Pharos University

EE212_ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT & Interface

Prepared By:
Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa

Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa 1

CH1_ ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS

Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa 2

 INTRODUCTION

 Measurement involves using an instrument as a physical

means of determining a quantity or variable.

 A measuring device: a device used for obtaining a value

which nearly represents an unknown variable or quantity.

 The advancement of science and technology leads to the

progress in the measuring techniques.

Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa 3

 Classification of Measuring Instruments:

1- Mechanical Instruments:

• These are the first type of measuring instruments.

• Since they have moving parts then they are useful for stable
operation but due the inertia of the moving elements are
slow then they are not suitable for measuring dynamic
variables and transient operations.

Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa 4

 Classification of Measuring Instruments: ( cont.)

2- Electrical Instruments:

• Since 1801. By discovering electricity, the electrical

measuring instruments appear.

• Electrical instruments have in general electric circuit

consisting of some resistors and a magnetic circuit consisting
of either a permanent or a coil with an iron core.

• It depends upon the interaction between the electric circuit

and the magnetic circuit.

Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa 5

 Classification of Measuring Instruments: ( cont.)

3- Electronic Instruments:

• Then the electronic measuring instruments appear which

depends upon electronic components such as diodes and
transistors.

• They are fast and can be used in transient measurements.

Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa 6

 Methods of Measurements:

1- Direct Method:

• The unknown quantity is directly compared against a

standard. Which are common for measurements of physical
quantities like length, mass and time.

• Disadvantages are:

i- limited accuracy due to human factors.

Ii- Less accuracy

Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa 7

 Methods of Measurements: (cont.)

1- Indirect Method:
• The unknown quantity under measurement is determined
via the use of measurement systems as follows:

• Advantages are:

i- High accuracy & sensitivity with lower cost

ii- Measurement of non-physical quantities

Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa 8

 Basic definitions:

1- True Value: At
It is the actual value of a variable to be measured

2- Measured Value: Am
It is the value measured by a specified instrument

3- Static (Absolute) Error: (A)

• It is the difference between measured value (Am ) and true
value ( At ).
• It is the deviation of the measured value from the true value.

A= Am -At

Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa 9

 Basic definitions: (cont.)

4- Static Correction: (C)

• It is the correction to be added to the measured

value to give the true value

C =-At= At -Am

Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa 10

 Basic definitions: (cont.)

5- Relative Error: (r)

• The Static Error is expressed as a fraction of the full scale

deflection or the true value

r (as a fraction of true vale) =( Am - At ) / At

r (as a fraction of true vale) =( Am - At ) / f.s.d

r %(as a fraction of true vale) = (A / At) x 100%

r %(as a fraction of true vale) = (A / f.s.d) x 100%

Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa 11

Example 1:

A meter reads 127.5 V and the true value of the voltage is

127.43 V, determine the:
i- Static error
ii- Static correction for this instrument.

Solution:

The Static Error: A = Am – At = 127.5 – 127.43 = + 0.07 V

Static correction: C = – A = – 0.07 V

Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa 12

Example 2:

A voltmeter has a true value of 1.5V. An analog indicating

instrument with a scale 0-2.5 shows a voltage of 1.46V. What
are the values of absolute error and correction. Express the
error as a fraction of the true value and f.s.d.

Solution:

It will Solved in the lecture

Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa 13

 Basic definitions: (cont.)

6- Limiting Error:

• It is the specification given to an instrument which

guarantees that a full scale deflection will be within a certain
percentage of a full-scale reading. However, the readings that
are less than full scale has a larger limiting error.

• Therefore it is the limit of the deviation from the specified

value specified by manufacturer

Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa 14

Example 3:

The inductance of an inductor is specified by a manufacturer as

20H5%. Determine the limits of the inductance between
which it is guaranteed

Solution:

It will Solved in the lecture

Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa 15

Example 4:

A 300 V voltmeter is specified to be accurate within 2% at

full scale. Calculate the relative error when the instrument is
used to measure a 120 V source and 60 V. Comment.
Solution:
 The limiting error at full scale is 2%
 The magnitude of the limiting error at full scale is
= 300 x ( 2/100 ) = 6 V
 The relative error at 120 V = 6/120 x 100 = 5%
 The relative error at 60 V = 6/60 x 100 = 10%
 The results of the previous example give us an important
conclusion, which is:
Measurements of low values has higher limiting errors, so readings
should be made near full scale to decrease error.
Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa 16
 Characteristics of the Instruments:

1- Accuracy:

• Accuracy is defined as the closeness with which an instrument

reading approaches to the true value of the quantity measured.

2- Resolution:

• It is the smallest value that can be detected by a certain

instrument

Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa 17

 Characteristics of the Instruments: (cont.)

3- Sensitivity:

• It is the ratio between the output magnitude to the input

magnitude
• Deflection factor = 1/Sensitivity

4- Precision:

• It is how the instrument will insist on its reading for a

certain quantity for a number of readings

Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa 18

Example 5:

If an Ohmmeter requires a change of 8  to produce a change

in the deflection of 2 mm. Find its sensitivity.
Solution:
sensitivity is given by:
S = 2 / 8 = 0.25 mm /
Example (6):
If an ammeter has an input of 10 A which produces 5 mm. Find
the sensitivity.
Solution:

It will Solved in the lecture

Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa 19

Example 7:

A moving coil voltmeter has a uniform scale with 100 divisions,

the full-scale reading is 200 V and 1/10 of a scale division can
be estimated with a fair degree of certainty. Determine the
resolution of the instrument.

Solution:

1 scale division = 200/100 = 2 V

Resolution = 1/10 of the scale division = (1/10) x 2 = 0.2 V

Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa 20

Example (8):
A digital voltmeter has a read-out range from 0 to 9999
counts. Determine the resolution of the instrument in volts
when the full scale reading is 9.99V.

Solution:

It will Solved in the lecture

Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa 21

 Errors in Measurements:

 Errors may come from different sources and are usually

classified under the following headings:

1- Gross Errors:

 These type of errors are mainly due to human mistakes such

as misreading of instruments, incorrect adjustment and
improper application of instruments.
 Gross errors can be reduced by reading and recording
measurements with great care and by taking more than one
measurement to be sure that the required reading is
accurate as possible.

Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa 22

 Errors in Measurements: (cont.)

2- Systematic Errors:

 These type of errors are either due to shortcoming of the

instrument or environmental errors due to external
conditions affecting the measurement such as temperature,
humidity, pressure, loading effects, insertion effects and
magnetic or electrostatic fields.

Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa 23

 Errors in Measurements: (cont.)

3- Random Errors:

 These errors are due to unknown reasons.

 The effect of random errors is minimized by measuring the

given quantity many times under the same conditions and
calculating the arithmetic mean of the obtained values
 Arithmetic mean=
∑

Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa 24

 Errors in Measurements: (cont.)

 Range of possible Error: Is the largest deviation from the

arithmetic mean.
Example (9):
A set of independent current measurements were recorded as
10.03, 10.10, 10.11,and 10.08A. Calculate the range of possible
errors.
Solution:

Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa 25

 Loading Effect Error:

 Introducing a measuring device to a system will cause signal

distortion.

 This distortion may take the form of reduction in the

measured quantity magnitude, waveform distortion, phase
shift and may be all these undesirable features put together.

Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa 26

 Loading Effect Error: (cont.)

1- Loading effect of a shunt connected device:

 On connecting a shunt connected instrument whose
impedance is ZL . The actual voltage E0 decreases to EL .

 Therefore the %loading error in measurement of E0 

equals:
−
% = 100%

Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa 27

 Loading Effect Error: (cont.)

2- Loading effect of a series connected device:

 On connecting a shunt connected instrument whose
impedance is ZL . The actual voltage I0 decreases to IL .

 Therefore the %loading error in measurement of I0 

equals:
−
% = 100%

Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa 28

Example (10):
A 50 voltage range voltmeter is connected across the
terminals A and B of the circuit shown in the figure. Find the
reading of the voltmeter under open circuit and loaded
conditions. Find the loading error. The voltmeter has a
resistance of 1000 kΩ.

Solution:

It will Solved in the lecture

Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa 29

 Propagation of Errors:

1- Sum OR Difference of two quantities:

 If “W” is the sum or difference of two quantities:

= +
: = −

 Therefore, the relative error w will be:

= ±[ + ]

Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa 30

Example (11):
 Three resistors having the following ratings: R1=200Ω±5%,
R2=100Ω±10%. Find the magnitude of the resultant
resistance and limiting errors in percentage and ohms, if the
above resistances are connected in series .

Solution:

It will Solved in the lecture

Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa 31

 Propagation of Errors:(cont.)

2- Product OR Division of two quantities:

 If “W” is the Product or division of two quantities:

=
: = /

 Therefore, the relative error w will be:

= ±[ + ]

Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa 32

Example (12):
The measurements of potential difference and current for
certain element are V=20±2%, I=3±5%. Calculate the
percentage error in the calculated power.

Solution:

It will Solved in the lecture

Dr. Sahar Abd El Moneim Moussa 33