD+) TF 92881 (AD+) TF 93116 AD+TF
1.96 130051 (AD+) TF 104535 AD+TF 105016 AD (+TF)
S4 2.45 96638 (AD+) TF 102475 TF 117502 (AD+) TF
2.95 84591 TF 86053 TF 85386 TF
Table 3: Experimental results of the second set of tests.

SD: symmetric distortional mode; AD: anti-symmetrical distortional mode; TF: torsional flexural mode.
1st specimen 2nd specimen 3rd specimen

Cross-
Lti/LcrDp
section Nu Mode of Nu Mode of Nu Mode of
(N) failure (N) failure (N) failure
S1 Grips 2.06 139490 TF 135578 (AD+) TF 131618 (AD+) TF
S1 2.06 131595 TF 133930 (AD+) TF 134607 AD+TF
Welded 2.61 123598 TF 112055 TF 117895 TF
S4 Grips 1.96 110912 (AD+) TF 114243 AD+TF 116811 AD+TF
S4 1.96 108219 AD (+TF) 108046 AD (+TF) 114606 SD
Welded 2.45 98977 AD+TF 102887 AD+TF - -
carrying out the FEM linear buckling analysis. For instance, in figure 3b the critical buckling mode of the
1200 mm long S4 member is not a pure TF mode, it is a combination of AD+TF modes.
In view of these results, it was decided to use displacement transducers to measure the deformation of
the central cross-section of the member. The goal was to know in which degree the distortional mode is
combined with the global TF buckling mode. The transducers also provide with information about the
deformation of the cross-section all along the loading process, which cannot be perceived by visual
observation of the specimen.
From the displacements measured with the eight transducers, the four rotations shown in figure 5
were calculated and graphed. WR1 and WR2 are called web rotations, and FR1 and FR2 flange rotations.
Figure 6 shows four graphs of rotations measured during loading, until ultimate load. The first three
correspond to members whose length is about 2 times LcrDp, and the last one correspond to a 2.61·LcrDp
member. In the first one (figure 6a), progressive opening of the flanges during loading can be seen, like in
a symmetric deformational mode. However, at the end of the test the failure is of torsional type (TF),
since all rotations went to the same side. The second one (figure 6b) is anti-symmetric (AD), and the final
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failure also shows torsion. The third graph (figure 6c) is the most commonly observed behavior. It is
similar to the first graph, but with a significant participation of torsion from the beginning. Finally, the
last graph (figure 6d) is analogous to the second one, but in this case flange and web rotations are of the
same magnitude. This indicates that the participation of distortional deformations is low.
a) b)
Figure 5: a) Corner displacement (ux,uy), and rotations deduced from the transducer measurements.
b)Beam model of the cross-section.
a) b)
c) d)
Figure 6: Measured rotations: a) S4-1200-3 Welded; b) S4-1200-2 Grips; c) S4-1200-1 Welded; d) S1-
1650-2 Welded.
In order to quantify in some way the participation of each mode, the measured cross-section
deformations were compared to GBT individual modes of deformation. This comparison was carried out
applying a somewhat involved procedure that is not fully explained herein due to space reasons. The main
idea of the procedure is that the corner displacement (ux,uy) and the rotations shown in figure 5a are
applied to a beam finite element model of the cross-section, figure 5b. All the unknown nodal
displacements of the cross-section are then deduced from the analyses of the beam model and, afterwards,
a sort of simplified GBT modal identification procedure is applied [8]. The results can only be considered
1098
approximations to the actual mode participation factors due to the important simplifications applied in the
procedure. For instance, only transverse node displacements are taken into account, only linear GBT
deformational modes are considered [9], the GBT deformational modes are calculated applying the
equivalent thickness (1), and the corner displacement and rotations shown in figure 5a are derived
considering that some parts of the cross-section underwent rigid rotations. However, in spite of all these
simplifications, the results are rather reasonable.
Figure 7 presents the participation factors corresponding to the four graphs shown in figure 6. It
should be pointed out that for the cross-sections analyzed in this investigation, the procedure tends to
overestimate the participation of the global buckling modes.
T
T
FY
FY
AD
AD
SD
Oth SD Oth
a) b)
T T
FY
AD FY
SD
Oth SD AD
c) d)
Figure 7: Participation factors: a) S4-1200-3 Welded; b) S4-1200-2 Grips; c) S4-1200-1 Welded; d) S1-
1650-2 Welded.
5 DISCUSSION
Tables 2 and 3, and figures 6 and 7 show that the participation of the torsional (T) and flexural (FY) modes
was significant in all tests; and that no dominant SD failure mode was observed. It seems that shorter members
will have to be tested to capture this mode of buckling. These experimental results were in some way predicted
by the FEM linear buckling analyses, since at the end of the critical SD mode interval, the distortional elastic
buckling loads are almost equal to the global elastic buckling loads. As a consequence, any of these buckling
modes can occur (see figure 3b).
It should be noticed that the curve of the global buckling loads derived from the linear buckling
analyses (dashed curve in figure 3b), is a curve that corresponds to a combination of different modes. For
short members (for example, about 600 mm for S4 cross-section), this curve is mainly AD dominant. As
the member length increases, the AD mode progressively changes to a TF mode. Finally, for long
members (for example, about 1800 mm for S4), the dominant mode is global buckling. Therefore, there is
an interval of lengths were AD and TF coexist. In the present investigation, this mode combination has
been experimentally observed and measured by means of the displacement transducers. It is verified that
different combinations among distortional and global modes are relevant: AD + T + FY (figures 6b and
7b) or even SD + AD + T + FY (see figure 6a, 6c, 7a and 7c).
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Neither the failure mode nor the ultimate load could be correctly predicted from the DSM
calculations. These poor results are attributed to the use of equivalent thickness equation (1). Other
approaches to determining an equivalent thickness in DSM calculations are being studied at the present
time. A DSM approach using different equivalent thicknesses is being developed.
Finally, it is pointed out that members tested with special grips and members tested with welded load
plates showed similar failure load and behavior.
6 CONCLUSIONS
The present investigation on the test method for distortional buckling of pallet rack uprights shows that rather
short members, shorter than two times the critical distortional length, should be tested to capture a dominant
distortional buckling mode. In the near future, additional tests will be carried out by the authors to verify this, and
to investigate the effect of the distortional fixed end supports used in the experimental tests. Results of tests on
single uprights will be compared to the results of tests on full upright frames (figure 1).
It is also observed that the effects of distortional buckling do not finish at the end of the symmetric
distortional interval. There is an interval of longer lengths where the anti-symmetric distortional mode is
combined with the torsional-flexural buckling mode. Further research is needed to know whether this
combination should be considered in design.
Finally, it is pointed out that FEM linear analysis, carried out taking into account both perforations and the
actual boundary conditions of the tests, demonstrated to be a useful tool to predict the behavior of the members
tested in the present investigation. This analysis may not be very accurate when different modes have similar
elastic buckling loads, but it gives an idea where to begin testing. In the future, it should also be investigated
whether this analysis can be performed in CUFSM or GBTUL to make easier the determination of the specimen
lengths.
REFERENCES
[1] EN 15512. Steel static storage systems – Adjustable pallet racking systems – Principles for
structural design. European Standard. European Commitee for Standardization. March 2009.
[2] MH16.1:2008. Specification for the Design, Testing and Utilization of Industrial Steel Storage
Racks. Rack Manufacturers Institute. 2008.
[3] AISI S910-08. Testing Method for Distortional Buckling of Cold-Formed Steel Hat Shaped
Compressed Members. AISI Cold-Formed Design Manual. American Iron and Steel Institute. 2008.
[4] Silvestre, N. and Camotim, D., “Distortional buckling formulae for cold-formed steel C- and Z-
section members. PartII-Validation and application”, Thin-Walled Structures, 42, 1599-1629, 2004.
[5] Schafer, B.W. and Ádány S., “Buckling analysis of cold-formed steel members using CUFSM:
conventional and constrained finite strip methods”, Eighteenth International Specialty Conference
on Cold-formed Steel Structures, Orlando, 2006.
[6] Bebiano, R., Pina, P., Silvestre, N., Camotim, D., GBTUL-Buckling and Vibration Analysis of
Thin-Walled Members. DECivil/IST, Technical University of Lisbon, 2008.
[7] Davies, J.M., Leach, P. and Taylor, A., “The Design of Perforated Cold-Formed Steel Sections
Subject to Axial Load and Bending”, Thin Walled Structures, 29(1-4), 141-157, 1997.
[8] Ádány, S., Joó, A.L., Schafer, B.W., “Identification of FEM buckling modes of thin-walled
columns by using cFSM base functions”, Proceedings of CIMS 2008 Fifth International conference
on Coupled Instabilities in Metal Structures, K.J.R. Rasmussen and T. Wilkinson (eds.), The
University of Sydney, Sydney, 265-272, 2008.
[9] Silvestre, N. and Camotim, D., “Nonlinear Generalized Beam Theory for Cold-Formed Steel
Members”, International Journal of Structural Stability and Dynamics, 3(4), 461-490, 2003.
1100
SDSS’Rio 2010 STABILITY A
AND DUCTILITY OF STEEL STRUCTURES
BEHAVIOUR OF EXPANDED METAL PANEL

LS UNDER SHEAR LOADING
Phung Ngoc Dung1, André P

Plumier2
1
Department of Construction – Hanoi Architectuural University – Viet Nam
e-mails: Dung.PhungNgoc@studeent.ulg.ac.be
2
Department of Structural Engineering, University of Liege – 11, Chemin des Chevreuils, B-4000 Liège
e-mail: A.Plumier@ulg.acc.be
Keywords: Expanded Metal, Cyclic behaviour, Cyclic Tests, Hyysterical Loops.
Abstract. Experimental and theoretical study of expanded mettal panels (EMP) has shown that they are
useful for seismically retrofitting reinforced concrete moment rresisting frames (RC-MRF). Although this
product has merit of strength and ductility, it is at present oonly used for non-structural applications.
There is no guidance existing to help the engineers determine thhe mechanical properties or to indicate in
which field of the structures this product can be used. With thhe aims at providing quantitative data for
these purposes and at introducing a simplified model of E EMP working in shear, description and
comparison of the results of 22 monotonic and cyclic experimennts of 4 profiles of EMP in small and large
scale is presented. Numerical approach with FINELG, a nonnlinear finite element code developed at
University of Liege, is used to calibrate and simulate the testts. A good correlation between tests and
numerical simulations is observed.
1 INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF PREVIOUS

S RESEARCH
EMP is a truss made from metal sheet by cuttings, cold-sttretching and flattening [1]. Cuttings and
cold-stretching make a metal sheet become a three-dimensionn structure. It becomes a two-dimension
sheet by flattening. An expanded metal (EM) sheet – Figure 1 – has many rhomb-shape stitches, each
with four bars having the same dimensions. It is characterizzed by four dimensions – LD, CD (the
diagonals), A (the width), and B (the thickness of the bars). Thesse dimensions are illustrated in Figure 2.
Figure 1 – Fabrication of expanded metal sheets Figure 2 – An expanded metal rhomb-shape stitch
There are two types of the EM product: normal (or standardd) and flattened types. In the normal type,
rhomb-shape stitches are connected together with overlaps at thhe end of each bar. In contrast, there is no
overlap between stitches in flattened type. They are continuouslyy connected together to form a completely
flattened sheet. At the moment, EM is mainly used for filters, in electrical applications or for the
1101
Phung Ngoc Dung et al.
protection of machines (worker’s safety) or anti-intrusion fencess for buildings…etc. Because there are no
calculation and mechanical criteria for these types of material, iit is seldom used in structural applications
[1], [2]. In the stages 2005-2008 of the MacroMousses Projecct, a research work was done by Etienne
PECQUET at University of Liege. It aimed to determine the m mechanical behaviour of small scale EMP
under monotonic shear loading. First, mechanical properties off an EM bar were determined from tensile
tests. After that, analytical models, using in-plane and extendedd-plate theory and numerical simulations,
were used to characterize small scale EMP in small scale (bigggest dimensions being equal to 1000mm)
under monotonic shear loading. From PECQUET’s results, one can deduce that the EMP works with one
tension band developed in post-buckled stages. However, there is some more information needed to take
into account when modelling EMP as working in seismic situatiions: First, because the thickness of bars is
very small in comparison to the dimension of the sheet, the E EMP is always globally buckled under a
rather low shear force. Due to that, it is necessary to assess the contributions of the compressive band of
EMP before globally buckling to the overall resistance of EMP.. Second, numerical simulations should be
performed not only in small scale dimensions of EMP. Third,, in the seismic context, models of EMP
under monotonic shear loading may not cover for seismic cyclic loads. Therefore the simulations of the
behaviour of EMP should be calibrated on both small and large scale tests of EMP subjected to
monotonic and cyclic shear loading.
2 DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS
There are three stages of tests: (1) tests to determine mechannical properties of EMP material; (2) tests
of small scale panels and (3) tests of large scale panels. The teests should set forward which one, among
two types of EMP, is the most suitable for structural appliications to address the global hysteretic
behaviour of EMP under shear loading. Moreover, how to connnect test frame with EMP should be taken
into account. The effectiveness of connections will influence onn the practical use of EMP. Figure 3 and 4
show the views of tests in small and large scales respectively.
Figure 3 – Global view of small scale tests Figure 4 – Global view of tests in large scale
3 DETAILS OF SPECIMENTS
Four profiles of EM are studied experimentally. Details of all teesting specimens are given in Table 1 and
2. It is worth noting that weld and glue epoxy connections are uused in 22 small scale tests, and only weld
connections are used in large scale tests. In addition, in small scale tests, there are two possibilities of
erecting EMP to the test frame corresponding to two directionss of EMP noted by ‘sens1’ and ‘sens2’ in
Table 1. This is graphically explained in Figure 5.
1102
Table 1 – Details of all testing small sscale specimens

Specimens LD(mm) CD(mm) A(mm) B(mm) EM type Type of tests Sens
1 51 27 3,5 3,0 Flatten 1-Mono 2-Cyclic 1
2 51 27 35 30 Flatten 1-Mono 2-Cyclic 2
5 51 23 32 30 Normal 1-Mono 2-Cyclic 1
Figure 5 – Two possibilities of erecting EMP to the testing fframes (left: sens1; right: sens2)
Table 2 – Details of all testing large scale specimens (in mm)

Specimens LD CD A B Type of EM Type of tests Dimensions
1 51 27 3,5 3,0 Flatten Monotonic 2590x2630
2 86 46 4,3 3,0 Flatten Monotonic 2590x2630
3 51 27 3,5 3,0 Flatten Cyclic 2590x2630
4 86 46 4,3 3,0 Flatten Cyclic 2590x2630
4 TEST PROCEDURES
All tests are made according to ECCS – 1986 [3]. There aree two stages. The first one is a monotonic
test used to define the parameters of the cyclic tests, and the second one is to test EMS specimens in
cyclic loading.
5 EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS
5.1 Monotonic Test
Under monotonic loading the behaviour of specimens can bee divided into an elastic stage and a plastic
stage. The elastic range starts from the beginning of tests until reaching yield displacement. These yield
deformations range from 0,12% drift to 0,18% drift in small scaale and from 0,9% to 0,99% in large scale
tests. In plastic ranges, the section area of bars reduces andd the slope of force-displacement curves
decreases corresponding to the degradation of the stiffness. In ssmall scale tests, there are four couples of
tested EMP. In a couple, the EM profile is the same, but the ereecting direction is different as in Figure 5.
Because of this difference, yield displacements, yield forces, ulltimate displacements and ultimate forces
1103
of each specimen are slightly different. In all the specimens, there are some discrete positions having
visible out-of-plane deformations. They are different from one to others, and become clearer after rather
low shear forces are applied. The buckling shapes, as shown in Figure 6, are the same for all tested EMP.
There is no buckle of individual bar observed from the beginniing to the end of the test. The first broken
bars observed in all tests are located at the diagonal corners oppposite to the force application points of the
testing frame. Although some bars are broken, the sheets keepp carrying shear forces. After each bar is
broken the force is suddenly reduced and then increased until thhe EMP is completely broken. There is no
failure at the connections observed in all tests. Small scale teests showed that the normal type buckles
under low forces than the flattened type. In each EM type, thhe ultimate forces are proportional to the
section area of bars and inversely proportional to the voids of the sheets. The initial stiffness of normal
types is much lower than that of flattened types. Although ultim mate forces in normal type specimens are
less than those in flattened types, the corresponding displacemeents in normal types are much greater than
that in flattened types. Figure 7 and 8 show the force-drift in small and large scale tests.Table 3 and 4
show the results in both small and large scale tests.
mall and large scale tests

Figure 6 – Global buckling of specimens – sm
Test results of A51_27_35_30 sens 1 - small scale specimens M

Monotonic behaviour of tests on A86_46_43_30 - large scale specimens
ϭϮϬ
100
ϭϬϬ
80
Shear forces (kN)
ϴϬ
60
Forces(kN)
ϲϬ
40
ϰϬ
20
ϮϬ
0
Ϭ
0 5 10 15 20 25 Ϭ Ϭ͕Ϯ Ϭ͕ϰ Ϭ͕ϲ Ϭ͕ϴ ϭ ϭ͕Ϯ ϭ͕ϰ ϭ͕ϲ ϭ͕ϴ Ϯ
Displacements (mm) Drift(%)
Test results of A51_27_35_30 sens 1 Test results of A51_27_35_30 sens 2
Monotonic behaviour of A86_46_43_30
Figure 7 – Force–drift curve in monotonic tests and Figure 8 – Force–drift curves in monotonic tests
analytical models – small scale specimens – large scale specimens
Table 3 – Monotonic test results inn large scale
Specimens Yield Yield Displ. Yield U
Ultimate Ultimate Ultimate
force(KN) (mm) Drift (%) foorce (KN) Displ.(mm) Drift (%)
1 140 23 0,9 190,4 47,8 1,9
2 90 23,6 0,99 111,1 35,3 1,5
1104
Table 4 – Monotonic test results – Small scale

Specimens Yield force Yield Yield Drift Ultimate shear Ultimate Ultimate
(KN) Displ.(mm) (%) force (KN) Disp.(mm) Drift (%)
1 33,4 1,0 0,14 78,9 9,4 1,35
2 32,2 1,0 0,14 83,7 8,7 1,25
3 27,9 0,85 0,12 60,8 7,1 1,02
4 25,9 1,17 0,17 65,0 8,3 1,2
5 27,3 1,3 0,18 60,6 25,7 3,7
6 18,0 0,9 0,13 57,5 20,3 2,9
7 9,3 0,93 0,13 31,3 15,6 2,24
8 10,2 0,93 0,13 32,3 15,7 2,26
5.2 Cyclic Tests

All specimens behave elastically until reaching yield displacements, nearly the same as in monotonic
tests. In the elastic range, the behaviour of all specimens is not symmetric. When the displacements
become larger the hysteric loops are more symmetric. Initial out of plane deformations are clearly
observed in all specimens before testing. In some specimens, this becomes much clearer after low shear
forces are applied. Like in monotonic tests, all first broken bars, as shown in Figure 9 and 10, are located
at four corners of the testing frame and before being broken their section areas are considerably reduced.
The crack directions start at four corners and then progress to the centre of the sheets to form four crack
lines. In most cyclic tests, the maximum shear force is attained on the cycle on which the first broken bars
have appeared. During the first four cycles, the behaviour of the EMP is linear. From fifth cycle to the
end of the tests, the force – displacement loops have stable S-shapes, characterized by a strong pinching
due to the global instabilities of the EMP, which cause large degradation in stiffness of the sheets. Like in
monotonic tests, tension bands are developed in every cycle. At force reversal before redeveloping new
tension bands, the stiffness of the sheets is approximately equal to zero in the opposite diagonal. From the
beginning to the end of the tests, there has been no failure at the connections.
Table 5 – First four cycle results – small scale specimens

Specimens Yield forces Yield displacements Yield drifts
Monotonic Cyclic Monotonic Cyclic Monotonic Cyclic
1 33.4 30.4 1.0 1.01 0.14 0.15
2 32.2 31.1 1.0 1.02 0.14 0.15
3 27.9 20.2 0.85 0.88 0.12 0.13
4 25.9 24 1.17 1.10 0.17 0.15
5 27.3 23.4 1.3 1.01 0.18 0.15
6 18.0 19.0 0.9 1.00 0.13 0.15
7 9.3 10.1 0.93 1.20 0.13 0.17
8 10.2 11.0 0.93 1.29 0.13 0.19
Table 5 to 7 present the results of the tests in small scale. Hysteretic behaviour of EMP is shown in
Figure 11 and 12. As shown in Table 5, yield parameters of flattened type specimens in the monotonic
stage are approximately equal to that in the cyclic stage. This is not true for normal types, especially when
the voids of EMP are large (specimens 7 and 8). In addition, the number of cycles in hysteretic behaviour
of flattened expanded metal types is greater than that of normal types as presented in Table 6 and 7. It is
also observed that out of plane deformations at failure of normal type specimens are much greater than
those of flattened specimens, and pinching effects on the hysteretic behaviour are much larger for normal
type specimens than for flattened type specimens. Table 8 to 10 show the results in large scale tests.
1105
Table 6 – Cyclic testing results in comparison with in monotonic tests of small scale specimens
Specimens Ultimate forces Ultimate Ultimate drifts Number of
Monotonic Cyclic Monotonic Cyclic Monotonic Cyclic cycles(cycles)
1 78,9 56,0 9,4 9,8 1,35 1.41 23
2 83,7 74,0 8,7 9,7 1,25 1,40 14
3 60,8 42,5 7,1 8,7 1,02 1,30 20
4 65,0 43,3 8,3 9,3 1,2 1,34 11
5 60,6 15,5 25,7 20,9 3,7 3,0 32
6 57,5 40,5 20,3 20,4 2,9 3,0 12
7 31,3 23,2 15,6 14,5 2,24 2,1 11
8 32,3 28,9 15,7 14,5 2,26 2,1 14
Table 7 – Maximum shear forces in cyclic tests and correspondiing displacements – small scale specimens
Specimens Cyclic ultimate shear Cyclic corresponding Cyclic corresponding Number of
1 71,6 8,3 1,2 20
2 -75,6 -16,9 2,4 16
3 -48,2 -20,2 2,9 26
4 -49,3 -14,8 2,1 13
5 -48 -7,3 1,1 14
6 -45 -7 1,0 10
7 27 9,3 1,33 8
8 -28 -10,8 1,56 12
Figure 9 – Crack line and broken bars in small scale Figure 100 – Crack line and broken bars in large scale
Table 8 – First four cycle results of specimens with weldedd connections – large scale specimens
Specimens Monotonic Monotonic Monotonic F
Forces at Displacements at Drift at
yield force yield yield Drift yiellding(KN) yielding (mm) yielding
(KN) Disp.(mm) (%) cycle (%)
3 140 23 0,9 140,7 22,4 0,89
4 90 23,6 0,99 93,4 23,1 0,97
Table 9 – Cyclic testing results in comparison with in monnotonic tests of large scale specimens
Specimens Ultimate forces Ultimate displacements Ultimate drifts Number of
Monotonic Cyclic Monotonic Cyclic Monotonic Cyclic cycles(cycles)
3 190,4 195 47,8 42,4 1,9 1,8 8
4 111,1 109 35,3 35,4 1,5 1,51 8
1106
Table 10 – Maximum shear forces in cyclic tests and corressponding displacements – large scale
Specimens Cyclic ultimate Cyclic corresponding C
Cyclic corresponding Number of cycles
shear forces (KN) displacements (mm) drifts (%) (cycles)
1 195 42,4 1,8 8
2 109 35,4 1,51 8
Hysteric behaviour of A86_46_43_30
ϴϬ
ϯϬ
Forces(kN)
ͲϮϬ
ͲϳϬ
ͲϭϮϬ
ͲϲϬ ͲϰϬ ͲϮϬ Ϭ ϮϬ ϰϬ ϲϬ
Displacements(mm)
H
Hysteric behaviour of A86_46_43_30 Monotonic behaviour of A86_46_43_30
Figure 11 – Hysteretic behaviour of flattened type

Figure 12 – Hysteretic behaviour in large scale tests
specimens – welded connections – small scale tests
6 SUMMARY OF OBSERVATIONS
An experimental test program has been carried out on sm mall scale and large scale of un-stiffened
EMP. The correlation between the analytical model and monotoonic tests is not constant. It may be that a
simple tension band does not represent correctly the monotonic behaviour of the sheets. Because under
rather low shear forces the sheets are globally buckled, the conntribution of compression diagonal to the
resistance of sheets can be neglected. The hysteretic loops of alll specimens are S-shaped due to pinching
effects, but they are stable. The displacement ductility of all speecimens is largely different, ranging from
10 to 20. Pinching effects on all specimens caused the degradattion of stiffness of the sheets. This results
in a smaller enclosed area under the hysteretic curve and, thereefore, a lower amount of energy absorbed
by the system during successive cycles. The deflection requiredd to redevelop the tension field correspond
to the yielding displacements experienced by the sheets on thee previous cycles. In both monotonic and
cyclic phases of the tests, all sheets buckle at very low shear forcces. Some specimens are globally buckled
before testing. Furthermore it is observed that normal types of ssmall EMP specimens buckle more easily
than flattened types. The first broken bars observed in both m monotonic and cyclic phases of tests are
located near one of four corners, and the crack lines then deveelop to the centre of the sheets. No bar is
locally buckled in monotonic tests. In almost cyclic tests, the m maximum shear forces have been attained
on the cycle on which first broken bar has been observed. Thhe maximum shear forces of small EMP
specimens in monotonic tests are dependent on the voids of the sheets. With nearly the same voids,
ultimate shear forces of flattened type specimens are mucch greater than those of normal types.
Nevertheless, it is observed that maximum displacements of flaattened types are much less than those of
normal types and the ductility of normal types are much greater than that of flattened types.
7 CALIBRATIONS OF THE MODELS ON TESTS

As observed from the tests, all EMP loaded in shear behavve in a very ductile and stable way. Their
behaviour is similar to that of steel plate shear wall (SPSW) useed in US, Canada and Japan to seismically
upgrade structures. Therefore it is possible to envisage the use o f EMP to retrofit or upgrade structures for
seismic actions. The test results provide useful information, but are not enough to represent the behaviour
1107
of all other types of EMP. To apply EMP to existing RC-MFR, it is necessary to develop a simplified
model for EMP loaded in shear. FINELG code, a full nonlinear code developed at University of Liege, is
used to model EMP. Each bar of a rhomb shape stitch is modelled as a 3D beam with warping at the
middle of the beam being taken into account. As clearly seen from the tests, there are only global
buckling of EMP and no buckling of an individual bar, so in the model buckling of each bar is neglected.
Material properties of EMP are exploited from tensile tests of bars. Figure 13 and 14 present the
behaviour of EMP in the tests and numerical simulations. It can be seen that results from numerical
simulations and tests fit well together.
Comparison of tests and numerical simulations of A51_27_35_30 sens 1 - small scale tests Comparison of tests and numerical simulations on test models
80
100
60
80 40
Shear forces (kN)
20
Force(KN)
60
0
40 -20
-40
20
-60
-80
0 -18 -15 -12 -9 -6 -3 0 3 6 9 12 15 18
0 5 10 15 20 25 Displacements(mm)
Displacements (mm) Static Monotonic Curve of Specimen A86_46_43_30 sens 2 in compression Sta tic Hysteretic Curve of Specimen A86_46_43_30 sens 2
Static Monotonic Curve of Specimen A86_46_43_30 sens 2 in tension Numerica l Sumulation with monotonic loa ding in tension
Test results of A51_27_35_30 sens 1 Numerical simulations A51_27_35_30 sens 1
Test results of A51_27_35_30 sens 2 Numerical simulations A51_27_35_30 sens 2

Numerica l Sumula tion with cyclic loa ding Numerica l Sumulation with monotonic loa ding in compression

Figure 13 – Comparison of behaviour between tests Figure 14 – Comparison of behaviour between tests
and numerical simulations in monotonic loading and numerical simulations in cyclic loading
8 PERSPECTIVES
The next steps of the research on expanded metal material are:
- To improve the analytical model representing Expanded Metal Panel behaviour.
- To make numerical simulations of EMP of all dimensions under cyclic loading and seismic
excitations with representation of the hysteretic behaviour of expanded metal sheets.
- To model RC-MRF with and without EMP.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research has been made possible thanks to funding from the French Community of Belgium –
Macromousse Project and to a funding of the People’s Republic of Viet Nam.
REFERENCES
[1] Métal Déployé Belge s.a, ‘Le catalogue Métal Déployé’, édition 10/2003
[2] E. Pecquet, S.Cescotto, ‘Mechanical behaviour of expanded metal sheets: critical and ultimate loads
of square and rectangular sheets loaded in shear’, 7th National Congress on theoretical and Applied
Mechanics, May 2006.
[3] ECCS 1986 - Recommended Testing Procedure for Assessing the Behaviour of Structural Steel
Elements under Cyclic Loads
[4] Phung Ngoc Dung, André Plumier - ‘Experiments of expanded metal panels under shear loading’ –
9th National Congress on theoretical and Applied Mechanics – May 2009.
[5] FINELG – Nonlinear Finite Analysis Program – University of Liege – Version 8.5 – 15/05/2002
1108
ANALYSIS OF CONTACT BUCKLING IN BUILT-UP COLD-FORMED

STEEL BEAMS ASSEMBLED BY LASER WELDING
F. Portioli*, O. Mammana*, G. Di Lorenzo** and R. Landolfo*
* Dept. of Constructions and Mathematical Methods in Architecture

University of Naples “Federico II”, Italy
e-mails: fportiol@unina.it, o.mammana@unina.it, landolfo@unina.it
** Dept. of Design Rehabilitation and Control of Civil Structures
University of Chieti-Pescara “G. d’Annunzio”, Italy
e-mail: g.dilorenzo@unich.it
Keywords: Finite element analysis, built-up members, contact buckling, cold-formed steel.
Abstract. To investigate the effects of contact interactions on local buckling of a built-up cold-formed
steel member assembled by laser welding a finite element model was developed. The numerical model
was validated against the experimental results of a four point bending test on a full scale specimen. A
good agreement with test data was observed both in terms of ultimate bending strength and deformed
shape at collapse. The calibrated finite element model was used to estimate the effects on buckling
resistance of contact forces between the parts of the beam by varying the connection spacing on the
flanges. As a main result, it was shown that contact interactions influence remarkably the ultimate
strength of the beam and that their effects decrease with decreasing spacing of connections.
1 INTRODUCTION
The study presented in this paper is a part of the research activities carried at the University of Naples
aimed at developing a special type of built-up cold-formed beam using laser welding as a connecting
system.
The member is composed of double C-sections back-to-back, which form an I section beam with
hollow flanges. The two C-profiles are connected with laser welds on the web and on the flanges of the
beam. Two reinforcing plates are placed inside the top and bottom hollow flanges of the I-section, in
order to improve the load bearing capacity and to provide an additional connection system between the
two C-profiles. The shape of the beam is also characterized by intermediate and edge flange stiffeners,
circular web beads and web openings.
The prediction of the flexural and shear strength of developed beam depends on several parameters
and involves material and geometric non-linearities as well as contact interactions. One of the most
important parameters influencing the bending capacity of the beam is the connection spacing. The
strength to local buckling which occurs between laser welds is strictly related to spacing. Connection
arrangements should be determined in order to avoid early buckling phenomena and on the basis of
technological and economical requirements.
It is clear that varying the spacing of connection the influence of contact interaction among the
different parts of the developed beam changes. The analysis of buckling and post-buckling behavior of
considered built-up cross section is quite difficult from the analytical point of view. Several studies can
be found in the literature related to the assessment of contact buckling. In general, the results presented in
these studies are relevant to unilaterally constrained plates and assume that the type of constraint is rigid
1109
F. Portioli et al.
[1, 2]. On the contrary, the interactions in the beam which is considered in this work involve contacts
between deformable surfaces with different boundary conditions.
To investigate the load bearing capacity of the members, four-point bending tests were carried out on
full-scale prototypes. According to a specific testing program, the beams were manufactured with
different spacing of connections along the flanges in order to evaluate the effects of weld configuration
on the load bearing capacity. The results of this activity were described in [3].
In order to support experimental tests and to assess the effects of contact buckling on the selected
beams, a numerical investigation was carried out.
The results of a preliminary numerical analysis carried out on a finite element model implemented in
ANSYS have been presented in [4]. In this case only one half of the cross section of the selected beam
was simulated since a symmetric behavior of the specimen under bending load was assumed along
transversal direction and symmetric buckling modes were considered. The developed finite element
models were relevant to the tested beams, with different spacing and arrangements of connections on the
flanges.
In this paper, the results of a new model developed in ABAQUS are presented. The aim of the
analysis was to assess the influence of interactions in contact buckling on the flexural strength of the
beam for higher values of the spacing than previously considered by using a geometric model with full
cross-section.
2 THE FINITE ELEMENT MODEL

The FE model of built-up beam assembled by laser welding was implemented in the ABAQUS finite
element software package [5]. The details of the used modeling approach are given in the following.
2.1 Geometric model
A parametric generation of the model of the beam was carried out by using the scripting language.
To reduce computational time, only a part of the beam under uniform bending moment in the four
point test was modeled. The length of the model is 900 mm. The cross-section depth H is 300 mm and the
flange width B is 200 mm. The thickness t of the C-profiles obtained through cold forming process of
steel sheets is equal to 2.0 mm. The nominal thickness of the reinforcing plates placed inside the hollow
flanges is 6.0 mm and the width is 150.0mm. The depth of flange stiffeners is 38.0mm. The spacing of
circular web beads is 600.0mm. The external and internal radius are 100.0 and 70.0 mm, respectively.
The geometric dimensions of the web beads and flange stiffeners were assigned according to previous
experimental studies carried out on MH MLC assembled with mechanical fasteners [6].
Figure 1: The finite element model of the beam.
1110
F. Portioli et al.
S4R elements were used to model cold-formed sheets and steel plates. The used mesh size is 15.0
mm.
2.2 Material modeling

The material model used for steel sheets and reinforcing plates was elastic-perfectly plastic. The
selected plasticity model is based on von Mises yield surface with associated plastic flow. The assumed
Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio were 210000 N/mm2 and 0.3 respectively. The average yield
strength was assumed equal to 320.0MPa. The effects of cold bending and rolling were neglected in the
present study.
2.3 Modeling of laser welds

The profiles were connected by means of laser welds with nominal thickness tw = 1.5 mm and with
lengths lw equal to 20.0 mm and 30.0 mm along the web and the flanges, respectively. The selected
spacing of connections is 150.0mm and the arrangement on the flanges is in line.
The configuration of laser welds is illustrated in Fig. 2.
The connections were modeled using the mesh-independent fastener capability. Connector elements
CONN3D2 were used to define fasteners. To implement the connections, two attachments points at each
end of laser welds were considered with the exception of welds around the circular holes, which were
modeled with a single attachment point.
Rigid behavior was assumed for connections and no rotational stiffness was considered in the
analysis.
The motion of the fastening point was coupled to the motion of the nodes in a region of influence by
a distributed coupling constraint. To assign the group of nodes on the surfaces near the fastening point a
radius of influence of 10.0 was set. The default CONTINUUM coupling method was selected. The
method couples the translation and rotation of each fastening point to the average translation of the group
of coupling nodes on each of the fastened surfaces. The weighting method for the distributed coupling
constraints created was UNIFORM.
Figure 2: Boundary conditions and attachments points defined for the definition of laser welds.
2.4 Contact modeling
Surface-to-surface general contact capability in ABAQUS was selected as modeling approach to take
into account the interactions at the flanges and at the web.
1111
F. Portioli et al.
In particular, three surface interactions were defined, that is between the reinforcing plate and the
upper and lower elements at the top flange and between the two sheets of the web (Fig. 3).
The discretization method was node-to-surface and small sliding formulation was used. Shell element
thicknesses were excluded in contact calculations. As for contact interaction properties, the frictionless
formulation was selected for tangential behavior. The hard contact and separation algorithm was used as
contact pressure-overclosure relationship to define the normal behavior. The augmented Lagrange
method was used as constraint enforcement model.
All other parameters were set to default values.
Figure 3: Detail of surfaces with contact interactions at the top flange and the web.
2.5 Loading and boundary conditions

The model was fixed at one end and loaded under displacement control applying a maximum rotation
equal to 0.03 rad at the free end of the beam. The free-end cross section behavior was assumed to be
rigid. With this aim, a kinematic coupling was applied at the relevant group of nodes, in order to
constrain both translational and rotational degrees of freedom to the rigid body motion of a reference
node placed at the center of cross-section.
2.6 Analysis type and nonlinear solution method

A non-linear static analysis including large-deflection effects was performed. The Newton Rapshon
method was selected for solution control.
Automatic stabilization algorithm was used for the solution of non-linear problem. To stabilize the
unstable quasi-static problem, an additional volume-proportional damping to the model was considered.
The applied damping factors were constant over the duration of the analysis and were calculated from a
dissipated energy fraction set equal to the default value of 2.0 × 10–4.
3 RESULTS OF NON-LINEAR STATIC ANALYSIS

In this section, the moment-rotation curves obtained from numerical analysis are presented and the
predicted buckling behavior is described.
The response of the beam determined by the implemented finite element model is given in Fig. 3.
1112
F. Portioli et al.
180
160 Full cross-section
140 Half cross-section
120
M [kNm]
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
Rotation [Rad]
Figure 4: Moment-rotation curves.
8.88x10-3 rad 8.95x10-3 rad 9.97x10-3 rad
Figure 5: Local and distortional buckling at different rotation rates. Deformation scale factor 10.0.
Figure 6: Stress distribution at collapse load. Deformation scale factor 2.0.
The maximum bending capacity is attained at the value of 169.8 kNm for a rotation of 8.90x10-3rad.
For higher values of rotation a sudden local buckling occurs.
1113
F. Portioli et al.
According to implemented finite element model, the buckling behavior of the model can be divided
in different phases, as reported in the following (Fig. 5).
The first phase corresponds to the buckling of the outer plates of the hollow flanges.
The second phase starts with the buckling of the reinforcing plate placed inside the hollow flange and
with the attainment of flexural capacity.
In the third phase the buckling of the web develops till the maximum applied rotation is achieved.
In Fig. 6 the stress distribution at collapse load is shown, with local buckling in outer plates of hollow
flange.
To evaluate the influence of symmetry on modeling results, a numerical analysis was carried out on a
model with half cross-section. Boundary conditions at the reinforcing plates were assumed accordingly.
The comparison with previous results shows that in this case symmetry assumption does not
influence the prediction of flexural strength (Fig. 3). This is due to the small thickness of the web. On the
contrary, a remarkable difference can be noted for the post-buckling behavior.
4 COMPARISON OF EXPERIMENTAL AND NUMERICAL RESULTS

The implemented finite element model was validated against the results of a four point bending test
that was carried out on a full scale specimen.
Table 1: Comparison of numerical and experimental results.
dw My,nom Mpl,nom Mu, Exp Mu, Exp/ Mu, Exp/ Mu,FE

Specimen ID
[mm] [kNm] [kNm] [kNm] My,nom Mpl,nom [kNm]
MH MLC 1 150 174.3 191.6 168.1 0.96 0.88 169.8
The experimental bending strength and a comparison with nominal yield and plastic moments are
reported in Table 1.
In particular, My,nom and Mpl,nom are the nominal yield and plastic moment calculated on the basis of
yield strength fy and considering the nominal gross cross-section properties. Mu,Exp is the bending moment
resistance determined by testing.
Figure 7: Comparison of numerical and experimental deformed shapes. Deformation scale factor 2.0.
1114
F. Portioli et al.
It can be noted that the bending strength predicted by the numerical model is in a very good
agreement with the flexural capacity measured from tests of 168.1 kNm.
The collapse mechanisms observed in the test is well fitted by deformed shape of the numerical
model as well (Fig. 7).
5 APPLICATION TO THE ANALYSIS OF CONTACT BUCKLING

To evaluate the effects of contact interactions on the flexural strength of the beam, a numerical
analysis of the model with no contact interactions was carried out for different spacing of connections.
The comparison of predicted buckling moments is reported in Table 2, where Mu,FE and M'u,FE are the
strengths with and without contact elements, respectively.
According to the results obtained from the implemented finite element model, the failure load is
highly influenced by contact forces between the cold-formed section and the reinforcing plate in the
hollow flange of the beams. In particular, contact effects increase the load bearing capacity of 39.8% for
spacing of welds along the flanges equal to 600.0mm.
Table 2: Comparison of numerical results for different connection spacings, with and without contact
elements.
Spacing of laser welds on
(Mu,FE -M'u,FE )/ M'u,FE (%)
the flanges dw (mm)
150.0 1.0
300.0 5.7
600.0 39.8
6 CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, a FE model of built-up cold formed steel beams assembled by laser welding has been
presented. The model was implemented in ABAQUS and was validated against experimental
investigation carried out on a full scale specimen.
The comparison with experimental tests showed a good agreement both in terms of ultimate bending
moment and buckling mode shapes. The numerical model was used to analyze the influence on local
buckling strength of contact forces between the cold-formed profile and the reinforcing plate assembled
in the hollow flange of the beams. The analysis showed that contact forces increase remarkably the
collapse load for considered welding configuration along the flanges and decrease with decreasing
spacing of connections.
Further developments of the present study include sensitivity analysis to geometrical and material
imperfections and the implementation of a full beam model of considered specimen under four point
bending test.
REFERENCES
[1] Chai, H., “Contact buckling and postbuckling of thin rectangular plates”. Journal of the Mechanics
and Physics of Solids 49 209–230, 2001.
[2] Ma, X., Butterworth, J.W., Clifton, C., “Compressive buckling analysis of plates in unilateral
contact”. International Journal of Solids and Structures 44 (9), 2852–2862, 2007.
1115
F. Portioli et al.
[3] Landolfo, R., Mammana, O., Portioli, F., Di Lorenzo, G., Guerrieri, M.R., “Laser welded built-up
cold-formed steel beams: Experimental investigations”. Journal of Thin-Walled Structures 46
(2008) 781– 791. Elsevier, 2008.
[4] Portioli, F., Mammana, O., Di Lorenzo, G., Landolfo, R., “Numerical analysis of local buckling in
built-up cold-formed steel beams assembled by laser welding”. In Proc. of Fifth Int. Conf. on
Coupled Instabilities in Metal Structures (CIMS2008), Sydney, Australia, 23-25 June 2008. Ed. K.
Rasmussen & T. Wilkinson. Sydney University Publishing Service, 2008.
[5] ABAQUS. “Theory manual”, Hibbit, Karlson and Sorenson, Inc, 2007.
[6] Portioli, F., Landolfo, R., Di Lorenzo, G. “Experimental and numerical study on the load bearing
capacity of innovative cold-formed steel beams”, Proc. of the XX CTA Conference, Ischia, Lacco
Ameno, 26-28 Sept. 2005. Ed. ACS ACAI SERVIZI srl, Milan, Italy, 2005.
1116
CROSS-SECTIONAL STABILITY OF STRUCTURAL STEEL
Mina S. Seif* and Benjamin W. Schafer*
* Johns Hopkins University

e-mails: mina.seif@jhu.edu, schafer@jhu.edu
Keywords: Local buckling, plate buckling coefficients, slenderness limits, finite strip analysis, finite
element analysis, cross section stability.
Abstract. The objective of this paper is to more fully understand local cross-section stability of hot-rolled
steel members and more accurately account for web-flange interaction to create a more robust method
for the design of high yield stress structural steel cross-sections that are locally slender. First, analytical
expressions for the elastic cross-section local buckling stress, including element interaction, of hot-rolled
steel structural shapes are provided. The expressions are based on plate buckling coefficients (k’s)
determined by finite strip analysis (FSA). The k’s from FSA are then compared to the values inherently
assumed in the U.S. (AISC) Specification, and significant differences are observed. Finally, a series of
nonlinear finite element analyses are conducted to compare three commonly used design methods for
locally slender steel beams and columns for the purpose of understanding and highlighting the
parameters that lead to divergence between the capacity predictions of the different design methods.
1 INTRODUCTION
Cross-section stability of structural steel and the local slenderness limits for a section to remain
compact are function of the yield stress. As new steels are introduced and yield stress increases the
potential for cross-section stability to control the strength also increases. Today, with the availability of
high and ultra-high yield strength steels, it is becoming uneconomical to continue avoiding the use of
locally slender cross-sections, which essentially ignores the beneficial post-buckling reserve that exists in
the local buckling modes. The objective of this ongoing effort towards a fuller understanding of hot-
rolled steel cross-sectional local stability, and a more accurate accounting of web-flange interaction, is to
create a more robust design method for high yield stress structural steel cross-sections that are locally
slender.
2 SLENDERNESS LIMITS OF STRUCTURAL STEEL
2.1 Overview
Finite strip analysis (FSA) is used to study and evaluate the slenderness limits that are currently
defined by design codes. These codes use a single slenderness limit for each type of element, indicating a
single value of elastic local buckling coefficient. Contrary to this, FSA results show plate buckling
coefficients fall in a wide range. Based on the FSA results a series of simple empirical equations were
developed to provide an approximate means of predicting the local plate buckling coefficients for all of
the section types under different loading conditions. The equations developed were used to construct a
proposed alternative to Table B4.1 in the AISC manual for analyzing local stability (2005 AISC manual
of steel construction [1]).
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Mina S. Seif et al.
2.2 AISC local buckling criteria

In this section the local buckling width-to-thickness limits of the AISC Specification are examined,
and a method provided for determining the assumed local plate buckling coefficients (k’s) inherent in the
AISC Specification. Currently, the AISC Specification defines, in Table B4.1, the local buckling criteria
in terms of width-to-thickness ratios, i.e., for an element of width b, and thickness, t:
b
O (1)
t
The elastic critical local buckling stress of this element is:
2 2
S 2E § t · S 2E § 1 ·
f cr k ¨ ¸ k ¨ ¸ (2)

12 1 Q 2 © b ¹
12 1 Q 2 © O ¹
where E is Young’s modulus, v is Poisson’s ratio, and k is the local plate buckling coefficient which
accounts for the boundary conditions and loading. Plate slenderness, (e.g., see [2]) is expressed as:
D f y / f cr (3)
where fy is the yield stress. Note the usual notation for plate slenderness is O, but AISC uses this symbol
for b/t, so the symbol D has been adopted here for plate slenderness. The AISC compactness limits, Or
(associated with Dr) define the non-slender/slender element limits for columns or the non-
compact/slender element limit for beams as:
§b·
Or ¨ ¸ Er E / f y (4)
© t ¹r
where Er is given for different element types and loading conditions in AISC Table B4.1. The inter-
relationship between the plate buckling coefficient, k, plate slenderness limit, Dr, and width-to-thickness
ratio coefficient Er may be found by substituting fcr from (2) into (3) and solving for the (b/t)r limit of (4):
S2 §b·
k Dr 2 E / f y ¨t¸ (5)

12 1 Q 2 © ¹r
Using (4) and solving for k results in:
k
E r 2 12 1 Q
2
(6)
Dr2 S2
Implying that, if the plate slenderness limit D r is known, and given E r is provided (from AISC Table
B4.1) then the k value assumed by the AISC Specification may be back-calculated.
The plate slenderness limits Dr are generally determined from testing. For compression AISC
employs an Dr=0.7 (which itself implies fcr=2fy) (e.g., see [3]). This agrees well with Winter’s equation,
employed extensively in cold-formed steel design (2007 AISI manual [4]), where Dr=0.673. The k value
assumed in AISC may now be found for any section, for example, consider the case of compression in
webs of doubly symmetric I-shaped sections, E r is 1.49 (from AISC’s Table B4.1), which will yield a k
value of 5.0 when using Dr of 0.7; which is about one-third of the way between simply supported (k =
4.0) and fixed (k = 6.97) boundary conditions.
For flexural members, much less is provided in the literature about the assumed plate slenderness
limit, Dr. The best discussion the authors have been able to find is provided in relation to plate girders
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Mina S. Seif et al.
where the criteria Dr=1.0 is clearly employed (which implies fcr=fy) [Salmon et al. 2009]. For doubly
symmetric I-shaped sections in flexure Table B4.1 provides a Er of 5.7, assuming Dr=1.0 results in a k of
36, which is about 80% between the range of simply supported (k = 23.9) and fixed (k = 39.6) boundary
conditions, and this k is consistent with the discussions in White [5] and Salmon et al. [3]. It is worth
noting that cold-formed steel design [4] uses Dr=0.673 for elements in flexure as well as in compression.
2.3 Local buckling finite strip analysis
FSA was performed on all sections in the AISC shape database (v3) from the Manual of Steel
Construction (excluding pipe sections) (AISC 2005 [1]). The analysis was completed using CUFSM
version 3.12 [6]. Sections were simplified to their centerline geometry (the increased width in the k-zone
was thus ignored) and analyzed under different loading conditions: axial compression, positive and
negative major-axis bending, and positive and negative minor-axis bending.
The cross-section elastic local buckling stress, fcr , is found from the finite strip analysis. The local
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buckling stress is converted into local plate buckling coefficients (k’s) for comparison to existing design
provisions and for the development of the new approximate design expressions as follows. The plate
buckling solution for the flange is:
2
S 2E § tf ·
f crb kf ¨ ¸ (7)

12 1 Q 2 ©b ¹
where kf is the flange (horizontal element) local plate buckling coefficient, b is the unsupported flange
width (i.e., ½ of bf for a W-section, bf is the total flange width), tf is the flange thickness, E is the
Modulus of elasticity, and v is Poisson’s ratio. Setting fcrb = fcr (from the FSA) and solving for kf:
A
kf f cr A

12 1 Q 2 § b
¨
·
¸
2
(8)
S 2 E ¨© t f ¸
¹
Similarly, the web buckling coefficient, kw, can be found, where:
2
S 2 E § tw ·
f crh kw ¨ ¸ (9)

12 1 Q 2 © h ¹
and setting fcrh = fcr , we can solve for kw as:

A
kw f cr A

12 1 Q 2 § h ·2
¨ ¸ (10)
S 2 E ¨© tw ¸¹
where kw is the web (vertical element) local plate buckling coefficient, h is the distance between the
centerline of the flanges less the fillet, and tw is the web thickness. Using the full cross-section elastic
local buckling stress, fcr , the plate buckling coefficients resulting from (8) and (10) will thus include web-
A
flange interaction.
2.4 Finite strip analysis results
Consider the AISC W-sections as an example; the flange plate buckling coefficient, kf, including
web-flange interaction can be calculated from each finite strip analysis from (8). For the AISC W-
sections in pure compression, the resulting kf’s are provided in Figures 1(a) and (b). Figure 1(a) highlights
that the flange plate buckling coefficient is not independent of the web slenderness h/tw, i.e., web-flange
interaction is real and unavoidable. Figure 1(b) shows that if both web and flange slenderness are
considered, relatively simple functional relationships may exist for predicting when local buckling
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Mina S. Seif et al.
occurs. The web plate buckling coefficients are provided for the W-sections in pure compression in
Figures 1(c) and 1(d). The web plate buckling coefficient is dependent on the flange slenderness, but
again a simple combination of slenderness may adequately describe the plate buckling coefficient, as
shown in Figure 1(d). The same observations are true for the different loading cases for all types of
sections.
0.8 6
0.6
4
flange, kf
web, k w
0.4
2
0.2
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
web slenderness h/tw flange slenderness bf /(2tf )
(a) kf vs. h/tw (c) kw vs bf/2tf

0.8
6
2 2
k f =k w (t w /h) (bf /2tf )
0.6
4
0.4
kf
kw
0.2 2
k w =[1.5./((h/t w )(2tf /bf ))2.5+0.18]-1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
(h/t w )(2tf /bf )
(h/tw )(2t f /bf )
(b) kf vs. h/tw ·2tf/bf (d) kw vs. h/tw ·2tf/bf
Figure 1: Flange and web local buckling coefficients for w-sections under axial loading.
2.5 Comparison to AISC specification limits
Comparison of the AISC assumed k values with those from the FSA indicates (a) the k values fall in a
wide range and use of a single k value is bound to be quite approximate, and (b) in some cases AISC falls
near the mean k value predicted from finite strip analysis in other cases it may be significantly higher or
lower than the mean. For example, for tees the AISC values are quite near the mean k values, while for
W-sections the cases of the flange in flexure and the web in compression are near the mean k values,
while the cases of the web in flexure and the flange in compression are significantly higher
(unconservative) compared with the mean finite strip k values. To judge the actual impact of the selected
k values they must be taken in the context of the AISC Specification, for instance, a high k value for an
unstiffened element may have little impact given that post-buckling of slender unstiffened elements is
essentially ignored in the AISC Specification. Nonetheless, the lack of a consistent rational basis for the
assumed k values employed in the AISC Specification would seem to be an impediment to advancing
prediction of local buckling phenomenon. For a complete comparison and histograms of the k values see
[7].
2.6 Development plate buckling coefficients expressions
As shown in Figure 1 simple functional relations exist such that the local plate buckling coefficients
can be expressed as a function of section geometry. Further, note that using the same cross-section elastic
local buckling stress, fcr , instead of the individual fcrb and fcrh, implies that (7) and (9) must be equal, thus
A
the flange and web local buckling coefficients are related by:
2 2 2 2
§t · §b · § tf · § h ·
kf kw ¨ w ¸ ¨ ¸ or kw k f ¨ ¸ ¨¨ ¸¸ (11)
© h ¹ ¨© t f ¸¹ © b ¹ © tw ¹
Due to (11) only one local plate buckling coefficient needs to be determined for a cross-section.
Therefore, for each loading case, either kf or kw was selected and a series of simple empirical equations
were developed to provide an approximate means of predicting the local plate buckling coefficients.
These equations represent a potential beginning for the evolution of Table B4.1 in the AISC Specification
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Mina S. Seif et al.
for analyzing local stability. Note that the k expressions were developed to best match the results
obtained from the FSA of the sections in the AISC shape database. Applying these expressions for
sections with dimensions falling outside the range of the current database will need further assessment for
accuracy. Finite strip analysis may still be used for sections or loading not covered herein. For a complete
list of the developed equations see [7].
3 COMPARISON OF DESIGN METHODS FOR LOCALLY SLENDER MEMBERS
3.1 Overview
A series of nonlinear finite element analyses are used to compare three commonly used design
methods for locally slender steel beams and columns. To aid the comparison of the available methods the
design strength formulas, for locally slender W-section beams and columns, are provided in a common
notation. The resulting design expressions highlight the prominent role of elastic cross-section stability as
the key parameter for strength prediction. A nonlinear finite element analysis parameter study, using
ABAQUS, is performed for the purpose of understanding and highlighting the parameters that lead to the
divergence between the capacity predictions of the different design methods.
3.2 Design methods
The design of locally slender steel cross-sections may be completed by a variety of methods, three of
which are examined in this study: (1) The AISC method, as embodied in the 2005 AISC Specification,
labeled AISC herein, (2) The AISI Effective Width Method from the main body of the 2007 AISI
Specification for cold-formed steel, labeled AISI herein, and, (3) The Direct Strength Method as given in
Appendix 1 of the 2007 AISI Specification, labeled DSM herein.
The AISC method uses the Q-factor approach to adjust the global slenderness in the inelastic regime
of the column curve to account for local-global interaction, and further uses a mixture of effective width
(for stiffened elements) and average stress (for unstiffened elements) to determine the final reduced
strength. The AISI method uses the effective width approach. In the AISI method the global column
curve is unmodified but the column area is reduced to account for local buckling in both stiffened and
unstiffened elements via the same effective width equation. Finally, the DSM uses a new approach where
the global column strength is determined and then reduced to account for local buckling based on the
local buckling cross-section slenderness.
To provide a more definitive comparison between these three methods the formulas are presented in a
common set of notation in Table 1. The format of presentation is modified from that used directly in the
respective Specifications so that (i) the methods may be most readily compared to one another and (ii) the
key input parameters are brought to light. It is noted that if the cross-section local buckling (fcr ) is used in
A
place of isolated plate buckling solutions (fcrb and fcrh) equations become even simpler.
The number of free parameters in slender column design is actually significantly less than one might
typically think. Based on Table 1, and performing a simple non-dimensional analysis, the parameters for
determining the column strength of an idealized W-section are:
AISC: Pn/Py = f (fe/fy, fcrb/fy, fcrh/fy, htw/Ag)
AISI: Pn/Py = f (fe/fy, fcrb/fy, fcrh/fy, htw/Ag or 2bftf/Ag)
DSM: Pn/Py = f (fe/fy, fcr /fy,)
A
The central role of elastic buckling prediction both globally (fe) and locally (fcrb, fcrh or fcr ) in determining
A
the strength of the column is clear. Further, the “direct” nature of the DSM approach is highlighted as
DSM only uses ratios of critical buckling values to determine the strength; where AISC and AISI still
involve cross-section parameters beyond determination of gross area and critical stress.
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Mina S. Seif et al.
Table 1 Comparison of column design equations for a slender W-section in a common notation
AISC Pn Ag f̂ n
Inputs to find Pn: °Qs Qa ( 0.658 )Q Q
s a( fe / f y )
f y if f e t 0.44Qs Qa f y
f̂ n ®
Ag = gross area °̄ 0.877 f e if f e 0.44Qs Qa f y
fe = global buckling stress
fy = yield stress ° 1.0 if f crb t 2 f y
°
fcrb = flange local buckling stress ° fy 3
Qs ®1.415 0.59 if f y f crb 2 f y
fcrh = web local buckling stress ° f crb 5
htw/Ag = web/gross area ° f crb 3
° 1.1 if f crb d f y
fy 5
Comments: shifts the slenderness in the global column ¯
curve in the inelastic range only, assumes that 1.0 if f crh ! 2 f
° § ·
unstiffened elements (flange) should be referenced to fy, Qa ®1 ¨1 0.9 f crh §¨1 0.16 f crh ·¸ ¸ ht w if f d 2 f
° ¨ f ¨© f ¸¹ ¸ Ag
crh
only applies an effective width style reduction to ¯ © ¹
stiffened elements (the web), includes an iteration for f
Pn
~ f̂ n determined with Qs Qa 1
web stress f. Qa Ag
AISI - Effective Width Pn Aeff f n

Inputs to find Pn: °( 0.658 )( fe / f y ) f y if f e t 0.44 f y
Ag = gross area fn ®
°̄0.877 f e if f e 0.44 f y
Aeff 4Ub bt f U h ht w
fy = yield stress
fcrb = flange local buckling 1 if f crb t 2.2 f n
°§ · f crb
fcrh = web local buckling be Ubb where Ub ®¨1 0.22 f crb ¸
°¨ fn ¸ f if f crb 2.2 f n
btf = flange area ¯© ¹ n
htw = web area 1 if f crh t 2.2 f n

Comments: no shift in global column curve, effective °§ · f crh
he U h h where Uh ®¨1 0.22 f crh ¸
width used for stiffened and unstiffened elements. °¨ fn ¸ f if f crh 2.2 f n
¯© ¹ n
AISI - DSM Pn Aeff f n

Inputs to find Pn: °( 0.658 )( f e / f y ) f y if f e t 0.44 f y
Ag = gross area fn ®
°̄0.877 f e if f e 0.44 f y
fy = yield stress Aeff UAg
fcrA = local buckling stress 1 if f crA t 1.66 f n
Comments: similar to AISI but reductions on whole °§ 0.4
·§ f 0 .4
U ®¨1 0.15§¨ f crA ·
¸¸ ¸¨ crA ·
¸¸ if f crA 1.66 f n
section and “effective width” equation modified. °¨ ¨ f ¸¨© f n
¯© © n ¹ ¹ ¹
AISC and AISI/DSM use different formats for the global (lateral-torsional buckling) provisions of
beams. However, for no moment gradient (Cb = 1) the resulting expressions are actually quite similar
with the exception that AISI only provides capacities up to first yield (My) for sections subject to lateral-
torsional buckling. For AISI/DSM local-global interaction in beams is treated in the same conceptual
manner as for columns; not so for AISC, which uses nothing like the Q-factor approach, and instead
provides direct reductions based on the flange and web plate slenderness (see [5]). A result of AISC’s
approach (i.e., not adopting one consistent philosophy for local-global interaction in beams) some
unusual changes and discontinuities in strength prediction occur as local slenderness is varied.
3.3 FE parameter study
A nonlinear finite element (FE) analysis parameter study was carried out for the purpose of
understanding and highlighting the parameters that lead to the divergence between the capacity
predictions of the different design methods under axial and bending loads. The FE analysis was
performed on both short members where only local buckling modes exist, and long members, where the
locally slender cross-sections may interact with global (flexural, lateral-torsional, etc.) buckling modes.
Based on the authors’ judgment, AISC W14 and W36 sections were selected for the study as representing
“common” sections for columns and beams in high-rise buildings. The W14x233 section is
approximately the average dimensions for the W14 group and the W36x330 for the W36 group.
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Mina S. Seif et al.
Geometric variation: To examine the impact of slenderness in the local buckling mode, and the
impact of web-flange interaction in I-sections, four series of parametric studies are performed under axial
and bending loading: W14FI: a W14x233 section with a modified Flange thickness, that varies
Independently from all other dimensions, W14FR: a W14x233 section with variable Flange thickness,
but the web thickness set so that the Ratio of the flange-to-web thickness remains the same as the original
W14x233, W36FR: a W36x330 section with variable Web thickness, but the flange thickness set so that
the Ratio of the flange-to-web thickness remains the same as the original W36x330, and W36WI: a
W36x330 section with a variable Web thickness, that varies Independently from all other dimensions.
Modeling: ABAQUS was used to perform the analysis. Members were modeled using S4 shell
elements. The choice of element type and density are based on a comparison study for different FE
elements reported in [8]. All sections are modeled with globally pinned, warping fixed boundary
conditions, and loaded via incremental displacements. The material model follows classical metal
plasticity. The classic residual stress distribution of Galambos and Ketter [9] is employed. Initial
geometric imperfections are added through linearly superposing a scaled local and a scaled global
eigenmode solution from a FSA performed on each section, using CUFSM. The local buckling mode is
scaled so that the maximum nodal displacement is equal to the greater of bf /150 or d/150, while the
global buckling mode is scaled so that the maximum nodal displacement is L/1000.
3.4 Results
The parametric study focuses on W14 and W36 sections, where through modification of element
thicknesses, the flange slenderness, and/or web slenderness are systematically varied (from compact, to
noncompact, to slender in the parlance of AISC). Due to limited space, as a sample, the results of the
parametric study are presented for each group, including comparisons to the AISC, AISI, and DSM
design methods for the stub columns in Figure 2. Results are plotted as a function of elastic local
slenderness of the cross-section: ¥fy/fcrl , determined by finite strip analysis. See [8] and [10] for full
A
results and discussion. Generally, results indicate that AISC is overly conservative when the flange is
slender; AISC’s assumption of little to no post-buckling reserve in unstiffened elements is not borne out
by the analysis. AISI’s effective width method is a reliable predictor; only for the beam studies does AISI
provide overly conservative solutions when the web is compact but the flange slender. DSM provides
reliable predictions when both flange and web slenderness vary together, but is overly conservative when
one element is significantly more slender than another.
W14FI W14FR
1 1 1 1
Pn/Py
Pn/Py
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
0 0 0 0
AISC 1 2 3 1 2 3
1 2 3 1 2 3
AISI (fy /fcrl)0.5
W36FR DSM W36WI
ABAQUS
1 1 1
AISC
1
0.5 AISI
Pn/P y
Pn/Py
0
0.5 0.5 0.5 DSM
123
ABAQUS
0 0 0
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
(fy /fcrl)0.5 (fy /fcrl)0.5 (fy /fcrl)0.5
4 study groups 3 design methods

Figure 2: Results of stub column parametric study
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Mina S. Seif et al.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Consideration of local buckling is an important part of the design of structural steel shapes. The
primary means for consideration of local buckling in the AISC Specification is the use of width-to-
thickness limits for each element of a cross-section. It is shown herein that this method assumes that a
unique plate buckling coefficient, or k value, exists for each element of a section, and that the web-flange
interaction is thus fixed. However, as demonstrated with finite strip analysis, the local plate buckling
coefficients vary widely for a given section and loading. Nonetheless, the variation in k may be expressed
as a function of the member geometry and loading and simple relations are provided for such k, which
include web-flange interaction. The developed expressions provide a potential first step towards
rationalizing the AISC Specification approach to local buckling limit states across the different sections.
The design of locally slender steel cross-sections may be completed by a variety of methods, yet the key
parameters are the elastic local (element, or member) buckling stress and the material yield stress. A
parametric study conducted with nonlinear finite element analysis is used to examine the performance of
available design methods as a function of local cross-section slenderness. The results, presented only in
brief here, demonstrate that the AISC methodology may be overly conservative, and provide a basis for
improving the Direct Strength Method and its application to structural steel sections.
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors of this paper gratefully acknowledge the support of the AISC, and the AISC Faculty
Fellowship program in this research. Any views or opinions expressed in this paper are those of the
authors.
REFERENCES
[1] AISC, Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, American Institute of Steel Construction,
Chicago, IL. ANSI/ASIC 360-05, 2005.
[2] Von Karman, T., Sechler, E.F., and Donell, L.H., “Strength of Thin Plates in Compression”,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers -Transactions- Applied Mechanics, 54(2), 53-56, 1932.
[3] Salmon, C.G., Johnson, J.S. and Malhas, F.A., “Steel structures: design and behavior: emphasizing
load and resistance factor design”, 5th edition, Pearson, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 2009.
[4] AISI, North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structures, American Iron
and Steel Institute, Washington, D.C., AISI-S100, 2007.
[5] White, D.W., “Unified Flexural Resistance Equations for Stability Design of Steel I-Section
Members: Overview”, Journal of Structural Engineering, 134(9), 1405-1424, 2008.
[6] Schafer, B.W., and Ádány, S., “Buckling analysis of cold-formed steel members using CUFSM:
conventional and constrained finite strip methods”, Proceedings of the Eighteenth International
Specialty Conference on Cold-Formed Steel Structures, Orlando, FL, 39-54, 2006.
[7] Seif, M.S. and Schafer, B.W., “Elastic buckling finite strip analysis of the AISC sections database
and proposed local plate buckling coefficients”, ASCE’s Structures Congress Proceedings, Austin,
TX, USA, 2009.
[8] Seif, M.S. and Schafer, B.W., “Finite element comparison of design methods for locally slender
steel beams and columns”, SSRC Stability Conference Proceedings, Phoenix, AZ, USA, 2009.
[9] Galambos, T.V. and Ketter, R.L., “Columns under combined bending and thrust”,, Journal
Engineering Mechanics Division, ASCE, 85, 1–30, 1959.
[10] Seif, M.S. and Schafer, B.W., “Design methods for local-global interaction of locally slender”,
SSRC Stability Conference Proceedings, Orlando, FL, USA, 2010.
1124
INFLUENCE OF HOLES ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF COLD-FORMED

STEEL SECTIONS UNDER COMPRESSION
M.M. Pastor, M. Casafont, F. Roure, J. Bonada and J. Noguera
Department of Strength of Materials and Structural Engineering

Escola Tècnica Superior d’Enginyeria Industrial de Barcelona (ETSEIB)
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC)
Av. Diagonal, 647, 08028 Barcelona
m.magdalena.pastor@upc.edu, miquel.casafont@upc.edu, francesc.roure@upc.edu
Keywords: Rack, Upright, Stability, Perforations.
Abstract. The uprights in a pallet-rack system are mono-symmetrical open cold-formed thin-walled steel
sections, with slots and holes along their length. The perforations are needed for connecting the beams
and the diagonals to the uprights. Due to their slenderness, the usual mode of failure of these members is
buckling. Depending on the member length, the form of buckling is (basically) local, distortional or
global. There are different ways of determining the actual strength of the uprights under compression:
experimental, analytical and numerical. In some of the analytical and numerical methods, the effect of
the perforations is taken into account by using an “effective thickness” of the section (instead of the true
thickness). The aim of this paper is to establish a means of determining this “effective thickness”, based
on the experimental tests performed on the same upright, with and without perforations. Analyses by FE
simulation are carried out on the same upright, with perforations, without perforations and real
thickness, and without perforations and “effective thickness”; and, finally, the “effective thickness” is
adjusted to obtain the same effect of reduction of strength as experimentally. The uprights tested and
simulated range from short column (250 mm) to long column (2600 mm). The FE analysis includes
material non-linearity and large displacements.
1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this paper is to analyse the influence of perforations on the behaviour of members subject
to compression.
With this purpose some pieces of upright directly formed from the non perforated sheet were
requested from a manufacturer. So perforations are the only different feature between the two series of
specimens (Fig. 1).
Ten units of 4 m length (total 40 m) of each series: rack section (RS) and the same but non perforated
section (NP) were supplied by the manufacturer. The profiles were cut at the following lengths (mm):
250, 400, 600, 800, 1000, 1200, 1500, 1800, 2200 and 2600 mm; 3 specimens each. Ten sets, of 3
specimens each, of different series have been tested and analysed.
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Main dimensions of the cross-section and perforations in the rack section (RS)
Figure 1: The uprights analysed.
Perforated cold-formed steel lipped C channel cross-sections have been analysed by Sputo & Tovar,
and Moen & Schafer [1, 2, 3, 4].
Axially loaded, C-shaped cold-formed steel studs have been analysed [1, 2] by using the provisions of
the Direct Strength Method (DSM). The Finite Strip Method (FSM) is used for determining the elastic
buckling stresses. The buckling curve and buckled shapes are provided by CUFSM (Cornell University
Finite Strip Method). To account for perforations three different models are developed: Solid web model,
equivalent-thickness model and perforated model. Solid web model is the base model for analysis and is
applicable to the calculation of local, distortional and longwave capacity. Mode interaction is analysed
and discussed; and the capacities predicted using the DSM for the limit states of longwave, distortional
and local buckling are compared to capacities calculated using the equations contained in the AISI
Specification. This research concludes that the solid web model is the most appropriate model for
determining longwave buckling strength, and the use of the equivalent thickness model is not
recommended in longwave buckling. The results from this study predict higher local buckling strengths
for the perforated model than the solid model.
Experimental tests and FE analysis on cold-formed steel lipped C channel columns with and without
pre-punched slotted web holes have been carried out by Moen and Schafer [3]. Specimens have one
slotted web hole at the mid-height of the short column (610 mm length), and two slotted web holes in the
intermediate length columns (1219 mm). Eigenbuckling analysis is performed using ABAQUS. Buckled
shapes (eigenmodes) and buckling loads (eigenvalues) for specimens with and without holes are
compared. It is concluded that the presences of slotted holes cause a slight decrease in the ultimate
compressive strength and have influence on the post-peak response and column ductility.
Simplified methods for approximating the critical elastic buckling loads of cold-formed steel
members with holes have been developed and summarized by Moen and Schafer [4]. Approximations are
verified using FE models with explicit holes. Global buckling of members with holes can be
approximated using classical closed-formed analytic expressions by reducing cross-section properties.
Distortional and local buckling are approximated using modifications to FSM.
An empirical method for the treatment of perforations in the Generalised Beam Theory (GBT) has
been developed by Davies [5]. This method is applied onto uprights in pallet rack structures.
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2 EXPERIMENTAL TESTING
Tensile test coupons were extracted from the sheet and tested to determining the actual strength of the
material. The yield stress fy is 423 MPa and the ultimate stress fu is 491 MPa. Thickness is t= 1.83 mm.
The experimental set-up to test the upright specimens in compression has the following features (Fig.
2):
- At both ends of the specimen a special load plate is clamped. The plate is very stiff (carbon steel 30
mm thickness) and distributes the load uniformly over all the section. It is clamped to the section,
fixing the web and the flanges with bolts and pads to distribute the pressure. It has been proofed that
this special plate introduces in the end section of the specimen a local restraint, equivalent to the one
introduced by welding the plate to the section [6].
- Both end plates are ball-pinned, but with torsional restraint. The ball position defines the force line.
The relative position of the ball to the section can be changed by means of gauges, in steps of 0.5 mm,
and so the optimal position of the force line (passing through the effective centre of gravity) can be
found.
- With a previous set of test on stub columns (short columns), the position of the effective centre of
gravity of the perforated (RS) and non perforated (NP) section has been determined.
- Force and displacement data have been recorded during tests.
Figure 2: Experimental set-up.
The maximum loads obtained are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1: Experimental results (average of 3 specimens).

Collapse Collapse
Length (mm) Pult,RS (N) Pult,NP (N)
mode mode
250 144610 L 181160 L+(SD)
400 131913 SD 160143 SD
600 129305 SD 141357 SD
800 112097 SD 134200 SD
1000 109047 SD 131683 SD
1200 102797 SD(FT) 129940 AD+(FT)
1500 95670 AD+FT 113760 AD+FT
1800 75943 (AD)+FT 95613 (AD)+FT
2200 47597 FT 65710 FT
2600 44890 FT 50370 FT
L: Local. SD/AD: Symmetric/Asymmetric Distortional. FT: Flexural-Torsional
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3 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

Numerical analyses are performed in such a way that experimental conditions are reproduced. The finite
element model reproduces the actual section. In the Rack Section models (RS) the perforations are introduced
with their actual geometry. Material is described by a multi-linear elastic-plastic model. The material properties
are assumed to be constant over the section. Possible heterogeneities, anisotropy or residual stresses generated in
the steel sheet during the forming process of the section are not known, and have not been introduced in the
model.
The FEA is done in two stages:
- Stage I: Linear (eigenbuckling) analysis is carried out in order to obtain the eigen modes and select one of
them to establish the initial geometric imperfections in the model to perform the non-linear analysis, and to
obtain the critical load Pcrit.
- Stage II: The selected mode is scaled to the maximum imperfection values, shown in Table 2,
according to the buckling failure mode. With these initial displacements, a non-linear analysis is
done, and the ultimate load Pult is obtained.
Table 2: Imperfection values for non-linear analysis.

Mode Magnitude Reference
Local Web/200 EN 1993-1-5:2006/AC:2009 [7]
Distortional Flange/50 EN 1993-1-5:2006/AC:2009 [7]
Global Length/1000 Commonly used in literature
Local and distortional imperfection magnitudes are taken from EC3 part 1.5 (plated structures), mostly used
for welded plates, because there are none other in the code. However, these values are not too different from the
usual ones available in the literature for cold-formed steel members [8]. For instance, local imperfection
magnitude for the section studied is 0.4 mm versus 0.48 mm; and the distortional one is 1.38 mm versus 1.83
mm, respectively ([7] versus [8]).
Meshed sections (rack and non perforated section) are shown in Fig. 3.
Figure 3: Sections tested and analysed.
The maximum loads obtained are summarized in Table 3.
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Table 3: FEA results.

Collapse Collapse
Length (mm) Pult,RS (N) Pult,NP (N)
mode mode
250 141942 L 174446 L+(DS)
400 126760 SD 150074 SD
600 122699 SD 142792 SD
800 112887 SD 130273 SD
1000 108490 SD 124811 SD
1200 106214 SD 121858 SD
1500 103805 (AD)+FT 113187 SD+(FT)
1800 84345 (AD)+FT 99048 FT
2200 61682 FT 71280 FT
2600 46302 FT 52880 FT
4 COMPARISON OF RESULTS
Next, in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5, maximum loads versus lengths of the member are depicted for both
experimental and numerical tests. Results appear superposed in the graph and agreement can be seen.
Figure 4: Maximum load versus length of the member (rack section).
Figure 5: Maximum load versus length of the member (non perforated section).
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The purpose of this paper is not to discuss the agreement or disagreement between experimental and
numerical results, but attempting to give a procedure through which the critical and maximum loads of
perforated sections can be determined from the non perforated section with an equivalent thickness.
5 EFFECTIVE OR EQUIVALENT THICKNESS

It is well known the equation for equivalent thickness given by Davies [5] based on the ratios of gross and
net effective widths. A reduction factor for thickness presented by Salmi [9] and cited by Kesti [10], is
determined from the elastic buckling stress of both perforated and non perforated plates.
The strategy followed herein has been to attempt to find the equivalent thickness by adjusting the critical
load from linear analysis, which is very fast.
This equivalent thickness teq is applied to the whole section, and then the non-linear analysis either by FE
analysis, or by any other method, can be done.
We define a reduction factor k: teq = k × t, and a higher and lower bound for it:
ARS
ksup = ≈ 0.93 (1)
ANP
Aweb, RS
kinf = ≈ 0.79 (2)
Aweb, NP
t = 1.83 mm 1.45 mm ≤ teq ≤ 1.7 mm (3)

where ARS: area of specimen, with perforations; ANP: area of specimen, without perforations; Aweb,RS: area of
the web of specimen, with perforations; Aweb,NP: area of the web of specimen, without perforations.
So, for each length, equivalent thicknesses between 1.45 mm and 1.7 mm have been tried, and the one that
gives a Pcrit in the linear analysis -without perforations- closer to Pcrit obtained with the real thickness -with
perforations- is chosen. The results are summarized in Table 4.
Table 4: Equivalent thickness obtained by adjusting the critical load.

Difference
Specimen Rack section Non perforated section
(%)
length
(mm) Critical Critical
t (mm) Pcrit (N) teq (mm) Pcrit (N)
mode mode
250 1.83 338162 L 1.67 339322 L 0.343
400 1.83 325603 L 1.68 326959 L 0.416
600 1.83 280425 SD 1.63 279527 SD -0.320
800 1.83 229115 SD 1.63 231717 SD 1.136
1000 1.83 202291 AD 1.63 203463 AD 0.579
1200 1.83 173040 AD 1.63 175153 AD 1.221
1500 1.83 132506 AD+(FT) 1.63 132566 AD+(FT) 0.045
1800 1.83 100682 FT 1.61 100895 FT 0.122
2200 1.83 71634 FT 1.61 71464 FT -0.237
2600 1.83 53182 FT 1.61 52788 FT -0.741
Then, with these values of teq and the section without perforations (NP), the Stage II of the FEA (non-
linear analysis) is repeated. The results are summarized in Table 5.
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Table 5: Ultimate load obtained with a non-linear FE analysis, with non perforated section and teq.
Difference
Specimen Rack section Non perforated section
(%)
length
(mm) Collapse Collapse
t (mm) Pult (N) teq (mm) Pult (N)
mode mode
250 1.83 141942 L 1.67 159562 L+(SD) 12,41
400 1.83 126760 SD 1.68 143093 SD 12.88
600 1.83 122699 SD 1.63 123476 SD 0.63
800 1.83 112887 SD 1.63 112117 SD -0.68
1000 1.83 108490 SD 1.63 107758 SD -0.67
1200 1.83 106214 SD 1.63 103458 SD -2.59
1500 1.83 103805 (AD)+FT 1.61 108738 (AD)+FT 4.75
1800 1.83 84345 (AD)+FT 1.61 85551 FT 1.43
2200 1.83 61682 FT 1.61 61691 FT 0.01
2600 1.83 46302 FT 1.61 45944 FT -0.77
It can be observed that the differences are very small for all specimen lengths, except for the two
shortest: 250 and 400 mm. For these two lengths, with a (predominantly) local buckling mode, the teq
obtained predicts an ultimate load excessively high.
An adjustment of teq for these two lengths by using the ultimate load values from the non-linear FE
analysis gives a new value: t’eq = 1.46 mm (far lower than the 1.67÷1.68 obtained with the Pcrit).
In using this t’eq value for 250 and 400 mm length, and the other teq values obtained before for the rest
of lengths, the comparison of Pult is done in the graph in Fig. 6. As it can be seen, the agreement is very
good for all the lengths.
Figure 6: Maximum load versus length of the member (perforated and non perforated section).
So the procedure to find teq and t’eq is schematized in Fig. 7.
6 CONCLUSIONS
• One upright design, with and without perforations, has been tested and analysed by FEA, under
compression, with lengths from 250 to 2600 mm.
• The agreement between experimental and FEA results is good.
• An equivalent thickness teq is defined, to be applied to the non perforated section, with the aim of
reproducing the same behaviour and the same results in the FE analysis as the perforated section with
actual thickness t.
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M.M. Pastor et al.
Find value of teq such that

Pcrit,perf = Pcrit,nonperf
LOCAL DISTORTIONAL GLOBAL

Pult,nonperf,teq ≠ Pult,perf,t Pult,nonperf,teq = Pult,perf,t Pult,nonperf,teq = Pult,perf,t
Find value of t’eq such that

Pult,nonperf,t’eq = Pult,perf,t
Figure 7: Procedure to find teq and t’eq.
• This equivalent thickness is found by adjusting the thickness to obtain the same Pcrit in the linear
buckling analysis, which is very fast to do.
• The teq obtained can be easily classified into 3 groups (see Table 5):
Group 1: Lengths 250 – 400 mm, teq = 1.67÷1.68 mm. In these columns the predominant failure mode
is local buckling.
Group 2: Lengths 600 – 1200 mm, teq = 1.63 mm. In these columns the predominant failure mode is
distortional buckling.
Group 3: Lengths 1500 – 2600 mm, teq = 1.61 mm. In these columns the predominant failure mode is
global buckling.
• The equivalent thickness so obtained is used for the non-linear FE analysis. The results derived by
comparing Pult agree well for groups 2 and 3 (distortional and global buckling) (difference ≤ 4.75%),
but do not agree well for group 1 (local buckling) (difference ≈ 12%).
• The agreement of Pult derived with the teq proposed here is very good for columns that fail due to
distortional and global buckling, but is not so good for short columns, where failure is predominantly
local buckling.
• For group 1 (local buckling), a new equivalent thickness t’eq, obtained by adjusting the Pult in the non-
linear FEA, is necessary to have a good agreement.
• The procedure proposed here to derive this teq by adjusting the Pcrit through a linear FE analysis is
very fast, and predicts very well the Pult for columns failing in distortional and global mode.
• As only one upright section has been analyzed. To extend these conclusions to other sections, more
experimental and simulation work is needed.
REFERENCES
[1] Sputo, T., Tovar, J. “Application of direct strength method to axially loaded perforated cold-formed
steel studs: Longwave buckling”, Thin-Walled Structures, 43 (2005), 1852-1881.
[2] Tovar, J., Sputo, T. “Application of direct strength method to axially loaded perforated cold-formed
steel studs: Distortional and local buckling”, Thin-Walled Structures, 43 (2005), 1882-1912.
[3] Moen, C., Schafer, B.W. “Experiments on cold-formed steel columns with holes”, Thin-Walled
Structures, 46 (2008), 1164-1182.
[4] Moen, C., Schafer, B.W. “Elastic buckling of cold-formed steel columns and beams with holes”,
Engineering Structures, 31 (2009), 2812-2824.
[5] Davies, J.M., Leach, P. and Taylor, A., “The Design of Perforated Cold-Formed Steel Sections
Subject to Axial Load and Bending”, Thin-Walled Structures, 29(1-4), 141-157, 1997.
[6] Casafont, M., Roure, F., Pastor, M.M., Somalo, M.R. “Compression tests on uprights: Checks for
the effects of distortional buckling”, 2nd ERF Workshop "Tests on racking systems", Barcelona,
Spain, 2010.
[7] European Standard EN 1993-1-5:2006/AC:2009. Eurocode 3 – Design of steel structures - Part 1-
5: Plated structural elements. European Committee for standardization, Brussels, 2009.
[8] Schafer, B.W., Peköz, T. “Computational modeling of cold-formed steel: characterizing geometric
imperfections and residual stresses”, Journal of Constructional Steel Research, (47) (3), 193-210,
1998.
[9] Salmi, P., “Design of web-perforated steel wall studs” (In Finnish), 4th Finnish Steel Structures
R&D Days, Lappeenranta, Finland, 1998.
[10] Kesti, J., “Local and distortional buckling of perforated steel wall studs”, Dissertation, Helsinki
University of Technology, Espoo, Finland, 2000.
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APPLICATIONS OF PURE AND COMBINED BUCKLING MODE

CALCULATION OF THIN-WALLED MEMBERS USING THE FINITE
ELEMENT METHOD
Gustavo P. Mezzomo*, Ignacio Iturrioz* and Gladimir de C. Grigoletti**
* Postgraduate Program in Mechanical Engineering (PROMEC), Federal University of Rio Grande do

Sul (UFRGS) - Brazil
e-mails: gpmezzomo@yahoo.com.br, ignacio@mecanica.br
** Civil Engineering Course, Lutheran University of Brazil (ULBRA) - Brazil
e-mail: grigoletti@cpovo.net
Keywords: Thin-Walled Members, Pure Buckling Modes, Constraints.
Abstract. Cold-formed steel members are characterized by the slenderness and the facility of fabrication
in different geometries. On the other hand, the use of slender members results in the interaction of
different buckling modes, making the analysis of thin-walled members a complex task. Pure buckling
mode calculation helps in better understanding the behavior of these members. In this paper, the critical
buckling load calculation of specific and combined modes has been carried out using the finite element
method for a lipped channel section subjected to a compressive axial load. The deformation fields of the
finite element model are constrained according to the analyzed mode. The combined mode calculation
enables the quantification of the interaction between the considered modes. Results for two different
boundary condition configurations of member ends are shown. Finally, the potentiality of the procedure
proposed herein is discussed.
1 INTRODUCTION
Cold-formed steel members, or thin-walled members, are characterized by the slenderness and by the
facility of production in different cross-sectional geometries. These members are a thin and economic
option for the modern steel construction. On the other hand, the use of thin plates in the fabrication of
these members results, many times, in a high width-to-thickness ratio of the plate elements that make up
the section. Therefore, besides global buckling, cold-formed members under compressive stresses are
very susceptible to the local buckling of plate elements and to distortional buckling of the cross-section.
Although global, distortional and local modes are widely accepted phenomena that are normally
handled in design specifications, there are no general methods for the calculation of theses three
characteristic modes. Furthermore, there is a lack of clear definitions for these three types of pure
buckling modes. Bearing in mind that these pure modes can interact, we can say that the analysis of thin-
walled members is at least complex.
Numerical methods are usually used in the analysis of thin-walled members, namely the finite element
method (FEM), the finite strip method (FSM) [1] and the generalized beam theory (GBT) [2]. The GBT
is the only known method that inherently can produce and isolate solutions for all common buckling
modes: global, distortional or local. However, its applications are limited. The ideal scenery in the
analysis of cold-formed members would be a general solution method, like FEM, that could give us the
critical loads of pure buckling modes.
Ádány and Schafer [3] have proposed a new approach that enables the decomposition of a stability
problem solution of an open cross-section thin-walled member into pure buckling modes, or into
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Gustavo P. Mezzomo et al.
individual modes (modes inside the vector space of a pure mode). The definitions of pure buckling modes
rely on mechanical assumptions of GBT. The deformation field of the numerical model is then
constrained in accordance with the assumptions that underlie global (G), distortional (D), local (L) or
other (O) modes. The implementation of theses concepts has been accomplished in the FSM context, by
the use of CUFSM software [1], giving rise to the constrained finite strip method (cFSM). More recently,
a proposal of extending the constraining process of cFSM to FEM has been presented by Casafont et al.
[4]-[5]. The procedure allows the critical load calculation of individual buckling modes through the
constraining of finite element models.
This paper aims to obtain the critical loads of individual or combined buckling modes of open cross-
section thin-walled members, by constraining finite element models. With this goal, general concepts of
the constraining procedure of Ádány and Schafer have been used, and a methodology using Ansys
software (http://www.ansys.com/), similar to that of Casafont, has been employed. The combined mode
calculation using the presented procedure enables the quantification of the interaction between modes.
Taking a lipped channel section in pure compression as example, the critical load calculation of
individual G, D and L modes and a combination of D and L modes has been accomplished. Two different
boundary condition configurations of member ends have been considered.
2 CONSTRAINED STABILITY PROBLEM

This section introduces the basic constraining procedure of a stability problem that provides means
for the solution to be focused on a pure buckling mode (or on a combination of any individual modes).
The procedure is the same that has been proposed by Ádány and Schafer [3] for the cFSM. Mechanical
assumptions of GBT are used to define the pure G and D modes. If some of these assumptions are
released, it is also possible to define L and O modes.
The mechanical assumptions that underlie the pure modes are employed as constraint equations on
the deformation fields. Therefore, the general degrees of freedom (DOFs) of the problem, denoted by
vector d, can be related to a reduced number of DOFs that define the deformation field constrained
according to a pure mode (vector dM). For this, a constraint matrix RM is defined as in Eq. (1). The
subscript M represents the constraint to a pure buckling mode: G, D, L or O. Thus, one can construct
constraint matrices associated to each of these buckling modes.
d = RM d M (1)
The linear stability problem (generalized eigenvalue problem) given by Eq. (2) can be focused on a
pure buckling mode through the application of Eq. (1), resulting in a constrained eigenvalue problem,
which is given by Eq. (3). Ke is the elastic stiffness matrix, Kg is the geometric stiffness matrix, Ke,M =
RMTKeRM, Kg,M = RMTKgRM and λ is an eigenvalue that satisfies the considered equation.
Ked = λ K gd (2)
K e,M d = λ K g,M d (3)

M M
After solving Eq. (3), the pure mode can be described by general DOFs of the model through Eq. (1).
Thus, dM can be interpreted as a vector of generalized coordinates, depending on the basis used for
defining the RM matrix. The columns of RM are individual deformation modes that form a basis for the
reduced space of the pure mode M. The G, D, L and O spaces together span the entire space of original
DOFs of the problem, or, in other words, they represent a transformation of the solution to a basis where
G, D, L and O spaces are segregated (Eq. (4)).
Eq. (4) clearly shows that one can define a generic constraint matrix using any of the columns of RG,
RD, RL and RO. It means that it is possible to construct a constrained eigenvalue problem as in Eq. (3)
whereby the solution is focused on any individual deformation mode or on any combination of individual
1134
modes. Additional transformations inside G, D, L and O spaces are possible. If orthogonal deformation
modes are used in the definition of the constraint matrices of Eq. (4), and a normalization scheme is
applied (orthonormal bases), the vector {dG dD dL dO}T will give the contribution of each individual
deformation mode for the general solution of the problem of Eq. (2) (buckling mode).
dG ½
° °
°d D °
[
d = RG RD RL RO ] ® ¾ (4)
°d L °
°d °
¯ O¿
Orthogonal bases for G, D, L and O spaces can be defined from the eigenvectors of Eq. (3). The
procedure is described in [3], where these modal bases are called orthogonal axial modes, since they are
defined for a member under axial load. Three normalization schemes are used in CUFSM:
1. Vector norm (VN): the base vectors are normalized by setting dTd = 1.
2. Strain energy norm (SEN): the base vectors are normalized by setting dTKed = 1.
3. Work norm (WN): the base vectors are normalized by setting dTKgd = 1.
3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Model under study

In this paper, the analyses have been carried out for a lipped channel section subjected to uniformly
distributed compressive axial loads at the member ends. Fig. 1(a) shows the section dimensions in mm.
The section is the same that has been studied by Casafont et al. in [4].
Figure 1: (a) Analyzed cross-section. (b) Finite element mesh. (c) End boundary conditions for a simply
supported member. (d) Additional end boundary conditions for a clamped member.
The member has been modeled using 4-node, 24-DOFs shell elements, with a maximum size of 5
mm, with the use of Ansys. Fig. 1(b) illustrates the finite element mesh of a member with an arbitrary
length L. Figs. 1(a) and 1(b) indicate the DOFs utilized in the derivation of the constraint matrices (U, V,
W e θ); these are the FSM DOFs. It should be noted that the coordinate system is the same of [3].
Two different kinds of boundary conditions have been considered: (1) simply-simply supported
member (S-S) and (2) clamped-clamped supported member (C-C). The boundary conditions at the model
ends for the S-S member are shown in Fig. 1(c), where the Poisson effect is free to take place. Besides the
boundary conditions already shown in Fig. 1(c), the constraints of Fig. 1(d), regarding local rotation of
the plates and the warping, must be added at the ends of C-C member model.
A linear buckling analysis has been carried out in order to obtain the critical loads. First, a linear
elastic analysis is performed, giving rise to the geometric stiffness matrix. Subsequently, an eigenvalue
problem is solved to obtain the buckling modes and the associated critical loads. It should be pointed out
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that, for the C-C member, the null warping at member ends can only be applied after the linear elastic
analysis. For the S-S member, any longitudinal constraint should be deleted after the linear elastic
analysis, unless the warping of the analyzed mode is null where the constraints are applied.
3.2 Constraining the finite element mesh
This section presents the methodology employed to constrain the finite element models according to
individual or combined buckling mode. The constraint matrices of Eqs. (1) and (4) have been derived at
cross-section level in [3], where the context has been the FSM. In order to extend the constraining
procedure to the FEM, the variation of displacements along the member length must be considered.
As an example, Eq. (4) is written using only two columns of constraint matrices (individual
orthonormal modes) and taking into account the longitudinal variation of displacements (Y direction). At
this point, it is important to treat transversal DOFs (U, W and θ) and longitudinal DOFs (V) separately:
U (Y ) ½ ª RU1ψ 1 (Y ) ( ) º
RU2ψ 2 Y
{} {}
°V (Y ) ° β1 « R ψ ' (Y )( L r π ) '
RV2ψ 2 (Y )( L r π )»» β1
d (Y ) = ® ¾ = ª¬ R1 (Y ) R2 (Y )º¼ = « V1 1 1 2
(5)
°
W (Y )
°
β2 « R ψ
W1 1 ( Y ) R ψ (Y )
W2 2 » β2
¯ θ (Y ) ¿ «¬ Rθ 1ψ 1 (Y ) Rθ2ψ (Y )2
»¼
β1 and β2 are the contribution coefficients of modes R1(Y) and R2(Y); ψ1(Y) and ψ2(Y) are the
functions defining the variation of displacements in Y direction of Fig. 1 (shape functions), which are
usually assumed to be harmonic; r1 and r2 are the numbers of half-waves of the two considered functions.
The columns of the constraint matrices have been partitioned into vectors referring to the different types
of DOFs. It should be noted that V DOFs vary according to the derivatives of ψ1(Y) e ψ2(Y). Shape
functions for different kinds of boundary conditions of member ends can be found in [6].
Since it is not possible to transform the stiffness matrices in Ansys (as in Eq. (3)), the constraints have
to be applied through DOFs relationships between the nodes. Eq. (5) gives the distribution of
displacements U, V, W and θ at a generic section of the model. Recognizing this, one DOF of each
section must be assumed as the unknown DOF in the eigenvalue analysis. As U, W and θ have a
longitudinal variation that is different from that of V, it is appropriate to uncouple V from the other
DOFs. Therefore, two unknown DOFs per section are considered.
The DOFs V and θ of node 1 of each section (Fig. 1(a)) are chosen to be the unknowns. Thus, the
DOF Vis, corresponding to a node i of a section s, can expressed in function of V1s (node 1 of section s)
as shown in Eq. (6). RV1,i, RV2,i, RV1,1 and RV2,1 are components of vectors RV1 e RV2 referring to nodes i
and 1; Ys is the coordinate of the section in the model.
β1 RV 1,iψ 1 (Ys )( L r1π ) + β 2 RV 2,iψ 2 (Ys )( L r2π )

' '
Vis = V (6)
β1 RV 1,1ψ 1 (Ys )( L r1π ) + β 2 RV 2,1ψ 2 (Ys )( L r2π )
' ' 1s
The generic DOFs Uis, Wis and θis must be related to θ1s similarly as in Eq. (6). Reading this equation,
it can be noted that if just one unknown per section is chosen (e.g., θ1s), a ratio between shape functions
and its derivatives will be set, thereby prohibiting application of constraints at some coordinates Ys [4].
It is also interesting to observe that if only one deformation mode is considered in the analysis
(constraint matrix with only one column), the approach that uses two unknowns per section results in a
solution with a number of half-waves directly calculated by the FEM program.
Two constraining schemes have been used herein. The first is the same that has been used by
Casafont et al. in [4]-[5], whereby only a few nodes of a few sections of the model are constrained. Fig.
1(a) exhibits the 9 constrained nodes of each section, with only one intermediary node (subnode) in the
web and the flanges. The constraints have been applied every 10 mm for members with L ≤ 200 mm and
every 25 mm when L > 200 mm (see an example of marked sections in Fig. 1(b)). In the second scheme,
1136
all nodes of the mesh have been constrained. It should be remarked that although all the nodes have been
constrained, the constraints have been applied only to the FSM DOFs, i.e., two DOFs per node have
remained free. Throughout this paper, the first scheme is called “1 Sub” and the second “Fully”.
The individual deformation modes (columns of the constraint matrix) used in the analyses herein have
been taken from the routines of CUFSM software, implemented in Matlab (http://www.mathworks.com/)
and freely available from Schafer in http://www.ce.jhu.edu/bschafer/cufsm/. For G and D modes, only the
warping distributions have been taken (DOFs V), since the other DOFs (U, W and θ) can be expressed as
a function of V [3]. Therefore, for these modes, U, W and θ have been internally determined in Ansys by
accessing the stiffness matrices in a substructure analysis.
In order to calculate the contributions of the individual deformation modes in a buckling mode
(coefficients β in Eq. (5)), an optimization using the genetic algorithms method has been conducted. The
coefficients have been combined such that the critical load has been minimized. The implementation has
been carried out in Matlab.
4 RESULTS
Fig. 2 illustrates the critical load results of individual deformation modes for the S-S member, using
the constraining schemes 1 Sub and Fully. A comparison with results provided by cFSM (CUFSM) and
GBT using GBTUL software (http://www.civil.ist.utl.pt/gbt/) has been made. In order to compare the
results to the ones provided by CUFSM, buckling taking place in only one half-wave along the member
length has been considered. Thus, results have been presented as a function of the buckling length.
Figure 2: Critical loads of individual deformation modes for the S-S member. (a) First G mode. (b) First
D mode. (c) First L mode. (d) Individual modes results comparison with all modes curve.
Using the orthogonal axial modes [3] taken from the CUFSM routines, results have been obtained for
the first G mode (flexural-torsional), the first D mode and the first L mode (Figs. 2(a), 2(b) and 2(c),
1137
respectively). The transversal deformations of each individual mode along with the warping distributions
(zero for the L mode) are exhibited in the insets of the corresponding charts, with an arbitrary magnitude.
It should be noted that the distributions of transversal displacements for L mode depends on the half-
wavelength. Nevertheless, this dependency is weak for lengths of practical importance. In Fig. 2(c), the L
mode for a buckling length of 100 mm is shown.
In Fig. 2(d), the critical load results of individual G, D and L modes obtained using the Fully scheme
are compared with the finite element results considering the contribution of all modes, i.e., results of an
unconstrained analysis. In this chart, it is possible to have an idea of the interaction between the modes.
In Fig. 2(c), an alternative constraining scheme, compatible with L deformation modes, has been
employed (“Direct” scheme). Constraints have been applied directly to the DOFs of the model, as
depicted in Fig. 3. Firstly, a linear elastic analysis is solved, giving rise to the geometric stiffness matrix
(Fig. 3(a)). Subsequently, translational constraints are applied to all nodes of the mesh such that the
mechanical assumptions that define L modes [3] are obeyed (Figs. 3(b) and (c)).
Figure 3: Direct constraining scheme for local deformation modes (S-S member).
The results obtained using the Fully scheme are close to FSM results, at least for buckling lengths of
practical importance. For G mode, the difference is no more than 2% for lengths up to 5 meters, covering
all the range where flexural-torsional mode is the controlling buckling state. For D mode, the difference is
2,73% for the 200 mm length, which is near the critical length. For L mode, the difference is 1,64% for
the 70 mm length, near the critical one for this mode. The differences increase for lengths smaller than the
critical for D mode and for long lengths for G mode. The 1 Sub scheme is an approximation of Fully,
showing accuracy problems for lengths smaller than the critical for D mode. For L mode, the Direct
scheme has provided the best results. However, such scheme can only be employed in an analysis
considering only the first L mode. Therefore, the Direct scheme does not work in an analysis considering
a specific individual deformation mode or a combination of modes.
Figure 4: C-C member results. (a) Critical load of the first L mode. (b) Deformed shape of the 200 mm
length member for combined mode calculation.
The critical loads of individual deformation modes have also been obtained for the C-C member,
using the schemes 1 Sub and Fully (and also Direct for L mode). Similarly as for S-S member, the
1138
orthogonal axial modes have been taken from CUFSM routines, but the stiffness matrices have been
modified to be compatible with the new boundary conditions.
Results for C-C member can not be compared with those provided by CUFSM, since this software
assumes that the longitudinal displacement distribution is sinusoidal, what is not compatible with C-C
boundary conditions. Taking into account the more complex longitudinal displacement variation, the
critical load results must be exhibited as a function of the member length. Fig. 4 shows the results for the
first L mode. It is desirable to compare FEM results with those from FSM, since both methods employ
the same element type. In despite of this, comparison with GBT results can give an idea of the validity of
the method. The difference between Fully scheme and GBT is at most 4%, for the greater lengths.
Taking the first D mode and the first L mode from the orthogonal axial modes set (insets of Figs. 2(b)
and 2(c)), the critical load of the combined mode has been calculated. A normalization scheme is needed
in order to handle combined modes; two schemes have been considered herein: VN and WN. Tabs. 1 and
2 list some critical loads (Pcr) of the combined mode for S-S and C-C members, comparing the results
with those provided by cFSM and GBT. Only the results for 1 Sub constraining scheme are presented.
Table 1: Critical loads of combined mode calculation for the S-S member.
cFSM - WN GBT FEM – WN
L [mm]
Pcr [N] %D %L Pcr [N] Pcr [N] %D %L
100 22870,3 19,5 80,5 22692,48 22571,4 23,6 76,4
150 26043,6 53,7 46,3 25373,02 24921,3 58,3 41,7
200 26932,8 73,3 26,7 26270,56 25876,4 75,6 24,4
300 34293,3 83,9 16,1 33921,07 33754,1 84,7 15,3
500 68869,7 86,9 13,1 68709,6 68886,4 87,3 12,7
800 158693,7 87,5 12,5 158590,2 159175,7 87,8 12,2
Table 2: Critical loads of combined mode calculation for the C-C member.
GBT FEM - VN
L [mm]
Pcr [N] rD rL Pcr [N] %D %L
100 29911,6 1 1 30247,6 10,24 89,76
150 25334,9 2 2 25529,9 7,78 92,22
200 23605,4 1 3 23773,7 36,79 63,21
300 21911,9 2 4 22057,0 36,31 63,69
500 21293,3 5 7 21434,7 23,40 76,60
800 21055,8 9 11 21212,6 20,12 79,88
For S-S member, the analyzed lengths represent the buckling length, which is the same for both
individual deformation modes. The contributions of modes D and L (%D and %L) for S-S member have
been compared with the values given by CUFSM, for WN normalization scheme (which does not depend
on the discretization). For C-C member, the analyzed lengths represent the member length, and the shape
functions of the individual modes can have different numbers of half-waves. Again, C-C member results
can only be compared with those of GBT. Based on the number of half-waves obtained for each
individual mode in GBTUL (rD e rL), the shape functions for these modes have been defined in the
constrained finite element model. Recognizing that GBTUL does not employ the same normalization
schemes of CUFSM, the contributions comparison with FEM results has not been carried out.
The genetic algorithm method has only been employed in C-C member analysis, where the desired
buckling mode is always the first. Results of Tab. 2 refer to an arbitrary algorithm run, and can be refined.
The critical load calculation of the combined mode with constraining scheme 1 Sub has yielded good
results for the analyzed lengths. The greater difference has been 4,3% in comparison with cFSM, for the
150 mm length S-S member. The contributions of modes for S-S member calculated by FEM have shown
a little difference in comparison with cFSM for the smaller lengths. This difference can be reduced if the
1139
Fully constraining scheme, for instance, is used, since the 1 Sub scheme does not approximate well the
critical loads of D mode for lengths smaller than the critical (Fig. 2(b)).
Different normalization schemes lead to different mode contributions results. VN scheme is
dependent on the discretization and does not have physical meaning, what makes WN scheme preferable
at first. However, the WN could not be used in C-C member analysis because, in general, each individual
mode has a different associated geometric stiffness matrix. Therefore, the results of Tab. 2 refer to the VN
scheme. It also should be observed that, in C-C member analysis, the consideration of a greater number of
harmonic components of the shape functions may be important, as discussed in [6]. Fig. 4(b) illustrates
the buckling mode of the 200 mm length C-C member for the combined mode calculation. It is clearly
seen that there is a mix of a D mode taking place in one half-wave and a L mode with three half-waves.
5 CONCLUSION
This paper presents examples of critical load calculations of specific buckling modes of open cross-
section thin-walled members by the use of the finite element method (FEM). In other words, it is possible
to calculate the critical load of individual deformation modes belonging to groups of global, distortional,
local or other modes. The calculation of any combination of modes can also be accomplished.
The numerical model is constrained such that its deformation fields are consistent with the desired
mode, based on the concepts of constrained finite strip method (cFSM) [3]. The employed methodology
is similar to that of Casafont et al. in [4]-[5], but the used individual modes have been the orthonormal
modes suggested by Ádány and Schafer [3]. The procedure has been extended to other boundary
conditions and to the evaluation of the contributions of individual modes in a general solution.
The individual and combined mode calculations using FEM have shown good results in comparison
with those provided by cFSM and GBT, at least for buckling lengths and member lengths of practical
importance. It should be pointed out that a study of more cross-sections is still needed.
The results presented herein mark the beginning of a longer research. The extension of cFSM
concepts to FEM provides the ability of analyzing members with any boundary condition configuration
and non-uniform members (e.g., members with holes).
REFERENCES
[1] Schafer, B.W. and Ádány, S., “Buckling analysis of cold-formed steel members using CUFSM:
conventional and constrained finite strip methods”, 18th International Specialty Conference on
Cold-Formed Steel Structures, Orlando, Florida, October 26-27, 2006.
[2] Silvestre, N. and Camotim, D. “First-order generalised beam theory for arbitrary orthotropic
materials”. Thin-Walled Structures, 40, 755-789, 2002.
[3] Ádány, S. and Schafer, B.W. “A full modal decomposition of thin-walled, single-branched open
cross-section members via the constrained finite strip method”. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research, 64, 12-29, 2008.
[4] Casafont, M., Marimon, F., Pastor, M.M. “Calculation of pure distortional elastic buckling loads of
members subjected to compression via the finite element method”. Thin-Walled Structures, 47,
701-729, 2009.
[5] Casafont, M., Pastor, M.M., Caamaño, E., Marimon, F., “Linear buckling analysis of compressed
members combining the generalised beam theory and the finite element method”, Proceedings of
the Twelfth International Conference on Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering
Computing, Civil-Comp Press, Stirlingshire, Scotland, 2009.
[6] Li, Z., Buckling Analysis of the Finite Strip Method and Theoretical Extension of the Constrained
Finite Strip Method for General Boundary Conditions, Research Report, Johns Hopkins University,
2009.
1140
POST-BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR AND STRENGTH OF ANGLE COLUMNS
Pedro B. Dinis, Dinar Camotim and Nuno Silvestre
Civil Engineering Department, ICIST/IST, TU Lisbon, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
e-mails: dinis@civil.ist.utl.pt, dcamotim@civil.ist.utl.pt, nunos@civil.ist.utl.pt
Keywords: Thin-walled angle columns, Post-buckling behaviour, Ultimate strength, Shell finite element
analysis, Generalised Beam Theory (GBT).
Abstract. This paper reports the available results of an ongoing numerical investigation aimed at providing fresh
insight on the mechanics underlying the local and global post-buckling behaviour of short-to-intermediate equal-leg
angle steel columns. Both pinned-ended and fixed-ended columns are analysed and the most of the results presented
and discussed concern their elastic buckling and (mostly) post-buckling behaviour − moreover, the elastic-plastic
load-carrying capacity of these columns is also briefly addressed, as well as the corresponding design implications.
The numerical post-buckling and ultimate strength results presented were obtained by means of ABAQUS shell
finite element analyses. In order to help clarifying the distinction between local and global buckling, some
GBT-based critical stresses and buckling mode shapes are also displayed and interpreted.
1 INTRODUCTION
It is well known that thin-walled members having cross-sections with all their wall mid-lines intersecting at a
single point (e.g., angle, T-section or cruciform members) exhibit no primary warping − the cross-section
warping resistance stems exclusively from secondary (across the thickness) warping. This feature automatically
implies an extremely low torsional stiffness, thus rendering these thin-walled members highly susceptible to buckling
phenomena involving torsion (torsional or flexural-torsional buckling). Moreover, in members with the above cross-
section shapes and short-to-intermediate lengths it is often hard to separate the torsion and local deformations and,
thus, to distinguish between local and global buckling − these members commonly exhibit “mixed” local/torsional
buckling mode shapes. Since the above two instability phenomena are associated with markedly different post-
critical behaviours (strength reserves), it is fair to say that this distinction may have far-reaching implications on the
definition of a rational structural model capable of providing accurate ultimate strength estimates for such members.
The post-buckling behaviour and strength of angle and T-section columns, beams and beam-columns has
attracted the attention of several researchers in the past (e.g., [1-4]). More recently, thorough studies of the buckling
behaviour of angle beams and beam-columns with equal and unequal legs led Trahair [5, 6] to propose some
modifications to the currently available design rules. Mohan et al. [7] carried out a numerical and experimental
investigation on the flexural and local buckling behaviour of angle members belonging to lattice tower K-panels.
Moreover, Young [8], Ellobody and Young [9] and Rasmussen [10, 11] performed extensive experimental tests and
shell finite element analyses aimed at obtaining ultimate loads of fixed-ended angle columns, and compared their
results with the predictions yielded by currently available design rules. It is worth noting that Rasmussen [11]
proposed an approach based on the Direct Strength Method (DSM − e.g., [12]) to design angle columns, which
adopts the DSM global design curve to estimate the column flexural and local strengths − in the latter case, the use of
the global curve is combined with effective cross-section properties. More recently, Chodraui et al. [13, 14] proposed
a slightly different DSM-based design approach for angle columns, which differs from the previous one in the fact
that the column global strength is taken as the lower of the flexural and torsional values, both obtained with the same
(global) DSM design curve. Finally, a recent numerical investigation, carried out by means of Generalised Beam
Theory (GBT) analyses, shed some new light on how to characterise and/or distinguish between local and global
buckling in angle, T-section and cruciform thin-walled members (columns, beams and beam-columns) [15].
1141
Pedro B. Dinis et al.
Moreover, the authors suggested that a design curve for such members should be based on global (torsional)
buckling concepts, namely by using the gross cross-section properties − recall that recent design proposals
[10, 11, 13, 14] are based on local buckling concepts (they involve effective cross-section calculations). In order to
confirm this assertion, it is necessary to investigate the post-buckling behaviour and ultimate strength of the members
under scrutiny − a first step towards achieving this goal was made by the authors [16, 17], who analysed the elastic
post-buckling behaviour of simply supported equal and unequal-leg angle columns. The aim of the work reported in
this paper is to extend the above investigation, by analysing also the elastic behaviour and elastic-plastic strength
behaviour of both simply supported (pinned-ended) and fixed-ended equal-leg angle columns.
The numerical results presented and discussed concern thin-walled steel (E=210 GP and ν=0.3) angle columns
exhibiting (i) pinned and fixed ends, (ii) equal legs (70×70 mm and t=1.2mm − the effect of rounded corners is
disregarded), (iii) short-to-intermediate lengths and (iv) various yield-to-critical stress ratios − all columns analysed
contain critical-mode geometrical imperfections with very small amplitudes (10% of the wall thickness t). Almost all
the numerical results were obtained through ABAQUS [18] shell finite element analyses, (i) adopting column
discretisations into fine 4-node isoparametric element meshes (length-to-width ratio close to 1) and (ii) modelling the
column end supports either by imposing null transverse displacements at all end section nodes (pinned supports
− P condition) or by attaching rigid end-plates to the end section centroids (fixed supports − F condition) − accounts
of all the column finite element modelling issues can be found in [19, 20]. Moreover, in order to characterise and
distinguish between local and global buckling of angle columns, GBT analyses are also performed using the GBTUL
code [21, 22]. The paper displays results concerning the column (i) elastic buckling and (mostly) post-buckling
behaviours, and (ii) elastic-plastic ultimate strength −they include curves and/or diagrams providing the evolution of
the column deformed configuration and longitudinal normal stresses along a given equilibrium path.
2 BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR – COLUMN LENGTH SELECTION

The curves shown in figure 1(a) provide the variation, with the column length L (logarithmic scale), of the
ABAQUS critical load Pcr, both for pinned-ended (P curve) and fixed-ended (F curve) angle columns − this figure also
depicts single half-wave buckling loads, Pb.1, yielded by GBT analyses and including 7 deformation modes: 4 global
(1-4) and 3 local (5-7). As for figures 1(b1)-(b2), they display the GBT-based modal participation diagrams for
columns with both end support conditions − they provide the contributions of each GBT deformation mode to the
column buckling modes. Finally, figure 1(c) shows the buckling mode shapes yielded by the GBT analyses for the
pinned-ended columns with L=20, 98, 365, 1000 cm, as well as the in-plane shapes of the first 5 deformation modes
(axial extension excluded). These buckling results prompt the following remarks:
(i) Both the pinned and fixed-ended columns display similar buckling features (obviously, the fixed-ended Pcr
values are generally higher than their simply supported counterparts): (i1) Pcr decreases monotonically with L
and corresponds to single half-wave buckling (recall that similar curves concerning members with more
complex cross-section shapes always exhibit local minima associated with local/distortional buckling
involving growing half-wave numbers), (i2) the GBT and ABAQUS results virtually coincide, and (i3) the torsion
mode 4 almost plays a key role, as it participates in the critical buckling modes of all but the very long columns.
(ii) For the entire length range, the critical buckling modes of all pinned and fixed-ended angle columns involve
just four deformation modes (2, 3, 4, 6) – note that (ii1) the symmetric local mode 5 does not participate in any
column critical buckling mode and (ii2) the participations of the (non-torsional) modes 2 and 6 are smaller in the
fixed-ended columns. For very short columns, buckling takes place in mixed local-torsional modes (4+6). Very
short to short columns buckle in pure torsional modes (4). Intermediate columns buckle in mixed (major axis)
flexural-torsional modes (2+4). The longer columns buckle in pure (minor axis) flexural modes (3).
(iii) In order to investigate the column post-buckling behaviour, the eleven short-to-intermediate lengths
indicated in figure 1(a) were selected. They correspond to columns that (iii1) buckle in or around the
“horizontal plateaus” of the P and F Pcr vs. L curves (pure torsional, local-torsional or flexural-torsional modes)
and (iii2) exhibit very similar mid-span cross section buckled shapes – see figure 1(c), concerning pinned-ended
columns. The lengths selected are L1 =20cm, L2 =36cm, L3 =53cm, L4 =98cm, L5 =133cm, L6 =182cm,
L7 =252cm, L8 =365cm, L9 =532cm, L10 =700cm and L11 =890cm − eighth pinned-ended columns (L1-L8 −
22.0 ≤σcr≤30.9MPa) and nine fixed-ended columns (L3-L11 − 21.1 ≤σcr≤27.5MPa) were analysed.
1142
Pcr (kN) (P+ F 70 x 70) (P 70 x 70)

pi (P 70x70)
8 L (cm) 20 98 356 1000
ABAQUS 1.0
0.5 GBT
GBTUL
F (7 modes) 0.0 Buckling
P Mode
4
(b1) 10 100 1000
L (cm) pi (F 70x70)
1.0 GBT

0 0.5 Deformation

10 100 1000 0.0 Modes
(a) L1 L2 L3 L4 … L7 L8… L11 (b2) 10 100 1000 (c)
Figure 1: (a) Pcr vs. L curves and (b) GBT modal participation diagrams (pinned and fixed-ended columns), and (c)
in-plane shapes of 4 buckling modes and first 5 GBT deformations modes (pinned-ended columns).
3 COLUMN POST-BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR

ABAQUS shell finite element analyses are employed to investigate the post-buckling behaviour of columns
containing critical-mode initial imperfections with very small amplitudes (10% of the wall thickness t=1.2mm). The
columns analysed exhibit (i) pinned or fixed end sections, (ii) the short-to-intermediate lengths indicated before and
(iii) 5 yield-to-critical stress ratios (fy /σcr≈1.3, 2.5, 5.0, 9.8 and ∞ − values corresponding to an “average” critical
stress σcr=24 MPa and viewing the elastic behaviour as associated with an infinite yield stress).
3.1 Elastic post-buckling behaviour
Post-buckling results concerning pinned-ended angles (P 70×70) with lengths L1 to L8 are first presented.
Figures 2(a)-(b) show the upper parts of the column post-buckling equilibrium paths (i) P/Pcr vs. β, where β is the
mid-span web chord rigid-body rotation, and (ii) P/Pcr vs. d/t, where d is the shear centre displacement absolute value.
Figure 2(c) displays the L3 and L5 column deformed configurations at two β values. In order to clarify issues raised
by the observation of the curves shown in figures 2(a)-(b), additional post-buckling results are presented in figure 3 −
besides two equilibrium paths also included in figure 2(a), they consist of column mid and quarter-span cross-section
deformed configurations. The observation of all these post-buckling results prompts the following comments:
(i) The L1 -L8 column post-buckling behaviours (equilibrium paths) exhibit distinct characteristics: (i1) while those
concerning the L1-L3 columns (local-torsional buckling) are clearly stable (fairly high post-critical strength) and
involve minute mid-span cross-section shear centre displacements, (i2) the L5-L8 column post-buckling
behaviours (flexural-torsional buckling) are only marginally stable (low post-critical strength and occurrence of
limit points for moderate rotations) and involve considerable mid-span shear centre displacements. The
L4 column lays somewhere in between and may be viewed as a transition between the two previous behaviours.
(ii) In the (intermediate) L5-L8 columns the flexural-torsional deformed configuration “switches” abruptly from a
single half-wave to three half-waves (see as fig. 2(c2)) soon after the peak load is reached − these peak load and
“deformed configuration switch” occur for gradually smaller β values as the column length increases (L5 → L8).
Such behavioural features are not exhibited by the (shorter) L1-L3 columns. In order to try to explain the above
differences, one looks at the L3 and L5 column post-buckling results shown in figure 3 − it is observed that:
P /P cr ( P 70 x70 ) P /P cr ( P 70 x70 )
1.2 L1 L2 1.2 L 1-L 3
L3 L4 β =0.2
L4
1 1 β =0.2 L5
L5 L5
L3
L6 L6
0.8 L7 0.8 L β =0.3
L8 7
L8 β (rad) |d|/t
d
0.6 0.6 β =0.45
(descending branch)
0 0.2 0.6 0 3 6 9
(a) 0.4 (b) (c 1) (c2 )
Figure 2: Pinned-ended columns: (a) P/Pcr vs. β and (b) P/Pcr vs. d/t equilibrium paths, and (c) column deformed
configurations of the (c1) L3 and (c2) L5 columns at two equilibrium states.
1143
(ii.1) The third and fourth L5 column mid and quarter-span cross-section deformed configurations, concerning
the post-peak equilibrium states 3 and 4, exhibit significant amounts of (predominantly minor axis) flexure
associated with tensile stresses in the cross-section corner regions − note that the flexural displacements
are barely visible (but not null) in all the remaining (L3 and L5 column) deformed configurations.
Moreover, these mid-span flexural displacements “overshadow” the corresponding torsional rotations
along the equilibrium path descending branch − figure 3 shows that this descending branch is quite steep,
which means that there is a small rotation increase.
(ii.2) The GBT modal features help explaining the differences between the short and intermediate column post-
buckling behaviours. The modal participation diagram given in figure 1(b1) suggests that the amount of
column post-buckling strength is directly related with the level of participations of modes 6 (local with
inflection points) and 2 (major axis flexure) in the column buckling mode − recall that either of them is
combined with the predominant torsional mode 4 (designated as “local” by Rasmussen [10], who views it
as the simultaneous rotation of two pinned plate outstands). While the presence of mode 6 is responsible
for a perceptible post-critical strength (short columns), the participation of mode 2 causes a destabilising
effect leading to a limit point and a “deformed configuration switch” (intermediate columns).
P/P cr L3 ( P 70 x70) P 70x70 – L5
P 70x70 – L 3 1/2-span
1.2 III
II 1/2- 1 3 4
I II I
2
1 L5 -span
1 2
3
0.8 4
1/4-
III 1 2 3 4
0.6 β (rad) -span
0 0.2 0.4 0.6
Figure 3: L3-L5 columns: P/Pcr vs. β paths and cross-section deformed configuration evolution.
In order to acquire deeper insight on the above angle column post-buckling behaviours, one next investigates
the longitudinal normal stress evolution of the L3-L5 columns. The curves shown in figures 4(a) and 5(a) concern the
mid-line normalised longitudinal normal stresses (σ /σcr) acting on the L3 and L5 column mid-span cross-sections at
three applied load levels, corresponding to the equilibrium states indicated in the equilibrium paths located at the
right hand side − also shown, below each stress distribution set, are the mid-span cross-section deformed
configurations at the higher applied load (P/Pcr=1.13 and 1.02). Figures 4(b) and 5(b) show the variation of the
higher load stress distributions between the column 1/8 and mid-span cross-sections. Finally, figure 6 compares the
mid-span stress evolution of the L3-L5 columns. After observing these results, it is possible to conclude that:
(i) The mid-line normal stresses remain practically uniform up until P/Pcr≈0.8. As P increases, the stress distribution
becomes progressively more non-uniform, with a quite different evolution for the L3 and L5 columns. Moreover,
in both columns the longitudinal variation of the cross-section stress distribution is rather significant. A closer
look at the two sets of stress distributions shows that:
σ /σcr 1/ 2-span P 70x70 – L3 P/Pcr =1.13 P 70x70 – L3 σ /σcr
2 P/Pcr 2
1.13 1/2 - span
1.04 3/8 - span
P/Pcr 0.77 1/4 - span
1.2 1
1 1/8 - span
1 A
0.8
β B C
0.6
0 0
0 0.3 0.6
(a) A B C (b) A B C
Figure 4: L3 column (a) normal stress distribution evolution at the mid-span cross-sections and (b) normal stress
distributions variation between the eighth and mid-span cross-sections (P/Pcr=1.13).
1144
σ /σcr 1/ 2-span P 70x70 – L5 P/Pcr =1.02 P 70x70 – L5 σ /σcr

2 P/Pcr 2
1.02 1/2 - span
1.00 3/8 - span
P/Pcr 0.76 1/4 - span
1.2 1
1 1/8 - span
1 A
0.8
β B C
0.6
0 0
0 0.3 0.6
(a) A B C (b) A B C
Figure 5: L5 column (a) normal stress distribution evolution at the mid-span cross-sections and (b) normal stress
distributions variation between the eighth and mid-span cross-sections (P/Pcr=1.02).
σ /σcr P 70x70 – L3
P/Pcr
P 70x70 – L4
P/Pcr
P 70x70 – L5
2 P/Pcr
1.13 1.09 1.02
1.04 1.03 1.00
P/Pcr 0.77 P/Pcr 0.74 P/Pcr 0.76
1.2 1.2 1.2
1
1 1 1
0.8 0.8 0.8

β β β
0.6 0.6 0.6
0 0 0.3 0.6 0 0.3 0.6 0 0.3 0.6
A B C A B C A B C
Figure 6: L3-L5 column normal stress distribution evolution at the mid-span cross-sections.
(i.1) At mid-span, the L3 column stresses end up being (i1) mildly non-uniform in the vertical leg (slightly non-
linear distribution with higher value at the free edge) and (i2) almost uniform in the horizontal leg (lower
value at the free edge). The 1/8, 1/4 and 3/8-span stress distributions are highly non-linear in both legs
(parabolic distribution − higher and lower values at the mid-points and corner) − these stresses decrease
and become more asymmetric (lower values in the horizontal leg) as mid-span is approached.
(i.2) At mid-span, the L5 column stresses end up being (i1) clearly non-uniform in the vertical leg (linear
distribution with higher value at the free edge) and (i2) mildly non-uniform in the horizontal leg (lower
value at the free edge). The 1/8, 1/4 and 3/8-span stress distributions are qualitatively similar to the L3
column ones (non-linear distribution with higher and lower values at the leg mid-points and corner) − in
this case, these three stress distributions are equally asymmetric and, moreover, those concerning the 1/4
and 3/8-span cross-sections are practically identical (and a bit higher than the 1/8-span one).
(ii) The L1-L2 (short) and L6-L8 (intermediate) column stresses are similar to those presented in figures 4(a)-(b) and
5(a)-(b) for the L3 and L5 columns, respectively. The L4 column again corresponds to a transition between
the two above column sets − this can be confirmed by looking at the L3-L5 column mid-span stress evolutions
displayed in figure 6. At this stage, it is worth noting that the stress distributions determined for either of the L6-L8
columns are not in line with the widespread belief (e.g., [10]) that buckled short-to-intermediate equal-leg angle
columns exhibit the normal stress distribution sketched in figure 7 − each leg behaves like a pinned-free long
plate (parabolic distributions with the higher value at the corner).
Figure 7: Typical equal-leg angle column normal stress distribution (each leg behaving like a pinned-free long plate).
(iii) Since, in the authors’ opinion, the discrepancy between the determined and expected (widely accepted) equal-leg
angle column post-buckling behaviours stems from the occurrence of bending, associated with the shear centre
1145
displacements plotted in figure 2(b), it was decided to analyse the post-buckling behaviours of the L5-L8 columns
with the shear centre displacement d fully restrained (PR columns) − for comparison purposes, isolated plates
with one longitudinal free edge and the remaining ones pinned (PP plates) and the dimensions of a leg (70 mm
width, t=1.2mm thickness and the L1-L8 lengths) were also analysed. Figure 8(a) shows the P/Pcr vs. β
equilibrium paths of the PP plate and PR column with length L5 (qualitatively similar results were obtained for
the other lengths). Figures 8(b)-(c) display the PR column (iii1) mid-span stress distribution evolution and (iii2)
stress distribution variation between the 1/8 and mid-span cross-sections for P/Pcr=1.17. The observation of this
new set of results prompts the following remarks:
(iii.1) The PP plates and PR columns share the same critical buckling stresses (up to 3.8% higher than the
corresponding P columns) and post-buckling behaviours − see the coincident P/Pcr vs. β equilibrium paths
and normal stress distribution evolutions in figures 8(a)-(b). Moreover, the PP plate stresses are equal
to those acting on each PR column leg − see figure 8(c).
(iii.2) Restraining the shear centre displacement, very meaningful in all intermediate P columns (see fig. 2(b)),
significantly affects the corresponding post-buckling behaviours – they now are clearly stable and do not
exhibit deformed configuration “switches” (i.e., they “mimic” the PP plates).
(iii.3) The shear centre displacement restraint also has marked impact on the column mid-span stress
distributions, which now closely resemble those shown in figure 7 − i.e., the two legs behave like
identical PP plates. As for the 1/8, 1/4 and 3/4-span stress distributions, also identical in the PP plates and
PR columns, they are still highly non-linear (like in the P columns). Moreover, they are practically
coincident at 1/8 and 1/4-span and slightly more “flat” at 3/8-span − this “flattening” rapidly increase as
the mid-span cross-section is approached.
(iv) The significant difference between the PR and P column post-buckling behaviours is due to the bending
(predominantly minor axis) effects occurring in the latter. Although most of these bending effects probably stem
from an “effective centroid shift” (e.g., [23]), its value should be determined on the basis of the P column
stresses (see fig. 5(a)), and not on the PP plate ones.
P/Pcr PR 70x70 – L5 A σ /σcr 1/ 2-span PR 70x70 – L5 P/Pcr =1.17 σ /σcr

P 70x70 2 2
1.2 PR≈PP B C
1/2 - span
1 A 3/8 - span
P PR 70x70 1
1 1/4 - span
P/Pcr B
1.17 C
0.8 1/8 - span
1.03
0.83 β B C PP 70
0.6 0 0
0 0.2 0.4 A B C A B C
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 8: L5: (a) PP plate, and PR and P column P/Pcr vs. β equilibrium paths, and PP plate and PR column
normal stress (b) evolution at mid-span and (c) variation between the 1/8 and mid-span cross-sections (P/Pcr=1.17).
Next, one investigates how fixing the end sections (warping and flexural rotations prevented) affects the post-
buckling behaviour of angle column (F 70×70) with short-to-intermediate lengths (L3 to L11). Figures 9(a)-(b)
show the upper parts of the column post-buckling equilibrium paths P/Pcr vs. β and P/Pcr vs. d/t, while figure 9(c)
displays the L3 and L10 column deformed configuration at two β values. Besides two equilibrium paths also included
in figure 9(a), figure 10 presents the L3 and L10 mid and 1/8-span cross-section deformed configurations. Figures 11
and 12 provide the mid-span evolution and longitudinal variation of the L3 and L10 column normal stress distribution
(the stresses plotted correspond to the equilibrium states indicated). Finally, figure 13 compares the post-buckling
behaviours of the L10 F column and those of the corresponding (i) restrained column (FR) and (ii) fixed plate (FP −
fixed transverse edges, one longitudinal free edge and the other pinned) − qualitatively similar results were obtained
for other column lengths. The observation of all these post-buckling results prompts the following comments:
(i) As in the pinned-ended columns, there are two types fixed-ended column equilibrium paths, each corresponding
to different post-buckling behaviours: (i1) the L3-L8 columns are clearly stable (fairly high post-critical strength)
and exhibit minute mid-span cross-section shear centre displacements, and (i2) the L9-L11 columns are barely
1146
stable, exhibit abrupt limit points (occurring for decreasing rotations and, in columns L10 and L11, associated
with well-defined “snap-back” phenomena) and involve significant mid-span shear centre displacements.
(ii) In the longer L9-L11 columns (like in the pinned-ended L5-L8 columns), the flexural-torsional deformed
configuration “switches” abruptly at the peak load: in this case, from two to four half-waves (see fig. 9(c2)). The
peak load and “deformed configuration switch” occur for gradually smaller β values as the column length
increases (L9 → L11), while the amplitude of the “snap-back” phenomenon drops (it does not even occur for the
L11 column) − note that the “snap-back” phenomenon causes a “kink” limit point in the P/Pcr vs. d/t path. The L11
column, corresponding to the transition between (major axis) flexural-torsional and (minor axis) flexural
buckling, has “smooth” P/Pcr vs. β and P/Pcr vs. d/t equilibrium paths − the former exhibits a rather premature
well defined limit point and the latter is “almost horizontal”.
(iii) All the (shorter) L3-L8 columns, which buckle in pure torsional modes, exhibit a fairly high post-critical strength
that decreases with the length (L3 → L8). This fact confirms Rasmussen’s assertion that these columns buckle
locally (i.e., to view mode 4 as “local”). Recall that L4 was the only pinned-ended column buckling in a pure
torsional mode and that it exhibited a quite moderate post-critical strength, no limit point and considerable shear
centre (flexural) displacements. This seems to indicate that fixing the column end sections significantly
(iii1) increases the susceptibility to pure torsional buckling and (iii2) restrains the development of flexural
displacements, thus contributing decisively to reduce the corresponding destabilising effect.
(iv) The GBT modal features provide again an explanation for the differences between the shorter and longer column
post-critical strength. The modal participation diagram of figure 1(b2) shows that the two types of post-buckling
behaviour are linked with the absence (L3-L8 columns) or presence (L9-L11 columns) of deformation mode 2
(major axis flexure) in the column buckling mode. As in the pinned-ended columns, the participation of this
mode has a destabilising effect on the post-buckling behaviour of the longer (intermediate) columns.
(v) The mid-span normal stresses distribution evolution for P/Pcr>0.8 is quite different in the pinned and fixed
columns: the latter (v1) are practically linear in both legs and (v2) “shift” from the leg edges towards the corner −
a behaviour more akin to that usually attributed to angle columns (e.g., [10]).
(vi) Restraining the column corner displacements has again a strong impact on the longer column post-buckling
behaviour. Indeed, the FR and PR column behaviours are practically identical − and the same happens with the
FP and PP plates. The comparison between figures 8 and 13 shows that they only differ in the amount of post-
critical strength, which is due to the length difference: 700cm (L10 FR column) against 133cm (L5 PR column).
P / P cr ( F 70 x70 ) P / P cr ( F 70 x70 )
1.2 L 3-L 8 1.2 L 3-L 8
L9
1 1 β =0.1 β =0.2
L9 L3
L 10
L 10 0.8 L 9 -L 11
0.8
L 11 β (rad) d
|d|/t
0.6 0.6 β =0.25
β =0.15
0 (a) 0.4 0.6
0.2 0 3 (b) 6 9 (c1 ) (c2 ) (descending branch)
Figure 9: Fixed-ended columns: (a) P/Pcr vs. β and (b) P/Pcr vs. d/t equilibrium paths, and (c) column deformed
configurations of the (c1) L3 and (c2) L10 columns at two equilibrium states.
F 70x70 – L3 1/2-span P/P cr L3 ( F 70 x70) F 70x70 – L10
1.2 III
I II 1/2- 1 3 4
II L 10 2
-span
1 I
1 2 3
4
0.8
III 1/8-
-span 1 2 3 4
0.6 β (rad)
(Amplified 3 times) 0 0.2 0.4 (Amplified 5 times)
Figure 10: L3 and L10 column: P/Pcr vs. β paths and cross-section deformed configuration evolution.
1147
σ /σcr F 70x70 – L3 F 70x70 – L10 σ /σcr

2 P/Pcr P/Pcr 2
1.19 1.05
P/Pcr 0.98 P/Pcr 0.99
1.2 0.84 1.2 0.85
A
1 1
1 1
B C 0.8
0.8
β β
0.6 0.6
0 0
0 0.15 0.3 0 0.15 0.3
(a) A B C (b) A B C
Figure 11: Evolution of the mid-span normal stresses at the of the fixed-ended (a) L3 and (b) L10 columns.
σ /σcr 1/ 2-span F 70x70 – L10 P/Pcr =1.05 F 70x70 – L10 σ /σcr
2 P/Pcr 2
1.05 1/2 - span
0.99 1/4 - span
P/Pcr 0.85 1/8 - span
1.2 1
1
1 A
0.8
β B C
0.6
0 0
0 0.2 0.4
(a) A B C (b) A B C
Figure 12: L10 column normal stress distribution (a) mid-span normal evolution and (b) longitudinal variation
between the 1/8 and mid-span cross-sections (P/Pcr=1.05).
P/Pcr FR 70x70 – L10 A σ /σcr 1/ 2-span FR 70x70 – L10 P/Pcr =1.14 σ /σcr
F 70x70 2 2
1.2 FR≈ FP B C
1/2 - span
1 F A 3/8 - span
FR 70x70 1 1
P/Pcr 1/4 - span
B C
0.8 1.14 1/8 - span
1.05
0.79 β B C FP 70
0.6 0 0
0 0.2 0.4 A B C A B C
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 13: L5: (a) PP plate, and PR and P column P/Pcr vs. β equilibrium paths, and FP plate and FR column
normal stress (b) evolution at mid-span and (c) variation between the 1/8 and mid-span cross-sections (P/Pcr=1.14).
3.2 Elastic-plastic strength

This section briefly addresses the elastic-plastic strength of pinned and fixed-ended short-to-intermediate angle
columns. The results presented concern columns with (i) critical-mode imperfection and 0,1 t amplitudes, and
(ii) four yield-to-critical stress ratios (fy /σcr≈1.3, 2.5, 5.0, 9.8, corresponding to fy=30, 60, 120, 235 MPa and
“average” σcr=24 MPa) − note that, in order to cover a wide slenderness λ=(fy /σcr)0.5 range, some unrealistically
small yield stresses were considered. Figures 14(a)-(b) show the variation of the ultimate load ratio Pu /Py with
the slenderness for the P (L1 -L8) and F (L3-L11) columns − it is possible to draw the following conclusions:
(i) Due to the quite small variation (drop) of σcr with L within each column set (see fig. 1(a)), the values concerning
the columns exhibiting the same yield stress are clearly “grouped together”. As fy increases, the corresponding
group is associated with a higher slenderness and lower strength (i.e., moves to the right and down) − within
each group, slenderness increases with the length.
(ii) The variation of Pu /Py with λ within each column group is markedly different for the P and F columns.
While the P column values are rather “packed together”, those concerning the F columns exhibit a high “vertical
dispersion”, thus implying a very significant variation of Pu /Py with L (even if σcr remains practically unaltered).
This behavioural difference should be reflected in an efficient design procedure for equal-leg angle columns.
1148
Pu /Py (P 70x70) Pu /Py (F 70x70)

1.0 1.0
fy=235 MPa fy=235 MPa
0.8 fy=120 MPa 0.8 fy=120 MPa
/f /f
fy=60 MPa fy=60 MPa
0.6 fy=30 MPa 0.6 fy=30 MPa
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0
λ 0.0
λ
(a) 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 (b) 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Figure 14: Variation of Pu /Py with λ for: (a) pinned-ended and (b) fixed-ended columns angles
(iii) In spite of the quite pronounced qualitative and quantitative differences detected in the elastic post-buckling
behaviours of the L1-L8 P columns, the differences between their ultimate strengths are only moderate − note
that only the values corresponding to the (very short) L1 columns are outside of the various “packs”.
(iv) Conversely, the differences between the ultimate strengths of the L3-L11 F columns are rather sharp − indeed,
most of them are located in “almost vertical line segments”, thus meaning that columns sharing the same yield
and critical stresses (but having different lengths) exhibit quite distinct Pu /Py values (e.g., for fy=235 MPa the
relation between the higher and lower values exceeds 5.25). This somewhat “paradoxical” behaviour appears
to indicate that the slenderness value does not “measure” adequately the column ultimate strength. Recalling
that most of these columns buckle in a pure torsional mode akin to a local mode (see fig. 1(b2)), it seems fair to
say that, within this length range, the column ultimate strength nature “travels” from “local” to “global” as the
length increases − an efficient design procedure for these columns must take this fact into account.
4 CONCLUSION
This paper reported the results of an ongoing numerical investigation on the (i) elastic buckling and (mostly)
post-buckling behaviour and (ii) elastic-plastic strength of short-to-intermediate pinned and fixed-ended equal-leg
angle steel columns. The post-buckling and ultimate strength results presented were obtained through ABAQUS
shell finite element analyses. Moreover, in order to clarify the distinction between local and global buckling, some
GBT-based critical stresses and buckling mode shapes were also displayed and interpreted. Among the various
conclusions drawn from this study, the following ones deserve to be specially retained:
(i) Both the P and F columns exhibit well defined critical stress “plateaus” that correspond to either (i1) local-
torsional, (i2) torsional or (i3) flexural-torsional buckling − torsional modes occur mostly in F columns.
(ii) Within the above “plateaus”, both the P and F pinned columns exhibit quite different elastic post-buckling
behaviours, ranging from “local” to “global” (high and low post-critical strength). The amount of corner (shear
centre) flexural displacements occurring in the column plays a key role in separating the various behaviours.
(iii) Within the length range under consideration, the few results obtained appear to indicate that the slenderness
value is not adequate to “measure” the column ultimate strength. Further studies are required to confirm this
finding, which is bound to have far-reaching implications in the design of equal-leg angle columns.
REFERENCES
[1] Kitipornchai S. and Chan S.L., “Nonlinear finite-element analysis of angle and tee beam-columns”,
Journal of Structural Engineering (ASCE), 113(4), 721-739, 1987.
[2] Kitipornchai S., Albermani F.G.A. and Chan S.L., “Elastoplastic finite-element models for angle steel
frames”, Journal of Structural Engineering (ASCE), 116(10), 2567-2581, 1990.
[3] Popovic D., Hancock G.J. and Rasmussen K.J.R., “Axial compression tests of cold-formed angles”, Journal
of Structural Engineering (ASCE), 125(5), 515-523, 1999.
1149
[4] Popovic D., Hancock G.J. and Rasmussen K.J.R., “Compression tests on cold-formed angles loaded parallel
with a leg”, Journal of Structural Engineering (ASCE), 127(6), 600-607, 2001.
[5] Trahair N.S., “Lateral buckling strengths of steel angle section beams”, Journal of Structural Engineering
(ASCE), 129(6), 784-791, 2003.
[6] Trahair N.S., “Buckling and torsion of steel unequal angle beams”, Journal of Structural Engineering
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[7] Mohan S.J., Rao N.P. and Lakshmanan N., “Flexural and local buckling interaction of steel angles”,
International Journal of Structural Stability and Dynamics, 5(2), 143-162, 2005.
[8] Young B., “Tests and design of fixed-ended cold-formed steel plain angle columns”, Journal of Structural
Engineering (ASCE), 130(12), 1931-1940, 2004.
[9] Ellobody E. and Young B., “Behavior of cold-formed steel plain angle columns”, Journal of Structural
[10] Rasmussen K.J.R., “Design of angle columns with locally unstable legs”, Journal of Structural Engineering
(ASCE), 131(10), 1553-1560, 2005.
[11] Rasmussen K.J.R., “Design of slender angle section beam-columns by the direct strength method”, Journal of
Structural Engineering (ASCE), 132(2), 204-211, 2006.
[12] Schafer B.W., “Review: the direct strength method of cold-formed steel member design”, Journal of
[13] Chodraui G.M.B., Shifferaw Y., Malite M. and Schafer B.W., “Cold-formed steel angles under
axial compression”, Proceedings of 18th International Specialty Conference on Cold-Formed Steel
Structures (Orlando, 26-27/10), R. LaBoube, W.W. Yu (eds.), 285-300, 2006.
[14] Chodraui G.M.B., Shifferaw Y., Malite M. and Schafer B.W., “On the stability of cold-formed steel angles
under compression”, REM – Revista Escola de Minas (Brazil), 60(2), 355-363, 2007. (Portuguese)
[15] Dinis P.B., Camotim D. and Silvestre N., “On the local and global buckling behaviour of angle, T-section
and cruciform thin-walled columns and beams”, Thin-Walled Structures, accepted for publication, 2010.
[16] Dinis, P.B., Silvestre, N. and Camotim D., “On the local and global post-buckling behaviour and strength of
thin-walled angle columns and beams”, Book of Abstracts of 7th European Solid Mechanics Conference
(ESMC 2009 − Lisboa, 7-11/9), J. Ambrósio, M. Silva (eds.), 649-650, 2009.
[17] Dinis P.B., Silvestre N. and Camotim D., “Buckling and post-buckling behaviour of angles”, Proceedings
of VII National Congress on Steel and Composite Structures (Lisboa, 18-19/11), L.S. Silva et al. (eds.),
II-269-278, 2009. (Portuguese)
[18] Simulia Inc., ABAQUS Standard (vrs. 6.7-5), 2008.
[19] Dinis P.B., Camotim D. and Silvestre N., “FEM-based analysis of the local-plate/distortional mode interaction
in cold-formed steel lipped channel columns”, Computers & Structures, 85(19-20), 1461-1474, 2007.
[20] Dinis P.B. and Camotim D., “On the use of shell finite element analysis to assess the local buckling and post-
buckling behaviour of cold-formed steel thin-walled members”, Book of Abstracts of III European Conference
on Computational Mechanics: Solids, Structures and Coupled Problems in Engineering (III ECCM −
Lisboa, 5-9/6), C.A.M. Soares et al. (eds.), Springer, 689, 2006. (full paper in CD-ROM Proceedings)
[21] Bebiano R., Silvestre N. and Camotim D., GBTUL 1.0β - Code for Buckling and Vibration Analysis of Thin-
Walled Members, freely available at http://www.civil.ist.utl.pt/gbt, 2008.
[22] Bebiano R., Silvestre N. and Camotim D., “GBTUL − a code for the buckling analysis of cold-formed steel
members”, Proceedings of 19th International Specialty Conference on Recent Research and Developments in
Cold-Formed Steel Design and Construction (St. Louis, 14-15/10), R. LaBoube, W.W. Yu (eds.), 61-79, 2008.
[23] Young B. and Rasmussen K.J., “Shift of effective centroid in channel columns”, Journal of Structural
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EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON COLD-FORMED STEEL LIPPED CHANNEL

COLUMNS UNDERGOING LOCAL-DISTORTIONAL-GLOBAL INTERACTION
Eliane S. Santos*, Eduardo M. Batista* and Dinar Camotim**
*Civil Engineering Program, COPPE, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

e-mails: elianesantos@coc.ufrj.br, batista@coc.ufrj.br
**Department of Civil Engineering, ICIST/IST, Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal
e-mail: dcamotim@civil.ist.utl.br
Keywords: Cold-formed steel columns, Lipped channels, Local-distortional-global interaction, Ultimate

strength, Experimental analysis.
Abstract. This paper reports the available results of an ongoing experimental investigation on fixed cold-formed
steel lipped channel columns undergoing local-distortional-global mode interaction, i.e., exhibiting nearly
coincident local, distortional and global (flexural-torsional) critical buckling loads. After addressing the
preliminary buckling analyses, performed to select appropriate column geometries (cross-section dimensions
and lengths), a detailed description of the experimental program carried out at COPPE/UFRJ is provided. Next, the
most relevant experimental results obtained during the tests are presented and discussed. Finally, the paper closes
with some considerations concerning the design of the columns investigated in this work − in particular, the
application of the design expressions currently prescribed by the Direct Strength Method is assessed.
1 INTRODUCTION
Due to their high wall and overall slenderness, cold-formed steel members are highly susceptible to several
instability phenomena, namely to buckling in local (L), distortional (D) or global (G − flexural, torsional or flexural-
torsional) modes. For some particular (but of practical interest ) combination of member cross-section geometry (i.e.,
shape and dimensions) and length, the critical stresses associated with two or three of the above buckling modes
coincide, thus leading to the occurrence of mode interaction phenomena, which may have a detrimental effect on the
member strength. Depending on the buckling modes involved, one may be faced with L-D, L-G, D-G or L-D-G
interaction. Because distortional buckling was not unveiled and properly understood until about two decades ago, for
quite a long time L-G was the only type of mode interaction widely acknowledged and investigated, both analytically
and experimentally, by the cold-formed steel community. As a result, reliable design rules and recommendations
were continuously developed, improved and included in codes of practice − e.g., in the current versions of the North-
American [1] and Brazilian [2] specification for the design of cold-formed steel structures. Concerning the L-D
interaction, it has been recently shown (e.g., [3-5]) that it may lead to a significant strength erosion, which may be
handled by means of an approach based on the Direct Strength Method (DSM − e.g., [6]). Although the D-G
interaction was already addressed by Dinis and Camotim [7], most of the current research effort has been devoted to
the L-D-G interaction − the focus of the work presented in this paper. The available results of the investigation
currently under way have already been reported by Dinis and Camotim [8], Dinis et al. [9] and Santos [10].
The aim of this paper is to report the available results of an ongoing experimental investigation on the behaviour
and design of fixed cold-formed steel lipped channel columns experiencing local-distortional-global mode
interaction, i.e., exhibiting coincident (or vey close) local, distortional and global (flexural-torsional) critical
buckling loads. Initially, one addresses the preliminary buckling analyses, performed by means of analyses based on
Generalised Beam Theory (GBT) and intended to select appropriate column geometries (cross-section dimensions
and lengths). Then, the paper includes a detailed description of the experimental program carried out at
1151
Eliane S. Santos et al.
COPPE/UFRJ − special attention is paid to the column end support conditions, the specimen positioning and
loading procedure, and the measurement of the initial geometrical imperfections and load-induced displacements.
Next, the most relevant experimental results obtained during the tests are presented and discussed − they include
column deformed configurations, collapse mechanisms, displacement profiles and equilibrium paths associated
with the key displacements. Finally, the paper closes with some considerations on the design of lipped channel
undergoing local-distortional-global interaction. In particular, one presents an experimental assessment of the
application of the design expressions currently prescribed by the Direct Strength Method for global failures and
collapses due to local-global interaction. A few concluding remarks/recommendations are made at the end.
2 PRELIMINARY BUCKLING ANALYSIS

In order to identify geometries (cross-section dimensions and length) of fixed lipped channel columns that are
strongly affected by L-D-G interaction, i.e., with coincident or near coincident local, distortional and global
(flexural-torsional) critical buckling loads (Pcr.L≈Pcr.D≈Pcr.G), it was necessary to perform preliminary elastic buckling
analyses. This task was carried out by means of the code GBTUL [11], which is based on Generalised Beam Theory
(GBT) and, therefore, makes it possible also to obtain the variation of the critical load with the column length
(L) and the corresponding modal participation diagram.
The GBT-based buckling analysis led to the identification of the four column geometries (web width bw, flange
width bf, stiffener width bs, length L and wall thickness t) given in table 1, for which the first three buckling loads,
corresponding to local (several half-waves), distortional (a few half-waves) and global (one half-wave) buckling
modes, are less than 3% apart. Table 1 also includes the values of the above three buckling loads and the tested
specimen designations1, which will be addressed in the next section, when the experimental program is described.
Table 1: Nominal geometries and designations of the four column specimens affected by strong L-D-G interaction.
Column bw bf bs L t Pcr.L Pcr.D Pcr.G

specimens (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (kN) (kN) (kN)
C1-3 81 78 12 2850 1.11 43.8 42.9 44.1
C4-6 75 65 11 2350 1.11 48.8 47.5 48.6
C7-8 71 60 11 2100 1.11 51.9 51.8 51.9
C9-10 62 55 11 1650 1.11 60.1 58.8 59.5
To illustrate the buckling results obtained, figures 1(a)-(b) show the curve Pcr vs. L (logarithmic scale) and a part
of the modal participation diagram for the cross-section dimensions of the C4-6 tested specimens (see table 1) and the
steel material properties E=200 GPa and ν=0.3. The observation of these buckling results shows that:
(i) The column length range can be divided into three intervals, associated with different critical buckling mode
natures: (i) I (shorter columns − L < 2045 mm), corresponding to local buckling and in which the Pcr vs. L
curve descends monotonically up to L≈70mm, before turning into an almost horizontal “plateau”; (ii) II
(intermediate columns − 2045 <L < 2411 mm), associated with distortional buckling (1-2 half-waves) and in
which the Pcr vs. L curve descends slightly; and (iii) III (longer columns − L > 2411 mm), associated with global
buckling modes (1 half-wave) and in which the Pcr vs. L curve descends sharply.
(ii) The selected column length is L=2350 mm and falls inside interval II (but barely − see fig. 1(b)), which means
that the column critical buckling load (Pcr=47.5 kN) corresponds to distortional buckling. The second and third
bifurcation loads, which are very close (less than 3% − Pb2=48.6 kN and Pb3=48.8 kN) are associated with
global and local buckling, respectively.
1
The dimensions included in table 1 are nominal values. Nevertheless, as will be commented in the next section, the measured
dimensions of the tested specimens were found to be very close to the indicated nominal ones.
1152
100%
70 Pcr (kN)
C4-6 La Da
60 80%
50 C4-6
60%
40 Ds
Ls T
I II
30 40%
20 III Fmajor
20%
10 I II III
L(mm) L=2411 L(mm)
0 0%

100 500 1000
2000 3000 1532 1707 1901 2117 2350 2533 2822 3143 3500
LL/D/G = 2350

(a) (b)
Figure 1: (a) Variation of the critical buckling load with the column length (logarithmic scale) and (b) part of the
modal participation diagram (cross-section dimensions of specimens C4-6, E=200 GPa and ν=0.3).
(iii) The part of the column modal participation diagram displayed in figure 1(b) provides relevant information on
the variation of the critical buckling mode nature in the vicinity of the selected length value (L=2350 mm). For
the shorter lengths, corresponding to interval I, one has web-triggered local buckling combining about 80%
and 20% of symmetric and anti-symmetric local deformation modes − for L=2350 mm, this buckling mode is
associated with Pb3. In the very close vicinity of L=2350 mm, corresponding to interval II, the critical buckling
mode is almost “pure distortional”, as it combines a 95% contribution of the symmetric distortional deformation
mode with a tiny participation of the anti-symmetric local one. Finally, the longer columns, corresponding to
interval III, buckle in modes that combines major axis flexure, torsion and anti-symmetric distortion (the
contribution of the anti-symmetric distortional deformation mode decreases with the length, being “replaced”
by higher contributions of the flexural and torsional modes)2 − for L=2350 mm, this “global” buckling
mode is associated with Pb2.
The column specimens were manufactured from high strength ASTM A572 steel of grade 50, which
has a nominal yield stress equal to fy=345 MPa. Its mechanical properties were carachterised by means of standard
tensile coupon tests, which made it possible to obtain the following mesured value ranges: (i) Young’s modulus
E varying from 205 to 216 GPa and (ii) yield stress and tensile strength average values of fy=342 MPa (standard
deviation of 1.2%) and fu=439 MPa (standard deviation of 4.1%), respectively. The column cross-section
dimensions were measured at five different locations along the length and the values obtained are fairly identical to
the nominal ones indicated in table 1 (standard deviation below 1% and maximum difference of 5%).
Concerning the wall thickness, the measured values varied from 1.05 to 1.09 mm, i.e., slightly below the
nominal value 1.11 mm. Moreover, the angle formed by the web and flange wall elements was also measured (at least
4 measuements for each specimen) − the average value found was 1.577 rad (90.364o), with a standard
deviation of 1.61%.
In order to guarantee that the specimen end cross-sections were effectiely fixed, they were welded (TIG welding)
to 12 mm thick steel plates that were connected to the testing frame loading plates by means of four 10 mm
diameter bolts − a view of the column end support conditons is depicted in figure 2. The testing frame loading plates
are connected to spherical hinges, which (i) are free to rotate during the positioning of the column specimen, prior to
2
Note that the so-called column “global” buckling mode is, indeed, a flexural-torsional-distortional one. The presence of the anti-symmetric
dimensional deformation mode, which already unveiled in [8, 9], has significant implications in the column post-buckling behaviour.
1153
the test, and and (ii) are fully restrained against rotations, during the test. Concentric axial loading was ensured by
(i) preliminary measurements that enable an accurate positioning of the end cross-sections on the end plates,
before welding, and (ii) the centering of the end plate on the test frame loading plate, with the help of the free-to-
rotate spherical hinges. Therefore, it is fair to say that there are minute (negligible) eccentricities of the end section
centroids with respect the test frame loading axis.
Loading plate
Testing frame
Tig welding
4 bolts
Column specimen
Figure 2: Column end cross-section fully fixed against the test frame loading plate.
The column initial geometrical imperfections and load-induced displacement were measured with the help of 8
displacement transducers (DT1 to DT8), located around the column cross-section as indicated in figure 3(a) − this
figure also includes the sign convention adopted for the measured displacements. Three of these displacement
transducers (DT6, DT7 and DT8) are mounted on a device that is able to move along the whole column length − its
position (along the column length) is monitored by means of an additional displacement transducer DT9. The
remaining 5 dispacement transducers were always located at the column mid-height. Figure 3(b) shows a
view of the positioning of the various displacement transducers at the column mid-height.
2 8
4 5 6
Figure 3: (a) Position of the displacement transducers around the column cross-section and displcement
sign convention, and (b) view of the displacement transducer positioning at the column mid-height.
Concerning the measurement of the initial geometrical imperfections, it (i) was made after having properly
positioned the column specimen in the testing frame and (ii) involved single (mid-height) measurements from the 5
fixed displacement transducers and continuous measurements from the three ones mounted on the moving device.
During the load application, all displacement transducers remained fixed at the column mid-height and their readings
were continuously fed into a data acquisition system, making it possible to plot several load-dispalcement
equilibrium paths, namely those associated with flexural or distortional lateral displacements and torsional rotations.
Moreover, at selected load values, the loading process was interrupted and the device with the displacement
transducers DT6, DT7 and DT8 was moved along the column length, in order to try to obtain experimental evidence
of the occurrence of local (DT8) and/or symmetric distortional (DT6 and DT7) deformations in the columns.
Finally, it is worth mentioning that the compressive loading system was set to a displacement control
mode and that the accuracy of the loading measured and fed to the data acquisition system was 50 N.
1154
4 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
This section reports the main experimental results obtained from the performance of 10 tests, concerning the
column specimens indicated in table 1, all of which were selected to exhibit coincident (or, at least, as close as
possible) local, distortional and global critical buckling loads (Pcr.L≈Pcr.D≈Pcr.G). Due to both space limitations and the
fact that the various tests provided qualitatively similar outputs, only the experimental results concerning the tested
specimen C4 (see table 1) are presented here − the interested reader may find the complete set of experimental
results in reference [10]. After the performance of all the tests and the close observation of the results obtained, the
following conclusions may be drawn (they are valid for all the columns tested):
(i) In the early loading stages (elastic range), all the columns exhibited a clearly visible flexural-torsional deformed
configuration, as illustrated in figure 4(a).
(ii) All the columns developed the plastic collapse mechanism depicted in figure 4(b), which consists of
the formation of a mid-height “local plastic hinge” typical of slender plates. When failure occurred, the column
(largely) deformed configuration was clearly flexural-torsional.
(iii) The displacement profiles obtained from the measurements of the displacement transducer DT8 at four load
levels (Pexp=0.6-9.0-23.7-28.3 kN) are displayed in figure 5. Although these displacement profiles are
fairly “irregular”, making it quite difficult to assess whether or not local deformations take place, the visual
inspection of the column during the test did not detect any sign of local deformations.
(iv) The displacements profiles obtained from the measurements of the displacement transducers DT6 and
DT7 at two load levels (Pexp=0.6-28.3 kN − initial and final loading steps) are depicted in figure 6. Figure 7,
on the other hand, shows the equilibrium paths concerning displacements recorded by these two transducers at
the mid-height cross-section. Since the presence of symmetric distortional deformations is associated with the
difference between the DT6 and DT7 readings, one readily concludes that there is experimental evidence of the
development of symmetric distortional deformations at high load levels. It is worth noting that the recorded test
images also show clearly the presence of visible (and fast growing) symmetric distortional deformations during
the last loading steps, i.e., in the vicinity of the column ultimate load.
5 COLUMN STRENGTH
In this section, one compares the column ultimate loads obtained experimentally (Pexp) with ultimate strength
estimates yielded by the Direct Strength Method (DSM [6]) expressions prescribed in the North American
specification [1] for columns failing globally (Pn.G) or due to local-global mode interaction (Pn.LG) – note
that similar ultimate strength estimates could be determined by means of the “effective section method” included in
the Brazilian code [2]. At this point, it is worth mentioning that the currently available DSM design expressions do
not cover columns undergoing L-D-G interaction3. Table 2 provides tested column (i) measured cross-section
areas (A) and lengths (L), (ii) squash loads (Py=Afy), (iii) experimental ultimate loads (Pexp), (iv) DSM
ultimate strength estimates (Pn.G and Pn.LG) and (v) the ultimate load ratios Pexp / Pn.G and Pexp / Pn.LG − the mean
values, standard deviations and coefficients of variation of these last two sets of values are also presented.
The observation of the results displayed in this table prompt the following comments:
(i) The Pn.G estimates consistently overestimate the experimental ultimate loads by a large amount. Indeed, the
minimum, maximum and mean values of the ratio Pexp / Pn.G are 0.66, 0.84 and 0.77, respectively. This fact
provides evidence of the ultimate strength erosion due to the L-D-G mode interaction phenomenon.
(ii) As for the Pn.LG predictions, they still overestimate the experimental ultimate loads, but now by a smaller
amount − the minimum, maximum and mean values of the ratio Pexp/Pn.LG read 0.75, 0.94 and 0.87.
3
In another paper included in these Proceedings, the authors address the development of a novel DSM design approach for cold-formed steel
lipped channel columns affected by L-D-G mode interaction.
1155
5
Displacement (mm) 0.6 kN
9.0 kN
3
23.7 kN
28.3 kN
1
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200
-1
Position (mm)
-3
-5
(a) (b)
Figure 4: Column (a) flexural-tortional deformed Figure 5: Displacement profiles measured by transducer
configuration and (b) local collapse mechanism. DT8 along the column length.
35 P(kN)
10
Displacement (mm)
30
5
25
20 d6
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 15 d7
d6 - 0.6 kN Position (mm)
-5 d7 - 0.6 kN 10
d6 - 28.3 kN
5
-10
d7 - 28.3 kN
0 d6, d7 (mm)
-20 -16 -12
-8 -4 0 4 8 12 16 20

Figure 6: Displacement profiles measured by Figure 7: Measured displacements by transducers DT6

transducers DT6 and DT7 along the column length. and DT7 at mid-height.
Figure 8 shows a comparison between the experimental loads and the ultimate strengths predicted by
the two DSM expressions, for all the tested columns. This figure also includes the partial resistance factor γ,
computed on the basis of the reliability equation prescribed by the Brazilian code [2],
¬ «¬
(
γ = 1 / ª«1.45 X M X F X P exp ª− β 0 VM2 + V F2 + C P V F2 + 0.044 ) 0.5 º º
»¼ »¼
(1)
where (i) XM=1.1, XF=1.0 and XP are the material, fabrication and load ratio Pexp/Pn mean values, respectively, (ii)
β0=2.5 is the target reliability value, and (iii) VM=0.1, VF=0.05 and VF are the material, fabrication and
load ratio Pexp/Pn coefficients of variation, respectively. The results presented, which are based on (i) a live-to-
dead load ratio (Ln /Dn) equal to 5 and (ii) the load combination 1.25Dn+1.5Ln, lead to γ=1.35 for the Pn.LG
estimates, a value that is above the regular one prescribed in the Brazilian code for cold-formed columns (γ
1156
=1.20). In other words, the (DSM) Pn.LG predictions do not meet the Brazilian code reliability requirement
condition. Obviously, the performance of the Pexp/Pn.G values is still significantly worse (γ=1.51).
Table 2: Column experimental ultimate loads and DSM ultimate strength estimates.
Pexp Pexp Config.

Column A L Pexp Py Pn.G Pn.LG
at failure
specimen (mm²) (cm) (kN) (kN) (kN) (kN) Pn.G Pn. LG (experim.)
C1 273 2850 31.48 66.07 39.63 33.77 0.79 0.93 F-T
C2 272 2850 29.00 65.82 38.94 33.40 0.74 0.87 F-T
C3 274 2850 30.65 66.31 39.31 33.96 0.78 0.90 F-T
C4 238 2352 32.96 57.60 41.38 36.21 0.80 0.91 F-T
C5 238 2349 31.21 57.60 40.48 35.79 0.77 0.87 F-T
C6 238 2349 27.41 57.60 41.42 36.35 0.66 0.75 F-T
C7 223 2099 35.07 53.97 41.81 37.16 0.84 0.94 F-T
C8 221 2099 34.03 53.48 42.00 36.92 0.81 0.92 F-T
C9 203 1652 33.95 49.13 43.65 40.70 0.78 0.83 F-T
C10 204 1650 32.82 49.37 43.99 40.89 0.75 0.80 F-T
Mean 0.77 0.87
Std. dev. σ 0.05 0.06
Coef. var. σ/mean 0.06 0.07
F-T: flexural-torsional deformed configuration experimentally observed and recorded at failure.
0,70
Pexp/Py
0,60
Pexp/PnLG: 10 tests
Pexp /PnLG
0,50
Mean: 0.87
St dev: 0.06
γ = 1.35
0,40
0,30
Pexp=Pn
Pexp /PnG
0,20
0,10
Mean Pexp /PnLG Pn/Py
0,00
0,00 0,10 0,20 0,30 0,40 0,50 0,60 0,70
Figure 8: Comparison between experimental ultimate loads and DSM estimates Pn.G and Pn.LG.
6 CONCLUDING REMARKS
The available results of an ongoing experimental investigation on fixed cold-formed steel lipped channel
columns undergoing local-distortional-global mode interaction were reported − they concerned 10 column tests.
After addressing the preliminary buckling analyses, which were performed by means of GBT-based analyses and
made it possible to select appropriate cross-section dimensions and column lengths, the paper presented a detailed
description of the experimental program carried out at COPPE/UFRJ. Next, the most relevant experimental results
obtained during the tests were presented and discussed, namely column deformed configurations, collapse
1157
mechanisms, displacement profiles and equilibrium paths. Finally, the paper closed with some considerations
on the design of the columns investigated in this work, namely an experimental assessment of the application
of the current DSM design expressions for global failures and collapses stemming from local-global interaction.
Out of the various conclusions drawn from the research work reported in this paper, the following ones
deserve to be specially mentioned:
(i) All the tested columns exhibited clear flexural-torsional deformed configurations immediately before the
collapse. The occurrence of local deformations was not detected, neither visually nor by means of the recorded
displacement measurements. As for the symmetric distortional deformations, they were both captured by the
displacement transducer readings and observed in the recorded test images. However, they were mainly visible
during the last loading steps (close to the column ultimate load), when they developed quite fast.
(ii) In any case, the effects of the L-D-G interaction were clearly felt through a considerable erosion of the column
ultimate strengths, with respect to the ultimate loads commonly expected from global failures.
(iii) Both the DSM Pn.G (global failures) and Pn.LG (collapses due to local-global interaction) ultimate strength
estimates overestimated the experimental ultimate loads by a fair amount − no safe prediction was obtained. In
addition, even the Pn.LG estimates were found to exhibit a partial resistance factor that does not meet the
reliability condition prescribed by the Brazilian code for cold-formed steel structures.
(iv) Further numerical and experimental work is required, in order to acquire more in-depth knowledge on a number
of behavioural aspects associated with the mechanics of the L-D-G interaction.
REFERENCES
[1] AISI (American Iron and Steel Institute), North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel
Members (including an Appendix 1 on “Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members using the Direct
Strength Method), AISI S100-2007, 2007.
[2] ABNT (Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas − Brazil), Design of Steel Structures with Cold-Formed
Members, ABNT-NBR14762, March 2010. (Portuguese)
[3] Kwon Y.B., Kim B.S. and Hancock G.J., “Compression tests of high strength cold-formed steel channels with
buckling interaction”, Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 65(2), 278-289, 2009.
[4] Silvestre N., Camotim D. and Dinis P.B., “Direct strength prediction of lipped channel columns experiencing
local-plate/distortional interaction”, Advanced Steel Construction - An International Journal, 5(1), 49-71, 2009.
[5] Young B., Camotim D. and Silvestre N., “Ultimate strength and design of lipped channel columns experiencing
local/distortional mode interaction − part I: experimental investigation and part II: DSM design approach”,
Proceedings of 6th International Conference on Advances in Steel Structures (Hong Kong, 16-18/12), S.L.
Chan (ed.), 460-469 + 470-479, 2009.
[6] Schafer B.W., “Review: the Direct Strength Method of cold-formed steel member design”, Journal of
[7] Dinis P.B. and Camotim D., “Post-buckling behaviour and strength of cold-formed steel lipped channel
columns experiencing distortional/global interaction”, Computers & Stuctures, accepted for publication, 2010.
[8] Dinis P.B. and Camotim, D., “Local/distortional/global buckling mode interaction in cold-formed steel
lipped channel columns”, Proceedings of SSRC Annual Stability Conference (Phoenix, 1-3/4), 295-323, 2009.
[9] Dinis P.B., Camotim D., Batista E.M. and Santos E.S., “Local/distortional/global mode coupling in fixed lipped
channel columns: behaviour and strength”. Proceedings of 6th International Conference on Advances in Steel
Structures (Hong Kong, 16-18/12), S.L. Chan (ed.), , 2009.
[10] Santos E.S., Strength and Stability Analysis of Cold-Formed Steel Members Affected by Local-Distortional-
Global Buckling Mode Interaction, M.Sc. Dissertation, Civil Engineering Program, COPPE, Federal
University of Rio de Janeiro, 2010. (Portuguese)
[11] Bebiano R., Pina P., Silvestre N. and Camotim D., GBTUL 1.0β – Buckling and Vibration Analysis of Thin-
Walled Members, DECivil/IST, Technical University of Lisbon, 2008. (http://www.civil.ist.utl.pt/gbt).
1158
12. TRUSSES, TOWERS AND MASTS
STABILITY BRACING REQUIREMENTS OF TRUSSES
Rangsan Wongjeeraphat* and Todd A. Helwig**

*
PhD Candidate ** Associate Professor, Ph.D.
e-mails: rang_san@hotmail.com and thelwig@mail.utexas.edu
Keywords: Stability, Bracing, Steel Truss.
Abstract. The evaluation of the global buckling capacity of structural members and systems plays a
critical role in ensuring a safe structure. The buckling capacity is improved by incorporating bracing to
reduce the unsupported length of the members. This paper highlights the results of an investigation
targeted to improve the understanding of the bracing behavior for truss systems. The study included
laboratory testing and parametric finite element analyses and considers the effects of truss and bracing
geometry, connection flexibility, as well as the types of bracing systems. The tests have considered the
impact of the number and stiffness of the braces as well as the location on the truss cross section.
According to the test results, it was found that the effect of load height exists in trusses, but to a lesser
degree compared to beams. Proper selections of the brace stiffness value and brace location are
important in improving buckling capacity of the truss.
1 INTRODUCTION
The evaluation of the global buckling capacity of structural members and systems plays a critical role
in ensuring a safe structure. Failure to consider certain stability modes can lead to catastrophic problems
during construction or in-service. Several types of structural systems have members that act as the bracing
for the main members. However, these members are usually secondary members and brace forces add an
additional force demand on these members, which may or may not be considered in design. For the
under-designed secondary elements that carry the extra force due to the bracing effect, these forces might
cause the element to become unstable and may lead to problems in the finished structure.
While there have been several past bracing studies that have led to a good understanding of the
bracing requirements of columns, beams, and frames, very little work has been focused towards the study
of bracing behavior for truss systems. The AISC Specification [1] provides requirements for the bracing
of beam and column systems. With some conditions, AISC [1] allows the design of bracing systems for
trusses by using beam provisions. Although engineers often rely on solutions that have been developed
for columns and beams, the factors that affect bracing for trusses can be quite different. Since trusses are
generally flexural systems composed of a collection of axially loaded members, there are a variety of
failure modes that complicate the bracing requirements. Establishing a clear understanding of the bracing
requirements to control the variety of instabilities that can occur in truss systems is vital to a proper
design. Unfortunately, the current knowledge base on the bracing behavior in trusses is generally
inadequate.
2 BACKGROUND
Several types of trusses have been developed to maximize the load carrying capacity, aesthetic
appeal, and span length for use in bridges, buildings, and stadiums. However, bracing requirements for
trusses have not been well developed. The most developed bracing design recommendation was for the
half through truss (pony truss). A summary of the design recommendations for the half through truss can
1161
Wongjeeraphat, R. and Helwig, T.A.
be found in Galambos [2]. AASHTO [3] also specifies the requirement for the design of half through
trusses. In contrast, beam and column bracing requirements have been well developed. There are 2 types
of bracing that are used to improve the buckling capacity of beams and columns: lateral and torsional
bracing systems. Several factors have been included in the requirements for beam bracing, such as the
load height effect, type of loads, stiffness of the brace, connection type, and beam cross section. Effective
bracing must satisfy both stiffness and strength requirements. Historically, many designers have used
rules of thumb such as sizing the brace for 2% of the compression force in the member being braced.
While this may provide sufficient strength, such an approach may often possess insufficient stiffness.
May bracing provisions are often a function of the “ideal stiffness” which is the stiffness required so a
perfectly straight member buckles between brace points. However, the ideal stiffness usually results in
very large displacements and brace forces and therefore providing at least twice the ideal brace stiffness is
often required [4].
Bracing requirements for trusses are not well documented, however, recommendations have been
provided. With some conditions, AISC [1] allows a truss to be designed by using the beam bracing
provisions. In Europe, the bracing requirements for trusses can be found in the Polish steel design code
[5]. According to the Polish code [5], the strength requirement for the brace is:
F = 0.01N and F ≥ 0.005Asfy (1)
Where N is the axial force in the compression chord, As is the cross sectional area of the compression
chord, and fy is the steel’s yield stress. The Polish code also limits the maximum displacement of the
brace to 1/200 of the unbraced length.
In recent study of trusses, Iwicki [6] found that the buckling capacity increases with an increase in the
stiffness of the brace and decreases with an increase in the angle of the brace. When the angle of the
brace reached 30 and 45 degrees, the horizontal displacement was greater than the limit set by the Polish
code, which is Lb/200. Also, the brace force ranged from 0.25% to 3.0% of the compression force on top
chord. Also of note: from the sensitivity analysis, it was found that attaching the brace at some locations
might decrease the buckling capacity by up to 10%.
3.1 Truss and brace designs
Trusses are complex structures, the behavior of which can be affected by several factors. In particular,
factors such as the connection types, cross sections of the chord and web elements, end conditions,
alignment of diagonal members, all have an impact on the buckling behavior. In this study, tests were
conducted on twin trusses that were designed to minimize the number of unknowns by keeping the model
symmetrical. The same size members were used for the chords and the vertical and diagonal members of
the truss. Twin trusses with a depth of 4 ft. and a maximum span of 72-ft were fabricated. Tests were
conducted with both torsional and lateral bracing. The trusses were designed to buckle in the elastic
range. Truss supports were designed to allow the truss to warp freely, but the twist was prevented. The
details of truss supports are shown in Figure 1(without the truss). The thrust washers and the rounded
threaded rods minimized warping restraint.
The vertical loads were applied at one third and two thirds of the span using gravity load simulators.
Details of the loading apparatus were discussed in Wongjeeraphat and Helwig [7]. For the purposes of
discussing the results, the individual trusses are referred to as the East or West truss. The spacing between
the trusses was set at 10 feet to accommodate the gravity load simulator placement. The lateral deflections
of the tests were limited to approximately 3 inches.
3.2 Truss setup with lateral bracing
The lateral braces used in the tests were composed of either an aluminum bar or various HSS steel
sections. The lateral bracing was provided by the flexural stiffness of the brace with one end of the brace
attached to the ground and another support point on the brace that could be adjusted to vary the stiffness.
1162
The aluminum bar that was used for the brace is shown in Figure 2a. At the contact point between the top
chord of the truss and the brace, two Teflon contact surfaces were used to provide low friction contact, so
that lateral movement could be prevented, while still allowing the truss to deflect vertically. A Teflon pad
on the brace was connected through a 1″ diameter threaded rod to allow lateral adjustments to account for
imperfections in the truss.
Lateral braces were positioned either at mid-span or at the third points of the truss. The design
stiffness values were 0.2, 0.5 and 0.8 kip/in, based upon the elastic deflection equations for an
overhanging beam. The actual stiffness of the braces varied since the trusses deflected vertically, thereby
changing the contact point. Although the actual stiffness varied, in the remainder of this paper, the design
stiffness will be referred to when discussing the behavior.
Figure 1: Support conditions a) Thrust bearing at support with rounded threaded rod b) Support frame.
3.3 Truss setup with torsional bracing

Two torsional stiffness values were used for the tests of the trusses with torsional bracing. The braces
were placed at 24, 36 and 48 ft from the North support for the bottom chord loading case. The braces
could not be placed at the 24 and 48 ft locations for the top chord loading case, due to the positioning of
the load beam. Therefore, the braces were each shifted 1 joint in the outside direction to 20 and 52 ft
locations. The torsional braces that were used in the tests were HSS 3″x2½″x1/4″ and HSS 5″x2½″x1/4″.
The torsional braces were placed with their major axis in the out-of-plane direction of the trusses.
Therefore, the major axis was acting to prevent the rotation of the trusses. Figures 2b, 2c, and 2d show the
torsional braces and connection details. For the torsional braces placed at the third points, due to the
unsymmetrical bending at the brace points and the trusses both bent into the same half sine curve, the
torsional braces resisted this rotation and created the warping restraint on the minor axis of the braces.
Figure 2 shows the details of lateral and torsional braces.
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The results presented in the paper were from the West truss; however similar behavior was observed
for the East truss. For the top chord loading case, the loads were applied at the third points at the truss
joint. However, when referring to the bottom chord loading case, the load was offset 10 inches towards
the supports from the third points. “Total load” refers to the total load applied to the twin trusses.
The testing program demonstrated that several factors had a significant impact on the buckling
behavior. Some of these factors include the magnitude and shape of the initial imperfection, load position,
cross-sectional distortion, as well as the stiffness and location of the bracing. These factors are being
considered in the parametric finite element analyses that are currently underway.
4.1 Buckling capacity of trusses without bracing
For all of the buckling test results without bracing, the trusses deflected laterally to the same side with
almost the same deflection in the half sine shape. Due to the difference in the initial imperfections
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between the adjacent trusses, there was a lean-on effect imposing some axial force on the loading beams;
however, this did not have a significant impact on the test results. The Southwell plotting technique [8]
was used to estimate the buckling capacities of the trusses. The Southwell technique [8] uses a graph of
the lateral deflection versus the ratio of lateral deflection to the applied load, to obtain a linear
relationship. The inverse of the slope of the line is the estimated buckling capacity. The X-intercept is the
estimated initial imperfection. Figure 3 shows the result of Southwell plot at mid span top chord of 72-ft
span truss with top chord loading. It can be seen that Southwell plot has very good agreement with the test
result with correlation coefficient (R2) equal to 1.0. The Southwell plot produced a linear relationship in
nearly all of the tests without intermediate braces. However, for the cases with bracing, the braces
themselves contribute some effect to the buckling behavior of the truss. Therefore, the Southwell plot of
the case with bracing was not used in cases with bracing. The estimated buckling capacity and initial
imperfection for top chord and bottom chord loading cases were 7.5 kips and 1.54 inch, and 8.6 kips and
1.33 inch, respectively.
Figure 2: Brace details a) Lateral brace b, c, d) Torsional brace.
Figure 3: Southwell plot at mid span top chord of 72-ft span truss with top chord loading.
1164
According to the Southwell plot, the estimated buckling capacity of the top chord loading case is
different from the bottom chord loading case. The ratio of the buckling capacity of the bottom chord
loading case to the top chord loading is about 1.16. This indicates the possibility of a load height effect,
which has been observed for with beams. For the load height effect of a beam with loads at third points,
the load height effect can be calculated by using the following equations [2]:
(2)
Where y = Distance from the mid height to the point of load application
h = Depth of beam
A = 1.111 for third points loading
for third points loading
For a typical wide flange section, W is low for a long, slender beam and is high for a short, stocky
beam. The ratio of the load height effect of bottom chord to top chord loading versus a range of possible
W values is shown in Figure 4. The range of the W was from 0.1 to 2.5, which covers a wide range of
spans. The load height ratio ranged from 1.34 at W = 0.1 to a maximum of 5.8 at W = 2.0. Comparing the
ratio for beams to the tested truss, the truss’s load height effect ratio is still lower than the beam’s, even at
the W of 0.1. Therefore, it could be said that even though the load height effect exist in trusses, the effect
of load height on trusses is lower than on beams. The further parametric study of finite element models
will be done to clarify the impact of load position on the truss behavior.
Figure 4: Bottom chord to top chord load height effect ratio of beam with load at third points
4.2 Effect of lateral bracing on buckling capacity

Figure 5 shows the relationship of the applied load and relative deflections at the locations limited by
the braces. For the case without bracing and cases with 1 brace at mid span, the relative lateral deflections
were the deflection at mid span relative to support. For the cases with 2 braces, the plots were the
maximum deflection of 1) the deflection at 24 ft relative to support at 0 ft, 2) the lower of the deflections
at 24 or 48 ft relative to deflection at 36 ft, and 3) the deflection at 48 ft relative to the support at 72 ft.
For the case with stiffness values (K) of 0.2 and 0.5 kip/in, the maximum relative deflections were taken
between 48 and 72 ft. The relative deflections between 24 and 36 ft was taken for the case with K = 0.8
kip/in. If the maximum lateral deflection of the trusses were limited by the maximum initial imperfection
allowed by the AISC code of standard practice [9], which is Lb/500, where Lb is unbraced length, the
maximum deflections are 1.73, 0.86 and 0.58 inch for trusses without bracing, with 1 brace at mid span,
and with 2 braces at third points, respectively. The maximum load at the limit of deflection for truss
without bracing was 8 kips. The maximum loads for the cases with 1 brace at mid span were 22, 45 and
55 kips for the cases with the brace stiffness values of 0.2, 0.5 and 0.8 kip/in respectively. The maximum
1165
loads for the cases with 2 braces at 24 and 48 ft were 26, 50 and 59 kips for the cases with the brace
stiffness values of 0.2, 0.5 and 0.8 kip/in respectively. By limiting the lateral deflection to the L b/500, the
test showed that changing the brace from 1 brace to 2 braces helped improve the load carrying capacity,
even though the load deflection at mid span was the same for the case with brace stiffness of 0.8 kip/in,
graph was not shown here. However, with the stiffness in the test range, 0.2 to 0.8 kip/in, the
improvement of the buckling capacity seems to be the same, about 5 kips, for every stiffness increment.
Figure 5: Relative maximum lateral deflection of truss with and without lateral bracing.
4.3 Effect of torsional bracing on the buckling capacity

The twin trusses were tested with torsional bracing in several configurations, including braces at the
top chord, braces at the bottom chord (with lateral restraints on both top and bottom chords at the ends)
and as a pony truss (torsional bracing along the bottom chord only – no lateral restraint at the top chord at
ends). Only the cases with braces at top and bottom chord are discussed in this paper.
The maximum deflection point was always at mid span of the top chord whether the braces were
attached at top or bottom chords. Therefore, the deflections of the top chord at mid span were the points
that were compared in this setup. The results of the test with 2 and 3 torsional braces with the load applied
at the braced chord are shown in Figure 6 for the setup with small torsional bracing and Figure 7 for the
setup with large torsional bracing. The results were for the lateral deflection at mid span of the top chord
of the West truss on both graphs. There was one exception where the maximum deflection was not at the
mid span. This was the case where the trusses snapped from half sine mode to full sine mode, in the trial
test of the case with 3 large torsional braces at the top chord. All subsequent buckling tests with the same
setup following the change in mode shape buckled in the full sine shape. The lateral deflections at both 20
and 36 ft locations of this case are shown in the graph. In practice, there is usually more than one brace
attached to an actual structure; therefore, the results of the cases with 1 torsional brace were not shown
here. In comparing the top and bottom chord loading cases in Figures 6 and 7, it can be seen that for a
given brace size (and number) the top chord always deflected more for cases with bottom chord loading
than top chord loading.
In order to compare the cases between top and bottom chord, the truss should have the braces at the
same locations. However, the braces were not at the same locations between top and bottom chord due to
conflicts with the loading apparatus. The braces for the top chord were placed at 20, 36 and 52 ft, and the
brace at the bottom chord were placed at 24, 36 and 48 ft. Thus, it might be difficult to compare the
results between the cases with braces at top and braces at bottom chord. Figure 8 shows the preliminary
FEA results of the lateral deflection at mid span of the trusses with torsional braces at the top chord at
various location and loads applied at the top chord with half sine initial imperfections at top chord and
straight bottom chord. For the case with 2 braces, attaching torsional braces at 20 and 52 ft slightly
decreased the buckling capacity (for the case with low stiffness braces) compared to attaching braces at
1166
24 and 48 ft. For the cases with 3 braces, attaching torsional braces at 20, 36 and 52 ft meant the braces
were uniformly distributed, resulted in a higher buckling capacity than the case with braces at 24, 36 and
48 ft. It can be seen in both cases that a more uniform distribution of braces leads to the improvement of
the buckling capacity. Therefore, equally distributed braces provide a better bracing effect for the truss,
which is similar to beam and column behavior. The stiffness of the brace is also a factor in this effect.
Combining the results of Figure 8 on the brace locations with Figure 6 and 7 with the same brace
configurations, it can be seen that the effect of the brace location, between 20 and 52 ft and 24 and 48 ft,
was still lower than the effect of the top chord/bottom chord loading. If the test results were reduced by
the effect of the change in brace locations within the same setup configuration, the buckling capacities of
the top chord loading cases were still higher than the cases with bottom chord loading. This means the
braces were more effective in the top chord loading case than the bottom chord loading case. In other
words, to obtain the same buckling capacity, the required bracing stiffness for the bottom chord loading
case is higher than for the top chord loading case.
Figure 6: Top chord lateral deflection of truss with small torsional bracing.
Figure 7: Top chord lateral deflection of truss with large torsional bracing.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The test results demonstrated that load position on the cross section was important in truss systems,
but the impact was not as significant as has been observed in beams. Adding the proper lateral bracing
stiffness as well as the proper number and location of braces is necessary to improve the buckling
capacity of a truss. As would be expected, the effectiveness of adding a lateral brace decreases with an
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increase in the number of the braces since the buckling capacity is a function of the unbraced length
squared. Adding torsional braces is more effective in top chord loading cases than in bottom chord
loading cases. In other words, to obtain the same buckling capacity, the required bracing stiffness for
bottom chord loading cases is higher than for top chord loading cases.
Figure 8: Effect of size and location of braces on lateral deflection of top chord loaded truss with torsional
braces at top chord by FEA model.
REFERENCES
[1] American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC), Manual of Steel Construction, Chicago, IL, USA,
2005.
[2] Structural Stability Research Council (SSRC), Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal
Structures, 5th ed., Galambos T.V. ed., John Wiley & Son, New York, NY, USA, 1998.
[3] American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC), Manual of Steel Construction, Chicago, IL, USA,
2005.
[4] Structural Stability Research Council (SSRC), Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal
Structures, 5th ed., Galambos T.V. ed., John Wiley & Son, New York, NY, USA, 1998.
[5] American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), AASHTO LRFD
Bridge Design Specifications, 4th ed., Washington, D.C., USA, 2007.
[6] Yura, Joseph A., “Fundamentals of Beam Bracing”, Engineering Journal, American Institute of
Steel Construction, 1st Quarter, 11-26, 2001.
[7] PN-90/B-03200 Steel Structures. Design rules, in “Iwicki, P., “Stability of Trusses with Linear
Elastic Side-Supports”, This-Walled Structures, Vol. 45, 849-854, 2007”.
[8] Iwicki, P., “Stability of Trusses with Linear Elastic Side-Supports”, Thin-Walled Structures, Vol.
45, 849-854, 2007.
[9] Wongjeeraphat, R. and Helwig, T.A., “Stability Bracing Requirements for Truss Systems”, Proc. of
2009 Annual Stability Conference, SSRC, Phoenix, Arizona, USA, 177-197, 2009.
[10] Southwell, R.V., “On the Analysis of Experimental Observations in Problems of Elastic Stability”,
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Vol. 135, No. 828, 601-616, 1932.
[11] American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC), Code of standard practice, Chicago, IL, USA,
2005.
1168
THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF STEEL SPACE-

TRUSS WITH STAMPED CONNECTION
CLEIRTON A. S. FREITAS*, LUCIANO M. BEZERRA* and RAMON S. Y. SILVA*
* Department of Civil Engineering, University of Brasilia, 70910-900 – Brasilia, DF - Brazil

e-mail: lmbz@unb.br
Keywords: Truss load capacity, Space trusses, End-flattened connections.
Abstract. Tubular section members made of steel are common in space trusses. There are several types
of connections to attach these members. The most popular is the staking end-flattened connection. The
reduced cost and the fast assemblage of the truss are among the advantages of the staking end-flattened
connection on 3D trusses. However, such connections present disadvantages like eccentricities and
stiffness weakening of the tubular members. In this work, based on computer simulations and
experimental lab tests on prototypes, small changes on the staking end-flattened connections such as
reinforcement and eccentricity correction are evaluated. The results show an increase of 68% for local
collapse and 17% for global collapse in the truss load carrying capacity when the suggested changes
proposed in this article are used for the staking end-flattened connections.
1 INTRODUCTION
Steel space trusses are frequently used as roof structures in industrial and residential buildings [7, 9]
to cover large areas with no internal supports – Fig.1a. The complexity of the different types of
connections is the main factor for the cost difference between the various truss systems. Bolted
connections are preferred instead of welded connections due to easy transportation, fast assemblage,
reduced cost, uncomplicated dismantling and expansion, availability of workforce, among other
advantages. For many practitioner, manufacturing cost and fast assemblage are the main factors in the
decision making process to choose the type of connection to use. For that reasons one of the most
common connection used for steel space truss is the connection obtained by staking end-flattened tubes
and joining them with a single bolt – Fig.1b. The staking end-flattened node is the simplest and therefore
cheaper connection to manufacture for 3D trusses, but it has two main disadvantages [3,5]: the generated
eccentricity bending moment and the reduction of stiffness in the tubes due to the end-flattening
process.This article does not encourage the use of low quality connections, but it studies specifically the
staking end-flattened connection which is very popular in many developing countries. This research
attempts to improve such connection with simple and cheap changes. The investigations focus on
modifications to the end-flattened node with the aim to improve the load carrying capacity of space
trusses and, therefore, make it safer. The proposed modifications are simulated numerically and tested in
Laboratory.
2 OBJECTIVE OF THIS RESEARCH

The stacked end-flattened connection behavior is very popular but its behavior is not yet fully
understood. Such connection is of public domain and is the simplest and cheapest to manufacture. The
two main disadvantages pointed out for the stacked end-flattened connection are: (a) nodal eccentricities
E1 and E2 and (b) section flattening - see Fig.-2. Nodal eccentricity generates bending moments at the
tube ends, and the end-flattening process reduces the stiffness of the bars. The main purpose of this
1169
CLEIRTON A. S. FREITAS et al.
research is to find an easy and cheap alternative to increase the load carrying capacity for three-
dimensional trusses made of steel tubes jointed by stacked end-flattened tubes crossed by a single bolt as
can be seen in Fig.-1b. The research is carried out in two fronts: (a) numerical modeling using finite
elements in a chosen geometry, and (b) experimental investigation in 3D truss. The experimental tests
will be performed in prototypes at the Structural Laboratory of the Department of Civil Engineering at
the University of Brasilia (UnB) [5].
(b)
Fig.-1: (a) Truss elements: square on square, (b) End-flattened node system
To gain loading capacity in the truss, this research studies correction to the eccentricity and
additional reinforcements to the bar ends. These two initiatives should reduce, at least in part, the
disadvantages outlined above and, consequently, increase the truss load carrying capacity. Cuenca
reported [6] using nuts, bolts and washers to reduce eccentricities - Fig.-2. No research was found dealing
with the determination of the nut size and on how much more load a truss with such node corrections can
get. In this article such studies will be carried out numerically and experimentally. To correct the
eccentricity (Fig.-2b), a steel washer serving as a spacer was placed in-between the diagonal bars and the
chord (inferior and superior chords) –Fig.-2c. Such washer, made of steel, is hereon called spacers. To
overcome the reduction of the bar stiffness, a reinforcement plate is placed over the ends of the diagonal,
but opposite to the chords reaching a node. Fig.-3 outlines the traditional and the suggested modifications
in the stacked end-flattened node generating four types of nodes that will be examined in this article. The
four types corresponds to: (a) Ideal Link (IL), (b) Typical Link (TL) or the staking end-flattened node, (c)
Typical Traditional Link with Spacer (TLS), and (d) Typical Traditional Link with Spacer and a
reinforcement plate (TLSR) – see Fig.4 - The spacers and the reinforcement plates may be circular or
squared.
Fig.-2: (a) Eccentricities and flattened ends. (b) Correcting eccentricity. (c) Cuencas’ node with
nuts and washers – (ref. [6] - modified)
3 THE PROTOTYPES
To compare how the load carrying capacity of 3D space trusses increase, according to modifications
at the end-flattened joints suggested (see Fig.-4), the truss prototype geometry is chosen as shown in Fig.-
5. Numerical models, using Finite Elements, of this prototype truss are also assembled. The numerical
1170
models and protopytes differ only in the configuration of the connections. It is noted that the prototype
truss is made of pyramidal units (Fig.-5a) connected at nodes (pyramid vertices). Each pyramid has a
square base with l=1000 mm and height H=707 mm (Fig.5b).
Fig.-3: (a) Typical end-flattened node. (b)

Fig.-4: (a) IL, (b) TL, (c) TLS, and (d) TLSR.
modified.
The diagonal inclination angles are, therefore, 45o with respect to the base plane of the pyramid. The
steel tubes of the truss have 25.4 mm (1”) as external diameter and 1.59 mm (5/8”) of thickness. Details
of the dimensions of the truss chords and diagonals may be seen in Figs.-6. Due to the flattening process
of the diagonal tube ends, the inclination angle 47.5o corresponds to 45o in the ideal truss case in which
the diagonal is defined by the line AB in Fig.-6c. The tubes are made of Brazilian steel known in industry
as MR250 [1] which is equivalent to the A36 [2] with the following engineering properties: yielding
stress, 250MPa; ultimate stress, 400MPa; Modulus of Elasticity, 205000MPa and Poisson’s ratio, 0.3.
Fig.-5: (a) Pyramid units. (b) The prototype truss
The thickness of the spacer (d) (see Fig.-2) is a geometry problem. Taking into account a pyramid
unit (Fig.-5) with its base length ( A ) and height (H), the thickness (t) of the tube wall (flattened) and the
eccentricities E1 and E2 (see Fig.-2). Eq.(1) presents the formula for the calculation of the spacer size (d).
Taking into account the truss dimensions and tube thickness, the spacer is found to be 20 mm thick. The
adopted diameter of the spacer was 50 mm (2”). Plates of 1.91 mm (3/4”) thickness reinforced the node.
For more details see reference [4,5].
(1)
d 2HE1 A
2 4E1 8t
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The maximum compressive load at those bars can be determined from the Standards [1, 2]. The
critical compressive bar strength is Nc= 13kN, which corresponds to an approximate load Q | 37 kN
applied at the middle node as illustrated in Fig.-5b.
Fig.-6: Dimensions of (a) chords, (b) diagonals, (c) angles.
4 NUMERICAL MODELS AND PRELIMINARY RESULTS

Let’s investigate the stress distribution at the truss under the load Q = 37 kN and considering the
modifications suggested to the end-flattened connections. The corresponding Finite Element Model is
shown in Fig.-7a. The load Q is applyied at node 9 (Fig.-7b). SAP2000 (Structural Analysis Program) [8]
is here used to discretize the 3D standard truss with its different node/connection configurations – (see
Fig.-4). Two types of finite elements from the SAP element library are used for the numerical modeling:
the FRAME element and the SHELL element. The SHELL elements were used to discretize the
connections. From the section before, the engineering properties (Modulus of Elasticity and Poisson’s
ratio) of steel and the geometry of the tubes (diameters, thicknesses and lengths) were specified in the
SAP input files.
Fig.-7: (a) Finite element node numbers. (b) Finite element connectivities.
To investigate the distribution of normal forces (tractions and compressions) and bending moments along
the bars of the space trusses, three 3D finite element models were built corresponding to trusses with
connections IL, TL and TLS. No FE model is necessary for the truss with TLSR connection, since there
is no significant change in the force & moment distribution with respect to the truss with TLS node. For
the TLS connection model, all the FE nodes were completely coupled between chords and diagonals,
making TLS connection rigid. The truss with IL nodes (Ideal Link nodes), is simple to represent in a FE
model just using FRAME elements. In this case, the bars show no eccentricity and, therefore, the ends of
the bras match perfectly at a nodal point. The TL (Typical Link or staking end-flattened node) is modeled
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with FRAME elements, but the flattened tube ends are modeled with SHELL (plate) elements. The ends
are bent to make the diagonals math with the chords. The TLS node has a washer serving as a spacer to
correct the TL eccentricity. The FE modeling is straightforward employing again FRAME and SHELL
elements - placing a thick (20 mm) plate elements in-between the diagonals and chords. In the FE
models, nodes are numbered from 1 to 13, and elements from 1 to 32 – see Fig.-7b. Restrictions for
displacement and rotations are applied to nodes at the supports of the truss located at the corner –
representing the support conditions to be replicated in the experimental tests. Node 9 in Fig.-7 is the
middle node where the concentrated load “Q” is applied. The elastic linear distributions of the normal
forces and bending moments, along the bars, are represented in Figs.-8, 9, 10. The normal force
distribution shows minor changes among trusses with IL, TL, and TLS connections, but the bending
moment distribution variations among the numerical models are more significant. Fig.11 reviews the
bending moment distributions so that changes among the trusses with different connections are noticed.
The presence of a spacer in the truss with TLS produces a significant fall in the bending moment values
present in the truss with TL – the staking end-flattened connections. Actually, the moment distributions
of the trusses with TLS connections move toward the ideal truss with IL.
Fig.-8: For IL: (a) Axial force. (b) Bending Fig.-9: For TL: (a) Axial force. (b) Bending
Fig.-10: For TLS: (a) Axial force and (b)

Fig.-11: Bending distribution for IL, TL, TLS
Bending
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5 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
This section investigates by means of experimental tests the distribution of normal forces and bending
moments along the bars of the trusses with links TL, TLS and TLSR. This experimental program seeks to
collect simple quantitative and qualitative information on the standard space truss taking into account
different nodal types. To achieve this goal, static tests are carried out on truss prototypes under an
increasing vertical load applied at the middle node (node-9 in Figs.-5 and 7). The load is gradually
applied until truss collapse is reached. For each specific connection system, three experimental truss
prototypes were constructed. Prototypes with IL nodes (Ideal Link) were not built since the goal is to
observe how much load capacity can be gained with simple modifications on trusses with the common
TL nodes (the staking end-flattened nodes). Therefore, considering the three links under analyses (TL,
TLS and TLSR) a total of nine prototypes were manufactured. A system of identification for the
prototypes is in Table-1.
Table-1: Identifier nomenclature for the nine truss prototypes

Lab Test Identifiers Summary
TLE1, TLE2, TLE3 Truss with TL nodes for 3 lab tests with static load
TLSE1, TLSE2, TLSE3 Truss with TLS nodes for 3 lab tests with static load
TLSRE1, TLSRE1, TLSRE1 Truss with TLSR nodes for 3 lab tests with static load
Truss Node Meaning
TL = Nodes with Typical Link or staking end-flattened node
TLS = Nodes with a Spacer correcting the TL eccentricity
TLSR = Nodes with a Spacer and a reinforcement plate applied to TLS nodes
and En = E = Experimental, n = Test number
The 9 prototypes (TLEn, TLSEn, and TLSREn, n = 1, 2, 3) were tested in the Structural Laboratory
at the Department of Civil Engineering in the University of Brasilia (UnB). The corners of the prototype
trusses were fixed on a very stiff steel base available in Laboratory. A downward and vertical load is
applied at the middle node (node 9). Fig. ure 20 shows the complete assembly for the lab tests. Each
prototype measures in cm 200x200 in base and 70.7 in height; and has the geometry as outlined in Fig.-5.
Tube dimensions and material properties were specified before in section 4 of this article. At the middle
node, the pulling load is supplied by the cable which is attached to a hydraulic jack. Load values are
controlled with the load cell. The hydraulic jack has 300 kN load capacity and the load cell reads up to
500 kN with 0.1 kN precision.
At node 9, the cable pulls the prototype downward in load-steps of 1.0 kN and after every given load-
step readings of the total load, displacements, and strains were taken. For the data acquisition from the
strain gages, the system Spyder-8 connected to computer and controlled by the Catman-4.5 software was
used. For node 9, Fig.-13 shows the loads-displacement curves for the 9 prototypes tested. These curves
generate polynomial curves which are also plotted in Fig.-13 as average curve. The plots are up to the
points where global collapse is achieved - points 1, 2 and 3 in Fig.-13.
Global collapse is here understood as the instant where any small load increment is no more bearable
to the prototypes. Global collapse is also characterized by the buckle of critical members under combined
compression and bending. For the same load level, it was also observed that trusses with TL nodes
(staking end-flattened nodes) showed greater displacement than the other prototypes tested. Actually, in
Fig.-13, point 1 corresponds to coordinates (36kN; 46mm), point 2 (38kN; 36mm) and point 3 (42kN;
1174
33mm). However, the global truss collapse does not reflect the excessive deformation (or local collapse)
observed at the prototype connections.
Fig.-12: Assembly of the truss prototypes for tests
Local collapse is basically characterized by an excessive wrinkling of a node or connection but not
necessarily buckling of a member. Actually, in the last Fig-13, at point 4 (25kN), the corresponding
prototypes (TLE1, TLE2 and TLE3) show excessive wrinkling of few connections. For prototypes
TLSEn and TLSREn no excessive deformation is observed for the same 25 kN load. Therefore, for 25
kN, TLEn prototypes (with staking end-flattened connections) show local collapse and quite the opposite
were observed in the others prototypes (TLSEn and TLSREn).
Fig.-13: Load-displacement averaged curves for TLEn, TLSEn and TLSREn prototypes.
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Therefore, in average, and considering only the local collapse, TLEn prototypes collapse at 25 kN,
TLSEn at 38,5 kN (53% more) and TLSREn at 42 kN (68% more). For global collapse, compared to
TLEn prototypes, TLESn increased 2.5 kN (7% more) while TLSREn increased 6 kN (17% more).
6 CONCLUSION
The goal of this research was to improve the load carrying capacity of space trusses that uses staking
end-flattened connections. The use of spacers and reinforcement plates were suggested to increase the
load carrying capacity of this type of truss. This article also presented an equation to calculate the size of
the spacers. In this research, to test the effectiveness of using spacers and reinforcement plates, 9 finite
element models and 9 prototypes made of steel tubes, under a central point load were considered.
Different types of connections on prototypes were analyzed with numerical simulations and experimental
tests. The analyses showed that correcting the eccentricities with spacers and using reinforcement plates
on the connections increase substantially the strength of the prototypes. Using spacers, the experimental
tests showed that the local collapse strength of the prototypes increased in 53%, and using spacers and
reinforcement plates the increase was 68%. For global collapse, just using spacers the increase in strength
was 7% and when spacers and reinforcement plates are utilized, the increase in strength was 17%. This
alternative can be easily applied to new truss design or in recovery of trusses in use.
REFERENCES
[1] ABNT. NBR 14.762 – Dimensionamento de estruturas de aço constituídas por perfis formados a
frio – Procedimentos. Rio de Janeiro. 2001 [in Portuguese].
[2] AISC. LRFD - Specification for structural steel buildings. Chicago, IL, 1999.
[3] Andrade, SAL, PCGS Velasco, JGS Silva, LRO Lima, AV D’Este. Tubular space trusses with
simple and reinforced end-flattened nodes – an overview and experiments. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research. 2005; 61: 1025-1050
[4] Bezerra, L M ; Freitas, C. A. S. ; Silva, William Taylor Matias ; Nagato, Y. . Increasing load
capacity of steel space trusses with end-flattened connections. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research, v. 65, p. 2197-2206, 2009.
[5] Freitas, CAS. Estudo experimental, numérico e analítico de conexões de estruturas espaciais em
aço com correção e reforço na ligação típica estampada. DSc thesis. University of Brasilia.
Department of Civil Engineering; 2008 [in Portuguese].
[6] Cuenca, L. S. The stainless steel structures of a sport stadium in quart, In: International
Conference on Space Structures, 5, Guildford, UK, Aug. 2002. Proceedings. London, Thomas
Telford. V.1.
[7] Morini, F. Coperture spaziale. Costruzione Metalliche, n.6, 1976: 328-332 [in Italian].
[8] SAP2000-User's Guide. A Structural Analysis Program for Static and Dynamic Response of
Linear Systems. Educational Version. Computers & Structures Inc. 1999. Berkley, USA.
[9] Zignoli, V. Construcciones Metalicas. Madri: Editora Dossat; 1981.
1176
REAL SCALE EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSES OF CIRCULAR HOLLOW

SECTION MULTI-PLANAR STEEL TRUSSES
Rodrigo C. Vieira*, João A. V. Requena*, Newton de O. P. Junior* and Afonso H. M. de

Araújo**
* Faculdade de Engenharia Civil, Arquitetura e Urbanismo da Universidade Estadual de Campinas –

UNICAMP – Campinas, SP, Brasil
e-mails: rocv@hotmail.com, requena@fec.unicamp.br, pintojr@fec.unicamp.br
** V&M do Brasil S. A. – Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil
e-mail: afonso@vmtubes.com.br
Keywords: Steel Joist, Purlin, Truss, Experimental Analysis, Steel Structure, Hollow Sections.
Abstract. The main objective of this work is to develop innovative models of tubular connections in order
to decrease the trusses total manufacturing cost and assembly time, making its use more economically
viable. The truss joints were verified according to international codes and publications, and a
commercial software of structural analysis was used to verify the truss bars resistance. The innovative
tubular connections proposed are joints between the diagonal and chord using a single bolt and a plate,
and one internal tube with bolts to link the chord bars. To analyze the truss global behavior and the
developed connections, real scale experimental analyses of circular hollow section multi-planar trusses
were carried out, with 30.0 meters of span, and 2.0 meters of height. The final results demonstrate the
proposed connections efficiency and the truss good behavior, with low weight and manufacturing cost,
besides a quick assembly.
1 INTRODUCTION
The use of hollow steel sections in structures has been growing in recent years, because they result in
lighter structures with technical and aesthetic advantages. One of its possible applications is the roof
systems, which typically have small execution times and large spans due to need of large free internal
spaces. Many researchs of this type of structure are being developed around the world, as this study of
multi-planar tubular trusses, which are steel joists with low weights used as purlins for large spans.
To allow the use of these trusses in roof systems, an initial analysis was realized to determine the best
geometry and tubes for obtaining a light truss which resists the loads that usually act on the warehouse
roofs. New types of connections were also developed allowing an easy truss transportation and quick
structure assembly, besides to lowering the trusses manufacturing cost, since the tubular connections are
complex and expensive, which sometimes make difficult their use.
To check the multi-planar truss overall behavior, two real scale experimental analyses were
conducted, also allowing analyzing the efficiency of the proposed connections. Some experimental
analyses results were compared with computational analyses results.
This study continues the work of Requena, J. A. V. [1] and Freitas, A. M. S. [2], and was carried out
with the support of Faculdade de Engenharia Civil, Arquitetura e Urbanismo – FEC of the Universidade
Estadual de Campinas – Unicamp, and Vallourec & Mannesmann Tubes (V&M do Brasil) Company.
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Rodrigo C. Vieira et al.
2 CHS MULTI-PLANAR TRUSSES

The experimental analyses were performed for trusses with 30.0 m of span, since the objective of this
study is to analyze the behavior of multi-planar trusses in situations of large spans for use as purlins in
roof systems, like figure 1. To define the best geometry to be used for the trusses, computational
softwares were used such as AutoTruss, developed by the partnership between FEC-Unicamp and V&M
do Brasil S. A., and the commercial software for structural analysis SAP2000. The loads used in this
study are those that are commonly applied in warehouses, which often require covering for large spans.
The action of wind suction load is a critical situation for purlins, and therefore was considered for the
trusses tubes design and for the experimental analyses. The loads acting in this situation are: the truss self
weight, permanent load of 0.10 kN/m² and wind suction load of 1.03 kN/m².
Purlin
Figure 1: Multi-planar truss and the roofing system.
2.1 Truss geometry

The initial analyses were based on international standards such as Eurocode [3] and AISC [4], and
demonstrated that the best truss geometry for the examined situation is the Warren truss, presenting lower
weight and fewer connections than other types such as Pratt and Howe. The trusses dimensions and its
tubes are presented in figure 2, noting that the loads were considered distributed in the trusses upper
chords.
30.0 m 2.0 m
2.0 m
63.8º 2.0 m
Lateral View Section
Figure 2: Trusses dimensions and its tubes.
All trusses tubes have 300 MPa of yield stress and 205000 MPa of elasticity modulus. The chords and
lateral diagonals tubes are hot rolled, while the superior plane bracing tubes are cold formed. The total
weight of each truss is 1224.0 kg.
2.2 Connections
Two types of innovative connections were proposed in this paper. The first relates to the connection
between the truss chords and diagonals, composed of a plate welded on the chord tube top, to which the
diagonals with flattened ends will be fixed using only one bolt, as shown in figure 3. The plate thickness
is 4.75 mm and the bolt has a diameter of 15.90 mm. The other proposed connection is a tube sleeve used
1178
to join the chord tubes, composed of an inner tube with a less diameter than the tube chord, which is
connected to the outer tubes by bolts passing by both tubes, as shown in figure 4. A total of six bolts with
15.90 mm of diameter were used for the sleeve tube connection.
Figure 3: Connection between chord and diagonals (dimensions in mm).
Figure 4: Tube sleeve connection.
These connections were properly designed with adaptations to the conventional criteria of
international codes as Eurocode [3] and AISC [5], besides specialized publications such as CIDECT [6],
Packer [7] and Rautaruukki [8]. They can be used to replace the welded connections between diagonals
and chords and the flange connections, in order to decrease the trusses fabrication cost, and make quicker
and easier their assembly. Another advantage of these proposed connections, especially with respect to
the connection between the diagonals and the chords, is the possibility to transport the truss
disassembled, performing the assembly on site, since the connections are bolted. This fact makes the
transportation more economical, since a multi-planar truss disassembled occupies a smaller space than an
assembled.
3 EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSES
Two experimental analyses of trusses with 30.0 m of span were carried out, both with the diagonals
proposed connection, but one with the tube sleeve connection and the other with the traditional flange
connection. Thus it was possible to compare the two experimental analyses and check the tube sleeve
connection influence in the truss global behavior.
The trusses were inverted, with the upper chords in bottom position and the lower chord in top
position, and their nodes were numbered as in figure 5. Therefore, gravitational loads can be applied in
the upper chords nodes, simulating the wind suction loads. To define the experimental load value, the
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permanent load and twice the truss self weight were subtracted from the wind suction load, since the truss
was inverted and its self weight already act in the same direction as the suction load.
Figure 5: Inverted truss and numbered nodes.
The loads were applied at the upper chords nodes of the trusses, divided into six steps as shown in
table 1, and at step 4 the load reached the value for which the trusses were designed. Thus, in step 5 was
applied a load greater than the one for which the truss must resist, removing the tubes coefficient of
resistance. Supports were fixed at the nodes for the load application, and the trusses at the experiment
were isostatic. Figure 6 shows one of the trusses prepared to begin the experimental analysis.
Table 1: Table of loads (kN).

Step Nodal Load Total Load
Supports 0.48 13.30
1 0.95 26.60
2 2.02 56.59
3 3.02 84.56
4 3.96 110.80
5 4.83 135.26
Figure 6: Truss prepared to begin the experimental analysis.
The vertical displacement at the middle of the span was monitored during the experiment for the truss
with the flange connection. The connection of the node 2 and the sleeve between the nodes 5 and 6 of the
truss with the tube sleeve connection were instrumented with strain gauges, as shown in figure 7.
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E6 E7
100mm 100mm 240mm 240mm

E1 E2 E14 E15
E3 E4
E16 E17
Figure 7: Instrumented connections.
4 RESULTS ANALYSES
Both trusses were monitored during the load application, presenting good behavior until step 4. After
the step 5 load application the monitoring devices were removed, continuing the load addition to observe
the trusses collapse mode. The truss with sleeve connections, which was experimented first, collapsed due
to the connections of nodes 16 and 32, as shown in figure 8. The failure occurred at the expected
location, because the extreme diagonals have the largest axial force, and after failure observation, the
extreme diagonals of the truss with flange connection have been reinforced, as presented in figure 9. So,
in the truss with flange connection, the failure after step 5 occurred at the connection of node 47, as it
concentrates four diagonals with great axial forces, as shown in figure 10. As the failures occurred after
the load application of step 5, the trusses and their connections resisted to the anticipated loads.
Figure 8: Connection failure of the truss with sleeve connection.
Figure 9: Diagonals reinforcements.
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Figure 10: Connection failure of the truss with flange connection.
The vertical displacements observed in the experiment of the truss with flange connection were
compared with those obtained by the computer analysis program SAP 2000, simulating an inverted truss
with the same conditions and concentrated loads of the experimental analysis. In the computational
model, the diagonals were released, which allow their rotation of ends, and the plate connection
eccentricity was simulated with large stiffness bars. This vertical displacements comparison at the middle
of the span of the truss with flange connection can be observed in table 2, which contains the values
obtained by SAP 2000 and by the experimental analysis.
Table 2: Vertical displacements (mm).

Step Computational Analysis Experimental Analysis
Supports 9.51 10.27
1 19.01 20.45
2 40.45 44.74
3 60.44 69.52
4 79.20 108.35
5 97.47 133.79
The values are very close until step 2, getting distant from each other after step 3, indicating that for
smaller loads, the diagonals rotations were similar to those of computational analysis, and the plates used
in the connections presented a small rotation, consistent with the large stiffness bars rotation of the
computational analysis. However, when the load was increased, there was a structure accommodation
with a greater rotation of the diagonals, making the plates began to rotate more than the large stiffness
bars of the computational analysis. Thus, the vertical displacements observed in the experimental analysis
were higher.
The strain gauges results of the node 2 connection are showed in figure 11, while the strain gauges
results of the sleeve connection between the nodes 5 and 6 are presented in figure 12.
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140
120
100
80
Load (kN)
60
E1
E2
40
E3
E4
20 E6
E7
0
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Strain ( ‰)
Figure 11: Strain gauges results of node 2 connection.
140
120
100
80
Load (kN)
60
40
E14
E15
20 E16
E17
0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Strain (‰ )
Figure 12: Strain gauges results of sleeve connection between nodes 5 and 6.
With respect to the node 2 connection, the diagonal with strain gauge E6 was tensioned while the one
with strain gauge E7 was compressed. Thus, a plate rotation occurred due to the connection eccentricity,
as shown by strain gauges E1 and E2, respectively compressed and tensioned. The chord strain gauges
indicate that it is tensioned, with a greater stress in the region of the strain gauge E3 than in E4 region,
due to the presence of bending moments.
No failure was observed on the sleeve connections at the end of the experimental analysis, attesting to
the proper functioning of this type of connection. Figure 12 shows that the sleeve connection was
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tensioned, and the strain increase was constant for all strain gauges until the end of step 2, which has low
loads. Then there is a change in the curve, with a smaller slope, indicating a truss accommodation due to
its flexibility, causing diagonals and plates rotation. With the load application of step 4, the curves slopes
become similar to those before step 2, indicating a truss stabilization again. Finally, with the load
application of step 5, a new accommodation occurred, with a smaller curve slope, similar to that observed
after the load application of step 3.
The same is true for the curves of node 2 connection in figure 11, which have two parts with higher
slopes and other two with lower slopes, with the change of slope corresponding to the load application of
steps 3, 4 and 5. This indicates that the truss accommodation influenced the strain and the displacement
of the whole truss.
5 CONCLUSION
The experimental analyses demonstrated the good trusses global behavior, with great lateral stability
and bars resistance to the forces for which they were designed, indicating that the multi-planar trusses are
good solutions for large span roofs, without the need of external bracings for the trusses lateral
stabilization. As the collapses at the connections of the diagonals with largest axial forces occurred only
for loads greater than those assumed in truss design, the proposed connections demonstrated good
performance and can be an alternative for welded diagonals and flange connections commonly used.
Further studies about the proposed connections are in progress, since they provide great flexibility for
the trusses, causing accommodations of the trusses bars as the load increasing, as observed in strain
gauges and vertical displacements results. The extreme diagonals connections should also be analyzed
with attention, developing a special connection for this situation, as they have greater axial forces.
REFERENCES
[1] Requena, J. A. V., Vieira, R. C., Junior, N. O. P. “CHS Multi-planar Trusses Analyses –
Theoretical and Experimental Analyses for Use as Purlins” Proc. of EUROSTEEL 2008 5th
European Conference on Steel and Composite Structures, R. Ofner, D. Beg, J. Fink, R. Greiner and
H. Unterweger (eds.), ECCS, Slovenia, 1767-1772, 2008.
[2] Freitas, A. M. S., Minchillo, D. G. V., Requena, J. A. V., Araújo, A. H. M. “CHS Gusset Plate
Connections Analyses – Theoretical and Experimental Approaches” Proc. of EUROSTEEL 2008 5th
European Conference on Steel and Composite Structures, R. Ofner, D. Beg, J. Fink, R. Greiner and
H. Unterweger (eds.), ECCS, Slovenia, 561-566, 2008.
[3] European Committee for Standardization, Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures, Part 1-1 and 1-
8, 1993.
[4] American Institute of Steel Construction, Manual of Steel Construction, Load and Resistance
Factor Design, Vols. 1 and 2, AISC, Chicago, USA, 1996.
[5] American Institute of Steel Construction, Hollow Structural Sections, Connections Manual, AISC,
Chicago, USA, 1997.
[6] CIDECT Series, Construction with Hollow Steel Sections, Vols. 1 to 9, The International
Committee for Research and Technical Support for Hollow Section Structures, Germany, 1992.
[7] Packer J.A. and Henderson, J.E., Hollow Structural Section Connections and Trusses, Canadian
Institute of Steel Construction, Alliston, Canada, 1997.
[8] Rautaruukki Oyj, Hannu Vainio, Design Handbook for Rautaruukki Structural Hollow Sections,
Otava Book Printing Ltd., Hämeenlinna, Finland, 1998.
1184
NATURAL PERIOD OF STEEL CHIMNEYS
Aleksander Kozlowski, Andrzej Wojnar, Leonard Ziemianski*
* Rzeszow University of Technology, Poland

e-mails: kozlowsk@prz.edu.pl, awojnar@prz.edu.pl, ziele@prz.edu.pl
Keywords: steel chimney, dynamic response, natural period
Abstract. Using the mechanical model of flange bolted joints, parametric study has been conducted to
investigate influence of joint stiffness on the behaviour of such structures as steel chimneys. Particularly,
it was investigated the influence of the stiffness of flange bolted joints on the natural period of
cantilevered steel chimneys. Based on results of the investigation, the following conclusions were stated:
natural period of steel chimney T1 increases if the number of joints increases and if the stiffness of joint
decreases; when non-preloaded joints are used, the change of natural period is up to 30% for steel
cantilevered chimneys. When preloaded joints are used, the change of natural period is small and can be
neglected.
1 INTRODUCTION
Steel chimneys are sensitive to dynamic wind action. In codes of many countries, to obtain wind
loading it is necessary to know natural period of these structures, e.g. [1], [2]. Also in Eurocode 1-1-4
[3] natural period is required to reach structural factor cscd needed for wind loading. Natural period of the
structure can be obtained by few methods: by experimental measure, using modal analysis, or by
simplified equation. From the practical point of view, for wind loading assessment it is acceptable to use
simplified methods.
In the paper, influence of the stiffness of flange bolted joints between segments on the main dynamic
characteristics of chimney, i.e. natural period, has been analysed. Method of including influence of
stiffness of flange bolted joints between segments in simplified equations is also proposed.
2 METHODS OF CALCULATION OF NATURAL PERIOD OF STEEL CHIMNEYS

Actual natural period of existing chimney can be easy reached at site by measurement of the time of
selected number of cycles at vibrating chimney. Such measurement is executed during assessment of
technical state of existing chimneys. For design aim, analytical or numerical methods are employed.
In Polish code [1] many practically useful simple formulas for assessment of natural period of steel
chimneys are included. For the most simple structures as cantilevered chimney, natural period can be
calculated as:
H2
T1 = 0 ,001 (1)
D
where:
H – height of the chimney, D – diameter of chimney shell.
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A. Kozlowski et al.
Simplified formulas were created on the basis of large number of site measurements of existing
chimneys. Measurements were done during routine assessments of technical state of existing chimney
executed in Poland in 80-ties. In these formulas many parameters, as stiffness of bolted connection in
flanged joints between segments and in chimney basis were neglected.
Nowadays, most often modal analysis allowable in computer packages is used to obtain natural period
of any structures.
3 ANALYSIS OF NATURAL PERIOD OF STEEL CHIMNEYS

The following types of chimneys were analysed:
- cantilevered chimney (fig. 1a),
- guyed chimney (fig. 1b),
- supported at intermediate level chimney (fig. 1c).
Influence of the stiffness of flanged joints between segments on the main dynamic characteristics of
chimney, i.e. natural period, were analysed. Structural shell of chimneys was modelled using beam
elements. Flange bolted connections (fig.2) were modelled as semi-rigid joints of linear stiffness
characteristics. Initial stiffness of these joints applied in analysis was calculated with application of
mechanical model of joint (fig. 3). Applied component method allows to reach formula for initial
stiffness given by eq. (2). Detailed description of mechanical model of flanged joint was presented in [4].
a) b) c)
Fig. 1 Chimneys considered in the analysis
n i
S j ,ini = k t ⋅ [ (r + a )2 + 2 ¦ (r ⋅ cos(nδ ) + a )2 ] + k c ⋅ [ (r − a )2 + 2¦ (r ⋅ cos(iδ ) − a )2 ]
1 1
(2)
where: Sj,ini – initial stiffness of joint, kt (kc) – stiffness of tension (compression) component, r – radius of
the shell, a – distance between the neutral axis and centre of the joint, n (i) – number of components on
tension (compression) side, δ - angle between Y axis and line coming through i component.
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A. Kozlowski et al.
Fig. 2 Flanged bolted connection applied in the analysis
Fig. 3. Mechanical model of flange bolted connection between segments
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A. Kozlowski et al.
Calculation of natural period were provided by computer software Robot Structural Analysis 2009.
In the analysis, the following range of geometrical parameters were chosen:
- for cantilevered chimneys:
- slenderness of structural shell: H/D = 40,
- shell diameter D: 0,8 to 1,6 m,
- height of the chimney H was calculated as a product of diameter D and slenderness.
- guyed chimneys and chimneys supported at intermediate level:
- slenderness of shell: H/D = 50,
- shell diameter: 0,8 to 1,2 m,
- height of the chimney H was calculated as a product of diameter D and slenderness,
- level of additional support was taken as 2/3 H for guyed chimneys and 1/3H for stiff support.
First, influence of assembly bolted joints on chimney behaviour were investigated. Length of chimney
segments lseg was taken as 6 m, and number of connections ni comes from segment length and chimney
height H. Geometrical dimensions of connection used in the analysis were shown in fig. 2. Thickness of
the end plate was taken as tp=16 mm, bolt diameter d = 20 mm, distance from shell to bolt axis a1=1,5 d,
distance from bolt axis to plate edge a2=1,5 d, bolt spacing 4d, 7d and 10d. Non preloaded connection
with grade 5.8 bolts as well as preloaded with grade 10.9 bolts were analyzed. Results of analysis can be
seen in fig. 4. Horizontal line shows value of natural period obtained by simplified formulas from [1].
Detailed results of more complex analysis can be found in [5].
The following conclusions can be drawn:
- in case of preloaded joints, change in natural period is small and can be neglected in the design,
- for guyed chimneys with non-preloaded joints, stiffness of the assembly connection do not influence
on natural period,
- for cantilevered and supported at intermediate level chimneys with non-preloaded bolts in
connections, change in natural period can reach even 30 %.
Fig. 4. Natural period of steel chimneys: 1 - cantilevered chimneys, non-preloaded joints, 2 - cantilevered
chimneys, preloaded joints, 3 – supported at intermediate level chimneys, non-preloaded joints, 4 –
supported at intermediate level chimneys, preloaded joints, 5 – guyed chimneys, non-preloaded joints, 6 –
guyed chimneys, preloaded joints.
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4 INFLUENCE OF INITIAL STIFFNESS OF FLANGED BOLTED JOINTS ON

NATURAL PERIOD OF CANTILEVERED CHIMNEYS.
To the further analysis, cantilevered chimneys with non-preloaded bolts in connections were chosen.
In the analysis the following assumptions were establish:
- constant thickness of chimney shell taken as 12 mm,
- the same joints type: M20 bolts grade 5.8.
Changeable parameters were:

- diameter D of shell: 0,8, 1,2 and 1,6 m,
- shell slenderness H/D: 20, 30, 40. In relation to slenderness change also height of chimney H was
changed,
- number of bolted joints in relation to segment length lseg = 6, 9, 12 and 15 m,
- stiffness of flanged joints Sj,ini calculated for geometrical parameters: thickness of flanged plate 16
and 32 mm, distance form bolt axis to plate edge a2 1,5d and 3d, bolt spacing 4d, 7d and 10d. Values of
joint stiffness including in analysis were collected in table 1.
Natural period was calculated with and without taking into consideration presence of bolted joints.
Results are presented in tables 2 to 4, where nj – number of joints.
Table 1. Initial stiffness of non-preloaded flanged connections (x106 kNm/rad).

D=0,8m D=1,2m D=1,6m
a2 tp=16mm tp=32 tp=16mm tp=32 tp=16mm tp=32
z=4d z=7d z=10d z=4d z=4d z=7d z=10d z=4d z=4d z=7d z=10d z=4d
1,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,4 1,3 1,0 0,8 1,6 3,0 2,2 1,9 3,5
3,0 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,6 1,4 1,1 0,9 2,2 3,6 2,5 2,0 5,2
Table 2. Natural period of chimneys of slenderness H/D=20.

Sj,ini slenderness H/D = 20
x106 H =16m; D = 0,8m H =24m; D = 1,2m H =32m; D = 1,6m
kNm/rad nj=0 nj=1 nj=2 nj=0 nj=1 nj=2 nj=3 nj=0 nj=2 nj=3 nj=5
0,2 0,33 0,37 0,50 0,53 0,58 0,69 0,72 0,79
0,3 0,33 0,36 0,50 0,52 0,56 0,68 0,71 0,76
0,4 0,33 0,35 0,49 0,51 0,54 0,67 0,69 0,74
0,6 0,33 0,34 0,49 0,50 0,52 0,66 0,67 0,70
0,32 0,48 0,64

x106 H =24m; D = 0,8m H =36m; D = 1,2m H =48m; D = 1,6m
kNm/rad nj=0 nj=1 nj=2 nj=3 nj=0 nj=2 nj=3 nj=5 nj=0 nj=3 nj=5 nj=7
0,8 0,70 0,74 0,81 1,17 1,23 1,34 1,59 1,67 1,82
0,9 0,69 0,71 0,77 1,15 1,20 1,30 1,56 1,63 1,76
1,3 0,68 0,70 0,74 1,14 1,17 1,25 1,53 1,59 1,69
2,2 0,68 0,69 0,72 1,11 1,14 1,18 1,49 1,53 1,59
0,67 1,08 1,44
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A. Kozlowski et al.

x106 H =24m; D = 0,8m H =36m; D = 1,2m H =48m; D = 1,6m
kNm/rad nj=0 nj=1 nj=2 nj=3 nj=0 nj=2 nj=3 nj=5 nj=0 nj=3 nj=5 nj=7
1,9 1,40 1,48 1,63 2,12 2,23 2,43 2,89 3,01 3,28
2,2 1,36 1,42 1,53 2,08 2,17 2,34 2,83 2,94 3,17
3,0 1,34 1,39 1,47 2,05 2,12 2,25 2,77 2,85 3,03
5,2 1,33 1,35 1,41 2,00 2,04 2,12 2,68 2,73 2,84
1,29 1,92 2,56
On the basis of the results review it can be concluded that natural period of cantilevered chimneys
increases with the increase of number of bolted joints and when the joint stiffness decrease. Differences
with relation to chimneys without bolted joints is up to 20% for chimneys of H/D=20, 25% for chimneys
of H/D=30, and up to 30% for chimneys of H/D=40.
5 PROPOSAL FOR INCLUDING FLANGED JOINT STIFFNESS IN CALCULATION

OF NATURAL PERIOD OF CHIMNEYS
Simply method allowing including stiffness of flanged connections in preliminary calculation of
natural period of steel cantilevered chimneys has been proposed. Formula (1) was modify by adding
component ΔT1, which takes into account number nj and stiffness of connections Sj,ini (eq. 3).
H2
T1 = 0 ,001 + ΔT1
D (3)
Component ΔT1 can be read from fig. 5, in relation to number of bolted connections nj and parameter
η, which is obtained form eq. (4)
S j ,109
ηi = (4)
S j ,ini
where:
Sj,109 – reference stiffness of preloaded joint, calculated for the following data: bolts M20 grade 10.9,
spacing of bolts 4d, thickness of end plate tp=32mm, distance form edge to bolt axis a2=3,0d. Reference
stiffness can be taken as 7500000 kNm/rad, 3200000 kNm/rad, 900000 kNm/rad, for chimneys of
diameter 1,6 m, 1,2 m and 0,8 m relatively.
Sj,ini – initial stiffness of non-preloaded joints, obtained with the use of mechanical model, or
estimated using data from table 1, taking into account geometrical parameters of joint.
The coefficient ηi was calculated as a ratio of stiffness Sj,109 and Sj,ini. The influence of stiffness of
flange bolted joints on natural period increases when the value of this coefficient increases.
The parameter ΔT1 can be obtained from fig. 5, taking into consideration numbers of joints ni and
value of coefficient ηi. Values of coefficients ηi were calculated for the following geometrical dimensions
of flange bolted connections:
- η1: D = 0,8m; 1,2m; 1,6m; z = 10d; a2 = 1,5d; tp = 16mm; non-preloaded joint;
- η5: D = 0,8m; 1,2m; 1,6m; z = 4d; a2 = 3,0d; tp = 32mm; preloaded joint;
1190
A. Kozlowski et al.
H=16m H/D=20 D=0,8m H=24m H/D=20 D=1,2m H=32m H/D=20 D=1,6m

0,05 η1 =4,3 0,10 η1 =4,0 0,15 η1 =3,9
T1 , sec.
T1 , sec.
T1 , sec.
0,04 η2 =3,2 0,08 η2 =3,6 0,12 η2 =3,1
η3 =2,5
0,03 η3 =2,3 0,06 η3 =2,5 0,09
0,02 η4 =2,2 0,04 η4 =1,7 0,06 η4 =1,5
0,01 0,02 0,03

nj nj nj
0,00 η5 =1,0 0,00 η5 =1,0 0,00 η5 =1,0
1 2 1 2 3 2 3 4 5

0,15 0,30 0,40
η1 =4,0
T1 , sec.
T1 , sec.
T1 , sec.
η1 =4,0
η1 =4,3 0,25 η2 =3,4
η2 =3,6 0,30
0,10 η2 =3,2 0,20
η3 =2,5
η3 =2,5
η3 =2,3 0,15 0,20
η4 =1,5
0,05 η4 =2,2 0,10 η4 =1,7
0,10
0,05
nj nj nj
0,00 η5 =1,0 0,00 η5 =1,0 0,00 η5 =1,0
1 2 3 2 3 4 5 3 5 7

0,40 0,50 η1 =4,0 0,80
T1 , sec.
T1 , sec.
T1 , sec.
η1 =3,9
η1 =4,3 η2 =3,6
0,40 η2 =3,4
0,30 0,60
η2 =3,2 0,30 η3 =2,5

η3 =2,5
0,20 0,40
η3 =2,3
0,20 η4 =1,7
η4 =1,5
η4 =2,2
0,10 0,20
0,10
nj nj nj
0,00 η5 =1,0 0,00 η5 =1,0 0,00 η5 =1,0
2 3 4 5 3 5 7 5 7 9
Fig. 5. Component increasing value of natural period of chimneys in relation to number of connections nj
and parameter η.
6 CONCLUSIONS
On the base of the results of presented analysis the following conclusions can be drawn:
- when preloaded joints are used, the change of natural period is small and can be neglected,
- natural period of cantilevered chimneys increases with the increase of number of bolted joints and
when the joint stiffness decrease,
- increase the value of natural period of self-supporting chimneys resulted from including number
and stiffness of flanged bolted connections in relation to chimneys without bolted joints is up to
20% for chimneys of H/D=20, 25% for chimneys of H/D=30, and up to 30% for chimneys of
H/D=40,
- simple formula (1) was modified to take into account number and stiffness of segment of chimney
connections.
1191
A. Kozlowski et al.
REFERENCES
[1] PN-93/B-03201. Steel structures. Chimneys. Analysis and design. PKN, Poland, 1993 (in Polish).
[2] PN-77/B-02011 Loading on structures. Wind loading. PKN, Poland, 1977 (in Polish).
[3] EN 1991-1-4. Eurokod 1. Actions on structures. Part 1-4: General actions – wind loading. CEN.
Brussels, 2005.
[4] Wojnar A., Kozłowski A. Mechanical model for assessment of the stiffness of bolted flanged joint.
Proc. of the XIth Int. Conf. on Metal Structures, Rzeszów, Poland, 21-23 June, pp.188-189. Taylor
& Francis, 2006.
[5] Kozłowski A., Wojnar A.: Initial stiffness of flange bolted joints and their influence on the
behaviour of steel chimneys. 5th European Conference on Steel and Composite Structures -
Eurosteel 2008, 3-5 September 2008, Graz, Austria.
1192
DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF CONICAL AND SPHERICAL SHELL

STRUCTURES SUBJECTED TO BLAST PRESSURE
Tomasz Kubiak, Zbigniew Kolakowski, Katarzyna Kowal-Michalska,

Radoslaw Mania, Jacek Swiniarski
Department of Strength of Materials, Technical University of Lodz, Poland

e-mails: tomasz.kubiak@p.lodz.pl, zbigniew.kolakowski@p.lodz.pl,
katarzyna.kowal-michalska@p.lodz.pl, radoslaw.mania@p.lodz.pl, jacek.swiniarski@p.lodz.pl,
Keywords: Dynamic Response, Dynamic Buckling, Thin-Walled Shell Structures, Blast Pressure.
Abstract. The thin conical and spherical shell structures subjected to pulse loading were considered. The
influence of shell geometrical parameters and pulse loading parameters such as its amplitude, direction
and duration on the dynamic response was analyzed. The calculations were conducted for two material
models: linearly elastic and elastic plastic. To solve the problem of dynamic response of shell structures
the ANSYS software based on finite element method was employed.
1 INTRODUCTION
The conical, spherical and of other shapes shell structures thanks to their advantages (lightweight,
high strength, forming facility, etc) are very often used as a supporting structures in aerospace and
automotive industry, shipbuilding and also mechanical and civil engineering. Recently such structures are
also used as ballistic protections. This was the cause why the authors paid the attention to these
structures and analyzed their behavior under pulse loading (blast pressure). It is well known that the thin-
walled or/and thin shell structures are good energy absorbers especially when they loose their stability in
elastic range and then plastic deformation appears leading to failure. To understand the behavior of thin
shell structures subjected to blast pressure (pulse loading) the static buckling, dynamic buckling and
dynamic response has to be investigated.
Since the 60's of previous century the problems of dynamic buckling of thin-walled and shell
structures have been widely investigated by many authors. The well known papers dealing with dynamic
buckling are written by Volmir [1], [2] Budiansky, Roth and Hutchinson [3], [4], [5] and recently by
Simitses at el. [6], [7], [8], [9].
Volmir [2] proposed the criterion which allows to find critical pulse load leading to dynamic
buckling. This criterion states that dynamic critical load corresponds to the amplitude of pulse load at
which the maximum deflection is equal to some constant value k (usually shell thickness). The other
criterion was formulated by Budiansky and Roth [3] and later by Budiansky and Hutchinson [5]. Their
dynamic buckling criterion states that dynamic stability loss occurs when the maximum deflection grows
rapidly with the small variation of the load amplitude.
Simitses [7] classified the dynamic buckling problem depending on the type of structures (plates,
shells) and their static postbuckling behavior. He said that for plate structures which have stable
postbuckling path rather dynamic response could be analyzed instead of dynamic buckling – critical
condition leading to failure should be determined on the base of special criterion (two of them are
mentioned above). He proposed the methodology to determine the critical condition for dynamic
buckling of structures with static snap-through buckling. It should be also mentioned that Simitses in his
two publication [6] and [9] described dynamic buckling problem for plate and shell structures based on
more than 120 positions of literature concerning with this problem.
1193
Tomasz Kubiak et al.
The dynamic buckling problem was investigated not only for steel but also for composite structures
[9], [10], [11], [13]. These works deal with structures used in mechanical or civil engineering as a
supporting structures but the structures used as a part of ballistic protections have many times smaller
overall dimensions [14]. The dynamic buckling and dynamic response of thin-walled plate and shell
structures was also investigated by many others authors [15], [16], [17].
It should be mentioned that the analysis of structures built of thin shells subject to pulse loading still
needs a special attention with results interpretation.
The dynamic pulse buckling occurs when the loading process is of intermediate amplitude and the
pulse duration is close to the period of fundamental natural flexural vibrations (in range of milliseconds).
In such case the effects of dumping are neglected [9].
Similarly as in other papers dealing with dynamic buckling [4], [5], [6], [7], [10] the Dynamic Load
Factor (DLF) was introduced. DLF is defined as a ratio of pulse load amplitude to the static upper critical
load. The initial imperfection form of shell surface is assumed to be the same as the mode corresponding
to the upper buckling load. The amplitude of the initial geometrical imperfection was normalized by
thickness of analyzed structure.
2 PROBLEM FORMULATION
The present paper deals with a dynamic response of shell structures in shape of hemisphere and
truncated cone closed by spherical cap or by flat circular plate (Fig. 1). The height of analyzed structures
is kept constant while the wall thickness and the angle of incline of cone generator may vary.
Fig. 1. Analyzed cones and sphere shells
Fig. 2. Blast pressure diagram(a) and its approximation (b)
1194
All taken into consideration structures are loaded by triangular pulse pressure of finite duration (Fig.2b).
The shape of the pulse simulates the blast pressure (Fig.2a). The considered structures have such
dimensions that their period of fundamental natural vibrations is close to the pulse duration Tp (Fig.2).
The different ways of pressure distribution were analyzed: the constant pressure in a given moment of
time; the linear or sinusoidal distribution of pressure in given moment. The variable distribution of
pressure value is used for modeling the directional wave of blast pressure (Fig. 3) defined by angle of
inclination ȕ.
Fig. 3. The pressure value distribution depending on blast pressure direction
For all analyzed structures the material properties was assumed as for steel and they are as follows:
Young’s modulus E = 2·105 MPa, Poisson’s ratio Ȟ = 0.3, yield limit Re = 205 MPa. The calculations are
conducted for two material models: linearly elastic and elastic plastic with bilinear or multi-linear
characteristic.
The influence of type of shell structures, their geometrical parameters and pulse loading parameters
like direction, amplitude and duration on the dynamic response was analyzed.
In the first step of investigation the static buckling and modal analysis was performed. For static
buckling problem the critical pressure and buckling mode was found, and from modal analysis the natural
frequency was calculated. The upper buckling pressure values are used to define the DLF value applied
in dynamic response analysis. Whereas the natural frequency is used to calculate the vibration period
which should be close to pulse duration if the dynamic buckling problem is to be considered.
3 FINITE ELEMENT MODEL

To solve the problem of dynamic response of shell structures the ANSYS [18] software based on
finite element method was employed. The structures under analysis were treated as simply supported
along all bottom edges. For discretization the four-node shell element SHELL 43 [18] of six degrees of
freedom was employed. Figs. 4 and 5 present correspondingly the finite element model (way of
discretization) for conical and spherical shells. For hemispherical shell the symmetrical and non-
symmetrical way of mesh was employed.
1195
Fig. 4. Finite element models of analyzed cone shells
a) b)
Fig.5. Finite element models of hemispherical shells with symmetric (a) and non-symmetric (b) mesh
a) b)
Fig.6. Exemplary pressure distribution for blast pressure inclination ȕ = 0 (a) and ȕ = 60 (b)
For uniform load distribution the load was applied to all elements with the same value at a given
moment. Whereas, for non-uniform pressure distribution the load value at a given moment was applied
to each element as calculated depending on element position in space and blast pressure direction. To
calculate the element pressure value the APDL [18] (Ansys Parametric Design Language) was used. The
exemplary pressure distribution for different blast pressure inclination are presented in Fig. 6.
In the numerical analysis the dynamic responses of shell structures loaded by pulse pressure were
searched for. At the first stage the modal analysis was performed in aim to determine the period of
1196
natural frequency Tps. Next, by liner stability analysis, using eigenvalue method, the critical static load
and corresponding buckling mode were determined. The buckling eigen-mode with amplitude w0 in non-
dimensional form w0/į was assumed as the initial imperfection shape of shells. The amplitudes of the
pulse pressure were applied as multiples of the static critical load. The structural dynamic analysis, which
allowed to find the response of a structure for pulse loading, was conducted using the “Full Transient
Dynamic Analysis” [18].
In the dynamic analysis the equilibrium equation was complemented by time dependent term and has
the following form:
.. .
{P} [M] {u} [C] {u} [K] {u} (1)
where [M] is a structural mass matrix and [C] is a structural damping matrix. In the dynamic buckling
problem damping can be neglected [8] and then Equation (1) can be written as follows:
..
{P} [M] {u} [K] {u} (2)
Substituting time derivative of displacement {ü} by increment of displacement {u} in consecutive

discrete instant of time t the new equilibrium equations included inertia forces are obtained for each time
step. For the equation obtained for each instant of time the solution algorithms used in static analysis can
be employed. In ANSYS software the Newmark method is used to integration over the time and for
solving equations in consecutive instant of time the Newton-Raphson algorithm is used.
4 EXEMPLARY RESULTS OF CALCULATION

A lot of calculations for hemispherical shells and truncated cone shells closed by spherical cap or by
flat circular plate was conducted. Some exemplary results obtained in the elastic range from static
buckling, modal and dynamic response analysis are presented below.
4.1 Hemispherical shells
The hemispheres under analysis have radius R equal to 40 mm and different shell thickness į. During
analysis there was noticed that the buckling mode depends on the way of discretization. Completely
different shape of deflection was obtained using symmetrical (Fig. 7a) and non-symmetrical (Fig. 7b)
mesh. The axisymmetrical mesh forced the axisymmetrical buckling mode. Also it should be mentioned
that consecutive critical pressure are close to each over – first ten critical pressure causing buckling differ
less than 3% but all of them have different modes.
a) b)
Fig.7. Critical static buckling mode for symmetric (a) and non-symmetric (b) mesh
The relation between static upper buckling pressure and shell thickness for hemisphere with non-
symmetrical and symmetrical (Fig. 5) mesh is almost the same. The maximal equivalent (Huber – Misses
stress) stresses for hemisphere with shell thickness į 0.2 mm subjected to critical pressure are greater
1197
than 500 MPa. It means that such thin shells are disqualified because then structures under analysis loss
their stability in plastic range. Further only hemispherical shells with thickness į 0.2 mm are
considered because such structures loss their stability in the elastic range.
The relation between dimensionless maximal deflection (w/į) and DLF (Dynamic Load Factor) for
hemispherical shell with wall thickness į = 0.3 mm subjected to uniform pressure pulse with duration
equal to the period of natural vibration ( Tp = 0.09 ms) and parameter describing pulse shape k = 0.5 was
calculated and presented in Fig. 8. The shape of initial imperfection is the same as buckling mode and the
amplitude of initial imperfection is assumed as 1/100 of hemisphere thickness.
Fig. 8. Dimensionless deflection as a DLF function for hemispherical shell with į = 0.3 mm
a) b)
Fig. 9. Deflection in time of hemisphere for DLF = 1.08 a) t = 0,22 ms; b) t = 0.28 ms.
On the basis of the results presented in Fig. 8 the critical value of DLF can be found. According to
Volmir criterion the DLFcr = 1.06 and according to Budiansky-Hutchinson criterion the critical DLF
equals 1.1. It means that amplitude of triangular pressure pulse greater about 10% than static critical
pressure leads to dynamic buckling according to Volmir or Budiansky-Hutchinson criterion.
In Fig. 9 the shape of shell deflections for different moment of time are presented.
4.2 Conical shells

The static critical pressure and natural frequency as a function of shell thickness for two different
cones (Fig. 1) with r = 5 mm and R = 10 mm or 25 mm are presented in Fig. 10. According to the
obtained results it can be said that they do not depend on the shape (spherical cap or flat circular plate)
1198
which closes considered truncated cones. The smaller bottom radius R the higher static critical pressure.
For both types of analyzed cones with R = 10 mm the natural frequencies do not depend on wall
thickness – the cones have global vibration mode. Taking above into account it can be said that the cones
with higher bottom radius are better as energy absorbers. The shell thickness should be chosen (the same
as for hemispheres) to ensure that dynamic buckling occurs in elastic range.
a) b)
Cone A, R = 25 Cone A, R = 10 Cone A, R = 25 Cone A, R = 10
Cone B, R = 25 Cone B, R = 10 Cone B, R = 25 Cone B, R = 10
400 pcr [MPa] 16 n [kHz]

350 14
300 12
250 10
200 8
150 6
100 4
50 A [mm] 2 E [mm]
0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Fig.10. Critical pressure pcr (a) and natural frequency (b) as a function of conical shell thickness į
The relation between dimensionless displacement (w/į) and Dynamic Load Factor for both type of
cones (A and B) with radiuses R = 20 mm and r = 5 mm, shell thickness į = 0.2 mm subjected to uniform
pressure pulse loading with period of pulse duration Tp equal to 0.3 ms and parameter describing pulse
shape (Fig. 2) k = 0.5. The shape of initial imperfection is the same as buckling mode and the amplitude
of initial imperfection is assumed as 1/100 of shell thickness.
20 w /G
18
16
14 cone A
12 cone B
10
8
6
4
2
DLF
0
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4
Fig. 11. Dimensionless deflection as a DLF function for conical shell (į = 0.2 mm)
For both types of cones similar results were obtained. According to Volmir criterion the DLFcr = 1.25
and according to Budiansky-Hutchinson criterion the critical DLF equals 1.5.
5 CONCLUSION
The analysis of the calculation results shows that the dynamic response of conical and spherical
structures subjected to pulse pressure of finite duration strongly depends on geometrical parameters. Also
1199
material model and the direction of pulse loading have the influence on dynamic response of shell
structures – the results of calculations which prove the above sentence will be presented during
conference. The proper selection of geometrical parameters for conical or spherical structures (rational
design) may reduce the structure sensitivity to pressure direction or/and distribution and allows to control
the level of energy absorption.
REFERENCES
[1] Volmir S.A., Stability of deforming systems, Science, Moscow, 1967 /in Russian/.
[2] Volmir S.A., Nonlinear dynamic of plates and shells, Science, Moscow, 1972 /in Russian/.
[3] Budiansky B., Roth R.S., Axisymmetric dynamic buckling of clamped shallow spherical shell,
Collected papers on instability of structures, NASA TN D-1510, 591-600, 1962.
[4] Budiansky B., Dynamic buckling of elastic structures: criteria and estimates, Report SM-7, NASA
CR-66072, 1965.
[5] Hutchinson J.W., Budiansky B., Dynamic buckling estimates, AIAA Journal, 4(3), 525-530, 1966.
[6] Simitses G.J., Instability of dynamically loaded structures, Applied Mech. Rev., 40, 10, 1403-1408,
1987.
[7] Simitses G.J., Dynamic stability of suddenly loaded structures, Springer Verlag, New York, 1990.
[8] Kounadis A.N., Gantes C., Simitses G.J., Nonlinear dynamic buckling of multi-dof structural
dissipative system under impact loading, Int. J. Impact Engineering, 19 (1), 63-80, 1997.
[9] Simitses G.J., Buckling of moderately thick laminated cylindrical shells: a review, Composites Part
B, 27B, 581-587, 1996.
[10] Kowal-Michalska K., Dynamic stability of plate composite structures, WNT, Warsaw, 2007 /in
Polish/.
[11] Bisagni C., Dynamic buckling of fiber composite shells under impulsive axial compression, Thin-
Walled Structures, 43, 2005.
[12] Shokker A., Sridharan S., Kasagi A., Dynamic buckling of composite shells, Computers &
Structures, Vol. 59, No. 1, 43-55, 1996.
[13] Chamis C.C., Abumeri G.H., Probabilistic dynamic buckling of composite shell structures,
Composites Part A, 36, 1368-1380, 2005.
[14] Mania R.J., Kowal-Michalska K., Dynamic response of conical shell structures subjected to pulse
pressure, Proc. of the 12th Int. Conf. on Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering
Computing, Civil-Comp Press, 2009.
[15] Karagiozova D., Jones N., Dynamic elastic-plastic buckling of circular cylindrical shells under
axial impact, International Journal of Solids and Structures, 37, 2005-2034, 2000.
[16] Patel S.N., Datta P.K., Sheikh A.H., Buckling and dynamic instability analysis of stiffened shell
panels, Thin-Walled Structures, 44, 321-333, 2006.
[17] Choong K.K., Ramm E., Simulation of buckling process of shells by using the finite element
method, Thin-Walled Structures, 31, 39-72, 1998.
[18] ANSYS 11 SP1, User guide, Ansys, Inc., Houston, USA
1200
AUTHOR INDEX
A. K. Abu 21 A. M. G. Coelho 619
H. Ahmed 813 L. Comeliau 393
R. Alsafadie 547 A. M. Correia 489
M. G. Amani 417 C. Costa 855
S. A. L. de Andrade 279, 423, 879 R. S. Costa 871
T. Aoki 369 M.Couchaux 295
P. Arasaratnam 571 A. Crisan 937
A. H. M. de Araújo 1177 I. M. Cristutiu 191, 649
R. R. de Araujo 423 R. B. Cruise 697
V. Bachmann 271 M. Cudejko 847
N. Baldassino 183 R. O. Curadelli 417
A. M. Barszcz 611 M.-E. Dasiou 921
C. Basaglia 33, 913 J. B. Davison 441
E. M. Batista 1061, 1151 H. Degée 337
J.-M. Battini 547 J. F. Demonceau 199, 393
R. C. Battista 149 P. B. Dinis 1061, 1141
A. Battistini 133 F. Dinu 401
E. Bayo 215 A. Dogariu 223
R. G. Beale 813, 905 J. B. Dorr 521
R. Bebiano 33 A. Drei 207
A. Bedynek 747 D. Dubina 59, 191, 223, 401, 929, 937
D. Beg 787 L. Dunai 81, 231
J. L. Bellod 157 P. N. Dung 1101
W. Bessa 175 J. Durodola 813
L. M. Bezerra 539, 1169 M. Engelhardt 133
A. Bignardi 183 R. H. Fakury 433
F. S. K. Bijlaard 619 M. Fontana 465, 473
R. Bjorhovde 9 A. Formisano 945
J. Bonada 1125 K. Frank 133
B. Braun 731 A. M. S. Freitas 953
I. W. Burgess 21, 441, 505 C. A. S. Freitas 1169
A. Caballero 1051 M. S. R. Freitas 953
L. Calado 175, 231 R. Friede 287
R. B. Caldas 433 M. Friedrich 721
D. Camotim 33, 529, 913, 1061, 1141, 1151 Y. Fukumoto 369
M. Casafont 1093, 1125 A. S. Galvão 361
C. A. Castiglioni 175, 207 T. Gao 1017
R. Chacon 739 L. Gardner 555, 657, 665
B. Chen 755 B. Gil 215
F. Chen 369 M. A. Gizejowski 239, 611, 839
J. Chlouba 513 M. H. R. Godley 905
P. B. Gonçalves 361, 797 H. Krüger 1001
R. M. Gonçalves 175, 207 T. Kubiak 1193
R. Gonçalves 33 G. Kubieniec 271
R. Goñi 215 U. Kuhlmann 681, 731
D. Grecea 223 L. Kwasniewski 239
R. Greiner 141, 595 A. Lachal 165, 303
G. de C. Grigoletti 961, 1133 A. Landesmann 497, 529
S. Guezouli 165, 303 R. Landolfo 945, 1109
T. S. Gururaj 409 J. Lange 287, 563
L.-H. Han 887 A. C. C. Lavall 673, 871
G. J. Hancock 101, 969, 1025 N. Lebrun 337
T. Harada 369 A. Lechner 141
R. S. Harichandran 449, 457 X. A. Lignos 921
T. A. Helwig 133, 1161 L. R. O. de Lima 247, 263, 279, 345, 423, 855
J. Henriques 327 N. L. de A. Lima 345
M. Hjiaj 295, 547 J. Lindner 1077
J.C.D. Hoenderkamp 579 N. Lopes 123
Y. Hu 441 G. Di Lorenzo 945, 1109
K. Ikarashi 377, 1043 L. Ly 327
A. Insausti 555 J. Machacek 847
S. Iqbal 449, 457 E. Magnucka-Blandzi 977
M. Ishiyama 369 K. Magnucki 977
I. Iturrioz 961, 1133 R. Mairal 319
M. Jakomin 805 M. Malite 319, 521
J.-P. Jaspart 199, 327, 393 O. Mammana 1109
G. A Jimenez 713 R. Mania 1193
N. de O. P. Junior 1177 L. A. C. da Mata 863
S. S. Kaing 165 R. M. M. P. de Matos 247
J. Kala 779 F. M. Mazzolani 945
Z. Kala 779 J. J. Melcher 779, 895, 985
S. Käpplein 1009, 1033 H. Merle 563
M. Karmazínová 895, 985 G. P. Mezzomo 961, 1133
K. Kathage 1001, 1009 K. K.-Michalska 1193
W. A. S. Khalil 611, 839 L. F. Miguel 417
A. Khelil 1085 E. Mirambell 739, 747
J. R. Kissell 641 O. Mirza 255
M. Knobloch 465, 473 T. Misiek 1001, 993, 1009
Z. Kolakowski 1193 C. D. Moen 1017
F. Kosel 805 C. Müller 199
N. Kovács 231 N. Muntean 223
A. Kozlowski 1185 Z. Nagy 649, 929
C. Neagu 401 E. F. dos Santos 149
J. M. Neto 521 E. S. Santos 1151
M. Neuenschwander 473 G. F. dos Santos 353
L. F. da C. Neves 247, 855, 879 D. Sanz 157
J. Noguera 1125 L. Di Sarno 831
L. Nunes 929 B. W. Schafer 1069, 1117
C. G. Oliveira 863 F. Seidel 1077
P. Osterrieder 721 M. S. Seif 1117
J. A. Packer 115 N. Shimizu 1043
A. M. Paradowska 697 A. R. D. Silva 361
H. Pasternak 271 A. T. da Silva 263
M. M. Pastor 1093, 1125 J. C. G. da Silva 497
J. Pauli 465 J. G. S. da Silva 279, 345, 353, 423
T. Peköz 1093 J. J. R. Silva 481
A. Pelouchová 513 L. S. da Silva 123, 263, 327, 423
S. S. Pereira 863 R. G. L. da Silva 673
P. Pernes 929 R. S. Y. C. Silva 539, 1169
M. S. Pfeil 149, 863 R. A. M. Silveira 361
C. H. Pham 101, 969, 1025 N. Silvestre 33, 657, 1061, 1141
T. A. C. Pires 481 P. D. Simão 619
R. J. Plank 441, 505 F. Sinur 787
A. Plumier 337, 1101 K. S. Sivakumaran 571, 755
F. Portioli 1109 M. Škaloud 3, 771, 779
Z. N. del Prado 797 H.H. Snijder 579
Z. M. C. Pravia 961 F. J. da C. P. Soeiro 345, 353
C. Quadrato 133 D. Somaini 465
G. Queiroz 863 F. T. Souza 953
E. Real 739, 747 J. B. M. Sousa Jr. 433
P. V. Real 123 R. C. Spoorenberg 579
C. Rebelo 263 M. Strejček 513
J. A. V. Requena 1177 R. Stroetmann 587
S. Richter 721 J. Szalai 689
J. D. Riera 417 J. K. Szlendak 311
F. C. Rodrigues 863, 871 J. Swiniarski 1193
J. P. C. Rodrigues 481, 489 M. Tait 571
M. C. Rodrigues 279 T. Takaku 369
L. Roelle 681 J. M. S.-Talero 1051
F. Roure 1093, 1125 P. Tanner 157
I. Ryan 295 Z. Tao 887
H. Saal 763, 993 A. Taras 141, 595
S. R. Sajja 905 G. Terracciano 945
M. Theofanous 665 T. Wang 377
N. M. Thontalapura 409 Y.-T. Weng 385
K.-C. Tsai 385 K. Weynand 199
T. Ummenhofer 1001, 1033 A. Wojnar 1185
V. Ungureanu 929, 937 V. Y. B. Wong 505
H. Unterweger 603 R. Wongjeeraphat 1161
B. Uy 255, 887 N. Yamazaki 369
R. Vasconcelos 149 H. Yu 441
I. Vayas 921 Y.-J. Yu 385
P. C. G. da S. Vellasco 279, 345, 423, 879 R. Zandonini 183
J. da C. Vianna 879 J. Zhang 635
L. C. M. Vieira Jr. 1069 J. Zielnica 821
R. C. Vieira 1177 R. D. Ziemian 641
L. G. Vigh 81, 705 L. Ziemianski 1185
M. Volz 763 T. Zirakian 627, 635
F. Wald 513 M. Zörnerová 771

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VOLUME 2

International Colloquium on Stability and Ductility of Steel Structures, SDSS’Rio 2010

Graphic Art Production: Angela Jaconniani and Lucia Lopes

Printed and Bound by: J. Sholna Reproduções Gráficas Ltda.

Editors: Eduardo de M. Batista, Pedro C. G. da S. Vellasco and Luciano R. O. de Lima

S.A.L. Andrade - Brazil J.R. Liew - Singapore

Alexandre Landesmann - UFRJ Maximiliano Malite - USP / SC

1. SDSS HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 1

3. BRIDGES AND FOOTBRIDGES 131

5. DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR AND ANALYSIS 335

Robustness of steel and composite buildings under impact loading 393

6. FIRE ENGINEERING 431

7. MEMBERS’ BEHAVIOR: TENSION, COMPRESSION, BEAMS, BEAM-COLUMNS 537

System stability design criteria for aluminum structures 641

8. PLATED STRUCTURES AND BOX GIRDERS 729

10. STEEL-CONCRETE COMPOSITE MEMBERS AND STRUCTURES 829

FE modelling of slender concrete-filled stainless steel tubular columns

11. THIN-WALLED CONSTRUCTION AND COLD-FORMED MEMBERS 903

The cold work of forming effect in steel structural members 1017

12. TRUSSES, TOWERS AND MASTS 1159

THE COLLAPSE LOAD IN SUBMARINE PIPELINES UNDER

LUCIANO M. BEZERRA*, RAMON S. Y. C. SILVA*

* Department of Civil Engineering, University of Brasilia, 70910-900 – Brasilia, DF - Brazil

Keywords: Pipeline Collapse Load, Pressurized Pipelines, Petroleum Pipelines.

2. THE PIPE AND THE MODEL

Figure-1: Freespan pipeline under compressive load and initial imperfection δ 0.

3. DEVELOPING THE FULLY PLASTIC MOMENT

4. THE PLASTIC COLLAPSE

5. COMPARISON TO FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSES

Table-1: Comparison with FEM results

Figure 9: Comparison of analytical and FEM results for FSP

STABILITY ANALYSIS FOR 3D FRAMES USING MIXED

Rabe Alsafadie*, Mohammed Hjiaj* and Jean-Marc Battini**

2 COROTATIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR 3D BEAMS

3 NONLINEAR BERNOULLI MIXED LOCAL ELEMENT FORMULATION

Figure 1: Local beam configuration.

ª1 −v, x − w, xϑx − w, x + v, xϑx º

with κ x = ϑx , x , κ y = − w, xx − ycϑx , xx , κ z = v, xx − zcϑx , xx

3.2 Equilibrium and generalized stress interpolation functions

3.3 Hellinger-Reissner potential for beams

EQ = ³ NTeˆ S dx + ³ NTS 2 (eˆ − e) dx − Flext = 0 (15)

EC = ³ NTS1 (eˆ − e) dx = 0 (16)

3.4.2 Linearization of the Element Compatibility Equation

3.4.3 Linearization of the Element Equilibrium Equation

where K l is the local consistent tangent stiffness matrix given by

and fl is the local internal force vector

fl = G1T fSn + ³ NTS 2 (eˆ n − e n ) dx + (Mκ + G1 − H12 )T H11

3.5 Nonlinear state determination algorithm

3. Evaluate the generalized stress resultant internal force vector S

4.1 Cantilever with channel-section

Figure 2: Cantilever with channel-section: data and results.

4.2 Right-angle frame

Figure 3: Right-angle frame: data and results.

PLASTIC COLLAPSE MECHANISMS IN COMPRESSED ELLIPTICAL

Aimar Insausti* and Leroy Gardner*

3 FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING

4 IDENTIFICATION OF PLASTIC MECHANISMS IN EHS

5.3 Governing parameters

6 COMPARISON OF ANALYTICAL MODEL WITH OBSERVED BEHAVIOUR

1.0 Analytical model 1.0 Analytical model

0.8 FE model 0.8 FE model

COLLAPSE OF A STEEL STRUCTURE AS A RESULT OF LOCAL

Heiko Merle, Jörg Lange

LUCIANO M. BEZERRA, RAMON S. Y. C. SILVA

Rabe Alsafadie, Mohammed Hjiaj and Jean-Marc Battini**

R.C. Spoorenberg* , H.H. Snijder and J.C.D. Hoenderkamp**

Andreas Taras, Richard Greiner