Lectures 7-8

OSCILLATORS AND TIMERS

CONTENTS:

1. Introduction
2. The Barkhausen criteria for oscillation
3. The phase shift oscillator
4. Colpitts and Hartley oscillators
5. Quadrature/Wien bridge oscillators
6. Cross-coupled oscillators
7. Relaxation oscillators
8. The 555 timer

1
7.1 Introduction
Oscillator: signal-generating circuit which produces its
own periodic signal.
Types of oscillators:
• Sinusoidal oscillators produce (nearly) sinusoidal outputs
• Relaxation oscillators operate by alternately charging an
discharging an energy storage element (capacitor)

Applications:
 Clock generation for timing
 Frequency synthesis
 Voltage controlled oscillators
 Carrier generation for FM/AM transmission
2
7.1 Introduction
Time duration for modern science:
(femto) fs (10-15 s) to
13.799±0.021)×109 years (~440 x 1015 s)
Accuracy of atomic clock ~ 10-14
Achievable accuracy of purely Wristwatches need an
electronic circuits ~ 10-3 accuracy of ~ 10-6

Error of ~1.5 minute/day Error of ~30 seconds/year

Wristwatch consumption ~ 0.1 W

E. Vittoz, Low-Power Crystal and MEMS Oscillators – The Experience of wikipedia

Watch Developments, Springer, 2010.
3
 7.1 Introduction
Liquid Oscillator & Electrical Oscillator

A. Sheikholeslami, “A capacitor Analogy – Part 3,” IEEE Solid-State Circuits Mag., pp. 7-8, 51, Winter 2017.
4
7.1 Introduction

+- + -
- +

+ Positive center of charge

- Negative center of charge http://www.slideshare.net/researcher1234/piezoelectricity-24663014/9

5
7.1 Introduction

Quartz resonator

E. Vittoz, Low-Power Crystal and MEMS Oscillators – The Experience

of Watch Developments, Springer, 2010. 6
7.1 Introduction
Crystal oscillators
The Pierce oscillator

E. Vittoz, Low-Power Crystal and MEMS Oscillators – The Experience of

Watch Developments, Springer, 2010.
wikipedia
7
7.2 The Barkhausen criteria for oscillation
xs xi xo
A feedback  Amplifier A
amplifier
Frequency-
selective
xf network 
xo  Axi xo A( s)
Af ( s )  
xi  xs  x f xs 1  A( s)  ( s)
x f   xo L( s )  A( s )  ( s) : loop gain

A( jω) β ( jω)  A( jω) β ( jω) e jφ( ω)

8
7.2 The Barkhausen criteria for oscillation
Let us consider the frequency 2 for which  (2)=2N, N  
xo A( s)
Af ( s )  
xs 1  A( s)  ( s) xs xi xo
 Amplifier A
xi(t)
1
t Frequency-
selective
xf(t) a<1 xf network 
t
a=1 Aβ  jω2 π   1  stable Af (j2) finite

t Aβ  jω2 π   1  oscillator Af (j2) = 

a>1 Aβ  jω2 π   1  unstable

t
Loop gain
9
7.2 The Barkhausen criteria for oscillation
xo A( s)
Af ( s )  
xs 1  A( s)  ( s)

http://wikieducator.org/Sinusoidal_Oscillator

Thermal noise

Switching noise
What about the start
up of the oscillator?
Stored energy (L, C)

10
 7.3 The phase shift oscillator
http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/worksheets/opamp10.html

What is this for?

H  j    j  [o]

Vi Vo 2
180
1
120
90
Vo  j  2
H  j   ;
Vi  j  1   RC 
2

  j   180o  arctan  RC  RC  3  RC
11
7.3 The phase shift oscillator
Each block

Vo  j  2
H  j   ;
Vi  j  1   RC 
2

  j   180o  arctan  RC

Each block
Gain=1 Gain=1 Gain=1
Phase=2/3 Phase=2/3 Phase=2/3 2
H  j   RC    1;
 3
3 2
1

  j   RC  3  180o  arctan 3  120o

Vi Vo
Loop gain  1exp( j 2 / 3)  1
3
The gain at the frequency for which the =2
can be <1 (errors in R, C, non-ideal opamp).
at  RC  3 . Increase gain with no change in .

12
 7.3 The phase shift oscillator

Gain>1 Gain1 Gain  1

Phase=2/3 Phase=2/3 Phase=2/3

Vi Vo

Loop gain  1 The amplitude of

oscillation tends to
at  RC  3 increase without limit,
but the opamp output Loop gain>1 Loop gain=1
voltage is limited 13
7.3 The phase shift oscillator

Problem: Determine the

oscillation frequency in terms
of R and C. What is the
minimum value of RF/RG for
oscillation?

14
7.3 The phase shift oscillator

15
7.3 The phase shift oscillator

16
Problem: Determine the voltage transfer characteristic of the limiter shown
in Fig (a). Use the Von model
(1)of the diode
iD
iD
+ -
vD

(2) vD
vON

D1 D2 vo vA vB
OFF OFF -RF/R1 vI R3 R4
+V - -V -
R 2 +R 3 R 4 +R 5
R2 RF R2 RF
v I  -v ON v I <v ON
R 2 +R 3 R1 R 2 +R 3 R1

ON OFF (1) -vON

OFF ON (2) vON

17
 7.4 Colpitts and Hartley oscillators

http://www.expertsmind.com/learning/hartley-oscillator-assignment-help-
7342873628.aspx
http://www.davidbridgen.com/Colpitts.htm
18
7.4 Colpitts and Hartley oscillators
Colpitts oscillator – simplified analysis (lossless
inductor & constant base voltage)
1. Open the loop at node VX;
2. Calculate the transfer function Vy/Vx (s);
3. Make s=j;
4. Verify the requirements for oscillation, i.e.
|Vy/Vx(josc)|>1 (Barkhausen criteria)

C2 The analysis of the open-loop gain yields

L Vy
C1C2
Vo C1  L
2
 1;
C1  C2
osc

Io=GmVx
Gm R  C1 C2

 + Gm+1/R

R=1k
I=0 Vx
19
A tough problem: Given the scheme of the Colpitts
oscillator, check whether the formulas below are correct
 1 1 
 L     1;
2
osc
 C1 C2 
Gm R  C1 C2

C2
L Vy Gm+1/R
Vo C1
Io=GmVx

 +
R

I=0 Vx
20
7.5 Quadrature/Wien bridge oscillators

Quadrature oscillator

Problem: Assuming equal Rs

and Cs, determine the
oscillation frequency in terms
of R and C.

21
7.5 Quadrature/Wien bridge oscillators

Problem: Assuming equal R’s and

C’s, determine the oscillation
frequency in terms of R and C.

22
7.5 Quadrature/Wien bridge oscillators

20.3  10
G  3
10

3+1%

Amplitude  5.8V

23
7.6 Cross-coupled oscillator

MOSFET model

24
7.6 Cross-coupled oscillator

Enhanced swing ring

oscillator (ESRO)

VDD=4.7 mV VDD=3.7 mV

25
 8.1. Relaxation oscillators
VO2

I1 VH

C1 I2
VL
Constant-current
oscillator VA VB VO1
Alternately charge and
discharge a capacitor I 2  I1
I1
between two threshold levels. C1
VB C1

VA
Analysis:
VO2=VHI2 ON VH
VO2=VL I2 OFF

VL

26
 8.1 Relaxation oscillators
Problem: Draw the waveforms of VO1 and VO2 and determine the frequency of the relaxation
oscillator given below. What should be Vbias in order to have VO3 exhibit a phase shift of one-
quarter (90o) cycle with respect to VO2?

27
8.1 Relaxation oscillators

IO

VCC  VC
IO 
Ro

28
 8.1Relaxation oscillators

IO

VCC  VC
IO 
Ro

Problem: Draw the waveforms of VO1 and VO2 and

determine the frequency of the relaxation
oscillator. Assuming that 0.1VCC<VC<0.9VCC
what is the frequency range of the oscillator?
Assume VBE1+VBE2=0 and RA=RB

29
 8.1Relaxation oscillators

IO

VCC  VC
IO 
Ro

Problem: Draw the waveforms of VO1 and VO2

and determine the frequency of the relaxation
oscillator.

30
8.1Relaxation oscillators VO2
R-C relaxation VH
oscillator

VL

VA VB VO1

VB
VB-VA
VA
R2
VCC
R1  R2

VH

VL

31
The Negative Resistance

Unstable GH  A  1 Gi  G f 
 A  1 G f  Gi
segment

32
 Problem: Derive the i-v and vo-v
characteristics of the negative vo
resistance assuming that A Ri

Ri  R f
vo
vo  Avd  A   vo  v  if - Esat
 
 vo  Esat ;
i  GH  v  vo   GH R f / Ri if - Esat

 v /   Esat

;
(i) A     vo  v if - E  v /   E ;
sat

sat

(ii) vo  - Esat if  vo  v  0  - Esat

 v / ; i  GH  v  Esat

 if -Esat  v /  ;

(iii) vo  Esat if  vo  v  0  Esat

 v / ; i  GH  v  Esat

 if Esat  v /  .
vo i

(iii) Esat (ii)

(i) (i)
 
 Esat  
 Esat v/
Esat v/ Esat


 Esat (ii) (iii)
33
Problem: Compare the two circuits shown below as regards the input
impedance. Draw the complete transfer function Vo vs VIN, including saturation
of the op amp. Assume A

+
-

https://www.maximintegrated.com/en/app-notes/index.mvp/id/1868
34
 The Astable Multivibrator

Problem: Draw the waveforms of V1

and Vout and determine the frequency
of the relaxation oscillator. Assume
the opamp saturation of VCC

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/square.html

35
Triangular-Wave Generator

T1 VTH  VTL

RC L

T2 VTH  VTL

RC L

A general scheme for generating triangular and square waveforms.

36
 Triangular-to-sine wave conversion
Voltage transfer characteristic
of the sine-wave shaper

Sine-wave
shaper

(a) A three-segment sine-wave shaper. (b) The

input triangular waveform and the output
approximately sinusoidal waveform.

37
 Triangular-Wave Generator

Problem: Demonstrate that the waveform on

the bottom corresponds to the circuit shown on
the top right. To demonstrate this, calculate
the maximum and minimum values of the
triangular wave as well as the falling and rising
times of the triangular wave.

http://www.maximintegrated.com/en/app-notes/index.mvp/id/4362
38
 8.2The 555 Timer
Introduced in 1972 by Signetics Corp.
Inventor: Hans Camenzind
Most popular IC : More than 1 billion
parts sold in 2003.
More than 1 billion units produced
/year (2012).

39
8.2The 555 Timer

Texas Instruments
40
 8.2The 555 Timer
One-shot timer

 VCC 
T1  R1C1 ln   (1)
 VCC  Vref
 
RB
Vref  VCC
RA  RB
 RB 
T1  R1C1 ln 1  
 R A 

Problem: Derive equation (1)

Rest or reset condition: S1 is closed. After external trigger pulse is applied 

FF is set and S1 is open. VC1 rises exponentially toward +VCC. When VC1
reaches Vref the comparator changes states, resets the FF and closes S1.
41
 8.2The 555 Timer
One-shot timer

Reset state: Q1 fully ON VC10

On the leading edge of negative-going trigger, comp2 changes state and sets the flip-flop, turns
off Q1 and brings the output to high state. VC1 rises exponentially toward VCC.
When VC1= VB, comp1 changes state and ends the timing cycle by resetting the flip-flop, which
causes the output to go to a low state and Q1 to turn on. 42
8.2The 555 Timer

R1= 9.1 k
C1= 0.01 F

One-shot timer
Problem: Show that T11.1R1C1
43
8.2The 555 Timer
Comp1

Inverter
Comp2 R-S flip-flop Output
stage
44
8.2 The 555 Timer

Problem: Show that T(RA+2RB)C ln2 T

Note: Duty cycle  50%

45
 Appendix 7.1 –
The Wien-Bridge oscillator: analysis of the loop gain

R C
vf 1

C Ao vo
2
R

R1 R2
ideal

1
R C Z1(s)
3

2 Ao vf
vs
R2
R C

R1
Z2(s) 46
 vs +
v
Af  o 
G  G vo
vs 1  G(s )
+
Z 2 (s )
(s )  vf
Z1 (s )  Z 2 (s )
RCs  1 R feedback
Z1 (s )  ; Z 2 (s ) 
sC RCs  1 network R2
G=1+
(s) R1
sRC GsRC
β(s)= 1-Gβ(s)=1-
s 2 R 2C2 +3sRC+1 s 2 R 2C2 +3sRC+1
s 2 R 2C2 +(3-G)sRC+1
1-Gβ(s)=
s 2 R 2C2 +3sRC+1  G=3 the circuit oscillates
at o  1 RC
If G=3 (R2=2R1) the circuit oscillates at o  1 RC.
To ensure that oscillations will start, R2=2R1+ (roots of
1-G(s) should lie in the RHP).
Note that (s)=1/3 for s=j/RC.
In a practical design, include op amp non-idealities

47
 Appendix 7.2
Oscillator powered from a thermoelectric generator
An interesting application of ULV oscillators
1 uA

1K TEG 30 mV OSC 0.2 Vp-p Dickson 1 V Load

AC/DC

T VDC VAC VDC

TEG – thermoelectric
generator
OSC – oscillator

48
 The thermoelectric effect
The Seebeck effect The Peltier effect

A thermoelectric circuit composed of materials of

different Seebeck coefficient (p-doped and n-doped The Seebeck circuit configured as a
semiconductors), configured as a thermoelectric thermoelectric cooler. (Peltier element)
generator. If the load resistor at the bottom is
replaced with a voltmeter the circuit then functions
as a temperature-sensing thermocouple.

49
Problem: Suppose that VT/T=25 mV/K and that RT = 5 .
What is the maximum power that can be extracted from the
TEG for T=1K and T=4K?

50
 Appendix 7.2
Oscillator powered from a thermoelectric generator
VDD=22.2 mV
T ≈24 ◦C

Colpitts oscillator:
first prototype

24 // NMOS
Zero-VT (ALD 1108)
thermoelectric generator
VT=59 mV, IS=11.2 uA

51
 Appendix 8.1
Clocked S-R flip-flop

The SR flip-flop

0 0

The clocked SR flip-flop

When CK is at logic level “0”, the outputs of the two AND

gates are also at logic level “0”, latching the two outputs Q and
CK Qbar into their last known state. When CK changes to “1” the
circuit responds as a normal SR bistable flip-flop with the two
AND gates becoming transparent to the Set and Reset signals.

52
A. B. Grebene, Bipolar and MOS Analog Integrated Circuit Design, Wiley, 2003.
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smith, Microelectronic Circuits, any edition.
R. C. Jaeger and T. Blalock, Microelectronic Circuit Design, McGraw-Hill, New
York, any edition.
R. Mancini (editor-in-chief), Op Amps for Everyone, Texas Instruments.
http://www.ieee-uffc.org/frequency-control/learning-vig-tut.asp
L. O. Chua, C. A. Desoer, and E. S. Kuh, Linear and Nonlinear Circuits,
McGraw Hill, 1987.
M. P. Kennedy and L. O. Chua, “Hysteresis in electronic circuits: a circuit
theorist’s perspective,” International Journal of Circuit Theory and Applications,
vol.19, no.5, pp. 471-515, Sep./Oct.1991

53