Research

- comprises "creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge, including
knowledge of humans, culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new
applications." It is used to establish or confirm facts, reaffirm the results of previous work, solve new or
existing problems, support theorems, or develop new theories. There are several forms of research:
scientific, humanities, artistic, economic, social, business, marketing, practitioner research, life,
technological, etc.
The word research is derived from the Middle French "recherche", which means "to go about seeking",
the term itself being derived from the Old French term "recerchier" a compound word from "re-" +
"cerchier", or "sercher", meaning 'search'.[3] The earliest recorded use of the term was in 1577.

Types of research
1. Academic research - can be intense, stimulating, and rewarding. But it is important to know that a
research career involves many activities besides research. Scientists spend their time writing applications
for funding to do research, as well as writing scientific papers to report the findings of their research. In
addition, they spend time presenting their research in oral or poster form to other scientists at group
meetings, institutional meetings, and scientific conferences; they also spend time teaching students about
their field of study. A scientist's life is often full of tasks that need to be done and most scientists work
very hard, but they also love what they do.
2. Interview - is a conversation where questions are asked and answers are given.[1] In common
parlance, the word "interview" refers to a one-on-one conversation with one person acting in the role of
the interviewer and the other in the role of the interviewee. The interviewer asks questions, the
interviewee responds, with participants taking turns talking. Interviews usually involve a transfer of
information from interviewee to interviewer, which is usually the primary purpose of the interview,
although information transfers can happen in both directions simultaneously. One can contrast an
interview which involves bi-directional communication with a one-way flow of information, such as a
speech or oration.

Types of interview
1. Informal interview - is an interview that takes place in a casual setting, such as over coffee or lunch.
Although an informal interview is not structured like a traditional, and more formal, job interview, the
interviewer's aim is the same, to assess whether the candidate would fit in the organization. Sometimes,
informal interviews are also used to assess a candidate's interest in possibly joining an organization or to
sell the organization as a good place to work.
It's easy to see why many candidates prefer informal interviews. They often take place outside of this,
candidates usually feel a lot more relaxed and confident when it comes to this type of interview, but it's
important to remember that this is still part of the selection process. Whatever you say and do during
these informal conversations will still have an impact on whether or not the interviewer decides to invite
you to the next stage, or offers you a job. These meetings could actually tell the recruiter a lot more than
you realize, so here are some tips on the best way to approach informal interviews.
2. Formal interview - is a one-on-one meeting between a prospective job candidate and employer,
after which the prospective employer decides whether or not the candidate is right for the position.
Formal interviews can be conducted in any trade or business. A candidate for a formal interview should
dress appropriately. Even if the interview is at a casual dining establishment, interviewers expect the
candidate to be neat and clean and to avoid wearing jeans and sneakers. It’s a good idea for an
interviewee to bring a resume to a formal interview as well, even if the employer already has a copy. The
candidate should also be prepared for questions that will be asked during the job interview.
3. Structured interviews - are a means of collecting data for a statistical survey. In this case, the data
is collected by an interviewer rather than through a self-administered questionnaire. Interviewers read the
questions exactly as they appear on the survey questionnaire. The choice of answers to the questions is
often fixed (close-ended) in advance, though open-ended questions can also be included within a
structured interview.
A structured interview also standardises the order in which questions are asked of survey respondents, so
the questions are always answered within the same context. This is important for minimising the impact
of context effects, where the answers given to a survey question can depend on the nature of preceding
questions. Though context effects can never be avoided, it is often desirable to hold them constant across
all respondents.

*PLANNING AND CONDUCTING AN INTERVIEW*

Unplanned interviews are generally a waste of time. They encourage judgments based on whether you
had a pleasant chat rather than whether the candidate can do the job. Planning for the interview should
include these key steps:

1. Know what you want in a candidate before you interview. Review the job specifications and
requirements that you’ve prepared.
2. Know the job and its responsibilities. Review the job description.
3. Review the candidate’s resume prior to the interview. Make note of anything that stands out,
needs clarification or may be a “red flag.”
4. Plan a set of standard questions for all candidates. A series of general questions will help you
determine whether applicants can meet your requirements. The inquiries should concern the candidate’s
skills, abilities and past work performances that are related to the position you’re filling. Plan to ask each
candidate all of your basic questions. This consistent approach is important for three reasons:
 It is fair and legal. If you ask certain questions only of specific candidates, you may be illegally
discriminating.
 It allows you to compare candidates. If you converse about technical aspects of the job with one
candidate and future trends with another, how will you compare the two?
 It helps you remember all questions. It is all too easy to forget important questions, especially
when you’re interviewing several candidates.
5. Plan questions for individual candidates. In addition to the questions that you ask all candidates,
prepare special questions for each individual candidate. These special questions usually arise from review
of the resume and application or from a phone call. Use the questions to help clarify particular aspects of
each candidate’s background.
6. Crafting the interview. Careful questioning and listening are at the heart of any interview. As an
interviewer, mastering how to ask effective questions, as well as learning how to listen, will elicit a
candidate’s meaningful answers. Here’s how to frame productive interview questions:
 Ask open-ended questions. Rather than questions that can be answered with a simple yes or no,
ask the question so the candidate must describe, explain, clarify, etc.
 Avoid telegraphing the answer. For example, “Do you like working under pressure?” Answer:
“Oh, yes, I love working under tight deadlines.” You’ve “telegraphed” the answer the candidate
thinks you want to hear. Ask instead, “In what type of environment do you prefer to work?”
 Probe for additional details. If you ask the question, “Tell me about an important project in your
previous job,” determine the candidate’s true role in the project. Listen for clues to the real scope
 of duties, the time involved in the project and the results. The responses may reveal a more
accurate picture of the person’s true scope of involvement.
 Use reflecting to get more information. For example, if the answer is, “I managed big projects,”
reflect the answer back: “You say you managed big projects?” It’s interesting how much
information will often come forth.
 Present a scenario. Describe a typical situation that might occur in your organization and ask
what the candidate might do. Scenario questions can be very effective, but don’t be locked into
expecting a specific answer. After all, the candidate can’t know all of the particulars of your
operations. Instead, listen for the logic of their ideas.

In addition to asking effective interview questions, it’s important for the interviewer to look and act
professionally, to treat all candidates fairly and to be courteous and respectful. The interviewer is the face
of the organization; if the candidate is not hired, how the candidate was treated during the interview is
how they will judge—and advertise—your organization.
WRITING THE INTERVIEW
If you're in charge of hiring new employees, writing an article or just want to learn more about a person
you admire, you'll probably find yourself in a position where you will be tasked with interviewing people.
Being prepared for the interview with several well-crafted questions is important and will help you get
what you need out of the interview. To write interview questions, understand or discover the purpose of
the interview, who you are interviewing, and what you need from this person.

Method 1
Interviewing a Potential Employee
1 View your interviewee as an intelligent person. Whatever type of job you are hiring someone
for, you should formulate questions that a smart and capable person could answer. You don’t want to hire
someone who isn’t cut out for the job because you assumed your candidate couldn’t answer difficult
questions.
2 Start with an open-ended question. An open-ended question cannot be answered by “yes" or "no"
and it usually does not have right or wrong answers.
3 Formulate questions that force your interviewee to express a knowledge of your
company. You want to make sure that your interviewee did homework and learned about your company.
And you should want to find out if this person just learned facts, or really understands you.
4 Prepare to summarize a candidate’s answers and transition to the next question. Repeating
what the candidate just said will give you a second to digest the information and can allow you to press
this person with your next question.
5 Write questions that allow you to obtain basic qualifications. During your interview, you’ll
want to gauge how well a person’s resume translates to real life. Have a list of questions that will give
you an idea of the candidate’s basic skill level for the job.
6 Write questions that challenge your candidates. You want to formulate questions that will allow
you to see how the candidate performs under pressure and give you information on this person’s ability in
the role.
7 Ask conversational and open ended questions. Test soft skills. You’ll want to know about a
candidate’s personality, dedication, loyalty, communication skills, etc. These are the so called “soft skills”
for the job.
8 Prepare a few experience-based questions. Depending on the answers to previous questions, you
may have good knowledge of the candidate’s past experiences. But it’s a good idea to write a few
questions you can throw in to find out a little more.
9 Conclude the interview. When writing interview questions, plan to leave time at the end to let the
interviewee ask questions.

Narrative or story - is a report of connected events, real or imaginary, presented in a sequence

of written or spoken words, or still or moving images,[1][2] or both. The word derives from the
Latin verb narrare, "to tell", which is derived from the adjective gnarus, "knowing" or
"skilled".[3]
Narrative can be organized in a number of thematic or formal categories: non-fiction (such as
definitively including creative non-fiction, biography, journalism, transcript poetry, and
historiography); fictionalization of historical events (such as anecdote, myth, legend, and
historical fiction); and fiction proper (such as literature in prose and sometimes poetry, such as
short stories, novels, and narrative poems and songs, and imaginary narratives as portrayed in
other textual forms, games, or live or recorded performances).
Narrative is found in all forms of human creativity, art, and entertainment, including speech,
literature, theatre, music and song, comics, journalism, film, television and video, video games,
radio, gameplay, unstructured recreation, and performance in general, as well as some painting,
sculpture, drawing, photography, and other visual arts, as long as a sequence of events is
presented. Several art movements, such as modern art, refuse the narrative in favor of the
abstract and conceptual.
Oral storytelling is the earliest method for sharing narratives. [4] During most people's
childhoods, narratives are used to guide them on proper behavior, cultural history, formation of a
communal identity, and values, as especially studied in anthropology today among traditional
indigenous peoples.[5]
Narratives may also be nested within other narratives, such as narratives told by an unreliable
narrator (a character) typically found in noir fiction genre. An important part of narration is the
narrative mode, the set of methods used to communicate the narrative through a process
narration (see also "Narrative Aesthetics" below).
Along with exposition, argumentation, and description, narration, broadly defined, is one of four
rhetorical modes of discourse. More narrowly defined, it is the fiction-writing mode in which the
narrator communicates directly to the reader.
question
an interrogative expression often used to test knowledge an interrogative sentence or clausea subject or
aspect in dispute or open for discussion issue to ask a question of or about to interrogate intensively cross-
examine doubt, dispute
answer
something spoken or written in reply to a question a correct response a reply to a legal charge or suit plea
to speak or write in reply to be or make oneself responsible or accountable to make amends atone
to take a general or comprehensive view of or appraise, as a situation, area of study, etc.
2.
to view in detail, especially to inspect, examine, or appraise formally or officially in order to ascertain
condition, value, etc.
3.
to conduct a survey of or among:
to survey TV viewers.
4.
to determine the exact form, boundaries, position, extent, etc., of (a tract of land, section of a country,
etc.) by linear and angular measurements and the application of the principles of geometry and
trigonometry.
verb (used without object)
5.
to survey land; practice surveying.
noun, plural surveys.
6.
an act or instance of surveying or of taking a comprehensive view of something:
The course is a survey of Italian painting.
7.
a formal or official examination of the particulars of something, made in order to ascertain condition,
character, etc.
8.
a statement or description embodying the result of this:
They presented their survey to the board of directors.
9.
a sampling, or partial collection, of facts, figures, or opinions taken and used to approximate or indicate
what a complete collection and analysis might reveal:
The survey showed the percentage of the population that planned to vote.
10.
the act of determining the exact form, boundaries, position, etc., as of a tract of land or section of a
country, by linear measurements, angular measurements, etc.
the plan or description resulting from such an operation.
12.
an agency for making determinations:
U.S. Geological Survey.
Conducting a study

Step 1: Identify the Problem

The first step in the process is to identify a problem or develop a research question. The research problem
may be something the agency identifies as a problem, some knowledge or information that is needed by
the agency, or the desire to identify a recreation trend nationally. In the example in table 2.4, the problem
that the agency has identified is childhood obesity, which is a local problem and concern within the
community. This serves as the focus of the study.
Step 2: Review the Literature
Now that the problem has been identified, the researcher must learn more about the topic under
investigation. To do this, the researcher must review the literature related to the research problem. This
step provides foundational knowledge about the problem area. The review of literature also educates the
researcher about what studies have been conducted in the past, how these studies were conducted, and the
conclusions in the problem area. In the obesity study, the review of literature enables the programmer to
discover horrifying statistics related to the long-term effects of childhood obesity in terms of health
issues, death rates, and projected medical costs. In addition, the programmer finds several articles and
information from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention that describe the benefits of walking
10,000 steps a day. The information discovered during this step helps the programmer fully understand
the magnitude of the problem, recognize the future consequences of obesity, and identify a strategy to
combat obesity (i.e., walking).
Step 3: Clarify the Problem
Many times the initial problem identified in the first step of the process is too large or broad in scope. In
step 3 of the process, the researcher clarifies the problem and narrows the scope of the study. This can
only be done after the literature has been reviewed. The knowledge gained through the review of
literature guides the researcher in clarifying and narrowing the research project. In the example, the
programmer has identified childhood obesity as the problem and the purpose of the study. This topic is
very broad and could be studied based on genetics, family environment, diet, exercise, self-confidence,
leisure activities, or health issues. All of these areas cannot be investigated in a single study; therefore, the
problem and purpose of the study must be more clearly defined. The programmer has decided that the
purpose of the study is to determine if walking 10,000 steps a day for three days a week will improve the
individual’s health. This purpose is more narrowly focused and researchable than the original problem.
Step 4: Clearly Define Terms and Concepts
Terms and concepts are words or phrases used in the purpose statement of the study or the description of
the study. These items need to be specifically defined as they apply to the study. Terms or concepts often
have different definitions depending on who is reading the study. To minimize confusion about what the
terms and phrases mean, the researcher must specifically define them for the study. In the obesity study,
the concept of “individual’s health” can be defined in hundreds of ways, such as physical, mental,
emotional, or spiritual health. For this study, the individual’s health is defined as physical health. The
concept of physical health may also be defined and measured in many ways. In this case, the programmer
decides to more narrowly define “individual health” to refer to the areas of weight, percentage of body
fat, and cholesterol. By defining the terms or concepts more narrowly, the scope of the study is more
manageable for the programmer, making it easier to collect the necessary data for the study. This also
makes the concepts more understandable to the reader.
Step 5: Define the Population
Research projects can focus on a specific group of people, facilities, park development, employee
evaluations, programs, financial status, marketing efforts, or the integration of technology into the
operations. For example, if a researcher wants to examine a specific group of people in the community,
the study could examine a specific age group, males or females, people living in a specific geographic
area, or a specific ethnic group. Literally thousands of options are available to the researcher to
specifically identify the group to study. The research problem and the purpose of the study assist the
researcher in identifying the group to involve in the study. In research terms, the group to involve in the
study is always called the population. Defining the population assists the researcher in several ways. First,
it narrows the scope of the study from a very large population to one that is manageable. Second, the
population identifies the group that the researcher’s efforts will be focused on within the study. This helps
ensure that the researcher stays on the right path during the study. Finally, by defining the population, the
researcher identifies the group that the results will apply to at the conclusion of the study. In the example
in table 2.4, the programmer has identified the population of the study as children ages 10 to 12 years.
This narrower population makes the study more manageable in terms of time and resources.
Step 6: Develop the Instrumentation Plan
The plan for the study is referred to as the instrumentation plan. The instrumentation plan serves as the
road map for the entire study, specifying who will participate in the study; how, when, and where data
will be collected; and the content of the program. This plan is composed of numerous decisions and
considerations that are addressed in chapter 8 of this text. In the obesity study, the researcher has decided
to have the children participate in a walking program for six months. The group of participants is called
the sample, which is a smaller group selected from the population specified for the study. The study
cannot possibly include every 10- to 12-year-old child in the community, so a smaller group is used to
represent the population. The researcher develops the plan for the walking program, indicating what data
will be collected, when and how the data will be collected, who will collect the data, and how the data
will be analyzed. The instrumentation plan specifies all the steps that must be completed for the study.
This ensures that the programmer has carefully thought through all these decisions and that she provides a
step-by-step plan to be followed in the study.
Step 7: Collect Data
Once the instrumentation plan is completed, the actual study begins with the collection of data. The
collection of data is a critical step in providing the information needed to answer the research question.
Every study includes the collection of some type of data—whether it is from the literature or from
subjects—to answer the research question. Data can be collected in the form of words on a survey, with a
questionnaire, through observations, or from the literature. In the obesity study, the programmers will be
collecting data on the defined variables: weight, percentage of body fat, cholesterol levels, and the
number of days the person walked a total of 10,000 steps during the class.
The researcher collects these data at the first session and at the last session of the program. These two sets
of data are necessary to determine the effect of the walking program on weight, body fat, and cholesterol
level. Once the data are collected on the variables, the researcher is ready to move to the final step of the
process, which is the data analysis.
Step 8: Analyze the Data
All the time, effort, and resources dedicated to steps 1 through 7 of the research process culminate in this
final step. The researcher finally has data to analyze so that the research question can be answered. In the
instrumentation plan, the researcher specified how the data will be analyzed. The researcher now analyzes
the data according to the plan. The results of this analysis are then reviewed and summarized in a manner
directly related to the research questions. In the obesity study, the researcher compares the measurements
of weight, percentage of body fat, and cholesterol that were taken at the first meeting of the subjects to the
measurements of the same variables at the final program session. These two sets of data will be analyzed
to determine if there was a difference between the first measurement and the second measurement for
each individual in the program. Then, the data will be analyzed to determine if the differences are
statistically significant. If the differences are statistically significant, the study validates the theory that
was the focus of the study. The results of the study also provide valuable information about one strategy
to combat childhood obesity in the community.
As you have probably concluded, conducting studies using the eight steps of the scientific research process requires
you to dedicate time and effort to the planning process. You cannot conduct a study using the scientific research
process when time is limited or the study is done at the last minute. Researchers who do this conduct studies that
result in either false conclusions or conclusions that are not of any value to the organization.

Your goal in conducting quantitative research study is to determine the relationship between one thing [an
independent variable] and another [a dependent or outcome variable] within a population. Quantitative
research designs are either descriptive [subjects usually measured once] or experimental [subjects
measured before and after a treatment]. A descriptive study establishes only associations between variables;
an experimental study establishes causality.
Quantitative research deals in numbers, logic, and an objective stance. Quantitative research focuses on
numeric and unchanging data and detailed, convergent reasoning rather than divergent reasoning [i.e., the
generation of a variety of ideas about a research problem in a spontaneous, free-flowing manner].
Its main characteristics are:
 The data is usually gathered using structured research instruments.
 The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population.
 The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability.
 Researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective answers are sought.
 All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected.
 Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often arranged in tables, charts, figures, or other
non-textual forms.
 Project can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict future results, or investigate causal
relationships.
 Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or computer software, to collect numerical data.
The overarching aim of a quantitative research study is to classify features, count them, and construct
statistical models in an attempt to explain what is observed.

Qualitative research is a method of inquiry employed in many different academic disciplines, including
in the social sciences and natural sciences[citation needed], but also in non-academic contexts including market
research, business, and service demonstrations by non-profits.[1]
Qualitative research is a broad methodological approach that encompasses many research methods. The
aim of qualitative research may vary with the disciplinary background, such as a psychologist seeking to
gather an in-depth understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior.
Qualitative methods examine the why and how of decision making, not just what, where, when, or "who",
and have a strong basis in the field of sociology to understand government and social programs.
Qualitative research is popular among political science, social work, and special education and education
researchers.[2][3]
In the conventional view of statisticians, qualitative methods produce information only on the particular
cases studied (e.g., ethnographies paid for by governmental funds which may involve research teams),
and any more general conclusions are considered propositions (informed assertions).[citation needed]
Quantitative methods can then be used to seek empirical support for such research hypotheses.
In contrast, a qualitative researcher holds that understanding of a phenomenon or situation or event comes
from exploring the totality of the situation (e.g., phenomenology, symbolic interactionism), often with
access to large amounts of "hard data". It may begin as a grounded theory approach with the researcher
having no previous understanding of the phenomenon; or the study may commence with propositions and
proceed in a scientific and empirical way throughout the research process (e.g., Bogdan & Taylor,
1990).[4]
A popular method of qualitative research is the case study (e.g., Stake, 1995) [5] or (Yin, 1989)[6] which
examines in depth "purposive samples" to better understand a phenomenon (e.g., support to families;
Racino, 1999);[7] hence, smaller but focused samples are more often used than large samples which may
also be conducted by the same or related researchers or research centers (e.g., Braddock, et al., 1995).[8]
Qualitative methods are an integral component of the five angles of analysis fostered by the data
percolation methodology,[9] which also includes quantitative methods, reviews of the literature (including
scholarly), interviews with experts and computer simulation, and which forms an extension of data
triangulation.
To help navigate the heterogeneous landscape of qualitative research, one can further think of qualitative
inquiry in terms of 'means' and 'orientation' (Pernecky, 2016)