FACULTY OF CHEMICAL

ENGINEERING

THERMODYNAMICS AND
MATERIAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

Group Member : Laboratory Stamp

Date of Submission: Date of Experiment:

Lecturer’ Name: Section:

 EXPERIMENT 1 : DANDANG MARCET (Marcet Boiler)

1.0 Objectives

To study the relationship between pressure and temperature for saturated steam

2.0 Apparatus

Marcet boiler

3.0 Theory

Thermodynamic properties of a pure substance can be determined by two of the

following characteristics: T, P, H, S, V etc. Data characteristics can be obtained either
from experiments or equations, or using certain. Between two thermodynamic
properties that are easily measured T and P.

Relations between these properties can be expressed in the form of graphs or

equations.

Clausius-Clapeyron equation one has published the following:

where

Vf = volume of water
Vg = volume of steam
Hf = Enthalpi water
Hg = Enthalpi steam
Hfg = (Hf-Hg) = Heat dormant of vaporization

Dormant for the heat value of water can be obtained from the equation.
4.0 Method

1. Fill water into the boiler by opening the filler plug water. Make sure the valve
overflow is open, and let the water out of there when the boiler full. Close the
filler plug back.
2. Heat the water in the boiler has been completed while the valve overflow is
opened.
3. When the temperature around 97C to 100C show cloase valve overflow.
4. Note the increase in temperature for each pressure of 0.5 bar until the
pressure reaches 5 bars.
5. Switches off heating and record the fall of temperature decrease for each 0.5 bar
pressure.
6. Record results in Table 1.
5.0 Results

i. Draw P versus T graphs for the process of heating and cooling process.
ii. Find the slope graph
iii. Calculate the value TVg / Hfg using Table 2 and compare with the slope of the
graph you draw.

6.0 Discussion
Discuss your observations during the tests conducted. Discuss the graph that plotted
and indicate the relationship between temperature and pressure steam.

7.0 Conclusion
State the conclusions that can be obtained.

8.0 References

Cengel, Y.A. and Boles, M.A. Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 7 th ed.

McGraw Hill, New York

Wylen G.V. , R. Sonntag, and Borgnakke C., Fundamentals of Thermodynamics, 6th

ed., John Wiley, New York.
 Table 1: Results of tests

Gauge Absolute Steam Temperature Calculated

Pressure Pressure Increasing Decreasing Mean Measured Slope TVg/Hfg
bar bar Pressure Pressure Slope
dT/dP
 EXPERIMENT 2: UNIT PEMAMPAT SATU-PERINGKAT (IMBANGAN TENAGA)
(Single-stage compressor (energy balance))

1.0 Objectives

i. To evaluate how quickly a single stage compressor heats up

ii. To analyze the steady-state heat loss of a single stage compressor

2.0 Apparatus
Single stage compressor

3.0 Theory
In a standard single stage vane compressor (Figure 1), a fixed volume of air is
trapped between two sliding vanes driven by an offset rotor. This volume of air is
pushed to the outlet where the area (and hence volume) is reduced. Its pressure is thus
higher and it is squeezed out of the outlet port.

Figure 1: Schematic of a Single-Stage Compressor Rig

4.0 Method

1) Turn the ‘power’ switch on.

2) Open the green inlet valve fully (i.e. turn the valve ‘anti-clockwise’ to open it).
3) Record initial readings for all parameters given in Table 1 at the beginning of the
experiment. Use a tachometer to record the motor speed, N.
4) Turn the ‘motor’ switch on.
5) Using the red outlet valve, set the compressor outlet pressure, p 2 to 1 bar gauge
(i.e. turn the valve ‘clockwise’ to increase pressure).
6) Adjust the spring balance to ensure that the indicator on the motor is between the
two black lines prior (i.e. before) recording any motor ‘force’ values.
7) Record the temperature of the outlet air, T 2 at one minute intervals (e.g. use a
stop watch) until two consecutives readings are the same (i.e. € < 0.5%).

To stop the experiment:-

1) Using the red valve, reduce the compressor outlet pressure, p 2 to 0 bar gauge
(i.e. turn the valve ‘anti-clockwise’ to decrease pressure).
2) Turn the ‘motor’ switch off.
3) Turn the ‘power’ switch off.

5.0 Analysis

Specific volume through flow meter, (m3 kg-1), with R = 0.287 kJ kg-1 K-1.
*Don’t forget to convert pressures and temperatures unit into kPa (absolute) and o
K,
respectively.

Volumetric flow rate, (m3s-1)

Mass flow rate, (kg s-1)

Energy added to air by compressor, = , (W)

Power out of motor, = (W)

Heat emitted from compressor, = -

6.0 Results

Data:
Length of torque arm L = 0.2 m
Compressor swept volume V Vcomp = 267 cm3 rev-1
Specific heat capacity of air cp = 1005 J kg-1 K-1

Table 1: Parameters consisting of important parameters for the single stage compressor unit

Parameters Initial readings

Air temperature into apparatus, To (oC)

Air temperature into compressor, T1 (oC)

Air temperature out of compressor, T2 (oC)

Atmospheric pressure (from barometer), Po

(bar)

Vacuum into compressor (gauge), p1 (bar)

Air pressure out of compressor (gauge) p2

(bar)

Flow meter, Vin (l min-1)

Motor speed, (rev min-1), N (rev min-1)

Motor spring balance, F (kg)

Electric power in, (Watt)

*Record all the above data at the beginning of the experiment

Table 2: Outlet temperature data over time (i.e. at 1 minute time interval)
Time, t (min) Temperature, T2 (oC)
7.0 Discussion

Plot the outlet temperature, T2 data over time (i.e. data from Table 2). Additionally,
calculate and plot energy added to air by compressor, and heat emitted from the
compressor, against time, respectively.

Discuss the followings:

a. Why is the heating up curve this shape?

b. What is happening to the energy that is being input to the system as it heats
up?
c. How does the amount of energy lost as heat compare to
i) The work input to the compressor?
ii) The heat added to the air?

8.0 Conclusion

Draw conclusion about the behavior (i.e. dynamic profile) of the single stage
compressor as it heats up. Also, speculate the results (i.e. heating curve) if the
compressor outlet pressure, p2 is reduced to 0.5 bar.

9.0 References

Cengel, Y.A. and Boles, M.A. Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 7 th ed.

McGraw Hill, New York

Wylen G.V., Sonntag, R.and Borgnakke, C., Fundamentals of Thermodynamics, 6th ed.,
John Wiley, New York.
 EXPERIMENT 3 : HUKUM PERTAMA DAN KEDUA TERMODINAMIK
(Application Of First And Second Law Of Thermodynamics )

1.0 Objective
To apply the first law of thermodynamics and the concept of the second thermodynamic
law in a process

2.0 Apparatus
Hot Plate, Balance and Thermometer

3.0 Theory
Energy balance or the first law of thermodynamics is a basic calculation of heat transfer.
The energy balance for the system is

Ein - Eout = Esystem

U system = 0
Usystem = U hot water +  U cold water = 0
mc (T2-T1)hot water + mc (T2-T1)cold water = 0

where m = mass, c = heat capacity and T = temperature.

Clausius statement saying it is not possible to heat flow from the reservoir to the cold
heat reservoir without doing any work. In other words, heat can be transferred from the
hot reservoir to the cold reservoir easily without doing work.

4.0 Method

1) Weigh two empty containers(different size).

2) Fill the large container with a little cold water and weigh the mass of cold water.
3) Fill the smaller container with hot water (80-90 C) and weigh the mass of
hot water.
4) Place the hot water container inside the cold water container. Note the reading of
both water temperature for every 1 minute until they reach the same temperature
(thermal equilibrium).
 Hot water
Cool water

Figure 1: Schematic Diagram of the Experiment

5.0 Results

Data: Mass of hot water used :__________

Mass of cold water used :__________

Time (min) Hot water (C) Cold water (C)

6.0 Analysis

i. Draw water temperature against time to get the equation for the graph (curve
fitting)
 T for hot water and cold water.
ii. Get the change of temperature ( Calculate the energy change for both.

7.0 Discussion

Discuss your observations during the tests conducted. Compare changes in energy for
hot water and cold water. Try associate with the second law of thermodynamics.

8.0 Conclusion

State the conclusions that can be obtained.

9.0 References

Cengel, Y.A. and Boles, M.A. Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 7 th ed.

McGraw Hill, New York.

Wylen G.V. , R. Sonntag, and Borgnakke C., Fundamentals of Thermodynamics, 6th

ed., John Wiley, New York.
 EXPERIMENT 4: MOMEN LENTUR (BENDING MOMENT)

1.0 ABSTRACT
This is an introductory experiment of bending moment. The objectives of the experiment
include to comprehend the action of moment of resistance in a beam and also to measure the
bending moment at a normal section of a loaded beam and to check its agreement with theory.
An experimental beam is used to carry out the bending moment test. The beam is divided
into two parts and is connected by a joint, thus forming a “frictionless” hinge. A moment of
resistance about the hinge is provided by an under slung spring balance, which acts at a lever arm
of 150mm. There are three load hangers placed on the beam to induce load onto the beam.
In this experiment, the experimental beam will be induced with external load, which the
load will be put on the load hanger. The beam will bend after the load is put on. Spring balanced
is done each time after the load is altered. Then, the reading of the spring balance is recorded
after that. The more load applied onto the beam, the more the beam will bend, especially where
the load is altered at the joint of the beam.
From all the data taken during the experiment, the bending moment for each loading
arrangement at the section is calculated. The bending moment diagram is drowned to compare
the measured value with it. The measured bending moment in N.mm will be 150 times the
change in the spring balance reading. The similarity and difference between the experimental
value and theory will be identified and discussion is made accordingly.
Lastly, conclusion is made based on the bending moment diagram, the importance of the
relationship between load and bending moment in engineering application especially in the field
of construction and manufacturing. The values from experiment may differ from theory as errors
may happen in the process of experiment.

2.0 OBJECTIVE

To study the property of material (bending moment) when subject to different load

3.0 INTRODUCTION
3.1 Background
Beams are design to carry loads perpendicular to their longitudinal axis. Internal shear
forces and bending moments develop along the span of a beam. An important consideration in
beam design is the amount of load it can carry. This depends on factor such as support and
loading condition, geometry (beam shape and dimension), and beam material. In designing a
beam for maximum efficiency, it is critical to determine the internal shear forces and bending
moment distribution along the beam. This is accomplished by constructing shear and bending
moment diagram (Figure 1).
3.2 Theory
When a beam is loaded by forces or couples, internal stresses and strains are created. To
determine these stresses and strains, we first must find the internal forces and internal couples
that act on cross sections of the beam. As an illustration, consider a cantilever beam acted upon
by a vertical force P at its free end (Figure 1a). Now imagine that we cut through the beam at a
cross section mn located at distance x from the free end and isolate the left hand part of the beam
as a free body (Figure 1b). The free body is held equilibrium by the force p and by the stresses
that act over the cross section; all we know is that the resultant f these stresses must be such as to
maintain equilibrium of the free body selected.

P
m

n
x

(a)
P

(b)
V
M

(c)
Figure 1: Bending Moment of a Beam

It is convenient to reduce the resultant to a shear force v acting parallel to the across
section and a bending couple of moment M. Because the load P is transverse to the axis of the
beam, no axial force exists at the cross section. Both the shear force and bending couple act in
the plane of the beam, which means that that the moment vector for the couple is perpendicular
to the plane of the figure. The moment of the bending couple is called bending moment M.
Because shear forces and bending moments, like axial forces in bars and twisting couples in
shafts, are known collectively as stress resultants.
The shear force and bending moment are assumed to be positive when they act on the
left-hand part of the beam in the directions shown in Fig 1-2b. If you consider the right-hand part
of the beam (Fig 1-2c), then the direction of the same stress resultant is reversed.

Shearing Force X

Qx
(A) (B)
+ve +ve

X
RA RB

Figure 2: Vertical Equilibrium of Moment

For vertical equilibrium of part (A) there must be a shearing force Qx acting as shown in
Figure 2 and equal to -RA. For vertical equilibrium of part (B) the shearing force Qx , evidently
acts as shown and has the value of RA-P. To clarify thr sign convention must be used. The
normal one are shown. Which leads to the –ve values above.

Bending Moment

Qx P l

MX MX

+ve (A) (B) +ve

RA a b RB

Figure 3: Equilibrium of Moment

 For equilibrium of moments take an axis as shown (Figure 3) in the section XX to
eliminate Qx. Then using the sign convention given for part (A) of the beam,

Mx = R A x a

And for part (B) of the beam,

Mx = RB x b – P (b-l)

It can easily be proved that these have the same value by substituting for RB and Pl as follows,

MA = -b (P-RB) + Pl = -b x RA + RA (a + b) = RA x a

4.0 APPARATUS

The experimental beam is in to parts, the smaller being (A) and the larger (B). At the
section normal to the beam axis where they joint a pair of ball bearing pinned in (B) fits in half
housings fixed in (A) thus forming a “frictionless” hinge. A moment of resistance about the
hinge is provided by an under slung spring balance which acts at a lever arm of 150mm
Two and bearings on stands support the beam, and several stirrup shaped load hangers
can be threaded onto the two part of the beam. To introduce a load hanger at the joint between
part (A) and (B) the beam comes apart so that the hanger can be threaded on.
It is generally sufficient to line up parts (A) and (B) by eye, and to re-align them by
adjusting the screws on the spring or spring balance each time a load is altered.

5.0 PROCEDURE

Part 1

The beam was set up so that the bearing pin in part (B) is 300mm from the left hand
support and 600mm to the right hand support (Figure 4). Position one load hanger on the middle
of the smaller part (A) of the beam, one on the larger part (B), and the third one at the joint just
over the bearing pin (in the groove provided). After that, align the two parts of the beam using
the adjustment on the spring balance and the initial reading noted. Next, 10N (1kg) weight hang
on part (B), and re-align the beam and note the new reading on the spring balance. The
difference between the two readings is the effect of applying the 10N (1kg) weight on the beam.
The distance recorded from this weight to the right hand support. The procedure repeated by
using the hanger over the bearing pin, and then the hanger on part (A). Finally the whole
procedure repeated by using a 20N (2kg) load.

Part 1.
Bending moment at C (Mc) for loading shown

900mm

600mm

300mm

100mm

C
A B

RA RB
P1 P2 P3

Figure 4

Table 1: Data for Part 1

Load (N)
Balance Reading (N)/ Net force (N) for load at
P1 P2 P3
0 / / /
10 / / /
20 / / /
Bending moment (N.mm) and theoretical value
10 / / /
20 / / /
Part 2
Position the three load hangers as desired, the beam aligned and noted the initial reading
of the spring balance. Some weights (masses) hang on all three hangers and then the beam re-
aligned and noted the new balance reading. As time permits repeat with a different positions, and
with different loadings.

Part 2.
a) Bending moment, Mc for loading shown, Figure 4a (superposition)

C
A B

RA RB
P1 P2 P3
Figure 4a

Table 2: Data for Part 2

Loading (N) Balance Net force (N) Bending Bending moment

reading (N) moment(N.mm) (Theoretical
value) (N.mm)

0
P2=5
P1=P3=10, P2=5

b) Bending moment, Mc for various loading shown, Figure 4b

900mm

500mm

300mm

100mm

C
\ A B

RA RB
P1 P2 P3
Figure 4
 Table 3: Data for Part 2b

Loading (N) Balance Net force (N) Bending moment Bending moment
reading (N) (N.mm) (Theoretical
value) (N.mm)

0
P1=5, P3 =12
P1=5, P2 =10,
P3=2

6.0 RESULT

For each loading arrangement calculate the bending moment at the section, draw the
bending moment diagram, and compare the measured value with it. The measured bending
moment in N mm will be 150 times the change in the spring balance reading. If masses in
kilogrammes were used remember to multiply them by 9.81 to get the load in Newtons.

7.0 DISCUSSION

When the load was doubled in Part 1 of experiment, did the bending moment double?
Compare the average figure which experiment the comparison between the experiment and
theoretical bending moments (use either a ratio or percentage error).

8.0 CONCLUSION

Did the experiment result verify with theory?

 EXPERIMENT 5: KILASAN PALANG (TORSION OF BAR)

1.0 ABSTRACT
This experiment was done to investigate the relationship between torque, T and the angle
of twist, ø of a circular cross – section specimen and to acknowledge the students about to
determine the Modulus of Rigidity, G of materials .A base frame which has a clamp at one end
and a ball bearing in a housing (plummer block) at the other. A short shaft in the bearing has a
three jaw chuck facing the clamp and a torsion head at the outward side. A hanger cord is wound
round the torsion head with an effective diameter of 75 mm. Specimens in the forms of lengths
of rod are gripped by the fixed clamp and the rotating chuck 450 mm away. An arc shaped scale
of degrees is mounted on a base which can be moved along the length of the specimen. A pointer
on a spring steel strip registers the rotation of the specimen when a load is applied to the hanger
cord .The data collected is then being calculated and the angle of twist, ø versus torque, T
diagram is plotted. The Modulus of Rigidity, G is then being calculated and would be compared
to the theory .The conclusions are made based on the calculated data and the plotted diagram.
The value of the experiment might differ from the theory as errors might occur in the process of
the experiment.

2.0 INTRODUCTION
Consider a circular shaft that is attached to a fixed support at one end. When a torque, T
is applied to the other end, the shaft with free end rotating through an angle called the angle of
twist, ø.
Consider the small square element formed by two adjacent circles and two adjacent
straight lines traced on the surface of a cylinder of radius ρ before any load is applied. As the
shaft is subjected to a torsion load, the element deforms into a rhombus.

3.0 THEORY
Shearing strain, γ is measured by the change in the angles formed by the sides of that
element. It follows that
Lγ = ρø
Then,
γ = ρø / L
where γ = shearing strain
ρ = length from the center to any point in the circle of the shaft
ø = angle of twist
L = length of shaft
It also follows that the shearing strain is maximum on the surface of the shaft, where
ρ = c. Therefore

γ max = cø / L
where γ max = maximum shearing strain
c = radius of the shaft
ø = angle of twist
L = length of shaft

Now a relationship between the angle of twist, ø of a circular shaft and the torque, T
exerted on the shaft will be derived. Considering first the case of a shaft of length, L and of
uniform cross-section of radius, c subjected to a torque, T at its free end. The angle of twist and
the maximum shearing strain are related as

γ max = cø / L

but in the elastic range, the yield stress is not exceeded anywhere in the shaft. Hooke’s Law
applies, and γ max = τ max / G.

γ max = τ max / G
= Tc / JG

Then, solving for ø, it shows that

ø = TL / JG

where ø = angle of twist

T = torque exerted on the shaft
L = length of the shaft
J = polar moment of inertia, [π (c24 – c14)] / 2
G = Modulus of Rigidity

4.0 EXPERIMENT

MATERIAL
1. Steel ,aluminium alloy and nylon rod
2. Torsion bars testing machine
3. Ruler
4. Digital Caliper

Procedure:
1. The aluminum alloy rod is clamped in position and the load hanger is placed on the cord.
2. The rotation scale and pointer was set 400 mm from the fixed clamp and the pointer is set
to zero.
3. A load of 40 N by 5 N increments is added and the twist of the specimen for each
increment is recorded in a table.
4. After the load is removed, the rotation scale and pointer is changed to 200 mm from the
clamp and the above procedure is repeated.
5. The diameter of the rod is measured and recorded.
6. Now, the specimen is changed for the steel rod and the procedure is repeated for the 400
mm length only.
7. Finally, the nylon rod is clamped in position and twisted over 400 mm and 200 mm is
measured when a load up to 40 N by increments of 5N is applied to the torsion head. The
load is removed and whether full elastic recovery had occurred is noted.

5.0 DISCUSSION
a. To what extent does the experiment verify the torque/twist formula based on
graph plotted (angle of twist against torque).
b. Determine the modulus of rigidity (G) of material.
c. Handbook values for modulus of rigidity (G)n are 26200 N/mm² for aluminium
alloy and about 79000 N/mm² for steel and 75000 N/mm² for nylon (Teflon).

6.0 CONCLUSION
Give conclusion from the objective of the experiment that you have carried out.
 Table 1

Material : Aluminium Alloy

Diameter:
Hanger Torque (Nmm) Torque (Nmm) Twist of rod
Load (N) Over 400 mm Over 200mm Over 400 mm (°) Over 200 mm (°)
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40

Table 2
Material : Steel
Diameter:
Hanger Load Torque (Nmm) Twist over 400 mm
(N) (°)
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
 Table 3

Material : Nylon
Diameter:
Hanger Torque (Nmm) Torque (Nmm) Twist of rod
Load (N) Over 400 mm Over 200mm
Over 400 mm (°) Over 200 mm (°)
1
2
3
4
5
0
EXPERIMENT 6 : Stirling Heat Engine Cycle

Objectives
Examine the efficiency of the engine at different engine speeds.

Abstract
Stirling engine heat cycle experiment is to study the efficiency of the Stirling engine at different
speeds. This engine works on the principle of gas that expands and increases the pressure when
heated. The apparatus used in this experiment known as Hot Air Engine Stirling Cycle. This
apparatus is an external combustion engine that uses the jail again. This engine was developed in
many countries for a variety of purposes. For example, in the European countries, most of the
submarines they use this engine as a power source.
Based on the data obtained, when the frictional force increases, the engine speed is reduced, and
the power output and kecekapanya will increase. From the graph of the output power is plotted
against engine speed, the output power is directly proportional to the velocity of the engine. This
decision is justified by theory, in which the Stirling engine efficiency is believed to be in the
range of 25-50% efficiency.

Recognition Experiment

Stirling heat engine cycle is essentially introduced by the Reverend Robert Stirling in 1816. The
principle of this heat engine is relatively simple because it is a system that operates on the
principle that gas expands and increases the pressure when heated. This cycle is divided into four
different steps of thermodynamics.

The first step is known as isothermal compression step. In this step, the cold piston will move to
the center and compresses the gas therein. Any heat that is created during this step is removed in
a section known as the cold sink temperature, Tc.
This was followed by the step-up constant volume. The cold piston will move to the position of
the maximum, Cmax, while the hot piston will move to the position of the hands, Hi. The cold gas
from the chamber through the regenerator and recover heat from the previous cycle. Next, it will
start to heat up again to a temperature hotter than Tc. Given the volume remains constant, an
increase in temperature will cause the gas began to swell.

The third step is known as isothermal expansion. Gas is heated at a temperature Th until
fluffy. This development will force the piston down heat to min At a minimum Hmin position.
 The fourth and final step is also known as volumetric cooling step. This hot piston back
into position Hmax while the cold piston down to the bottom position of Cm simultaneously.
Regenerator will collect heat from the gas stream back to it in the cool room. This reduces the
heat loss of gas pressure, while the volume remains constant. The heat eventually will be saved
for the next cycle.

Thus, the cycle of hot air which inflates this will in turn drive the shaft and will generate
employment.
Theory

Heat Cycle Stirling engines work is derived from the expansion and contraction of gas. This
can be observed by using the Ideal Gas Law. Stirling engine efficiency is believed to be in
the range of 25-50% efficiency.

PV = nRT where,
P = pressure, V = volume, n = number of moles of gas, R = gas constant, T = temperature

To calculate the thermal efficiency of the engine,

Efficiency,  = Power Output
power Input
Input power = voltage current and power output  = 3.142  D  n  F where,
D = The size of the diameter of 'boss'
n = Velocity Engine
F = The difference between weights plus reading and reading spring in Newton

Apparatus

Stirling Cycle Hot Air Engine

Procedure

1. Dynamometer organized as indicated.

2. Supply of electricity in the open and the ammeter current is set at 7 Amperes.
3. After waiting for 10 minutes, the flywheel is rotated to start the engine.
4. Reading of engine speed and spring readings are recorded.
5. Then, load a different (eg, 15g, 30g, etc.) are placed and step 4 is repeated.
 Figure

Dynamometer

Table
D = diameter 'boss' = 0.0381 m

The input power = 240  7A = 1680 watts

Halaju enjin Bacaan Kuasa Kecekapan

Beban F
(n) Spring Keluaran ()
(g) (N)
RPM (g) (watts)

0
20
35
55
70
Discussion

Based on the graph of the output power is plotted against engine speed based on data obtained
from experiments, the course of these experiments, discuss some experimental error in
influencing keputusan.dan state measures to prevent the error occurred.

Conclusion
State the conclusions that can be obtained.

References
Wylen G.V., Sonntag R, Borgnakke C, "Fundamentals of Thermodynamics, 6th ed.", John
Wiley, New York