A Research Paper will be Presented in National conference on “Agriculture in Sanskrit Literature”

Agricultural outlook in Buddhist Sanskrit and Pali

Literature
- Dr. Sharath Chandra Swamy

Abstract
India is well-known for its agricultural civilized societies from the ancient times. From Vedic
times to till date major population of the country is completely depended on agriculture. It has a
dominant role in the economy of Indian society. In the time of the Gautama Buddha i.e. sixth
century BCE India was divided into a number of liberated states known as Mahajanapadas.
The economic aspect of that time is also a crucial issue. The Indian society was so rich and
productive from the ancient times. The economic situations was slowly attaining several
changes at Buddhist India. The union of minor states into larger states formed numerous
variations from simple to unconventional agrarian societies. The lower castes were enacted
more significant role, since they converted as working class to support the economic necessities
of upward communities. The upper classes of the society, i.e Brahman’s and Shramana’s were
also oriented towards a rural, self-reliant, comparatively static agricultural society. Food
production was the primary source of the economy of Buddhist time. The major part of
population in the society depended on this labor. In Buddha’s time every Indian Village has
banyan and Pipal trees. Those trees were the rich suppliers of oxygen, health and mainly they
are measure for saving crops from vicious birds. The Jataka’s authorizes that, there were no
landlords are existed in that time. The agricultural work was not related with any social status or
social stigma.

The present paper will illuminate all the aspects regarding agricultural status of
Indian society in the time of Lord Buddha, which is described in Buddhist Sanskrit and Pali
literature.

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 A Research Paper will be Presented in National conference on “Agriculture in Sanskrit Literature”

Agricultural outlook in Buddhist Sanskrit and Pali

Literature
- Dr. Sharath Chandra Swamy

Introduction: The uncivilized men had become civilized, when they have instigated to use
certain things that have turned them as civilized human beings. Finding the use of fire, the
discovery of the wheel and mainly the agriculture made it possible for primitive man to become
progressive. The history of civilizations begins with the men developing crop and animal
husbandry and this enabled human beings to begin their journey towards progress.

India is well-known for its agricultural civilized societies from the ancient times.
From Vedic times to till date major population of the country is completely depended on
agriculture. It has a dominant role in the economy of Indian society. In the time of the Gautama
Buddha i.e. sixth century BCE India was divided into a number of liberated states known as
Mahajanapadas1. In the meantime Indian society was completely influenced by later Vedic
civilization. The Vaidika religion enforced the concept of caste (Chaturvarna) and four
stages of life (Chaturashrama). These caste system generated the barriers amongst the
classes.

Along with the beginning of the Buddhism, there were two principal
communities were taken the lead in the Indian Society – i. Brahmana’s and ii. Shramana’s.
The Brahmanas were the followers of the Vedas and the Shramanas were belonged to the
Jaina and Bauddha religions. At the time of Buddha, there were different groups of
Sharamanas representing their own religious and philosophical traditions. Further
Kahatriya’s, Vaishya’s and Shudra’s had their own status in the society. Other than these
communities the Chandala’s and Pukkusa’s had a very low grade in the social rank. At the
Vedic and later Upanishadic times, women were enjoying equal rights and status with the
men in Indian social life. But later at the time of the Buddha the prominence of women was
also in decline.

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 A Research Paper will be Presented in National conference on “Agriculture in Sanskrit Literature”

The status of various classes: The Gautama Buddha rejected the Chaturvarna system
in the society and introduced his innovative system of Chatuparisha2. He fought against the
caste system, which was purely based on by birth. Another distinctness of that age was
reformed in the concept of work based on individual’s caste and family. Even Brahmanas
were started to do various works for livelihood. For example, the Buddhist literature
mentions - agrarian Brahmana3, entrepreneur Brahmana4, carpenter Brahmana5, hunter
Brahmana6.

In those days the kshtriyas are the most prestigious caste of all7. The Brahmanas
were already lost their first place in caste ladder. We can also remember that the constituters
of Bauddha and Jaina religions were the Kshatriyas. One of the earlier poet of Sanskrit
literature Ashvagosha praises the competency of Kshatriyas in his Saundarananda8. In
Samyuttanikaya, Lord Buddha in a conversation with Mahakappina states that “Kshatriyas
are the superior of all men. Because they are always organized”. Kshatriyas were the sole
protectors of the society.
Kshatriyas had very much proud about their varna or caste. They had lots of
slaves in their houses and they had marital relations with the slaves. The main work of
slaves was agriculture and service. The kings of that time were already forgotten the
idealism of “रराजरा प्रकक ततिरञ्जनरातित”. The sixteen states, which were existed before the birth of
Buddha, merged into four main states in his time. They were – I. Magadha ruled by
Bimbisara ii. Kosala ruled by Prasenajith, iii. Kaushambi ruled by Vatsaraja Udayana, iv.
Avanti (Ujjayini) ruled by Chandapradoyota. These kings had enmity with themselves.
Always they were eager to fight with each other. Buddhist literature mentions about the war
held between Shakya’s and Koli’s for the water of Rohini River and Lord Buddha solved
this major problem mutually culminating with the rulers.
Brahmans were Vaidikas and Shramanas were Avaidikas. In Shramanas there are
so many intersects were existed. The dignity of Brahmanas was declined and several
revolutionary views against their dominance in religious matters from Vedic period has
been started to pioneer. The concept of Brahmana by birth also faced criticism and the
theory of Brahmana by character and practice has been supported by intellectuals of the
society. The Lord Buddha’s remarks regarding Brahmanas in Vinayapitaka show his respect
towards the Vedic sages9.

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 A Research Paper will be Presented in National conference on “Agriculture in Sanskrit Literature”

At the time of the Buddha, Brahmanas immolated their philosophical lifestyle

and started accumulation of wealth and money. They have captivated by luxury in life.
Although Brahmans were insuperable and non-questionable persons of that time too.
People gave them the utmost respect in every context of the society 10. Their veritable
professions for livelihood were Tantra mantra11, Agriculture12 and Vedic rituals. They were
also worshipers of Mother Nature13. They executed violence in Vedic sacrifices 14 and they
were also non-vegetarians at the time of the Buddha 15. The “Brahmanadhammikka Sutta”
of Suttanipata is a great source for the study of the status of Brahmans.
According to the Vedas, the third sect is Vaishyas. The Mahabharata describes
that Agriculture, business, protection and breeding of cattle’s are the profession of the
Vaishyas16. The ancient Buddhist texts also illuminate that the same type of professional
works has assigned for the vaishayas17. As stated in Anguttaranikaya, once a Brahmin
named ‘Janussoni’ asked the Buddha to expound the works of the Vaishyas and Buddha
immensely elucidate the Vaishyakarmas18.

There were numerous words used for synonyms for Vaishyas – Gruhapathi, Setti,
Shreshthi, Vanika, Mahasala, Janapada Setti19 (A Vaishya, who is living in the village) etc.
In Vaishyas there were three chief classes - i. Mahasetti, ii. Anusetti, and iii. Uttarasetti.
The famous Vaishya of Buddha’s time ‘Anathapindaka’ was a Mahasetti of Rajagruha 20.
Mrughadhara, Yasha, Mendaka, Dhananjaya were the other famous business persons of
Buddha’s time. These Vaishyas have done a great job in social reforms 21 and they have
provided lots of financial support for the kings in the time of war and other difficulties.
Another phenomenal work of them was associating with the Buddhism and they have
supported financially in the promotion of the religion. They were also encouraged fine arts
and stimulated scholars to do literary works.

The Buddhist literature indicates several types of Vanika (Businessmen) of that

time – Kashtavanika22, Phalavanika23, Sukaravanika24, Sthambhavanika25, Trunavanika26
etc. These vaishyas had their own unions. They did business through these unions and
“Sarthas”. The Buddhist literature also points out their numerous types of corruptions in
business27.

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 A Research Paper will be Presented in National conference on “Agriculture in Sanskrit Literature”

At the time of the Buddha, the position of Shudras was very low in society. They
were the indispensable part of the society, still their position was much deplored. Shudras
believed that they were born only for the service of the upper classes 28. Offering service to the
above three varna’s or classes was the one and only goal of their life 29. Along with these
services, they also were doing cattle breeding, crafts and handiworks etc. 30 The Buddhist
literature describes the dejected social and financial status of them. The pot makers, ox-herds,
carpenters, jewelers, artisans, etc. were belonged to this community 31. Some of them were also
agrarian32.

There were numerous sub-sects were existed in Shudras. As described in

Buddhist texts, in that time every community has its own unions, called as “Parishads” 33. But
there is no reference of any kind of parishads of Shudras. It clearly shows that they didn’t have
any solidarity and harmony. So all these things led them to doomed life and they didn’t have
any social rites.

Another remarkable thing we get to know from Buddhist texts is, there were
another two lower communities than the Shudras, named as Chandala and Pukkasa were existed
at that time34. Upper classes (including the Shudras) have thoughts that like even looking at
them also a sin35. Their main service in society was the denouement of cemeteries, 36 performing
capital punishment to criminals as per the order of kings 37 etc. Interestingly these communities
had their own “Chandala” language. Their status was very poor and miserable in society.

Agriculture: Gautama Buddha was born under a Shala tree in Lumbini, later he became
enlightened under a Pipal tree or Bodhi tree, in his whole life he taught under various trees and
at last he died under an Ashoka tree. A sampling of the Bodhi tree was taken by Mahindra, son
of Emperor Ashoka, to Srilanka and according to scholars, it is the oldest historical tree in the
world38. Here we can see how the vegetation has got importance in Buddhist religion. Naturally,
this is reflected in Buddhist Sanskrit and Pali literature.

The economic aspect of that time is also a crucial issue. The Indian society was
so rich and productive from the ancient times. The economic situations was slowly attaining
several changes at Buddhist India. The union of minor states into larger states formed numerous
variations from simple to unconventional agrarian societies. The lower castes were enacted

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 A Research Paper will be Presented in National conference on “Agriculture in Sanskrit Literature”

more significant role, since they converted as working class to support the economic necessities
of upward communities. The upper classes of the society, i.e Brahman’s and Shramana’s were
also oriented towards a rural, self-reliant, comparatively static agricultural society.

Food production was the primary source of the economy of Buddhist time. The
major part of population in the society depended on this labor. At that time, the agricultural land
was called as “Kshetra”39 and “Udyanabhumi”40, the plow was called as “Nangala”41, and the
people, who do agriculture were called as “Krushaka” 42. People of all the Varna’s or castes were
doing agriculture and it is very remarkable that, the Brahmanas had a major portion of land.
Sutta nipata describes a Brahmana named as ‘Kasi Baradwaja’ doing agriculture with 500
plows!43 Another Brahmana, ‘Pippali Manavaka’ has uncountable numbers of slaves 44 and 12
yojanas of land45. There are so many instances in Buddhist texts, where Gautama Buddha
explains his concepts through agricultural examples46. It was mentioned in literature that for the
various works of farming, people of that time were frequently consulting for the guidance of
Astrology and Shakuna Vidya47. Rice was the major crop and that was the major food 48.
Alongwith the rice, Yava (barley)49, Sugar cane50 and in fruits Mango51, grape52, Jambu53 were
main harvests.

In Buddha’s time every Indian Village has banyan and Pipal trees. Those trees
were the rich suppliers of oxygen, health and mainly they are measured for saving crops from
vicious birds. The Jataka’s authorizes that, there were no landlords are existed in that time. The
agricultural work was not related with any social status or social stigma.

The Champa, Rajagruha, Vaishali, Varanasi, Ayodhya, Saketa, Shravasti,

Kaushambi, Mathura and Takshashila were the major commercial cities of the Buddhist India.
Cloth, metal, leather, ivory and jewelry were the main business of the society. Merchants had
their own unions. Jataka mentions the various names of the leaders of those unions - Kumara
Jetthaka54, Malakara Jetthaka55, Vaddhika Jetthaka56 etc. The “Sarthas” - The massive group of
merchants, who were regularly travelling for business have their own leaders named as
“Satthavaha Jetthaka”57. Even thieves of that time also have their own Jetthaka58!

The merchants were doing business through i. Land route and ii. Sea route. There
were numerous examples available in Buddhist literature about the sea route business 59. In the

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dialogues of Ananda and the Buddha tells about the merchants, who was doing business through
ships up to Kamboja60. Elephants, chariots and Camels were the chief instrumental vehicles of
land route61.

The Shreshti’s were the main persons, who was controlling the complete
financial status of the society. Some of the names of them were cited in Buddhist texts – Jothiya,
Jatila, Mendaka, Pushnaka and Kakabaliya. The Kings were very much concerned to keep them
in their states. Exchange of the goods was also common in the business of the society. Various
money exchange systems were already in usage of that time. Karshapana 62, Nikasha or Nishka63,
Masaka64, Hiranya or Mudra65, Suvarna66, Purana67 were mentioned in Buddhist literature.

- Dr. Sharath Chandra Swamy

Assistant Professor, Vedanta Faculty &
Coordinator, M.Phil/Ph.D/D.lit
Karnataka Samskrit University
Pampa Mahakavi Road, Chamarajpet
Bangalore – 560018
Email: scswamy@gmail.com
Mobile: 9900128882

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 A Research Paper will be Presented in National conference on “Agriculture in Sanskrit Literature”

Bibliography
Primary Sources:

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 A Research Paper will be Presented in National conference on “Agriculture in Sanskrit Literature”

1. Anguttaranikaya 13. Mahavagga

2. Anusmrit 14. Mahavattu
3. Avadana Shataka 15. Majjhima nikaya
4. Brhadaranyakopanishat 16. Makandikavadana
5. Buddhacharyavatara 17. Milindaprashna
6. Chandogyopanishat 18. Rgveda
7. Divyavadana 19. Samyutta nikaya
8. Jataka 20. Shardulakarnavadana
9. Karunapundarika 21. Soundarananda of Ashvagosha
10. Kotkarnavadhana 22. Sutta Nipata
11. Lalitavistara 23. Therigatha
12. Mahabharata 24. Vinayapitaka

Secondary Sources:
1. Hazra, K. L.The Rise and Decline of Buddhism in India, Munshiram Manoharlal
Publishers, Delhi, 1995
2. Dr. Mot Chandra, “Some Aspects of Yaksha Cult”, Bulletn of the Prince of Wells
Museum, Bombay, 1954
3. Dr. Nalinaksha Datta, Gilgit Manuscripts, Vol- III
4. Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, Culcutta editon, 1950
5. Wells, H.G, The Outline of History, London, 1966

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References

10
1
They are - Anga (east Bihar), Magadha (south Bihar), Kasi (Varanasi), Kosala (Oudh), Vajji (Vriji)
(north Bihar), Malla (Gorakhpur district), Ceti (Cedi) (between the Jumna and the Narmada), Vamsa
(Vatsa) (Allahabad region), Kuru (Thaneswara, Delhi and Meerut districts), Pancala (Bareilly,
Badaun and Farukkhabad districts), Maccha (Matsya) (Jaipur), Surasena (Mathura), Assaka
(Asmaka), Avanti (in Malwa), Gandhara (Peshawar and Rawalpindi districts) and Kamboja (south-
west Kashmir and parts of Kafiristan) (Hazra, K. L.The Rise and Decline of Buddhism in India,
Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, Delhi, 1995.)
2
Bhikku (monk), Bhikkuni (nun), Upasaka (laymen) and upasika (laywomen)
3
Jataka (3/163 & 5/98)
4
Ibid, (5/471 & 2/15)
5
Ibid, (4/207)
6
Ibid, (2/200)
7
चत्वराररो तभिक्षवरो वररारर्णाः । कतिममे चत्वराररार्णाः, क्षतत्रियरार्णाः, बराह्मररार्णाः, ववैश्यरार्णाः, शशूदराश्च । (महरावस्तित, 2/129-5, 3/295-8)
8
Ashvagosha, Soundarananda, (1/19)
9
Vinayapitaka, Mahavagga, Katha – 2, p.76
10
Karunapundarika, 71/9-10
11
Jataka, Khanda – 1, Vedabbha Jataka, p.375
Ibid, Asatamantra Jataka, p.410
12
Sutta nipata, Kasi Bharadwaja Sutta, p. 14-15
13
Jataka, Khanda – 3, Palasa Jataka, p. 192
14
Jataka, Khanda – 1, Matkamanta Jataka, p.375
Ibid, Brahmanadhammika Sutta - 29, p.62-63
15
Jataka, Khanda – 2, Nanguttha Jataka, p.127
16
कक तषिगरोरक्षवरातरज्ययं ववैश् यकमरस् वभिरावजमत । (Mahabharata, Bhishmaparva, 42/44)
17
पशशून रायं रक्षरयं दरानतमज्यराध्ययनममेव च ।
वतरक्पथयं कत ससीदयं च ववैश् यस्य कक तषिरमेव च ।। (Anusmriti, 1/90)
18
Anguttaranikaya, Part – 3, p. 69-70
19
Jataka, Nigrodhajataka - 445
20
Chullavagga, 6/4/1
21
बहह प करारकरो दमेव स्स चमेव नमेग मस्स च । (Mahavagga, 8/1/16)
22
Mahavattu, Part – 3, 153-18
23
Ibid, 113-91
24
Ibid, 113-11
25
Ibid, 113-18
26
Ibid,
27
Jataka, Khanda – 1, Varunijataka, p. 373
28
Mahabharata, Udyogaparva, 40/28
29
पररचयरारत् मकयं कमर शशूद स्यरातप स्वभिरावजमत । (Ibid, Bhishmaparva, 42/44)
30
Ibid, Shantiparva, 294/4
31
Jataka, Khanda-2, Kacchapajataka, p.257
Ibid, Dadhivahana Jataka, p.285
Ibid, Khanda – 3, Silavimamsa Jataka, p.149
32
Ibid, Khanda – 3, p.11
33
According to Majjhimanikaya they were – i. Kshtriya Parishat, ii. Brahmana Parishat, iii. Gruhapati
Parishat, iv. Shramana Parishat, v. Chaturmaharajika Parishat, vi. Trayatrimsha (devata) Parishat,
vii. Mara Parishat, viii. Brahma Parishat.
34
खतत्तियरा बराह्मररा वमेस् सरासतद रा चयंड रालपतकक सरा । (Jataka, Khanda – 3, Silavimamsa jataka, p.357)
35
Mahavattu, Part – 2, 187/2/3
36
Ibid, 74/3/4
37
Divyavadana, 265/13-14
38
Wells, H.G. The outline of History, London, 1966, p.392
39
Jataka, 4/459, 314
40
Lalitavistara, 128/16
41
Sutta nipata, p.15
Indranamabrahmanavadana, p.47
42
Sutta nipata, p.17
 Shardulakarnavadana, p.329
Avadana Shataka, 1/293/9
43
Sutta nipata, Kasi Bharadwaja Sutta, p.15
Divyavadana, 47/32
44
Buddhacharyavatara, p.44
45
Ibid, p.42
46
Samyutta nikaya, part – 2,
Desana Sutta, p. 583
47
Divyavadana, 414/24-25, 415/20-21
48
Anguttara nikaya, Part – 1, p.7
Jataka, Khanda – 4, 404, 432/163, 462/358
Divyavadana, 415/14
49
Therigatha, 92/262
50
Anguttara nikaya, Part – 3, p.349
Milindaprashna, p. 58
51
Anguttara nikaya, Part – 2, p.104
52
Ibid, Part – 1, p.34
53
Vinayapitaka, Mahavagga - 250
54
Jataka, 387
55
Ibid, 415
56
Ibid, 466
57
Ibid, 256
58
Ibid, 279
59
Anguttara nikaya, Apanna Jataka, Part – 1, 13/110
60
Ibid, Part – 2, p.83
61
Jataka, Part – 1, 5/207, Part – 3, 365/60
Kotikarnavadhana, p.3
62
Majjhima nikaya, 391
Jataka, Khanda – 4, 402/6-8
63
Jataka, Khanda – 5, 401/10
Divyavadana, 49/1, 8
64
Jataka, Khanda – 4, 421/106
Divyavadana, 18/19
65
Vinayapitaka, Chullavagga, 461
66
Divyavadana, 19/19
67
Mahavatthu, Part – 1, 232/67