International Journal of Coal Geology 69 (2007) 192 – 204

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijcoalgeo

Mine fire gas indices and their application to Indian underground

coal mine fires
Ashok K. Singh a,⁎, R.V.K. Singh b , Mahendra P. Singh c , Hem Chandra a , N.K. Shukla a
a
Central Fuel Research Institute, CSIR, P.O. FRI, Dhanbad-828108, India
b
Central Mining Research Institute, Dhanbad-828101, India
c
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, India
Received 9 August 2004; received in revised form 21 April 2006; accepted 27 April 2006
Available online 30 June 2006

Abstract

Fire gases are liberated due to oxidation of coal in sealed off coal mines. Monitoring of fire gases is the main tool for the
determination of fire status. On that basis, different fire indices can be determined for examining the extent of fire and for
devising efficient combat methods. In Indian coal mines, mine fires have become a very problematic issue, numbering more
than 200, both surface and underground. The most important fire-affected coalfields include Jharia, Raniganj, Talcher, Ib-
Valley, Chirimiri, Singrauli and Ramgarh. For surface (O/C) fires different detection approaches are in use. The purpose of
this paper is to review the existing successful techniques for monitoring the mine fire gases and describe different fire indices
such as CO/O2 deficiency, CO2/O2 deficiency, C/H ratio, Willet's ratio, etc., for interpretation of status of underground (U/G)
sealed off fires. Case studies have been presented for assessing status of fire in the U/G mines of some important Indian
coalfields.
© 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Spontaneous combustion; Mine fire gas indices; Sealed off fires

1. Introduction of oxygen with coal is not clearly understood as the

Fire in coal mines is a serious problem for the Indian
coal industry. In Indian coal mines, most fires occur due
to spontaneous combustion, a process of coal oxidation.
Coal interacts with oxygen in the air at ambient
temperature, liberating heat, which if allowed to
accumulate, ultimately would enhance the rate of
oxidation and lead to spontaneous combustion and
devastating fires. The exact mechanism of the reaction
⁎ Corresponding author. Fax: +91 326 2381113.
E-mail address: singh_ak2002@yahoo.co.in (A.K. Singh).
0166-5162/$ - see front matter © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.coal.2006.04.004
chemical nature of the coal is not fully established.
Plenty of work on various aspects of mine fires has
been done in Indian mines by various workers. The
mention may be made of a few like Ghosh and Banerjee
(1967), Ghosh et al. (1980), Banerjee (1985), Singh and
Singh (1991, 1995), Singh and Banerjee (1993), Singh
(1998), Singh et al. (1999), Singh and Sen (2003), Singh
et al. (2000), Panigrahi and Sahu (2004), etc. Among the
foreign examples the work done by Cudmore (1964),
Chamberlin et al. (1970), Chakravorty and Feng (1978),
Graham (1914, 1918, 1921), Haldane (1924), Jones and
Trickett (1955), Kuchta et al. (1982), Litton (1986,
1989), Morris (1988), Purshal and Ghosh (1963, 1965),
 A.K. Singh et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 69 (2007) 192–204
Willet (1952, 1962), Justin and Kim (1988) and Kim
(1991, 2004) are noteworthy.
The mine fire gases are the products of the oxidized
coal. Due to mine fire activity, the gases are produced
in enormous quantities, causing explosions and pollu-
tion in the region. In most coal mines in the Jharia,
Ramgarh and Raniganj coalfields, liberation of these
gases has become a great threat. Here, an attempt has
been made to use different mine fire gas indices for
detection and assessment of heating in the sealed off
coal seam fires.
The main reasons for occurrence of fire due to
spontaneous heating in Indian mines are:
• Thick coal seams;
• Plenty of coal fines left in the goaf;
• Presence of contiguous seams, some of which are
burning;
• Shallow depth;
• Proximity of intake and return;
• High pressure differences between the intake and
return; and
• High spontaneous combustion susceptibility char-
acteristics of most of the coal.
2. Scope of gas studies
Different gases such as CO, CO2, CH4, H2 and a few
other lower molecular weights unsaturated hydrocar-
bons, which are products of the combustion due to mine
fire activity, are collected from the stopping in sealed off
fire zones and analyzed. Their values indicate abnor-
mality in the strata due to heating. Various fire indices
such as Graham's ratio, Willet's ratio, C/H ratio, etc., are
calculated to decipher the extent of heating in the strata.
The normal air consists of N2, O2 and CO2 in the
proportion of 79.04%, 20.93% and 0.03%, respectively.
The deviation of the proportions of these gases in mine
air is very useful for assessing the extent of heating.
Combustion also gives rise to pollutants like CO, CO2,
CH4, oxides of N2, H2S and other hydrocarbons. Due to
the advent of modern monitoring techniques for CO
detection, carbon monoxide has become a very useful
indicator of mine fires. Depletion of O2 in the sealed off
fire area is one indicator of an active fire. The rate of O2
consumption is a guide to distinguish a localized fire
from an extensive one. The CO/O2 deficiency ratio
(Graham's ratio) also is an indicator of fire. The CO/O2
deficiency ratio increases as coal oxidation increases and
normally ranges between 0 and 0.40. However, in cases
of serious heating, this value can reach 0.50 to 10.00,
due to the formation of producer gas and water gas.
193
3. Methods and appliances used in mine gas analysis
In the present investigation, for collection of gas
samples, the air displacement method was followed with
due precaution, so as to avoid any leakage or
contamination. Sterilized glass containers with good
packing devices (stop cork/stopper with an inlet for
displacement of air) were used for collecting the gas
samples. Stop cork attached with grease was used in the
sample tube and regularly checked to observe the
leakage during sampling, which helped avoiding the
contamination with ambient air. The sample pipe in the
sealed off fire area was driven to more than 5 m inside
the goaf. The sampling was done from the stoppings in
the return side with the positive pressure. General body
sampling (mine air sample collected from the return
point of the district/mine panel) was also done to
observe the relative change in the proportion of gases in
the goaves.
The following analytical techniques are generally
used in gas detection and measurement in Indian
collieries.
3.1. Gas volumetric method
In this method various processes are applied (i.e.
solution, adsorption, combustion or catalytic oxidation)
and the volumes of gas before and after each operation
are noted.
A measured volume of gas mixture at known
temperature and pressure is step-wise subjected to
selective chemical reagents in proper sequence for
removing the various constituents. The diminution in
volume is the record of the quantities of gas removed.
The combustible gases having no absorbent (e.g. CH4)
are burnt with excess oxygen in presence of a Pt-
catalyst, and contraction in volume or estimation of
produced CO2 is the record of combustible gas.
Various gas appliances are presently used for gas
analysis
• Hempel gas analyzer,
• Orstat gas analyzer (sensitivity ± 0.1%),
• Haldane gas analyzer (sensitivity ± 0.02%),
• Graham–Lawrence gas analyzer
In the present investigation, the Haldane gas analyzer
was used, as it is a conventional type with high accuracy
and is cheaper for periodic checking. An added
advantage is that it has a provision for keeping the
compensating burette attached to it for annulling the
error caused by fluctuation in the atmospheric pressure.
194 A.K. Singh et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 69 (2007) 192–204
The apparatus consists of a graduated burette and pipette
with a regulator for temperature adjustments.
Reagents (a) KOH solution of 10%w/v CO2 absorption.
(b) Alkaline solution of Potassium–Pyrogallol for
absorption of O2.
Principle Volumetric method of gas absorption and combustion.
Procedure The analysis involves two steps:
1. First step – This step is an absorption technique for
calculation of CO2 and O2. The known volume of
sample is taken in burette and the adjustment is made
through a compensator. The burette reservoir is tilted
upward and downward several times to make the
sample repeatedly contact the KOH solution. The
gas sample is then passed through an alkaline
Pyrogallol pipette repeatedly and the diminution in
volume due to the absorption of O2 in Pyrogallol is
noted. This is repeated until a constant volume is
reached. CO2 and O2 are calculated from the
absorption values.
2. Second step – The gas mixed with excess air is burnt
in the combustion pipette fitted with a coiled
platinum wire, electrically connected for heating up
the coil. Combustible gases like CO, H2, and CH4 are
estimated from the measurement of post burning
volume contraction and CO2 formation. The CO and
H2 burn at a lower temperature (i.e. below 450°C)
causing a faint glow in the platinum wire called dull
combustion.
In the bright combustion (temperature higher than
450 °C) the platinum wire produces a red glow, while
burning out the remaining combustible gases (i.e. CH4
and other hydrocarbons). The above techniques involve
the following combustion reactions
2H2 þ O2 ↔2H2 O
2CO þ O2 ↔2CO2
CH4 þ 2O2 ↔CO2 þ 2H2 O
Limitations – With the help of this instrument only
CO2, O2, H2 and CH4 are being analyzed. For analysis
of CO more quantity of gas is required and is analyzed
with the help of Graham–Lawrence apparatus.
CO2, O2, CO, H2 and CH4 in the mine air were
analyzed by the above technique using a Haldane
apparatus and N2 was calculated by difference. Hence
any analytical error was adjusted in the N 2
percentage.
4. Different fire gas indices used in Indian coal
mines
The sealed off fire is periodically monitored to check
whether it is being controlled or progressing unabated.
Through monitoring it is easy to establish the status and
direction of fire advance and plan the steps to control the
fire. Status of mine fires is generally assessed based on
different fire indices in conjunction with measurement
of temperature of the area. Several indices/ratios, such
as production of CO and CO2, consumption of O2,
unsaturated hydrocarbons, CO–residual gas relation-
ships, desorbed hydrocarbon index, Graham's ratio,
Willet's ratio, CO/CO2 ratio, sub micrometer particulate
detection and C/H ratio, etc., are applied to detect and
assess the status of coal fire. However, to date no
individual index is capable of giving a precise and
definite picture of the status of heating within a sealed
off area. Different fire indices are discussed below
(CMRI S&T report, 1991).
4.1. Production of CO
With modern monitoring techniques, even minute
traces of CO can be detected. CO, a specific gaseous
product formed during the entire coal and oxygen
reaction process, is considered to be the very effective
indicator of status of fire. Rate of production of CO
along with its ratio to the consumption of oxygen is a
useful guide for studying the extent of heating.
However, there are studies indicating the fact that if
sufficient O2 is available, CO2 is the primary combus-
tion product; measurable CO is not produced until the
O2 concentration is at least below 15%.
Chamberlin et al. (1970) upheld the importance of
CO over unsaturated hydrocarbons as coal fire indicator,
provided accurate analysis of CO using IR-technique
has been carried out with sensitivity up to 1ppm.
Through laboratory investigations they confirmed that
CO is evolved much earlier than ethylene or other
unsaturated hydrocarbons. Under controlled conditions
from heating the coal in the laboratory they established a
relationship between CO-evolution and temperature
rise, i.e. the CO/O2 deficiency ratio rose from 0.2% at
50°C to 1.6% at 150 °C. Similar observations were
made by Chakravorty and Feng (1978) through
laboratory experiments.
4.2. Disappearance of CO
Like the presence of CO, the disappearance of CO
may also be used as indicator of heating, although this is
 A.K. Singh et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 69 (2007) 192–204
not always effective as the reasons for depletion are
diverse. Banerjee et al. (1965) observed the cause to be
due to bacterial action (aerobic and anaerobic) in
bringing down the level as much as 1%. In watery
mines, even with a pH value of 7, observation of CO
disappearance (even a slight decrease in CO content) is
indicative of heating.
4.3. Oxygen consumption
If the level of O2 is reduced to 12.4% (Banerjee et al.,
1965; Banerjee, 1985), the flaming condition on coal
ceases. But it has been observed that coal can sustain
heating after a considerable period and reignite when O2
is readmitted. The fire is extinguished only when
admission of sufficient O2 can not start reignition.
There are also some examples showing smoldering
combustion continuing in atmospheres with as little as
3% O2, both retained heat and continued combustion
contribute to the reignition problem. If the likelihood of
leakages is controlled, accurate measurement of O2
depletion can be effectively used to distinguish a local
fire from an extensive fire (Willet, 1962; Ghosh and
Banerjee, 1967; Justin and Kim, 1988).
In the present case studies during initial oxidation
phases, production of CO was found, and eventually
CO2 was detected, that is why formation of CO was
considered to be most effective indicator of fire status.
With the help of CO formation, CO/O2 deficiency ratio
or Graham ratio was determined.
4.4. CO/CO2 ratio
It has been established that the CO/CO2 ratio of
product of combustion, under a particular combustion
situation, attains equilibrium, from the thermodynamic
and gasification point of view. This can be used as index
to assess the fire situation. The values of CO and CO2
are sensitive to coal bed temperature and increase with
time. This method is as good as the CO/O2 deficiency
ratio (Kuchta et al., 1982) to assessing an active fire. The
erratic values of CO2, i.e. its origin from various sources
and tendency to dissolve in water, cause the limitations
to this mine fire index.
4.5. Willet's ratio
Willet (1952) analyzed gas samples collected from
sealed off fire areas, incorporating CO, black damp (a
term commonly applied to only carbon dioxide but
strictly speaking it also includes residual nitrogen) and
combustible gases produced as an index to detect the
195
heating in coal seams. He concluded that the CO
produced by oxidation does not disappear at all with
progressive extinction of fire. The magnitude and
extent of fire can be understood by the following
ratio:
Willet's ratio
CO2 produced
¼
Black damp ðresidual N2 and CO2 Þ þ combustibles
ð1Þ
4.6. C/H ratio
A team of researchers (Ghosh and Banerjee,
1967, 1980) at Central Mining Research Institute,
India developed a new index using the ratio of
carbon and available hydrogen, along with oxygen
consumption values from the mine gases, to decipher
the character of sealed off fires and the nature of
fuel participating in the actual oxidation process. The
CO2, CO and hydrocarbons produced by combustion
facilitate the calculation of carbon, while the
available hydrogen is calculated from evolved
hydrogen, hydrocarbons and from hydrogen utilized
in the formation of water as calculated from the
reduction in used oxygen. The index is calculated
from the product gases as follows:
C=H ratio
6ðCO2 þ CO þ CH4 þ other hydrocarbonsÞ
¼
2ðN2 =3:78−O2 −CO2 þ CH4 Þ−CO− other hydrocarbons þ H2
ð2Þ
(C/H ratio up to max. 3–4 indicates superficial
heating, 4–20 active fire and above 20 blazing fire
with the possibility that wooden props may also
burn).
4.6.1. Advantages
(i) When used in conjunction with O2-consumption
data, it defines the extent and intensity of a fire; (ii) its
range is larger, as compared to Graham's ratio,
providing better sensitivity; and (iii) it can distinguish
a coal fire from a wood fire.
4.6.2. Disadvantages
(i) The C/H ratio is not independent of the dilution by
firedamp emitted from strata; (ii) accuracy is affected
due to various sources of CO2 and its nature to dissolve
in water; (iii) on reduction in the amount of O2 during
low temperature oxidation, it is difficult to accurately
196 A.K. Singh et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 69 (2007) 192–204

evaluate the available hydrogen; and (iv) in cases of low
O2-deficiency values, the C/H ratio may give misleading
results.
4.7. Graham's ratio
Exposed coal, even at ambient temperature, gives
rise to gases like CO, CO2, etc. (Haldane and
Meacham, 1898–99). As the temperature increases,
more O2 is absorbed by the coal during oxidation.
Graham (1914–15, 1921) observed that the gases
produced after oxidation are generated in relation to
sorbed oxygen. He developed an index to calculate the
degree of heating by comparing the rate of production
of CO or CO2 with that of O2 consumed, i.e. from CO/
O2 deficiency and the CO2/O2 deficiency ratio. This is
known as Graham's ratio, and is still the most effective
tool for detecting and assessing fire in underground
coal mines.
The O2-deficiency is calculated based on the values
of O2 equivalent and it can be calculated as follows:
In this example, suppose a gas analysis has the
following composition:
CO2 ¼ 5:00%
amount of CO produced and the total amount of coal
involved the extent of heating can not be calculated
accurately. Active fire can be predicted if the CO/O2
deficiency ratio exceeds 0.5.
4.7.1.1. Advantages.
(1) Since both numerator and denominator are
affected, the ratio is independent of dilution of
fire area by air or methane.
(2) CO is not produced by factors other than fire, so
increase in CO level and the CO/CO2 ratio is a
sure test to assess fire intensity.
4.7.1.2. Disadvantages.
(1) This ratio provides only an average value, so
sometimes maximum heating in a particular area
may be underestimated.
(2) If the products of combustion are diluted by black
damp (N2) or O2-deficient air, the ratio would be
affected.
(3) Sometimes the CO may disappear due to bacterial
action, although this is not an indicator of decay of
fire.

O2 ¼ 3:00% 4.7.2. CO2/O2 deficiency ratio

In case of failures of the CO/O2 deficiency ratio,
CO ¼ 0:05% where CO extinction is not indicative of fire status, the
CO2/O2 deficiency ratio can be applied. Higher values
of the CO2/O2 deficiency ratio indicate a change from
N2 ¼ 91:95%
heating to actual fire.
In atmosphere 100parts =20.93% and N2 = 79.04% 4.7.2.1. Advantages. In severe fires, involving the
of air consists of O2
O2 equivalent to 91.95% =(Atmospheric O2 % / Atmospheric
combustion of coke-like materials, where an enormous
of nitrogen N2 %) × N2 (analyzed) amount of CO2 is produced, this index is effective.
=(20.93/79.04) × 91.95
=0.265 × 91.95 = 24.37 4.7.2.2. Disadvantages. The ratio sometimes gives
Oxygen deficiency =(O2 equivalent − O2 analyzed) or
anomalous results due to extraneous origin of CO2 and
(Atmospheric O2 %/Atmospheric
N2 %) × N2 (analyzed) − O2 (analyzed) its solubility in water.
So, O2 deficiency =24.37 − 3.00
=21.37% 5. Case studies from Indian underground coal mines
Graham developed two indices, which are summa-
rized below. Four underground mine fires from three important
coalfields were studied by collecting gas samples from
stoppings and galleries, which were sealed after the
4.7.1. CO/O2 deficiency ratio egress of fire (Fig. 1). The collected samples were
The ratio relates the production of CO with oxygen analyzed using a Haldane apparatus to determine the
utilized by the burning coal and indicates average composition (percentage) of gases like CO2, CO, O2,
intensity of the heating. This remains one of the most H2, CH4 and N2, etc. Different mine fire indices were
effective indices for estimation of intensity of heating. calculated based on the proportion of the detected
However, due to limitations in calculations of total gases.
 A.K. Singh et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 69 (2007) 192–204 197

Fig. 1. Location of studied coalfileds.

5.1. Case study I 5.2. Case study II

5.1.1. Madhuban colliery fire (Borehole-1), Jharia 5.2.1. Isolation stopping no. 5, seam XIV (Incline-10)
Coalfield, Dhanbad, Jharkhand Lodna colliery, Jharia coalfield, Dhanbad, Jharkhand
A fire was detected in the year 1988 in the Madhuban In the year 1986, a fire was detected in the 5th
colliery borehole number-1 and immediately efforts stopping in the 10-incline of seam XIV, Lodna colliery
were made to seal off the area to apply combat
techniques through boreholes. The analytical results of
the mine fire gas samples and temperature are shown in Table 1
Composition of gases and calculated mine fire gas indices in the
Table 1 and Fig. 2. Samples were taken from July 1989 isolation stopping of North-rise top section, Pit-6, seam XI/XII,
to October 1993. The sampling was done generally Madhuban colliery
during mid-day (noon). The percentage of CO2 was 9.63
Date CO2 O2 CO N2 Temperature
in July 89, declined to 8.80 in May 92 and finally rose to (%) (%) (%) (%) (°C)
10.45 in Oct. 93. The oxygen percentage was 10.72 in
31.7.89 9.63 10.72 0.246 79.40 42.00
July 89, increased to 12.17 in Dec. 89 and fell to 5.80 in 17.12.89 7.65 12.17 0.0 80.18 42.00
Dec. 92. The presence of CO was observed only in July 27.9.90 11.20 9.03 0.0 79.77 42.50
89 and Dec. 91 i.e. 0.246 and 0.020. The H2 and CH4 10.11.90 11.12 9.21 0.0 79.67 44.00
were not detected. The amount of nitrogen gas was 21.6.91 10.66 9.58 0.0 79.77 46.00
25.12.91 11.20 9.40 0.020 79.38 45.45
observed fluctuating between 79.40% in July 89 and
27.5.92 8.80 9.35 0.00 81.85 44.00
83.37% in Dec. 92 and finally 79.91% in Oct. 93. The 14.12.92 10.83 5.80 0.00 83.37 45.00
recording of the temperature from the stopping was also 15.6.93 11.46 7.48 0.00 81.06 44.00
carried out regularly by thermometers. In July 89 the 20.10.93 10.45 9.64 0.00 79.91 46.00
temperature was 42 °C and rose to 46°C in June 91 and Time of sampling: mid day. Gases such as H2 and CH4 were not
after a fluctuating trend finally 46°C in Oct. 93. detected.
198 A.K. Singh et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 69 (2007) 192–204

Fig. 2. Calculated mine fire gas indices in the isolation stopping of North-rise top section, Pit-6, seam XI/XII, Madhuban colliery (CO2/O2 deficiency
on secondary axis).

of Bharat Coking Coal Ltd, a subsidiary of Coal India an underground mine, being worked by the board and
Ltd in Jharia coalfield. Colliery authorities took the pillar method of mining. In this mine, the first sign of
prompt action to seal off the area and arrangements were heating was detected in May 1990 in the No. 1 incline
made for sampling the gas from isolation stoppings. A between 2nd and 3rd levels and was considered to be
few gas samples were collected from the stopping-5, the outburst of spontaneous heating initiated at the
seam XIV (Incline-10) isolation stopping. Gas samples fractured surface of the standing pillar by return air/
were analyzed to determine the proportion of CO2, O2, surface leakage as well as leakage from the goaf at the
CO, H2, CH4 and N2, etc. Fire indices were calculated bottom (CMRI S&T report, 1992). After some time
and compared with the previous analysis available for the fire traveled through the pillars and reached incline
the fire site in the Lodna fire project. The gas samples No. 2. Due to multiple fractures, the colliery
were analyzed with the help of a Haldane gas analyzer authorities attempted to isolate the fire from rest of
available at the Lodna complex. the workings by erecting isolation stoppings. To
In this case gas analysis results from 27 Sept. 85 to 18 accomplish this, the return air was diverted from
Oct. 93 were analyzed (six times monthly). The incline No. 1 to incline No. 3 by erecting isolation
distribution of CO2 was 12.40% in Sept. 85, increased stoppings 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. However, in spite of the
to 17.13% in June 87, fell to 10.65% in Oct. 92 and different measures, the heating kept on advancing,
again showed stabilized amount (10.67%) in Oct. 93. threatening the closure of the mine (Table 3; Fig. 4A
The amount of O2 was 5.18% in Sept. 85, fell to about and B).
1.55% in June 87, increased to 4.75% in Dec. 87 and
finally reached 8.18% in Oct. 93. The presence of CO,
H2 and CH4 was also noticed. CO was detected from Table 2
Sept. 85 to June 89, ranging from 0.02% to 0.81%. Composition of gases and calculated fire indices in the samples
Hydrogen was detected from June 87 to June 89, collected from the isolation stopping-5, incline-10, seam XIV, Lodna
colliery
ranging from 0.38% to 2.34%. Methane gas was
detected only in Sept. 85 (0.35%), June 88 (0.53%) Date CO2 O2 CO H2 CH4 N2 Temperature
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (°C)
and June 89 (0.09%). Throughout the period the N2
ranged from 79.25% to 89.35% (Oct 92), and came 27.9.85 12.40 5.18 0.067 0.000 0.351 82.00 73
14.5.86 15.75 1.64 0.067 0.000 0.000 82.54 55
down to 81.16% in Oct. 93. The record of temperature
8.10.86 14.09 2.13 0.254 0.000 0.000 83.52 30
was very much encouraging; as it was 73 °C in Sept. 85, 20.6.87 17.13 1.55 0.022 0.387 0.000 80.92 80
increased to 80.0 °C in June 87 and finally came down to 15.12.87 13.37 4.75 0.292 2.343 0.000 79.25 72
33°C in Oct. 93 (Table 2; Fig. 3). 2.6.88 14.02 4.22 0.813 0.670 0.526 79.75 64
27.12.88 15.53 3.33 0.627 0.627 0.000 79.90 67
22.6.89 15.36 3.93 0.287 0.381 0.095 79.95 63
5.3. Case study III
11.6.90 15.38 4.88 0.000 0.000 0.000 79.74 47
11.11.90 15.89 4.29 0.000 0.000 0.000 79.83 54
5.3.1. Isolation stopping, Sayal ‘D’ colliery, Ramgarh 7.12.91 16.00 3.00 0.002 0.000 0.000 81.00 31
coalfield, Jharkhand 16.10.92 10.65 0.00 0.000 0.000 0.000 89.35 37
Sayal ‘D’ colliery is situated in the Ramgarh 22.4.93 10.64 7.51 0.000 0.000 0.000 81.86 34
18.10.93 10.67 8.18 0.000 0.000 0.000 81.16 33
coalfield and belongs to Central Coalfields Ltd. It is
 A.K. Singh et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 69 (2007) 192–204 199

Fig. 3. Calculated mine fire gas indices in the samples collected from the isolation stopping-5, incline-10, seam XIV, Lodna colliery (CO2/O2
deficiency on secondary axis).

5.4. Case study IV row of stoppings. The colliery authorities tried several
measures without much success. After that Central
5.4.1. New Kenda colliery, Raniganj Coalfield, West Mining Research Institute, Dhanbad studied the prob-
Bengal lem in detail and suitable measures were suggested for
The New Kenda colliery is situated in the southeast- implementation to prevent advance of the fire. Analyt-
ern part of Raniganj Coalfield under the leasehold of ical details are given in Table 4 and Fig. 5(A–E). (CMRI
Eastern Coalfields Ltd. The seam mined here is known S&T report, 1993).
as the Kenda seam. A fire problem was reported to have
originated in an isolated old stowed goaf in panel No. 3, 6. Result and discussion
burst out through the roof between the 29th and 30th
level of the 1st dip of the main return air ways and was In the first case study (Case study – I), the fire was
threatening the main dip. The area was isolated by a 2nd sealed off and the extraneous O2 supply was checked.
Pipes were fixed in the stoppings to monitor the fire by
collecting gas samples and recording the temperature
Table 3
Composition of gases and calculated fire indices in the samples
regularly. Mine fire gas indices CO/O2 deficiency and
collected from stopping-1 and -2, Sayal ‘D’ colliery (Mine No. 9) CO2/O2 deficiency were calculated (Fig. 2). The CO/
O2 deficiency ratio was only determined as 2.38 in
Date CO2 O2 CO H2 CH4 N2
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) July 89 and 0.17 in Dec. 91. The CO2/O2 deficiency
ratio was 93.3 in July 89. It decreased in Dec. 89 and
Stopping-1
7.3.91 12.83 2.44 0.27 0.00 0.60 83.86 slowly increased up to Dec. 91. A marked reduction in
15.3.91 15.39 1.89 0.48 0.00 0.56 81.86 Dec. 92 was observed with final stabilization at 90.33
11.4.91 14.48 2.10 0.58 0.00 0.54 82.30 in Oct. 93. An active fire was proved, which was
3.5.91 15.92 1.17 0.63 0.00 1.00 81.28 under control due to various measures including liquid
26.5.91 15.05 1.26 0.34 0.00 1.00 82.35
N2 infusion at last. The temperature was almost
3.6.91 15.02 1.45 0.62 0.00 0.59 82.33
22.6.91 13.36 3.59 0.24 0.00 0.88 81.93 stabilized.
23.6.91 14.97 1.53 0.45 0.00 0.84 82.20 In the second case, the fire was sealed off and
31.7.91 14.63 2.67 0.31 0.00 0.64 81.76 isolated, and O2 supply from outer sources was checked.
2.9.91 13.13 3.38 0.16 0.00 0.43 82.86 Gases from the mine fire zones were sampled.
Stopping-2
Sometimes it was observed that there is negligible or
7.3.91 13.36 3.08 0.20 0.00 0.50 82.86
15.3.91 15.56 1.72 0.67 0.00 0.52 81.53 no change in the value of fire indices due to leakage of
11.4.91 15.26 1.46 0.64 0.00 0.50 82.14 air through the stopping. Wherever it was established
3.5.91 15.83 1.35 0.61 0.00 1.10 81.11 that there is no leakage from the stoppings, the
26.5.91 15.56 1.03 0.39 0.00 0.65 82.37 percentage of gases decreased.
3.6.91 14.38 1.68 0.83 0.00 0.65 82.46
A decreasing trend of CO2 and absence of CO, H2
22.6.91 14.46 1.88 0.28 0.00 0.64 82.74
23.6.91 14.97 1.34 0.45 0.00 1.06 82.18 and CH4 is indicative of a fire under control. Graham's
31.7.91 14.70 3.21 0.36 0.00 0.81 80.92 ratio (CO/O2 deficiency) ranged from 0.01 to 4.81; the
19.8.91 13.52 3.65 0.28 0.00 0.51 82.04 CO2/O2 deficiency ratio was 74.98 in Sept. 85,
2.9.91 12.71 4.55 0.27 0.00 0.49 81.98 increased to 95.67 in Dec. 89, reduced to 67.0 in Oct.
Time of sampling: mid day. 92 and again increased to 80.11 in Oct. 93. Due to
200 A.K. Singh et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 69 (2007) 192–204
Fig. 4. (A) Calculated mine fire gas indices in the samples collected from stopping-1, Sayal ‘D’ colliery (Mine No. 9); (B) calculated mine fire gas
indices in the samples collected from stopping-2, Sayal ‘D’ colliery (Mine No. 9) (CO2/O2 deficiency on secondary axis).
precautionary and timely controlling measures such as
isolation, sealing-off, and continuous monitoring of the
gas samples, the fire was controlled and the temperature
came down to 33°C in Oct. 93 from 73 °C in Sept. 85
and 80°C in June 87.
In the third case study, the CO/O2 deficiency ratio
was as high as 2–3, particularly behind stopping Nos. 1
and 2 during the pre-gel infusion period in May 1991.
Post-gel infusion results showed improvements, bring-
ing down the CO/O2 deficiency as low as in same
stopping. Other ratios show no changes, but extent of
the fire was reduced by implementation of suitable
technology. In the gel infusion technique, the solution of
sodium silicate 10% (w/v) and di-ammonium phosphate
10% (w/v) in the ratio of 4 : 1, having pH value around 9
and the setting time of about 40min, was applied in the
pillars to fill up the micro cracks present in the coal
matrix. By using the technology of Gel infusion in the
Sayal-D colliery, the extent of fire was not totally
controlled but it worked as a preventive technique from
leakage of air through the sides and corners of the
stopping, which were the vital points where the chances
of leakage of air in the goaf was observed. Through
application of this technique the chance of leakage was
reduced within a period of six months and not much
change was observed in fire ratio. CO/O2 deficiency
ratio remained apparently same during this period (Fig.
4A and B).
In the last case study, the compositional analyses of
the fire area prior to March 1992 from different
stoppings show that the oxygen percentage varied
from 7% to 16%, CO2 from 4% to 10% and CO from
0.01% to 0.06%. The CO2/O2 deficiency ratio and C/H
ratio vary from 0.21 to 1.00 and from 3.00 to 8.00,
respectively, which signifies that the fire was still in an
active condition. See Table 4 and Fig. 5A–E (CMRI
S&T report, 1993).
The distribution of CO2 in the stopping 26L, 2 dip
showed a decreasing trend from 3.84% to 3.76% during
Feb. 92 to Oct. 92, the O2 was nearly constant, while the
CO was generally 0.01% with minute departure (0.14%)
in the month of June and Oct. 92. H2 was not detected
during that period, CH4 was observed only in Feb. 92
(0.50%), while N2 showed an increasing trend through-
out the period. CO/O2 deficiency ratio showed an
increasing trend from 0.21 to 0.27 during Feb. 92 to Oct.
92. Willet's ratio was about 16.00 throughout the period
and C/H ratio about 7.00, but CO2/O2 deficiency ratio
showed decreasing trend from 76.109 in Feb. 92 to
71.237 in Aug. 92 (Table 4; Fig. 5A).
In the stopping 30L, 2 dip a gradual increasing trend
from 3.77% to 9.67% for CO2 was observed during
April to Oct. 92. The O2 showed a decreasing trend from
15.30% to 7.02% during the same period, the CO
increased from 0.04% in April 04 to 0.12% in Oct. 92.
H2 and CH4 were not detected. The distribution of N2
 A.K. Singh et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 69 (2007) 192–204 201

Table 4 June 92. CO2 and O2 were almost constant; CO was

Composition of gases and calculated fire indices in the samples negligible during the period. C/H ratio was 3.57 in
collected from New Kenda colliery
March 92 and increased to 4.83 in Aug. 92, followed by
Date CO2 (%) O2 (%) CO (%) H2 (%) CH4 (%) N2 (%) a reduction up to 3.26 in Oct. 92. Willet's ratio was
Stopping-1, 26L, 2 dip 11.87 in March 92 and increased to 14.00 in Aug. 92,
13.2.92 3.84 16.08 0.01 0.00 0.50 79.57 followed by a reduction up to 11.33 in Oct. 92. CO2/O2
2.4.92 3.82 16.08 0.01 0.00 0.00 80.90
also followed the same trend. H2 and CH4 were not
30.6.92 3.74 16.00 0.14 0.00 0.00 80.25
16.7.92 3.78 15.94 0.01 0.00 0.00 80.27 detected during the above period (Table 4; Fig. 5D).
11.8.92 3.80 15.96 0.01 0.00 0.00 80.23 The distribution of CO2 in the stopping MR 4 dip
29.10.92 3.76 16.02 0.14 0.00 0.00 80.21 showed almost constant trend from March to July 92,
the O2 was detected 19.80% in March 92, whereas
Stopping-2, 30L, 2 dip
20.04% in July 92. The CO and CH4 were almost
2.4.92 3.77 15.30 0.04 0.00 0.00 80.89
30.6.92 5.99 12.51 0.06 0.00 0.00 80.84 constant. H2 was not detected during that period, while
11.8.92 6.96 10.80 0.04 0.00 0.00 80.20 the CO was negligible. N2 and CO/O2 deficiency ratio
8.9.92 8.06 9.21 0.06 0.00 0.00 82.67 followed almost constant trend throughout the period.
29.10.92 9.67 7.02 0.12 0.00 0.00 83.19 The C/H ratio was 0.41 in March 92, which increased to
0.43 in July 92. Willet's ratio was 2.93 in March 92 and
Stopping-3, 26 D
16.7.92 9.70 7.86 0.06 0.00 0.00 82.38 increased to 3.83 in July 92. CO2/O2 ratio was 10.71 in
11.8.92 9.12 7.92 0.06 0.00 0.00 82.90 March 92 and increased to 14.61 in July 92. (Table 4;
26.9.92 9.52 7.80 0.05 0.00 0.00 82.63 Fig. 5E).
8.9.92 9.50 7.78 0.06 0.00 0.00 82.66 In the Indian coal mining industry, the general trend
29.10.92 9.48 7.74 0.07 0.00 0.00 82.71
is to use only the CO/O 2 deficiency ratio for
Stopping-4, 19L, 2 dip determination of fire status. But, in actual practice this
12.3.92 0.22 20.58 0.004 0.00 0.00 79.20 is not the only ratio that can be used to interpret the fire
2.4.92 0.24 20.60 0.004 0.00 0.00 79.16 position. After examining the different case studies in
30.6.92 0.24 20.58 0.004 0.00 0.00 79.17 the fire areas, it was observed that even if CO and CO/
11.8.92 0.22 20.62 0.003 0.00 0.00 79.16
O2 deficiency is nil, a fire may still be inside the sealed
29.10.92 0.20 20.60 0.004 0.00 0.00 79.20
off area. In these cases, the other ratios will play a vital
Stopping-5, MR, 4 dip role in better assessing the fire status and extent. In the
12.3.92 0.18 19.80 0.02 0.00 0.02 80.00 above cases, use of the different fire indices was very
2.4.92 0.16 20.16 0.02 0.00 0.02 79.66 helpful.
16.7.92 0.18 20.04 0.02 0.00 0.02 79.50
A number of fire indices, based on the compositional
Time of sampling: mid day. analysis of mine environment, are in use in different
countries to detect not only the onset of heating in
showed an increasing trend. CO/O2 deficiency showed mines, but the degree of it as well. In this paper
an increasing trend from 0.62 in April 92 to 0.80 in Oct. advantages and limitations of different fire indices are
92. The C/H ratio first increased from 4.86 to 5.72 from presented and some of the observations have also been
Apr. 92 to June 92, followed again by a decline up to represented based on mine case studies. Each and every
5.54 in Oct. 92. Willet's ratio first increased from 13.95 ratio has its own limitations that may not be used in all
to 19.85 from April 92 to June 9. CO2/O2 also followed the cases. Generally, Graham's ratio is the common ratio
the same trend (Table 4; Fig. 5B). used for early detection of heating, but when the heating
The distribution of CO2 in stopping 26D showed a is in advanced stage the formation of CO is negligible.
decreasing trend from 9.70% to 9.48% during July to In this case the value of Graham's ratio (CO/O2) is zero.
Oct. 92, while the O2 decreased from 7.86% to 7.74% But heating is present in the sealed off panel; in that case
during the same period. The CO was almost constant, other ratios come in picture depending upon the
while H2 and CH4 were not detected. N2 showed a presence of thermo-compositional analyses. At an
constant trend, CO/O2 deficiency ratio was 0.46 in July advanced stage of fire, it is mostly the combustion of
92, 0.33 in Sep. 92 and 0.49 in Oct. 92 with a fluctuating coke like materials producing more of CO2. Usually, CO
trend. The C/H ratio, Willet's ratio, and CO2/O2 ratio produced during heating progressively decreases as the
were almost constant (Table 4; Fig. 5C). fire dies down. At times, the disappearance of CO is not
In stopping 19L, 2 dip the CO2 first showed an consistent with the decay of fire. Sometimes, it goes on
increasing trend from 0.22% in March 92 to 0.24% in persisting in a sealed off area or may disappear fast even
 202
A.K. Singh et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 69 (2007) 192–204
Fig. 5. (A) Calculated mind fire gas indices in the samples collected from stopping-1, 26L, 2 dip (CO2/O2 deficiency on secondary axis); (B) Calculated mine fire gas indices in the samples collected
from stopping-2, 30L, 2 dip (CO2/O2 deficiency on secondary axis); (C) calculated mine fire gas indices in the samples collected from stopping-3, 26D (CO2/O2 deficiency on secondary axis); (D)
calculated mine fire gas indices in the samples collected from stopping-4, 19L, 2 dip (CO2/O2 deficiency on secondary axis); (E) calculated mine fire gas indices in the samples collected from stopping-
5, MR, 4 dip (CO2/O2 deficiency on secondary axis).
 A.K. Singh et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 69 (2007) 192–204
when the fire is not completely extinct. This anomalous
disappearance of CO may pose a problem in the correct
interpretation of mine air analysis.
After carrying out the detailed thermo-compositional
studies as shown in Figs. 2–5, it has been observed that
initially the ratio showed at some places superficial
heating and at some paces blazing ones. Due to
application of suitable site specific fire control technol-
ogies, the ratio reduced and indicated the status of fire,
which helped colliery authorities in controlling the fire.
7. Conclusion
Fire ratios play a very important role in interpreting
the status of a sealed off coal fire. Not all ratios can be
used in all cases. The ratios used will vary case to case
depending upon the extent and condition of the fire.
Finally, it is concluded that when using any ratio
attention must be given to understand its limitations and
factors that can affect its applicability. Different ratios
and indicators will always give a more reliable
interpretation than one ratio alone.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank the Director, Central Fuel
Research Institute and Central Mining Research Insti-
tute, Dhanbad for kindly permitting us to publish this
paper. The typological support provided by Mr. P. Boral,
and Mr. Vivek Singh of CFRI for this paper is thankfully
acknowledged. The cooperation from the officers and
staff members of Bharat Coking Coal Ltd, Dhanbad,
Central Coalfield Ltd, Ranchi and Eastern Coalfields
Ltd., Asansol, during fieldwork and providing the
necessary permission and support for gas analysis is
duly acknowledged.
The authors would like to acknowledge the contribu-
tions in the form of very constructive comments and
suggestions by Professor J. C. Hower, Professor A. G.
Kim and Dr E. L. Heffern through reviewing and
updating the manuscript.
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