perience (and engineering developments are an im­
p o r t a n t factor) teaches m a n t h a t he is far from
perfect and t h a t his own efforts even b y giving
marvelous results in their proper sphere, cannot
lift him above himself, and t h a t he needs m a k e use
of a power belonging to a higher sphere, he will m a k e
real progress and come to real and lasting happiness.
WRONG U S E OF ENGINEERING PROGRESS
Engineering progress may hinder us from reaching
the highest good. I n general, modern nervous life
gives fewer opportunities to examine calmly t h e
problems of life; it draws all attention to material
things. Such progress m a y in another way have
a harmful effect. M a n m a y consider himself as
the most superior being. H e m a y consider his
achievements in the material sphere as proof of
his own capabilities in any sphere of existence.
H e m a y expect to come, through culture, science,
and arts, to a state of universal peace and real
happiness. If he thinks this way and places himself
Vibration in
Electrical Conductors
Laboratory tests using water as a medium
indicate that t h e vibration of a conductor
used for transmitting electric power can b e
diminished materially b y the use of
different shapes of cable cross-sections.
The investigation shows further that of the
various specimens tested, cables having a
triangular cross-section show the least ten­
dency to vibrate.
D cable seemed to reduce t h e vibration, it was thought
^ # E C A U S E of the general increase in
unit working loads as well as in the sizes of con­
ductors on electric power transmission lines, vi­
bration of these conductors has become a serious
problem. Overhead conductor vibration probably
was reported first in 1923 as deteriorating t h e me­
chanical characteristics of conductors, b y some of
the power companies of California. These vibra­
tions seldom have an amplitude exceeding 2 in.
Node lengths vary considerably and t h e frequency
is of t h e order of from 10 to 100 cycles per sec.
Numerous mechanisms and appliances have been
Based u p o n "Vibration and F a t i g u e in Electrical Conductors" ( N o . 3 2 - 6 9 )
presented at t h e A . I . E . E . summer convention, Cleveland. Ohio. June 2 0 - 2 4 ,
1932.
NOVEMBER 1932
above all, he will pass through bitter experiences;
t h e n engineering developments will have been mis­
used. Observation shows t h a t they often are mis­
used ; b u t t h a t is t h e fault of man, not of engineering
progress.
Great progress has been m a d e in material things.
However, as m a n y facilities are needed b y t h e
new conditions, the final gain is not so large as m a y
be estimated at first sight. Further, a n y progress
in t h e material sphere can give only some relative
and temporary happiness. Absolute and lasting
happiness can have its source only outside of the
h u m a n sphere and in order to a t t a i n such a state
of happiness, the inner m a n m u s t be changed.
Material progress m a y help if rightly used, b u t
also m a y hinder if wrongly used. Pride in his own
achievements m a y blind m a n to t h e extent t h a t he
does not see his real needs and is kept from look­
ing for real happiness where it can be found.
Editor's N o t e : P u r s u a n t t o t h e i n v i t a t i o n of t h e Engineering F o u n d a t i o n , the
editors will be h a p p y t o receive c o m m e n t s , criticisms, or discussions pertaining to
t h i s or other articles published in this series.
By A . E. D A V I S O N
A S S O C I A T E A.I.E.E.
J. A . I N G L E S
ASSOCIATE A.I.E.E.
V. M . MARTINOFF A l l of the Hydro-Electric P w r .
A S S O C I A T E A.I.E.E. Commission of O n t a r i o , Toronto
suggested for overcoming conductor vibrations, and
some of these function very well indeed. However,
such devices always are subject t o t h e criticism t h a t
ultimately t h e y m a y account for more h a r m t h a n
good. A t t h e same time if the cause of t h e vibration
can be determined, and preventives applied a t the
source, there will be t h e n b u t little danger of trouble
occurring later a t some unexpected point.
Following reports of a field observation from a
Pacific Coast power company, to the effect t h a t a
3-strand cable did not vibrate as much as a standard
cable, also t h a t a single strand wrapped about a
6
7
t h a t t h e problem might be solved b y modifying the
conductor sections rather t h a n b y adding reenforçe-
m e n t s or dampers. Studies m a d e later b y T h o m a 8
confirmed this assumption, and showed t h a t the
section of t h e cable did play an i m p o r t a n t p a r t in
t h e vibration characteristics. I t was t h o u g h t t h a t
b y upsetting the symmetry of the conductor section,
eddies formed on the lee side of t h e conductor would
be disrupted. This is explained in t h e following
paragraphs.
THEORY OF NON-SYMMETRICAL SECTIONS
A / -in. diameter round rod with a W i n . diameter
5
8
wire spiralled about it, as shown in Fig. 1, has been
795
selected to indicate the complicated system of fre­
quencies brought about b y t h e eddy formation a t f=6.85-6 I p J
EDDY FORMATION
WILL BE IDENTICAL
several successive cross-sections along t h e cable. IN EACH SECTION
FOR ROUND ROD
Balancing of the eddy forces is demonstrated at f=-4.0
individual pairs of cross-sections. A / -in. plain 5 8

round rod is examined also for comparison; as m a y

f = 6.65
be seen, there is no balancing action in this t y p e of
conductor. V / W W S M I -®-
Four variables t h a t modify the resultant eddy
f = 6.85
action behind the rod and wire are introduced in ΥΥΥΥΥΎΥΥ
each individual cross-section, namely: (1) frequency, / ν \ Λ Λ Λ Λ Λ Λ °LJ © xxxxmxx
1
(2) phase, (3) amplitude, and (4) neutral vibration 1 Λ
f=6.0
Λ A
plane. Each of these is studied in detail as follows: \? KfAJ X7 & I
1. Frequencies were calculated from the Relf and Ower formula. 1

V fVD\ f=4.0
Frequency = — Χ φ ί — J /AV AV -AV AA 5 2 ? -®-
f=6.65
I
Assuming constant velocity of flow, the frequency is proportional
to the diameter of the section; hence varying this diameter varies
the frequency. In the case shown in Fig. 1, variation is brought
about by spiralling the wire about the rod. The effective diameter
of the combination will be the diameter of the rod plus a portion
of the diameter of the wire. The diameters only were considered
in determining the frequencies ; theoretical curves were plotted from Fig. 1 . Comparative study of e d d y formation at the
these values. These curves then represent, to some scale, the actual
frequency of the section. lee side of the stream flow, for uniform and non­
2. Phase of the vibration of an individual section is governed by uniform specimens
the position of the outer wire and has been plotted accordingly in
the diagram.
3. Force acting in the direction of vibration is, 5

Ρ = KV 2 X D per ft run per lb % I N BRASS GROUP

where Ρ = force, V = velocity, and D = diameter.

ROUND
Assuming velocity constant, the force will be proportional to the
diameter. The amplitude of the vibration, therefore also will be
proportional to the diameter. For each section in the diagram TWISTED TRIANGLE A
(Fig. 1) the maximum amplitude has been plotted equal to the
effective diameter and therefore represents to scale the true ampli­
TWISTED TRIANGLE A
tude.
4. Vibration will take place about the center of impact of the sec­ 5/$IN. COPPER GROUP .
tion; this is offset from the horizontal diameter of the rod, and has
been indicated in Fig. 1 by a broken line.
ROUND
E d d y formation and resulting forces have been
plotted for an instantaneous position of the rod and TEN-STRAND
will reverse at periods according to the frequencies
involved, as indicated in Fig. 1 by the double arrows FOUR—STRAND

for the round rod and b y the double wave at cross-

THREE -STRAND
section 4. N o a t t e m p t has been made here to estab­
lish t h e exact mathematical values of the quantities TWISTED SQUARE
involved, b u t this is being investigated. T h e dia­
gram thus illustrates the principle qualitatively, b u t EXTRA STRAND
not quantitatively.
I t m a y be seen t h a t at sections 3 and 7, and at 2
and 6, Fig. 1, the frequencies and amplitudes (there­ ROUND
fore forces) are equal b u t are 180 deg out of phase. TWO-STRAND
T h e y will, therefore, tend to balance one another in
THREE-STRAND
the direction of vibration, thus reducing this objec­
tionable feature. I n the symmetrical round rod, the TWISTED SQUARE
eddy formation is identical a t each section and no
UGHTNtNG ROD GROUP
balancing tendency is evident. At section 4 of t h e
combination of rod and wire, an unstable condition ROUND
is introduced due to t h e forces on t h e sections on
LIGHTNING ROD
either side of it tending to move the conductor in
opposite vertical directions. . , * VIBRATIONS OF SQUARE ROD
(AT DIFFERENT ANGLES RELATIVE TOFLOW)
I t m u s t be realized t h a t this discussion deals with SQUARE
a small length of cable and with an 8-in. lay of the SQUARE
wire; t h e 2 boundary sections are separated b y 8 in. SQUARE
Similarly, with 3-strand cable the boundary sections
would be separated b y only 2 / in. I n practise it
2 3 Fig. 2 . Comparative vibration in water of conduc­
is highly probable t h a t over such a small s t r a t a in tors of various sections and types

796 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

 AVERAGE % comparison t o t h e length of t h e span, wind velocity
REDUCTION IN
NAME CROSS SECTION AMPLITUDE would be approximately constant.
TWISTED CONCAVE TRIANGLE
® 90%
SPECIAL SECTIONS AVAILABLE FOR STUDY
TWISTED TRIANGLE
90% T h e single wire spiralled about t h e rod is im­
practicable, for on the application of tension the
TWISTED SQUARE
• 83%
load on t h e cable becomes eccentric. This analysis,
however, points t h e way to modifying, in a practical
way, t h e fundamentals of vibration in cables. For
LIGHTNING ROD WITH HOLES βο% instance, in a 3-strand cable, this same complication
of frequencies would be present, b u t t h e tension
ROUND, EXTRA STRAND TWISTED O N
Φ 70% would be uniformly balanced over the cable section.
T h e 4 - s t r a n d cable also is a good example and is in
THR*EE - S T R A N D
A 70%
common use, more especially in steel wire rope.
Almost any sector or acorn shape m a y be m a d e with­
out much loss of mechanical strength b y rolling or
TWO-STRAND
<D 70%
hammering the round cable as in 3-phase insulated
cables.
As a basis upon which to work, it was decided t o
FOUR-STRAND
η 70% m a k e specimens of sections of cables t h a t were
statically balanced so t h a t they would not pull ec­
TEN-STRAND SPECIAL
centrically. T h e section should, however, be unsym-
60%
metrical about the horizontal axis of t h e cable and
a t t h e same time be unsymmetrical for successive
ROUND 0% sections along the cable; in other words, t h e section
should simulate those characteristics which seemed
Fig. 3. Percentage reductions of vibration (or con­ to interfere with vibration in t h e wire-wrapped cable.
ductors of different cross-sections, as observed in I t was evident t h a t as uniform an eddy action could
water not be expected over a length of these spécial cables
as appears to be t h e case with standard cables or
round rods, with a consequent reduction of the power
i n p u t from t h e wind.
® m
BASIC SHAPES
>IC S H A LABORATORY W O R K
MAY BE USED F O R B U S BARS A N D S T R U C T U R A L MEMBERS
BARS

Experiments to determine t h e effect of different

( ^ ^ 3 - S T R A N D

TWISTED CABLE
14-STRAND

CSTEEL C O R E M A Y B E I N C L U D E D )
2-STRAND
(D cable cross-sections, and t h e amplitude of vibration,
based upon the foregoing assumptions, were carried
out in t h e hydraulic laboratory of t h e University of
T o r o n t o . Experiments and methods used b y Doctor
T h o m a were followed quite closely, water being
used as a medium. Specimen conductors of various
ROPE LAY GROUP S T R A N D E D C A B L E S
(STEEL CORES MAY BE INCLUDED) peculiar shapes were tested a t 5 different velocities
of water ranging from 4 to 7 in. per sec. T h e speci­
men was fastened to a flat steel strap 1 in. b y / in.
1 8 2

and 5 ft long. This strap was used in preference

to t h e elastic steel rod which T h o m a used, as it re­
stricted most effectively a n y movement in the di­
rection of t h e flow of water. A light pointer at­
a,b,C,d CABLES WITH VARYING
tached to t h e strap traced t h e wave motion on a
DIAMETER S T R A N D S . STEEL
CORES MAY BE INCLUDED
smoke chart attached to t h e d r u m of a vibrograph.
LIGHTNING ROD GROUP T h e specimens were divided into 5 groups, each
(STEEL CORES MAY B E INCLUDED)
group having a circular sample as a standard of com­
parison. Projected dimensions, or effective diame­
ters, of all t h e specimens within each group were
approximately t h e same, t h e object being to obtain
the same frequencies of vibration. I n order t h a t
the vibrating system in each group should be as
nearly as possible t h e same, the specimens were m a d e
PART SECTION OFA
equal in weight and with centers of mass a t t h e same
CARLSWERK CABLE point as t h a t of the standard.
Adjustment for resonance was brought a b o u t b y
Fig. 4 . Desirable cross-sections for cables and buses varying t h e length of the strap between t h e specimen
exposed to light winds and the clamp until the m a x i m u m amplitude of

NOVEMBER 1 9 3 2 797
vibration of t h e strap was obtained. Other sections
in t h e corresponding group were treated similarly.
T h a t t h e required similarity was obtained was evi­
denced b y t h e fact t h a t in each group adjustment
for fundamental resonance of t h e various samples
was negligible a n d was seldom necessary a t all so
t h a t t h e natural frequencies of t h e systems were
approximately identical.
Owing t o variations in t h e speed of t h e smoke
chart, no exact check of t h e observed frequencies
could be made, b u t t h e fact t h a t no i m p o r t a n t ad­
justments were required within t h e groups indicates
t h a t approximately identical frequencies were o b ­
tained in each case. I n a n y case, t h e final purpose
of t h e experiments was t o derive qualitative rather
t h a n quantitative results. T h e design of specimens
giving t h e same vibrating systems within each group
(i. e., having t h e same mechanical impedance) per­
mitted t h e use of vibration amplitude as a measure
of t h e relative damping.
CONCLUSIONS FROM HYDRAULIC EXPERIMENTS
Qualitatively t h e following conclusions m a y be
drawn from t h e experiments just outlined, pending
more practical experiments using air as a m e d i u m :
1. As evidenced by the charts shown in Fig. 2, it may be seen that
so far as hydraulic experiments are concerned, the twisted triangutar
section most satisfactorily overcomes the tendency to vibrate.
2. It can be noticed also that practically all the sections tested
decreased the amplitude by at least 50 per cent compared with the
round rod (Fig. 3). From the results, it would seem advisable to
construct a cable having approximately a triangular cross-section.
Fig. 4 shows a series of cable sections derived from the basic sections
that in the laboratory evidenced a considerable reduction in ten­
dency to vibrate.
3. If these special triangular and rectangular sections prove im­
practicable in cables, they still may be used in outdoor buses where
difficulties of this nature may arise in the future.
Initial attempts at measurements in the field were unsatisfactory
and this work was temporarily abandoned.
4. A determ nation of the actuating force per foot length of cable
should be carried out. This could be done in a suitable wind tunnel
with adjustable elastic supports for the specimen under test.
PRACTICAL DIFFICULTIES
There are m a n y objections t o any departures from
s t a n d a r d cables such as are indicated b y these ex­
periments. I t is hoped therefore t h a t so far as vi­
bration is concerned t h e proposed sections will dis­
play new properties which in some cases a t least
will outweigh practical difficulties, such as standardi­
zation.
Some of t h e possible objections t o some of t h e
cross-sections proposed are t h a t t h e electrical losses
m a y b e increased t o some extent; t h e increased
diameters would account for greater wind pressures
and sleet loadings; difficulty would be experienced
in making joints. I n addition, 2 sizes of strands in
1 cable would b e a digression from t h e standards,
and if more t h a n 1 pass through t h e stranding m a ­
chine b e required on account of these various sizes
of strands, t h e cable cost would be increased.
Discussions a n d studies of these details are de­
ferred until there is a n opportunity t o confirm in a
Fig. 5 . M o s t practicable
cable cross-sections (or
suppression of vibration
ROPE LAY GROUP
STRANDED CABLE

F U T U R E INVESTIGATION W O R K

Upon t h e basis of these tests and t h e conclusions

drawn, the following points are proposed or suggested
for future investigation:
1. At present special cables approximating triangular cross-sections
have been made and are being strung in air to see how closely the TWO CABLES W I T H VARYING DIAMETER STRANDS
hydraulic experiments simulated practical conditions. Three sec­
tions have been suggested: (1) the ordinary 3-strand cable which
was casually observed in the West as being comparatively free from
vibration; (2) a 9-strand cable made up of 3 strands of 3-strand practical w a y t h a t t h e vibration amplitudes are
cable with rope lay; and (3) a special 9-strand cable using 2 sizes
of strands, the 3 larger strands so placed η the outside layer as to suppressed in air, as t h e y have been found t o be in
give approximately the desirable triangular effect (Fig. 5). The water.
special rope lay cable introduces a feature which may be of great
importance. Due to a characteristic of the stranding, air-gaps that
will not collapse under tension have been introduced. The presence BIBLIOGRAPHY
of these air-gaps may serve to upset further the sequence of eddies
behind the cable. 1. T H E S I N G I N G O F C I R C U L A R A N D S T R E A M L I N E W I R E S , E . F . Relf a n d E .
Ower. A e r o n a u t i c a l R e s e a r c h C o m m i t t e e , Bulletin No. 285.
2. Acting conjointly with so-called "stiction" and "interstrand
friction," the elastic properties of the individual strands of a standard 2. FLUSSIGHEITS U N D LUFTWIDERSTAND, Karman and Ruback. Physic
cable will tend to modify the vibration. Investigation should be Zeitschrift, v. 13, 1912, p. 4 9 .
made with the object of segregating these and to determine the 3. T H E V I B R A T I O N OF T R A N S M I S S I O N L I N E C O N D U C T O R S , T . V a r n e y . Alumi­
comparative importance of the damping in each case. Does inter- num, Limited, P a m p h l e t , D e c . 1930.
strand friction absorb any energy at all at the comparatively long 4. OVERCOMING VIBRATION IN TRANSMISSION CABLE, G . H. Stockbridge.
radii of curvature found in conductor vibration phenomena? Elec. World, D e c . 26, 1925.
3. Experiments should be carried out to verify the following pre­ 5. T H E VIBRATION OF TRANSMISSION L I N E CONDUCTORS, E . Bate. Jl. I. E.
dictions made for 2 cables, (1) 6 χ 0.2108, 7 χ 0.0705, 266,800 cir mils Australia, v . 1 1 , A u g . 1930, p. 277.
A.C.S.R. "Owl"; and (2) 3 0 x 0 . 1 0 5 9 , 7 x0.1059, 336,400 cir 6. PACIFIC COAST ELECTRICAL A S S N . R E P O R T , CONDUCTOR VIBRATION. Elec.
mils A.C.S.R. "Oriole." An attempt was made to predict mathe­ West, M a y 15, 1 9 3 0 .
matically the characteristic dimensions of vibration in these two
cables and to balance energy input against energy dissipated, the 7. G. H . S t o c k b r i d g e . Elec. World, v. 86, N o . 26.

remainder of the energy doing work on the cable at points of dis­ 8. H Y D R A U L I C D A M P I N G OF C A B L E VIBRATIONS, Dr. H . T h o m a . Karlsruhe
continuity, such as clamps. Many assumptions had to be made. Electrotechnische Zeitschrift N o . 22, 1931.

798 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING