Polymer International Polym Int 50:395±402 (2001)

The effect of various anhydride modifications on

mechanical properties and water absorption of
oil palm empty fruit bunches reinforced
polyester composites
HPS Abdul Khalil,1* H Ismail,2 MN Ahmad,3 A Ariffin2 and K Hassan4
1
Wood, Paper and Coating Division, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia
2
Polymer Technology Division, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia
3
School of Chemical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia
4
Palm Oil Research Institute, Malaysia, 50720, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Abstract: The chemical modi®cation of oil palm empty fruit bunches (EFB) using non-catalysed
reaction with acetic, propionic and succinic anhydrides were investigated. Proof of modi®cation was
indicated by the increase of weight and was con®rmed by Fourier-transform infrared analysis (FT-IR).
The mechanical and water-absorption properties of all anhydride-modi®ed EFB composites were
evaluated at different volume fractions (Vf). The properties were improved for these modi®ed ®bres,
whereas unmodi®ed EFB ®bres exhibited poor mechanical properties and higher water absorption.
Acetic anhydride modi®cation showed the greatest bene®t on composite properties, followed by
propionic and succinic anhydride modi®cation.
# 2001 Society of Chemical Industry

Keywords: anhydride modi®cation; oil palm ®bres; composites; mechanical properties; moisture absorption

INTRODUCTION ®bre±matrix dispersion and wetting of the ®bres occur.

The use of plant ®bres as a replacement for glass in the
reinforcement of composites is currently generating
much interest in the research community. Plant ®bres
offer a number of advantages over glass in such
applications because of low costs,1,2 a very high
performance/weight ratio,2 light weight,3 easy proces-
sing,4 reactive surface chemistry5 and the fact that they
may be burned at the end of their product life-cycle.6
In third-world countries, the overproduction of
certain agricultural commodities has resulted in great
interest in the production of alternative crops on set-
aside land. Oil palm ®bre by-products such as empty
fruit bunches (EFB), oil palm trunks, palm press ®bres
and oil palm fronds are produced in quantities of the
order of million of tonnes per annum. New applica-
tions are urgently required for this material. The total
crop of fresh fruit bunches is more than 30 millions
tonnes per annum, which generates more than 8
millions tonnes of EFB.
The use of plant ®bres as reinforcement in thermo-
set matrices requires the creation of compatibility
between the two phases to be associated. This has been
the subject of a number of reviews.7±11 Since plant
®bres are hydrophilic surfaces and thermosets (eg
polyester matrix) are generally hydrophobic, poor
This incompatibility leads to poor mechanical proper-
ties and higher water absorption.
Various methods are available to improve the
compatibility between plant ®bre and the matrix, ie
chemical modi®cation,6,12 grafting of polymers onto
the ®bres4,13 and the use of compatibilisers14 or treat-
ments with coupling agents.9,15 A number of studies
have pointed out the effectiveness of chemical treat-
ments of ®bres and the results show improvement in
the mechanical properties and water absorption.
An alternative approach is to alter the cell wall
structure and surface chemistry of the ®bres by
chemical modi®cation with various anhydrides. The
ability of chemical modi®cation to increase the
resistance of natural ®bres to moisture has been
widely studied6,15,16 but, although a large number of
tests have been carried out, very few of them have
studied anhydride modi®cation of the ®bre±matrix
bonding, which might lead to the improvement of the
properties of polyester composites. The purpose of
the study reported here was to determine whether the
effect of various anhydride modi®cations of plant
®bres would lead to any improvement in the mech-
anical properties and water absorption of composites
so formed.

* Correspondence to: HPS Abdul Khalil, Wood, Paper and Coating Division, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia,
11800 Penang, Malaysia
Contract/grant sponsor: Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang
(Received 26 April 2000; revised version received 28 September 2000; accepted 20 October 2000)

# 2001 Society of Chemical Industry. Polym Int 0959±8103/2001/$30.00 395

HPS Abdul Khalil et al
EXPERIMENTAL
Anhydride modification of oil palm fibres
The oil palm empty fruit bunches (EFB) mat was
supplied by JB Plant Fibre Ltd, UK. The chemical
composition of ®bre types was determined using the
same procedure as in the previous study.8 The ®bre
mat was extracted in a Soxhlet apparatus with a 4:1:1
(v/v) mixture of toluene, methanol and acetone for 5 h.
The extracted oven-dried ®bre was then modi®ed in a
3-litre reaction ¯ask. Reaction with acetic, succinic or
propionic anhydride was performed without catalyst at
100 °C for 1 h; the ®bre mat was then washed by
re¯uxing in acetone for 3 h. The temperature and
reaction time were chosen to achieve adequate weight
percentage gain (WPG) after modi®cation, as exten-
sively reported in previous studies.12,17 The modi®ed
®bres were then oven-dried at 103  2 °C overnight,
and allowed to cool in a desiccator before preparing
the composites.
The WPG of the ®bres due to modi®cation was
calculated from eqn (1). Proof of whether modi®cation
had taken place depended on the WPG value.
WPG …%† ˆ ‰…weight gain/original weight†Š  100
…1†
Fourier-transform infra-red analysis (FT-IR)
This procedure was employed to characterise the
product of the reaction. The analysis was carried out
on a Perkin Elmer System 2000 FT-IR spectrometer
using a potassium bromide disc method.
Formation of composites
The unsaturated polyester resin, type W-1905, that
was used is a commercial polyester product supplied
by Euro-Pharma Sdn Bhd, Malaysia. The room tem-
perature cure resin contains 43% of styrene and has
been used in ®breglass-reinforced plastic. The for-
mulation used consists of 100 parts of resin by weight
for 1.5 parts catalyst (methyl ethyl ketone peroxide).
Extracted EFB (without modi®cation) and modi®ed
®bre (with acetic, succinic or propionic anhydride)
mats were used to make laminates of non-woven
hybrid (random) polyester composites. The formation
of composites was carried out with the aid of vacuum
as explained in detail in the previous study.18
Composites of varying ®bre volume fraction (Vf) of
0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5 were prepared. The com-
posites produced were placed in an oven at 40 °C for
18 h to post-cure the board according to speci®cations
obtained from the supplier.
Plant fibre density measurement
The density of wood is normally speci®ed in the form
of apparent, or bulk, and cell wall density. In plant
®bre materials, such as EFB, it is very dif®cult to
determine the bulk density, since the diameters of
®bres are small, contain many voids and have an
irregular shape. Therefore, the density of the cell wall
396
usually determines the density of plant ®bres. A
modi®cation of an available technique was used (ISO
8962, 1987: Plastics-polymer dispersionsÐdetermi-
nation of density) using a glass pycnometer (Gay-
Lussac types). The EFB ®bres were ground, and then
sieved to 75 mm size. The pycnometer bottle contain-
ing the powder was ®lled with water, stoppered and
shaken slightly to ensure that the water was absorbed.
Care was taken to ensure the absence of entrained air
bubbles. Unfortunately, it was not possible to deter-
mine the density of the cell wall material of all modi-
®ed EFB using the same method, because effective
wetting by water was not always possible because of
entrapped air bubbles.
Composite density determination
The density of EFB-reinforced composites, was
determined by using the formula
D ˆ m=v…kg m3 † …2†
where, m is the mass of composites and v is the volume
of composite.
Mass determination was carried out by weighing the
composites to four decimal-places on an analytical
balance (Mettler 5000). For volume determination the
samples were measured using a digital veneer calliper
(Mitutoyo). All samples were oven-dried at 50 °C for
24 h. After oven drying, the experimental samples were
cooled in a desiccator over granulated silica gel before
mass and volume determination was conducted.
Mechanical tests
Tensile tests were performed on an Instron Model
4301 instrument, according to BS 2782: Part 10:
Method 1003: 1997. For each batch, ten dumb-bell-
shaped specimens were cut from a composite sheet
using a Beaver NC5 router connected to a Crusader II
computer control system. A tungsten spindle was used
to cut the specimens. Flexural tests were performed
according to BS 2782: Part 3: Method 335A: 1978.
Ten samples of 12  1.5  0.6 cm3 were prepared using
a diamond saw. Tests were conducted on an Instron
model 1195. Impact tests used BS 2782: Part 3:
method 359: 1984. Ten specimens of dimensions
6.5  1.5  0.6 cm3 were used for each test. Tests were
performed on a Zwick model 5101 impact pendulum
tester. Hardness testing was performed using a Rock-
well digital hardness testing instrument (CV DHT)
using a 1/16@ ball indenter and test samples of
dimensions 5  5  thickness(mm3) The tests were in
accordance with BS 2782: Part 3. Methods 365C: ISO
2039-2, Determination of Rockwell Hardness. All
mechanical tests were carried out following condition-
ing of the samples at 22 °C and at a relative humidity of
65% for 1 week in accordance with BS 2782: Part
0:1995. Methods of testing, plastics.
Scanning electron microscopy
The fracture surfaces of the composites from tensile
Polym Int 50:395±402 (2001)

Figure 1. Reaction of oil palm empty fruit bunches fibres with (a) acetic and
propionic (b) succinic anhydrides.
test were mounted onto holders using double-sided
electrically conducting carbon adhesive tabs. Speci-
mens were coated with gold to a thickness of 20 nm
using Polaron Equipment Ltd model E500 coater at a
voltage of 1.2 kV (10 mA) in a vacuum at 25 Pa for
5 min. The samples were then observed in a Leica
Cambridge S-360 S scanning electron microscopy
(SEM). The objective was to study ®bre±matrix
bonding quality.
Water absorption tests
The effect of water absorption of unmodi®ed and
anhydride modi®ed ®bres was determined on com-
Anhydride
Acetic
Propionic
Table 1. Weight percentage gain (WPG) of
Succinic
EFB with different anhydride modifications
Figure 2. FT-IR spectra of EFB with
different anhydride modifications.
Polym Int 50:395±402 (2001)
Oil palm empty fruit bunches reinforced polyester composites
posites with 0.4 Vf only. The samples were cut to a
size of 5  5  0.6 cm3 and immersed in de-ionised
water at ambient temperature. The specimens were
weighed regularly at 1, 5, 10, 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100
days exposure. The percentage of moisture absorption
was calculated using BS 2782: Method 430A: Deter-
mination of water absorption.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Fourier-transform Infra-red analysis (FT-IR) of
anhydride modification
The reaction schemes for esteri®cation (acetic, pro-
pionic and succinic anhydrides) are shown in Fig 1(a
and b). Proof of anhydride modi®cation of the EFB
®bres was indicated by the WPG as shown in Table 1.
The evidence for acetylation, propionylation and
succinylation was con®rmed by comparing the FT-IR
spectra of the products, with that of unmodi®ed EFB
as shown in Fig 2. Upon modi®cation of EFB with
anhydrides, two major changes were observed,19 (1)
an increase in the carbonyl (CÐO) stretching region
(1734±1750 cm 1), and (2) an increase in the carbon±
hydrogen (C±H) bond bending region (1375±
1381 cm 1). With all anhydride modi®cations, an
increase of the hydrophobicity of the ®bres occurs
and thus the degree of moisture absorption was
reduced accordingly.
Fibre and composite density characterisation
In this study, the density of the composites is used to
Rate of grafted moiety
WPG (%) Description of adduct (mmol g 1)
10 2-carbon hydrophobic group 2.32
15 3-carbon hydrophobic group 2.63
18 4-carbon chain with carboxyl group 1.78
397
HPS Abdul Khalil et al
validate the density values of EFB ®bre previously
determined. The density of EFB was found to be
1.138 g cm 3. The values were within the known range
of plant ®bre density which has been extensively
studied with different methods.1,2,20
Theoretically, the density of a composite may be
calculated from the following equation:
1
c ˆ     …3†
Wf Wm
‡
f m
where rc rf and rm are densities of composite, ®bre
material and polymer matrix respectively, while Wf
and Wm refer to weight fraction of ®bre and matrix in
the composite.
The ®bre volume fraction Vf was calculated from the
equation below.
Vf ˆ volume occupied by fibre/volume of composite
…4†
Since density;  ˆ Mass …M†=volume …V † …
Vf ˆ …Mf f †=…Mc c † …
where, subscripts f and c refer to ®bre and composite
respectively.
Using predetermined rf (®bre density) values, the
theoretical densities of unmodi®ed composites were
calculated. Since the values of Wf, Wm and rm can be
easily and accurately determined, accuracy of the
composite density rc is dependent on the accuracy of
measurement of ®bre density rf. If the theoretical
value, rc calculated by the eqn (3) agrees with the
measured composite density, then the rf value
determined earlier will be accurate.
Figure 3 shows linear plots for the theoretical and
measured density values of the unmodi®ed EFB
composites at all ®bre loadings. The measured values
were slightly lower than theoretical for all the ®bre
loadings. This is due to poor penetration of the resin
into the lumen spaces of the ®bre bundles and also to
the presence of voids within the composite. The
consistently close agreement between the theoretical
and measured values for all ®bre loadings in the
Figure 3. Comparison of (^) theoretical and (&) measured density of
unmodified EFB composites.
398
Figure 4. Effect of anhydride modified fibre on density of EFB composites
at different fibre loading.
composites provided evidence to validate the accuracy
of the pycnometry technique employed in this study
for the determination of EFB ®bre density.
Effect of fibre modification on wettability
5† The effect of ®bre modi®cation upon ®bre wettability
was determined by measuring the density of the
6† composites. The ability of the matrix to wet the ®bres
adequately and form a continuous and homogeneous
interface results in a compact and dense composite.
This is also re¯ected in the interfacial strength and
mechanical properties of the composite.13,21,22 Figure
4 shows the effects of anhydride modi®cations on the
density of EFB composites at different ®bre loadings.
The density of composites made from the modi®ed
®bres is higher at all ®bre loadings compared with
unmodi®ed ®bre samples, thus increasing the work of
adhesion.3,4,15 The density of composites increased in
the following order: unmodi®ed (lowest) < succinyl <
propionyl < and acetyl (highest). However, the density
decreased with increasing ®bre loading of all modi®ed
®bres.
The reason for this derives from the density of the
matrix which has a dominant in¯uence over the
density of the ®bre: the density of original ®bre EFB
was 1.138 g cm 3 and the density of matrix was
1.202 g 3 cm 3. Incorporation of the ®bre into the
matrix reduced the density of the composites since the
matrix density was higher than ®bre. Composites with
acetylated ®bres exhibited the highest densities com-
pared with those from ®bres made from succinic and
propionic anhydrides.
Effect of modification on mechanical properties
Tensile properties
Properties of ®bre-reinforced composites are strongly
dependent on the interfacial interactions between the
®bres and the matrix. Dispersability of the ®bre in the
resin also depends to a large extent on the wettability
of the ®bre surface by the resin. There is a relationship
between tensile strength (TS), modulus (TM) and
elongation at break (EOB). With increasing ®bre
loading, the stiffness of the composites increased
gradually, with an associated increase in the elongation
Polym Int 50:395±402 (2001)

Figure 5. Effect of anhydride modified fibre on tensile strength of EFB
composites at different fibre loading.
of break. The effect of anhydride modi®cations on TS
and TM of EFB composites are shown in Fig 5 and Fig
6, respectively. The changes in TS and TM followed
the order: acetic (highest) > propionic > succinic
anhydride. The highest TS and TM for the acetylated
®bre composites are achieved at the limiting value of
10% WPG of ®bres. It should be noted that 10% WPG
is the maximum for the condition employed for
acetylation. It should further be pointed out that no
attempt was made to increase the WPG beyond 10%
since the TS and TM will be adversely affected above
the 10% value. Higher WPG for succinyl (18% WPG)
and propionyl (15% WPG) modi®cations may damage
at the interfaces of the cell wall structures of
®bres.12,17,23
In all cases, there was a gradual increase in both TS
and TM with increasing ®bre loading. There was a
decrease in TS and TM at low ®bre loadings (Vf = 0.1)
compared with unmodi®ed ®bres. These effects are
due to disruption of the matrix homogeneity and poor
dispersion of the ®bres in the matrix with a tendency to
form agglomerates, so that tensile loads are not
effectively transmitted between ®bres. This behaviour
was not observed when using modi®ed ®bre (acetic,
succinic and propionic anhydride) in polyester com-
posites. This is probably due to the modi®ed ®bre
being more hydrophobic, and hence exhibiting better
®bre±matrix adhesion.
Figure 7 shows the effect of ®bre modi®cation on the
Figure 6. Effect of anhydride modified fibre on tensile modulus of EFB
composites at different fibre loading.
Polym Int 50:395±402 (2001)
Oil palm empty fruit bunches reinforced polyester composites
Figure 7. Effect of anhydride modified fibre on elongation at break of EFB
composites at different fibre loading.
elongation at break (EOB) for EFB composites. EOB
of composites increases proportionally with the ®bre
loading. It is interesting to note that EOB increases
when the ®bre loading increases. This is due to the fact
that the EFB ®bre has a higher EOB (9.7%) than the
pure matrix (2.9%). Hence, the combination of ®bre
and matrix changed the EOB of the composites. EOB
values of modi®ed ®bre composites were in the order:
succinyl > propionyl > acetyl. However, when com-
pared with unmodi®ed ®bres at the same ®bre loading,
the EOB of modi®ed ®bres composites is lower. This
may be due to improved ®bre±matrix bonding, im-
proving the strength and stiffness of the composites.
With all modi®ed ®bres, the result is a decrease in
elongation compared with unmodi®ed ®bres. This
may be due to the improved ®bre±matrix adhesion (to
give more stiffness to the composites) and because
modi®ed ®bre were prone to split and fall apart, so
that, ®bre is more brittle after modi®cation.
When studying tensile fractures of modi®ed EFB
composites, the differences in ®bre±matrix bonding
are more obvious. Figure 8 (a±c) showed the mode of
failure of ®bre±matrix bonding from the tensile failure:
Good direct bonding between the modi®ed (hydro-
phobic) ®bre and polyester matrix. In unmodi®ed
samples, poor ®bre±matrix bonding (Fig 8d) is
observed in the composites, resulting in an inferior
stress transfer between phases.
Flexural properties
The effect of anhydride modi®cations on FS and FM
of EFB composites are shown in Figure 9 and Figure
10, respectively. The FS of EFB-based polyester
composites are not improved signi®cantly by ®bre
modi®cation. However, a small improvement in FS
was noted at ®bre loadings higher than 0.25. As
expected, the FM (which indicates material stiffness),
increased steadily with increasing ®bre content. All
modi®ed ®bre in polyester composites exhibited
increasingly higher ¯exural modulus as compared with
the unmodi®ed composite as the ®bre loading in-
creased. The changes in FM followed the order: acetyl
> propionyl > succinicyl. The effect on modulus is
more signi®cant than on FS, with an increase of 27%
399
HPS Abdul Khalil et al
Figure 8. SEM micrographs of tensile fracture showing good (a–c) and poor (d) fibre matrix-bonding of EFB composites (2000), 2 cm = 15 mm, at fibre loading
Vf = 0.4.
(acetyl) 20% (propionyl) and 18% (succinyl) at 0.5 Vf.
The results show that the incorporation of modi®ed
®bre is able to instil stiffness into the thermoset
composite, particularly at high ®bre loading. Modi®-
cation of EFB ®bre improved compatibility and
bonding characteristics by creating compatible surface
energies and formation of good ®bre±matrix bonds.5,13
Modi®cation of ®bres alters the surface properties of
the ®bre, leading to better ®bre±matrix adhesion.
Figure 9. Effect of anhydride modified fibre on flexural strength of EFB
composites at different fibre loading.
400
Improved adhesion decreases the critical aspect ratio
so that ®bres with a lower aspect ratio become suf®-
ciently long to bear the load.
Impact strength (Charpy)
Figure 11 showed the effect of anhydride modi®cation
on the impact properties of EFB composites. With
unmodi®ed EFB at low ®bre loading decreased impact
strength was exhibited similar to that shown by tensile
Figure 10. Effect of anhydride modified fibre on flexural modulus of EFB
composites at different fibre loading.
Polym Int 50:395±402 (2001)

Figure 11. Effect of anhydride modified fibre on impact strength of EFB
composites at different fibre loading.
properties. This phenomenon was not observed with
all modi®ed ®bre composites.24 At ®bre loadings
above 0.2 Vf the modi®ed ®bres composites show
signi®cantly higher impact values than the unmodi-
®ed. The increase was about 20±35%. It is suggested
herein that modi®cation improves ®bre wettability. An
improved composite with less void spaces is thus
produced. This will then mean that there are fewer
¯aws in the composites. The lower concentration of
¯aws means less sites for crack formation. The tough-
ness of a composite is substantially in¯uenced by the
strength of the ®bre±matrix bond. Further incorpora-
tion of ®bres with loadings up to 0.5 Vf slightly
decreases the impact properties. This decrease is larger
than observed with unmodi®ed ®bres.
Rockwell hardness B
The effect of modi®cation on the Rockwell hardness of
EFB composites is shown in Fig 12. In all cases, the
incorporation of ®bre into the polyester matrix
decreases the hardness of the composite. As the ®bre
loading increases the composites became stiffer and
softer. An increase of hardness of about 10±15% in all
®bre modi®cations was seen in modi®ed ®bre-rein-
forced composites compared with unmodi®ed. There
is a possibility that modi®cation could result in greater
densi®cation25 of the ®bre and in greater wettability
that has been explained from the results of tensile,
¯exural and impact properties. Better ®bre±matrix
Figure 12. Effect of anhydride modified fibre on Rockwell hardness B of
EFB composites at different fibre loading.
Polym Int 50:395±402 (2001)
Oil palm empty fruit bunches reinforced polyester composites
Figure 13. Effect of anhydride modified fibre on moisture absorption of
EFB composites at fibre loading Vf = 0.4 during ageing.
adhesion leads to less voids and hence increases the
hardness of composites. There is a possibility that
modi®cation could result in greater plasticisation of
®bres and in turn greater densi®cation of the compo-
sites.
Moisture absorption
Results of water absorption are shown in Figure 13.
The rate of uptake was lower for modi®ed compared
with unmodi®ed EFB-based composites after 100
days exposure in water. The rate of water uptake
decreased in the order: unmodi®ed (highest) >
succinylated > propionylated > acetylated (lowest).
Unlike acetic and propionic anhydrides, succinic
anhydride is thought not to reduce the number of
hydrophobic groups in the ®bres when it was reacted
with ®bres. This is due to the formation of carboxyl
groups as the cyclic anhydride breaks open. Unmodi-
®ed EFB ®bre-based composites would exhibit higher
rates of moisture sorption due to the hydrophilic
nature of the lignocellulosic, as well as due to capillary
action in the matrix when ®bre composites are exposed
to water.9,20 The high water absorption leads to
changes in the dimensional properties of the samples.
As a result, cracks may be formed in the matrix due to
the swelling of the ®bres. This may contribute to the
penetration of more water into the composites during
prolonged exposure.
A greatly reduced relative water uptake occurred
after modi®cation when compared to the unmodi®ed
material due to good interfacial contact between ®bre
and matrix, and because the ®bres have become more
hydrophobic.7,8 Modi®cation of the cell-wall polymer
hydroxyl groups reduced moisture uptake in these
samples and this is attributed to better ®bre±matrix
contact. Hence, there was lower void formation in the
composite. This will also be a factor in the behaviour of
modi®ed ®bre-based composites. The relative rates of
moisture uptake correlate with the effect of different
anhydride modi®cation upon mechanical properties.
CONCLUSIONS
Utilisation of oil palm empty fruit bunches will
eliminate the problem of waste disposal and lead to a
401
HPS Abdul Khalil et al
new composite product with good mechanical and
moisture absorption properties. The investigations
have looked at the use of chemically modi®ed oil palm
empty fruit bunches in polyester composites. It can be
concluded that acetic, succinic and propionic anhy-
drides have been found to react with EFB ®bres.
Modi®cation resulted in hydrophobic ®bres and hence
improved ®bre±matrix bonding. Among the anhy-
dride-modi®ed EFB ®bres investigated, acetylated
®bres showed the highest tensile, ¯exural, impact
and hardness properties followed by propionylated
and then succinylated at different ®bre volume fraction
due to improving the compatibility between ®bre and
matrix. The changes of moisture absorption were
dependent upon ®bre modi®cation. The water ab-
sorbed in EFB composites followed the order un-
modi®ed (highest) > succinyl > propionyl > acetyl
(lowest).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank Universiti Sains
Malaysia, Penang for the research grant that has made
this work possible.
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