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INTRODUCTION TO COMPLETIONS
Introduction
After a well has been drilled, it must be properly completed There are three basic requirements of any completion (in
before it can be put into production. A complex technology common with almost every oilfield product or service). A
has evolved around the techniques and equipment devel- completion system must provide a means of oil or gas
oped for this purpose. Consequently, the selection of production (or injection) which is;
materials, equipment and techniques should only be
made following a thorough investigation of the factors • Safe
which are specific to the reservoir, wellbore and produc-
tion system under study. • Efficient
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Section 1 Rev E OIL AND GAS WELL COMPLETIONS
INTRODUCTION TO COMPLETIONS
Page 2 of 20 December 1996
HISTORY/EVOLUTION OF COMPLETIONS
1300 Marco Polo reports wells on shore of Caspian Sea 1922 Simple hole-survey tools introduced
1814 First well to produce oil - 475 ft 1925 API addresses tooljoint threads
1822 Rudimentary art of drilling established 1926 First electric submersible pump used
1861 First recorded blowout 1927 First electric log run (Schlumberger)
1863 Screwed casing joints developed 1930 Well depths exceed 10,000 ft
1882 Straddle rubber wall packer developed 1933 First gun perforation job
1890 First extensive casing program 1943 First subsea completion (Lake Eire, U.S.A.)
1895 Henry Ford builds the first commercial automobile 1958 Thru-tubing workover techniques developed
1905 Casing cemented for the first time 1958 Wireline retrievable SSSV developed (Camco)
1911 First gas lift device 1967 Computerized well data monitoring developed
1913 First dual completed well 1969 First coiled tubing job (Bowen)
Fig. 1. Key events in the history and evolution of oil and gas well completions.
1.1 Definition
The design, selection and installation of tubulars, tools
Well completion processes extend far beyond the instal- and equipment located in the wellbore for the purpose of
lation of wellbore tubulars and equipment. To highlight conveying, pumping or controlling production or injec-
this fact, the following definitions are presented. To the tion fluids.
majority of client organizations, completions are:
Under this definition, installing and cementing the produc-
The methodology and technology required to produce tion casing or liner, as well as logging, perforating and
recoverable reserves (reservoir to surface). testing are part of the completion process. In addition,
complex wellhead equipment and processing or storage
The application of completion methodology and technol- requirements effect the production of a well so may have
ogy requires: some bearing on the design and configuration of the
completion.
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OIL AND GAS WELL COMPLETIONS Rev E Section 1
INTRODUCTION TO COMPLETIONS
December 1996 Page 3 of 20
1.2 Completion History and Evolution be gained from reducing the number of wellbores required
for any reservoir development. However, fewer, but more
As the understanding of reservoir and production perfor- efficient wellbores require a greater emphasis to be placed
mance has evolved, then so too have the systems and on the design, selection and installation of the completion
techniques put in place as part of the completion process. equipment.
Early wells were drilled in very shallow reservoirs which Horizontal wellbores, and the technology associated with
were sufficiently consolidated to prevent caving. As deeper their completion are becoming common in many fields.
wells were drilled, the problems associated with surface Drilling extended reach wells often means that well servic-
water prompted the use of a casing or conductor to isolate ing and intervention options are severely restricted, fur-
water and prevent caving of the wellbore. Further devel- ther emphasizing the importance of correct design and
opment of this process led to fully cased wellbores in installation of the initial completion equipment.
which the interval of interest is selectively perforated.
In all cases, achieving the completion objectives, and
Modern completions are now commonly undertaken in subsequent production targets are a result of careful
deep hot and difficult conditions. planning and preparation.
With the simultaneous improvement in seismic interpreta- The introduction of key technologies and timing of events
tion and drilling technology, wellbores can be precisely that have significantly influenced oil and gas well comple-
placed to optimize production and enable effective reser- tions are shown in Fig 1.
voir management. There are clear economic benefits to
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Section 1 Rev E OIL AND GAS WELL COMPLETIONS
INTRODUCTION TO COMPLETIONS
Page 4 of 20 December 1996
The cost breakdown example shown in Fig. 2 was pre- When the reservoir drive is unable to provide sufficient
pared for a 10,000ft land well. Due to the variations in energy to overcome the hydrostatic pressure exerted by
specific drilling and completion conditions and options, it the fluid in the wellbore, artificial lift will be required to
is difficult to present data for a "typical well". However, in sustain production.
the example shown, "completion equipment" accounted
for approximately 10% of the total cost for the well. 1.3.1 Dissolved Gas Drive
1.3 Reservoir Drive Mechanisms In a dissolved gas drive reservoir, the oil contains dis-
solved gas. A pressure drop, or drawdown, causes the
Reservoirs are generally classified by the type of drive gas to escape from the oil, thereby forcing fluid through
mechanism. As hydrocarbons are formed and accumu- the reservoir toward the wellbore. In addition, the gas
lated, energy is stored within the reservoir which, under assists in lifting fluids to the surface (Fig. 3).
favorable conditions, enables the flow of oil and gas to the
wellhead. Three basic types of drive mechanisms are Generally considered the least effective reservoir drive
most commonly encountered. mechanism, dissolved gas drive typically yields only 15%
to 25% of the oil originally contained in the reservoir.
• Dissolved gas
1.3.2 Gas Cap Drive
• Gas cap
Some reservoirs contain more gas than can be dissolved
• Water drive in the oil under the reservoir pressure and temperature
conditions. The surplus gas, rises to the top of the reser-
In practice, most reservoirs produce under a combination voir and forms a gas cap over the oil. The gas expands to
of these primary drive mechanisms. drive the oil toward the wellbore (Fig. 4).
Cap rock
Reservoir
Basement
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OIL AND GAS WELL COMPLETIONS Rev E Section 1
INTRODUCTION TO COMPLETIONS
December 1996 Page 5 of 20
Gas cap drive is more effective then dissolved gas drive Water drive is the most efficient primary drive mecha-
typically yielding from 25% to 50% of the oil contained in nism, capable of yielding up to 85% of the original oil in
the reservoir. place. This process is often supplemented by the injection
of treated salt water into the reservoir to maintain the
1.3.3 Water Drive pressure and 'sweep' the oil toward the well bore.
When the formation containing an oil reservoir is uniformly 1.3.4 Artificial Lift
porous and is continuous over a large area, salt water
generally is present in surrounding parts of the same When the reservoir does not, or can no longer, provide
formation. These vast quantities of water provide a store sufficient energy to produce fluid at an economical rate,
of energy which can aid the production of oil and gas. The some assistance through artificial lift may be required.
energy comes from the expansion of water as pressure in There are four basic types of artificial lift (see Section 5),
the petroleum reservoir is reduced through the production rod pump, hydraulic lump, electric submersible pump and
of oil and gas. Water is generally considered incompress- gas lift. Each system having advantages/disadvantages
ible, but will actually compress and expand about one part that are considered during a completion equipment selec-
in 2500 per 100 psi change in pressure. When the enor- tion process.
mous quantities of water present are considered, this
expansion results in a significant amount of energy which Only gas lift is compatible with all of the reservoir drive
can aid the drive of reservoir fluids to surface. The water mechanisms previously identified.
also moves and displaces oil and gas in an upward
direction out of the lower parts of the reservoir (Fig. 5).
Gas cap
Cap rock
Reservoir
Basement
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Section 1 Rev E OIL AND GAS WELL COMPLETIONS
INTRODUCTION TO COMPLETIONS
Page 6 of 20 December 1996
Cap rock
Reservoir
Water drive
There are several ways of classifying or categorizing oil The production casing or liner is set and cemented in the
and gas well completions. The most common criteria for reservoir cap rock leaving the wellbore through the reser-
classification include the following. voir open (Fig. 6a). Where possible, the final section
through the pay zone is drilled using non-damaging fluids,
• Wellbore/reservoir interface, i.e., open-hole or cased or is drilled in an underbalanced condition.
hole completion.
This completion technique is now almost entirely aban-
• Production method, i.e., natural flowing or pumped doned except for a few low pressure formations and in
production. highly specialized conditions where formation damage
from drilling fluids is severe. To prevent an unstable
• Producing zones, i.e., single zone or multiple zone formation from collapsing and plugging the wellbore,
production. slotted screen or perforated liners may be placed across
the open hole sections.
1.4.1 Openhole or Barefoot Completions
External gravel packs may also be used to control sand
Barefoot completions are only feasible in reservoirs with production in poorly consolidated reservoirs. In such
sufficient formation strength to prevent caving or slough- cases, it is common to underream the interval of interest
ing. In such completions there exists no means of (Fig. 6b)
selectively producing or isolating intervals within the res-
ervoir or openhole section.
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OIL AND GAS WELL COMPLETIONS Rev E Section 1
INTRODUCTION TO COMPLETIONS
December 1996 Page 7 of 20
Cap Rock
Cap Rock
Reservoir
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Section 1 Rev E OIL AND GAS WELL COMPLETIONS
INTRODUCTION TO COMPLETIONS
Page 8 of 20 December 1996
Efficient reservoir interpretation and appraisal techniques Pumped or assisted lift production methods currently in
combined with a high degree of depth control, enables use include the following.
selective perforating. This helps ensure the successful
completion and production of modern-day oil and gas • Rod pump
wells by precisely defining which zones of the reservoir
will be opened for flow (Fig. 7). • Gas lift
Multiple zone completions are often used in reservoirs • Electric submersible pump
with complex structures and unusual production charac-
teristics. The ability to select and control the production (or • Plunger lift
injection) of individual zones is often the key to ensuring
the most efficient production regime for the field or reser- • Jet pump
voir. Consequently, modern multiple completions may be
complex but maintain a high degree of flexibility and 1.4.5 Single Zone Completion
control of production.
In single zone completions, it is relatively straightforward
1.4.3 Naturally Flowing Completions to produce and control the interval of interest with the
minimum of specialized wellbore or surface equipment.
Wells completed in reservoirs which are capable of pro- Since typically one conduit or tubing string is involved, the
ducing without assistance are typically more economic to safety, installation and production requirements can be
produce. However, in high-temperature, high-pressure easily satisfied.
applications, a great deal of highly specialized engineer-
ing and design will be required to ensure the safety In most single zone completions, a packer (or isolation
requirements are met. device) and tubing string is used. This provides protection
for the casing or liner strings and allows the use of flow
In general, naturally flowing wells require less complex control devices to control production. The complexity of
downhole components and equipment. In addition, the the completion is determined by the functional require-
long-term reliability and longevity of the downhole compo- ments and economic viability. Several contingency fea-
nents is generally better than that of pumped completions. tures may be installed at a relatively minor cost at the time
of initial installation. Consequently, close consideration
In many cases, wells may be flowed naturally during the must be given to such options during the initial design
initial phases of their life, with some assistance provided phase.
by artificial lift methods as the reservoir depletes. Such
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OIL AND GAS WELL COMPLETIONS Rev E Section 1
INTRODUCTION TO COMPLETIONS
December 1996 Page 9 of 20
• Establish objectives and design criteria Fig. 8. Multiple zone completion configuration
example.
• Constructing the wellbore
• Initiating production
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Section 1 Rev E OIL AND GAS WELL COMPLETIONS
INTRODUCTION TO COMPLETIONS
Page 10 of 20 December 1996
As in all design and execution processes, the acquisition 1.5.1 Establish Objectives and Design Criteria
of accurate or representative data is essential to the timely
achievement of the stated objectives. The level of accu- This initial phase may be summarized as the collection of
racy required will vary with the data type–from the as- data pertaining to the reservoir, wellbore and production
sumption of essential reservoir formation and fluid prop- facility parameters. This data is considered alongside
erties to more general properties which can more easily constraints and limitations which may be technical or non
be measured (Fig 9). technical in nature, e.g., company policy.
3 Completion–
Can be controlled.
2 Reservoir properties–
Can be measured.
2
1 1 Reservoir boundary–
Can be estimated.
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OIL AND GAS WELL COMPLETIONS Rev E Section 1
INTRODUCTION TO COMPLETIONS
December 1996 Page 11 of 20
The principal factors affecting the performance of any well • Formation damage (fluid invasion)
relate to the three areas illustrated in Figure 9. Of these,
many of the fluid and reservoir properties can be mea- • Completion geometry (wellbore profile)
sured or inferred from measurements. However, in gen-
eral they cannot be controlled. By contrast, almost all • Fluid behavior (multiphase flow)
elements of a completion can be controlled and appropri-
ate selection will therefore affect well performance. • Geology (fractures and heterogeneity)
The objectives for which a completion system is designed Only in very rare circumstances can a wellbore be
vary, however, the following points may be regarded as constructed (drilled and cemented) without any damage
fundamental and will have some bearing in most applica- to the reservoir occurring. The completion and perforation
tions. process presents an opportunity for early damage to be
bypassed, however, poorly designed and executed
• Ensure potential for optimum production (or injection). operations may result in even further damage being
caused.
• Provide for adequate monitoring and servicing.
Once in production, the wellbore conditions, reservoir
• Provide some flexibility for changing conditions, applica- parameters and the characteristics of reservoir fluids may
tions or contingency measures. result in the deposition of scale, wax or asphaltenes in or
near the wellbore, causing additional skin effect. Workover
• Contribute to efficient field/reservoir development and operations performed later in the life of a well, especially
production. applications requiring the well to be killed, also present a
risk of damage. Consequently, the risk of reservoir damage
• Ensure cost efficient installation and operation. is present throughout the life of a well.
The principal objectives associated with wellbore con- Filtrate damage - reduced permeability caused by
struction will typically include: interaction of drilling fluid filtrate, the reservoir rock and/or
the fluids within it (Fig. 10). Risk of damage is reduced by
• Efficiently drill the formation while causing the minimum careful fluid selection or treatment of base fluid, e.g.,
practicable near wellbore damage. freshwater muds tend to be more damaging than oil based
muds.
• Acquire wellbore survey and reservoir test data used to
identify completion design constraints. Filter-cake formation - not generally a problem in perforated
wells, may effect open-hole or special gravel pack
• Prepare the wellbore through the zone of interest for the completions.
completion installation phase (run and cement produc-
tion casing or liner and preparation for sand control or Solids migration - Solids from the drilling fluid can plug
consolidation services). vugs and natural fractures present in some reservoir
formations. If drilling losses have been controlled with
There are many issues which directly, or indirectly, influ- LCM (lost circulation material) the effect can be severe
ence the process of wellbore design and construction. and the damage difficult to remove if the LCM is not acid
The examples provided below can have significant effect soluble.
on the productivity of a well. In addition, the effects are not
always consistent. For example, in one case impaired Cement filtrate - as for drilling fluid, the effect of cement
vertical permeability may constrain production. In another filtrate can be damaging.
case, the same condition may be helpful in reducing gas
or water coning.
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Section 1 Rev E OIL AND GAS WELL COMPLETIONS
INTRODUCTION TO COMPLETIONS
Page 12 of 20 December 1996
Completion
Workover
Fig. 11 Production damage (scale) Workover fluid losses - kill pills, containing plugging
materials, are frequently spotted to enable the well to be
killed (Fig. 12). Selection of an appropriate material which
Completion enables subsequent clean-up or removal is essential.
fluid loss
Completion geometry
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OIL AND GAS WELL COMPLETIONS Rev E Section 1
INTRODUCTION TO COMPLETIONS
December 1996 Page 13 of 20
ht
Total skin = ––– Sm + So
hp
Fig. 13 Vertical wellbore.
where :
Sm = mechanical skin
So = completion skin
ht = reservoir height
hp = perforated interval
Cap rock
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Section 1 Rev E OIL AND GAS WELL COMPLETIONS
INTRODUCTION TO COMPLETIONS
Page 14 of 20 December 1996
Multiphase flow
• Gas coning
Oil production rate
• Preferential flow through high permeability streaks
Fig. 17 Gas break-out.
• Falling gas/oil contact due to reservoir depletion
which the gas breakout occurs. Figure 17 shows gas
Two phase fluid flow resulting from unwanted gas produc- breakout occurring in the reservoir formation.
tion may present several problems. These are largely
dependent on the quantity/ratio of gas and the location at Similarly, in some gas wells condensate dropout may
occur when the pressure drops below the dewpoint. In
addition to causing a loading effect on the wellbore, liquids
GOC Gas may induce a positive skin factor. The increase in friction
pressure caused by two-phase fluid flow can result in a
significant pressure drop in such cases.
Oil
Gas coning Unlike gas, water production is always undesirable. Water
Cement channel only acts to reduce the productivity of a well and subse-
quently requires special treatment and disposal when
produced to surface. Similar to gas, sources of water
production include the following (Fig. 18):
• Water coning
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OIL AND GAS WELL COMPLETIONS Rev E Section 1
INTRODUCTION TO COMPLETIONS
December 1996 Page 15 of 20
GOC
Water
injection
well
High-perm
streak
Gravity
OWG slumping
High-perm
streak
Bubble
Fig. 18 Water production. Bubble
Point Point
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Section 1 Rev E OIL AND GAS WELL COMPLETIONS
INTRODUCTION TO COMPLETIONS
Page 16 of 20 December 1996
Not producing
Not producing
Oil Fracturing
Water
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OIL AND GAS WELL COMPLETIONS Rev E Section 1
INTRODUCTION TO COMPLETIONS
December 1996 Page 17 of 20
• Perforation length
• High-shot densities
• Perforation phasing
Loose sand • Underbalanced perforating
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Section 1 Rev E OIL AND GAS WELL COMPLETIONS
INTRODUCTION TO COMPLETIONS
Page 18 of 20 December 1996
Hydraulic fracturing
Fig. 27 Partial completion (lower).
Propped Fracs - A fracture is initiated and propagated with
specially engineered fluid, pumped at high-rate and high-
pressure to form a fracture radiating from the wellbore.
Proppant carried by the fracturing fluid remains in place as
the pressure is bled off and the fracture close. The
resulting high permeability fracture provides a high
productivity conduit to the wellbore (Fig. 29).
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OIL AND GAS WELL COMPLETIONS Rev E Section 1
INTRODUCTION TO COMPLETIONS
December 1996 Page 19 of 20
Gas
Oil
Wellbore
Water
Acid etched
fracture and Fracture has grown
worm holes into water zone
In all fracturing treatments care must be taken during the The treatment mechanism is dependent on the type of
design and execution phases to minimize the risk of reservoir rock. Most carbonate reservoirs are treatable
fracturing into undesirable water or gas producing areas with hydrochloric acid (HCl). The acid bypasses damage
(Fig. 31). and links vugs and natural fractures to create a highly
permeable path. In sandstone reservoirs, a mud acid
Matrix Treatments - Designed to remove or bypass near treatment (hydrofluoric acid - HF/HCl) is typically used.
wellbore damage, the treatment is performed below the This acid formulation can dissolve siliceous materials, so
formation fracture pressure. The resulting interconnected is capable of removing the damage rather than bypassing
wormholes provide higher conductivity near the wellbore the damage, as in carbonate reservoirs.
(Fig. 32).
To be fully effective, any treatment should be properly
Appreciable productivity increases following matrix treat- applied through the treatment interval. For near wellbore
ment will generally only occur if significant damage is treatments, such as acidizing, incomplete treatments due
present. to variable perforation performance can be a problem
(Fig. 33).
Gas
Stimulated area
Oil
Wellbore
Perforation plugged
Acid etched (e.g., with CaCO3)
wormholes
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Section 1 Rev E OIL AND GAS WELL COMPLETIONS
INTRODUCTION TO COMPLETIONS
Page 20 of 20 December 1996
1.5.5 Initiating Production Even by this short introduction to oil and gas well comple-
tion, several conclusions quickly become apparent. These
In most cases, this phase of the completion process is should be borne in mind as the completion design process
further subdivided into the following three stages. is further investigated.
• Initiating flow to establish communication between the • The safe, efficient and economic completion of an oil or
reservoir and the wellbore. gas well is a complex process.
• Defining an appropriate clean up program to enable the • A structured approach to defining the design criteria of
ultimate production rate to be achieved safely and a well is essential. Critical to this effort is a comprehen-
without damage to the reservoir, completion compo- sive formation evaluation program.
nents or surface production facilities.
• The design of well completions is a dynamic process -
• Design of any initial stimulation treatment which may be taking into account data gathered on the performance of
necessary to enable the restoration of permeability in previous completions. However, no two wells are ex-
the near wellbore area. actly alike!
1.5.6 Production Evaluation and Monitoring • A degree of flexibility should be built into the design and
configuration of completions to allow for anomalies and
An initial production evaluation is necessary to confirm uncertainties.
that the completion system achieves the production capa-
bilities required by the design objectives. Subsequent • All completions comprise a variety of tubular and special-
evaluation and monitoring exercises will provide the fol- ized components. The total number of components will
lowing production information on the reservoir, well and directly effect the complexity, inherent reliability and
completion system. longevity of a successful completion system.
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