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STALL
Introduction Stall phenomenon
1. In Chap 4 it was stated that the nature of the boundary layer determined
the stalling characteristics of a wing. In particular the phenomenon of boundary
layer separation is extremely important. This chapter will first discuss what
happens when a wing stalls; it will then look at the aerodynamic symptoms and
the variations in the basic stalling speed and finally consider autorotation.
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surface of the wing towards the leading edge. As the separation point moves
forward the slope of the lift/angles of attack curve decreases and eventually an
angles of attack is reached at which the wing is said to stall. The flow over the
upper surface of the wing is then completely broken down and the lift produced
by the wing decreases.
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Aerodynamic Symptoms
6. The most consistent symptom, or stall warning, arises from the separated
flow behind the wing passing over the tail surfaces. The turbulent wake causes
buffeting of the control surfaces which can usually be felt at the control column
and rudder pedals. As the separation point starts to move forward, to within a
few degrees of the critical angle of attack, the buffeting will usually give adequate
warning of the stall. On some aircraft separation may also occur over the cockpit
canopy to give additional audible warning. The amount of pre-stall buffet
depends on the position of the tail surfaces with respect to the turbulent wake.
When the trailing edge flap is lowered the increased downwash angle behind the
(inboard) flaps may reduce the amount of buffet warning of the stall.
Pitching Moments
7. As angle of attack is increased through the critical angle of attack the wing
pitching moment changes. Changes in the downwash angle behind the wing
also cause the tail pitching moment to change. The overall effect varies with
aircraft type and may be masked by the rate at which the elevator is deflected to
increase the angle of attack. Most aircraft, however, are designed to produce a
nose-down pitching moment at the critical angle of attack.
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Tip Stalling
8. The wing of an aircraft is designed to stall progressively from the root to the
tip. The reasons for this are threefold:
c. To avoid a large rolling moment which would arise if the tip of one
wing stalled before the other (wing drop).
9. A rectangular straight wing will usually stall from the root because of the
reduction in effective angle of attack at the tips caused by the wing tip vortex. If
washout is incorporated to reduce vortex drag, it also assists in delaying tip stall.
A tapered wing on the other hand will aggravate the tip stall due to the lower
Reynolds Number (smaller chord) at the wing tip.
10. The most common features designed to prevent wing tip stalling are:
b. Root Spoilers. By making the leading edge of the root sharper, the
airflow has more difficulty in following the contour of the leading edge and
an early stall is induced.
d. Slats and Slots. The use of slats and/or slots on the outer portion of
the wing increases the stalling angle of that part of the wing. Slats and slots
are dealt with more fully in Chap 8.
11. The most useful stalling speed to remember is the stalling speed
corresponding to the critical angle of attack in straight and level flight. It may be
defined as the speed below which a clean aircraft of stated weight, with the
engines throttled back, can no longer maintain straight and level flight. This
speed is listed in the Aircrew Manual for a number of different weights.
12. Applying these qualifications to the formulae in para 13, it can be seen that
level flight requires a particular value of lift, ie L=W, and:
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VB =
13. If the conditions in para 15 are not met, the stalling speed will differ from
the basic stalling speed. The factors which change are therefore:
a. Change in weight.
Weight Change
14. The relationship between the basic stalling speeds at two different weights
can be obtained from the formula in para 16, ie the ratio of VB1:VB2.
VB1:VB2 =
or =
from which =
where VB1 and VB2 are the basic stalling speeds at weights W1, and W2
respectively.
15. This relationship is true for any given angle of attack provided that the
appropriate value of CL is not affected by speed. The reason is that, to maintain
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Manoeuvre
16. The relationship between the basic stalling speed and the stalling speed in
any other manoeuvre (VM) can be obtained in a similar way by comparing the
general formula in para 13 to the level flight formula in para 16. Thus:
Again, the denominators on the right-hand side are identical and so:
VM:VB =
or =
from which, VM =
and therefore, =
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VM =
and, in a 60º bank turn the stalling speed is √2 or 1.4 times the basic stalling
speed.
Configuration
19. From the formula in para 16 it can be seen that the stalling speed is
inversely proportional to CLmax ie in level flight
20. Any change in CLmax due to the operation of high lift devices or due to
compressibility effects will affect the stalling speed. In particular, lowering flaps
or extending slats will result in a new basic stalling speed. These changes are
usually listed in the Aircrew Manual.
Power
21. At the basic stalling speed the engines are throttled back and it is assumed
that the weight of the aircraft is entirely supported by the wings. If power is
applied at the stall the high nose attitude produces a vertical component of thrust
which assists in supporting the weight and less force is required from the wings.
This reduction in lift is achieved at the same angle of attack (CLmax) by reducing
the dynamic pressure (IAS) and results in a lower stalling speed.
22. From Fig 6 it can be seen that L = W – Tsin αS which is less than the power-
off case; and, as VM ∝ √L, VM with power on < VB.
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23. It should be noted that, for simplicity, the load on the tailplane has been
ignored and the engine thrust line assumed parallel to the wing chord line.
25. Vector Change to RAF. In Fig 7 the vector addition of the free stream and
slipstream velocities results in a change in the RAF over that part of the wing
affected by the propellers.
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AUTOROTATION
General
26. The autorotational properties of a wing are due to the negative slope of the
CL / α curve when α is greater than the stalling angle of attack.
27. With reference to the stalled aircraft illustrated at Fig 8, if the aircraft starts
to roll there will be a component of flow induced tending to increase the angle of
attack of the down-going wing and decrease the angle of attack of the up-going
wing. The cause of the roll may be either accidental (wing-drop) deliberate
(further effects of applied rudder) or use of aileron at the stall.
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28. The effect of this change in angle of attack on the CL and CD curves (see
Fig 9) is that the “damping in roll” effect normally produced at low is now
reversed. The increase in angle of attack of the down-going wing decreases the
CL and increases the CD. Conversely, the decrease in angle of attack of the up-
going wing slightly decreases the CL and decreases the CD. The difference in lift
produces a rolling moment towards the down-going wing tending to increase the
angular velocity. This angular acceleration is further increased by the roll
induced by the yawing motion due to the large difference in drag.
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Fig 9 Autorotation
29. The cycle is automatic in the sense that the increasing rolling velocity
sustains or even increases the difference in angle of attack. It should be noted,
however, that at higher angles, the slope of the CL curve may recover again to
zero. This may impose a limit on the α at which autorotation is possible.
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