Module 9 Annotated Bibliographies

#1 Low, R., & Sweller, J. (2014). The modality principle in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The

Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 227-246). New York: Cambridge.

The authors begin this chapter by describing the modality effect as a single mode of multimedia

presentation that is more effective than another due to the type of information. The modality principle

also states that while using multimedia resources narrated information is more beneficial than visually

presented statements. Modality effect is only found in scenarios that include the split-attention effect.

Ideally, when using multimedia resources it is strategic to decrease cognitive load and effectively use the

limited working memory resources. Research shows that the selected mode of presentation can be a

limiting factor in the incorporation of new information into long-term memory showing that the mode

of presentation is more important than the order of presentation. Using a dual mode of presentation is

preferred over a single, while research shows that incorporation of multimedia that employs both visual

and audio channels decreases the strain on any one channel of working memory.

The effect of modality is also correlated to split-attention effect. Split-attention is achieved as multiple

forms of information are incorporated requiring the use of the same channel of working memory. Using

both the audio and visual channels of working memory helps to decrease cognitive load and presents

accurate use of the modality effect.

#2 Mayer, R.E., & Moreno, R. (2010). Techniques that reduce extraneous cognitive load and manage

intrinsic cognitive load during multimedia learning. In J. L. Plass, R. Moreno, & R. Brünken (Eds.),

Cognitive Load Theory (pp. 131-152). New York: Cambridge.

Mayer and Moreno begin this chapter with examples to exemplify the meaning of multimedia. The

examples used demonstrated the use of multimedia to mean the use of words and pictures to transmit a

message. The use of multimedia should incorporate research based studies and experiments that prove

its worth in the area of instruction. Researchers have likened the cognitive theory of multimedia

learning to that of the cognitive load theory.

Learning with multimedia instruction is based on three main principles dual channels, limited capacity,

and active processing. The principle of dual channels states that all human learners possess two

channels for processing information one is for visual stimuli and the other is for auditory. Using these

two channels the principle of limited capacity suggests that each channel can only process a certain

amount of information before becoming overloaded. Active processing describes the process of

learning as requiring the learner to be active, meaning that the learner should be discerning information

to stay in memory for further processing or letting it fade.

Cognitive theory of multimedia learning is described as including the reduction of cognitive processing,

maintenance of essential processing, and nurturing of generative processing. These three areas also

correlate to the cognitive load theories concepts of extraneous, intrinsic, and germane cognitive load.

These all focus on the quantity of cognitive load that is needed, not needed, and needed for learning the

given information. Some suggestions are provided to better manage cognitive load in multimedia

environments recommending use of multimedia principles. Referring to the principles of coherence,

redundancy, signaling, temporal contiguity, spatial contiguity, segmenting, pretraining, and modality.

#3 Renkl, A. (2014). The worked examples principle in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The

Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 391-412). New York: Cambridge.

Renkl begins this chapter by presenting the human preference for the use of examples in instruction,

with the common theme of worked examples being very effective and time-efficient methods of

learning. The principle of worked examples is described as using an example that demonstrates proper

procedure through a step by step presentation yielding a final solution aiding in understanding of

information.

Procedures for incorporating a worked example into instruction require three factors a principle

abstract rule, multiple worked examples, and application of the learned information. These steps help

to enhance the design with learned material along with practice applying the concepts. Using worked

examples have been discovered to have two disadvantages as they increase cognitive load and

extraneous cognitive load, but should be designed in order to promote the transference of initial

cognitive knowledge.

Employing multimedia into instruction can lead to higher levels of cognitive load possibly resulting in a

lack of deep level learning and understanding. Applying the principle of worked examples, which

requires less use of working memory, can decrease cognitive load as long as its use follows the

guidelines of multimedia principles. Color coding is important in the use of worked examples as it helps

to create cues for the learner establishing sequence and decreasing cognitive load. Also beneficial is the

use of self-explanation as the learner can use the worked example to promote deeper cognitive

understanding.

#4 van Merriënboer, J. J., & Kester, L. (2014). The four-component instructional design model:

Multimedia principles in environments for complex learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge

Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 104-148). New York: Cambridge.

The chapter begins with the authors proposing that the four requirements, employing the four

component instructional design model, for achieving complex learning are : learning task, supportive
information, procedural information, and part-task practice. Learning tasks are entire experiences that

are based on real-life tasks requiring task performance, problem solving, and reasoning. Supportive

information is described as information that aids in performing performance tasks, reasoning, and

problem solving. Procedural information has been defined as information that is required before

learning and routine can be performed. Lastly, part-task refers to additional practice that requires

incorporation of automaticity.

The authors reference two possible designs for multimedia use, system control and learner control.

System control refers to either a teacher or intelligent agent controlling the pace of the learning.

Learner control focuses more on the student controlling which information is presented along with the

pace of the presentation. Another option is a hybrid of the two creating a shared control situation

where teachers or the intelligent agent is responsible for control at the beginning of the learning process

and that control is transferred to the learner as they progress toward their final goals.

The 4C/ID model discusses the acquisition of cognitive schema incorporating the phonological loop and

visuospatial sketchpad. Developing these schema require the building of new schema and developing

automaticity for both old and new schema to help build expertise. Learning using the 4C/ID model

constitutes meaningful use of the multimedia principles as discussed in multimedia design.