Overview

Computer Aided Design (CAD) has been around since the early 1960’s to facilitate the
design of objects through computers. It is an extensive field that’s nestled in the spectrum
of Automated Methods (see fig.1) and often associated with other fields in this spectrum,
such as CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) or CAE (Computer Aided Engineering).

The definition of CAD is "the integration of computer science methods and engineering
sciences in a computer-based system, providing a database, a program library, and a
communication subsystem (Barr)." In less complicated terms, CAD process of design
with the support of a CAD system. Thus, in order to understand CAD, we must first delve
into the process of design.

The design process differs depending on the product, company’s or organization’s size,
and on the type of design. Obviously, there will be a difference in process between
designing a bicycle based on previous models for a private company and designing a
completely new and original blueprint of a nuclear power plant for the government.
Below are the bare basics of the design process:
 1. Conceptualization stage (product planning) - sketch the ideas to guide the design;
outcome is the preliminary/conceptual model

2. Preliminary design - break down the conceptual model into smaller

parts/components and calculate their size and proportions

3. Analysis of the design model - execute a number of tests to understand the

behavior and properties of the design under realistic working conditions; large
amounts of numerical computations are usually needed in this step. Feasible tests
may be on the product lifetime, cost of production, thermal effects, etc.

4. Evaluation of the design’s performance - based on the results of step (3), make
sure there are no violations in product requirements

5. Modification of the design model to improve its performance (if any violations
occur)

6. Repetition of steps (4) and (5), until optimum performance is obtained

7. Last minute detailed design of the various components and subsystems

8. Production of the detailed drawings for construction or manufacturing

is the Computer Aided Design comes into play when the designer uses computers as the
primary tool to carry out the above eight steps, as opposed to pen and paper:

1. In the first step of design process, the conceptualization stage, the designer can
enter the ideas into a computer. The CAD program will then transform the data
into a computer model. The computer not only stores the data at this stage, but
also responds to it by guiding the designer on how to better his/her ideas through
access of its vast knowledge base.

2. During the second step, the designer can once again make use of the large
databases of previous designs, standard codes of practices, handbooks, and other
resources to help him in his decision making. The computer keeps track of design
dependency (if one value is changed, then all the other values that depend on it
are automatically changed accordingly), making the manipulation of size and
proportionality much quicker and easier.

3. In the analysis stage, the computer can easily run the tests and numerical
computations.

4. The computer then evaluates the results from these tests with the designer to...

5. figure out what improvements can be made on the model.

 6. Steps four and five are repeated until optimum performance is obtained

7. Once again, the large stores of databases and knowledge based programs come
into play. These stores of information and the computer’s advanced graphic
capability aid the designer in the process of detailed design.

8. A plotter carries out the last step, printing the finished drafts. In CAD/CAM
systems, the design data can be stored in special machine-controlled tapes and
disks in digitized form. Machine tools can then read these tapes/disks and
manufacture the product designed.

Hopefully, you now know how computers come into play with the design process. The
next step to grasping the concept of CAD is learning its pros and cons.
The biggest and most important advantage of CAD is:

 increase in productivity

Other important benefits are:

 reduction of design time and mistakes

 ability to store large amounts of information

 enabling designs analysis in various angles, sizes, and cross-sections (an object
can be sliced to reveal its internal structure)

 capability to easily manipulate the design

 decrease in expenses

 better design quality

 ability to handle more complex designs

 flexibility

The disadvantages listed below can be alleviated with lots of experience and a good
working knowledge of a programming language such as C and Pascal:

 rules for the design must be written as algorithms

 computers, unlike humans, need all information to be represented in a formal way

(which raises the question of whether all design specification and knowledge can
 be completely formalized).

 a computer can only carry out systematic reasoning (which is limited to the
programs stored). It has no creative skills, imagination, or judgement to generate
ideas like the designer.

 only sequential input is possible on a computer, unlike a designer who can

simultaneously input information received through his eyes, ears, and other
sensory organs.

 much programming work is needed to properly store and organize information

 a computer has no capability of intuitive analysis, only numerical analysis

Because of its advantages and disadvantages, the design process is sometimes best
implemented with a combination of manual design and CAD supported design. This
combination of design is known as full-custom design. An example of a product that is
usually designed in this fashion is the microprocessor chip.

CAD can be used in almost all fields of engineering. Three major engineering
fields that rely heavily on CAD are:

 electrical
 architectural
 mechanical

Electrical engineering

The first application of CAD was in the electronics industry. With the increasing
complexity of electronic devices, computers have become imperative inelectrical design.
Integrated circuits (ICs) are a good example of this developed dependency on CAD. Each
integrated circuit used to have less then thirty transistors and a thousand geometries
(geometric patterns). Now, these numbers have risen drastically. With over one million
transistors and ten million geometries per IC, the conventional method of design is no
longer an option.
Advantages
Electrical designs "present a mathematically indeterminate problem" (Hamdi). There is
no single optimum design, but several different ways to solve the design problem. With
the advent of CAD, electrical engineers have a quick and easy access to alternate designs.
Another function that CAD programs offer is validating the circuits and the accuracy of
the design. If, for instance, an attempt to design a bistable circuit is made, the CAD
program will check that the values attributed to the various components will produce the
desired circuit. Faulty permanent magnet design used to pose as a big threat to electrical
engineers because it resulted in partial demagnetization, but because of CAD’s ability to
verify the reasonability of the design, it's no longer a problem. Other basic advantages
offered by CAD in electrical engineering are

 providing an understandable representation of the numerical results (usually

through graphs and other graphic devices)

 greatly reducing the tediousness of remembering and solving common equations

 Ability to use simple numerical methods to solve complex problems in a few

minutes

 testing done on the design (such as the maximum value of load resistance the
design can support).

Approaches to CAD
There are two basic approaches to designing electrical machines with CAD:

1. analysis method

2. synthesis method

Analysis method
In the analysis method, information such as the dimension, the material being used, and
type of construction involved are inputted into the computer. With this information, the
computer can run several tests and calculations on the characteristics of the design. After
analyzing the results, the design is altered and the steps are repeated until the
specifications are met.

Synthesis method
The only difference between the analysis method and the synthesis method is the initial
step. The synthesis method assumes that the CAD software includes the design procedure
and a data library filled with information on various materials. The initial design (which,
many times, is produced by the CAD system) is written in the computer program as
statements.

Finite element method

Just as architecture is visually oriented, electrical engineering has its stronghold in
numerical analysis. The most popular numerical method since the introduction of CAD in
electrical engineering is the finite element method. The finite element method is one of
the most powerful methods used to solve large-scale complex electromagnetic field
problems through simple data structures.
Based on Hoole’s Computer-Aided Analysis and Design of Electromagnetic Devices, the
steps taken in the finite element method are

1. Division of the field region into finite elements or sub-domains

2. Specification of trial functions

3. Identification of an optimality standard

4. Solution of a set of linear equations

The finite element method included in the electrical engineering CAD packages allows
the analysis of different geometries and operating conditions through a simple data
structure instead of having to construct a time-consuming physical model. With a finite
element model, the engineer can certify, with a high accuracy, important design criteria
such as

 flux linkages

 induced voltages

 core losses

 winding inductance

 developed electromagnetic torque

The finite element method also easily yields to automation.

(For more information on the finite element method, go to the mechanicalsection.)

Graphics
Numerical models are a major part of the electrical engineering design process, but the
importance of graphical models should not be overlooked. After all the computations are
completed, the information must be presented in a form that is easy to interpret and
analyze. Graphs and other graphic devices are the obvious and best solutions. Automation
can also help avoid some arduous operations. It is much simpler and quicker to indicate
with a graphic pen the part of the device where a reading (such as its flux density) is
wanted instead of having to first find the coordinates for that location.

Although all the electrical devices are three dimensional, they are often designed (for
convenience) in two dimensions and, less frequently, in one dimension. Not all designs
are reduced in dimensions though. In some cases, it is necessary to view the electrical
device in 3D in order to keep the accuracy of the design.

Architecture

The very nature of Architectural Design requires an innumerable number of drafts to be

created for the purpose of aiding the creative process and presentation to the clients. CAD
software made for Architects can perform these conventional tasks more efficiently. They
can also

 enable perspective views to be integrated into the drafts

 allow the architect to tackle more complex problems

 give a competitive edge (many clients look for CAD abilities when hiring an
architect.)

With its introduction, CAD quickly moved up in status from being desirable to becoming
required in the field of Architecture.

click here for an example of a building designed with the support of CAD

Capabilities of architecture-based CAD systems

CAD has matured so quickly in importance mainly due to the communication it brings.
Architectural CAD systems often allow files produced from different systems to be read
into the same model, enabling compatibility between the software used by the architect
and the contractor. The architectural CAD system that creates the visual model of the
edifice contains the related databases needed by the other specialists involved, thus
putting the architects in charge of the building’s creation. Most importantly, CAD creates
a bridge between the architect and the client by giving the clients the power to participate
in the design process. The clients do not need a lot of architectural knowledge to fully
understand the CAD-rendered models that

 offer multiple viewpoints

 contain several relative position shots

 are complete with the internal organization (such as the placement of furniture to
phones) of the building

 often include animation, enabling the client to take a virtual tour of the building
inside and out.

As technology continues to strive forward, Virtual Reality is increasingly becoming more

involved in architecture-based CAD programs. Since its introduction in the late 1980’s,
architecture and CAD have played a major role in virtual reality. Around 1995,
Matsushita Electronic Industries produced a virtual house with its bases in CAD. Since
then, a number of projects that incorporated virtual reality with CAD began to grow.

Architectural CAD packages

The most basic CAD packages permit construction and editing of drawings using

 geometric primitives

 parts stored in the computer’s libraries

 3D geometric modeling and viewing, usually wire frame and solid modelling.

Wire frame modelling, still widely used by architects, is known as the "ancestor
of contemporary CAD presentation". The nature of wire frame models reveals the
underlying structure of the building, thus helping architects check the project's
'buildability'. Due to this ability, wire frame modelling is used for establishing the
building's skeleton in the developmental design stages of most CAD programs.
Solid modelling is usually utilized for the finished model.

Despite wire frame modelling's advantages, some architects prefer using solid
modelling in the primary stages as well as in the final stage. The difference
between wire frames and solid modelling is parallel to the difference between
using paper/pencil and a 3D object like wood or foam to construct the initial
design. Even if solid modelling is used from beginning to end, the first draft does
not look remotely like the finished design. In the beginning stages, the architect is
not interested in making the building look realistic, only in outlining the rationale
of the design. Keith Williams of Pawson Williams Architect further explains how
CAD is used as an abstract design process by saying:
 "The importance of the computer is as an interface between the physical design
and the abstract ideas behind it. We are interested in CAD as an architectural tool,
not as a tool for building."

It the later stage of design, realistic elements, like color, lighting, and shadows,
are added to help communicate the building design to the client.

(for more information on geometric modelling, go to the graphicssection)

Non-visuals
Visualization in Architecture is key, but it is not the only element involved in the
design stage. John Walker, founder of AutoCAD (one of the most widely used
CAD software among both architects and other design professionals), relays that a
true CAD program would be

"a system which describes physical objects and knows about the various ways in
which they interact."

Some non-visual questions that must be answered during the design process are

o what type of materials should be used

o what functions does the building have to perform (i.e. loads and stresses
the building must handle)

o how will the project be constructed

o how much will it cost

Mechanical engineering
A General Electric survey from a few years back found that over sixty percent of all
manufactured parts were not made according to the draft mainly due to

 incomplete drawings

 components that were unable to be made as drawn

 ambiguous drawings

 inability to assemble the parts as drawn

Most of these problems could have been avoided with the support of CAD software to
check for any inaccuracy or inadequacy in the part’s design and calculations.

The most common trait in a practical design problem is design object’s complexity. Some
designs are considered complex just due to sheer size. A pressure vessel designed to
withstand high pressures and thermal gradients is composed of 400 tons of steel in
material alone. Thus, it is not surprising that designers are continually pressured to
optimize their designs, especially in material use. Computer Aided Design
helps mechanical engineers try to solve the problem with optimum efficiency.

CAG and CAA

Mechanical CAD can be seen as the combinations of Computer Aided Graphics (CAG)
and Computer Aided Analysis (CAA).
CAG consists of:

 3D modelling

 preparing development of components

 the interpretation of solids

CAA consist of

 finite element modelling

 identifying forces and deformation (the object’s response to the forces)

 determining the stress levels at various locations

Though CAG and CAA can be seen as two separate fields, they are intertwined in the
mechanical design process. CAA depends on CAG’s pre-processing and post-processing
skills. Likewise, CAG needs CAA’s analysis results to know how to modify the graphical
design. Design and analysis in general have become dependent on each other on account
of high-speed digital computers and methods (i.e., the finite element method) that relate
to the structural mechanics problem.

CAD analysis
As mentioned before, optimization is essential to help keep costs and time down. But
finding the most efficient procedure is no easy task, especially since most mechanical
CAD systems have to handle more then ten thousand unknowns. Breaking down the
design object into a set of simultaneous algebraic equations optimizes computational
labor in the analysis process. Some types of analysis performed on mechanical designs
and some possible characteristics they tests (according to Christopher McNulty
of Creative Products Group ) are:

1. Finite Element Analysis: stress, deflection, modal

2. Finite Difference Analysis: thermal

3. Electronic Cooling Analysis: conduction, convection, radiation, airflow

4. Opto-mechanical Analysis: geometric raytracing, mount induced wavefront

distortions, limited error budgeting

The most important analyses of the four are the finite element and the finite difference
procedures. With these two methods, objects with complicated structures and loading (i.e.
static, dynamic, transient and random) can have their general behavioral characteristics
classified by three quantities:

1. stiffness

2. mass

3. damping

Finite element method

The finite element method is very much like the finite difference method, in that both
reduce a structural problem to a system of linear equations expressed with large matrices
(usually with size 1000 by 1000 or more). Despite their similarities, the finite element
method is usually the one that’s given more emphasis. "The skill of the designer revolves
around his ability to decide on the best finite element model for his analysis
(Ramamurti)." The finite element procedure is basically dividing the problem/objects into
a collection of elements in a way that the structure of the elements will simulate that of
the original problem.
(For more information on the finite element method, go to the electricalsection.)

CAD graphics
The design structural geometry in mechanical engineering is complicated, not the
idealized uniform beams, plates, and shells. Thus, an advanced graphic modelling system
is needed. Most mechanical engineers use 3D solid modelling (the most complex form in
geometric modelling), and occasionally utilize surface modelling and two-dimensional
drafting. These graphics can be animated to show a machine, in full detail, in motion to
reveal how it will act in certain environments. This is especially useful in showing the
effects of various forces since the majority of forces acting on the machine devices vary
over time (such as stress). Some other advantages of CAD graphics in mechanical
engineering are:

 provision of a preliminary product display (saves cost of development for sales

presentations)

 a clear method of displaying the designer’s intent

 better visualization of the product during theconceptual stage

 facilitating the production of design variations

 savings in time and money by supplanting physical prototypes

resourcefulness in stress analysis, heat

transfer analysis flow, analysis around or
within the design, centroid
determinations, determination on cast
parts, moment of inertia and other
applications Computer-aided design/Basics
Part of Engineering and Technology; Mechanical Engineering; Production and Design
Engineering

Understand the basic principles and techniques used in computer aided design and
manufacture process.

Learn how to use available CAD/CAE tools.

Finishing the course students should have hands-on experience with 3D modeling and
design using available CAD/CAE tools.

Course Description
Course develops students' competence and self-confidence as design engineers. Emphasis
is on the creative design process.
Course covers design stages:

 Design
 Analysis
 Rapid prototyping
 Visualization and presentation
 Planning and Manufacturing

CAD Basics and Principles

Computer-aided design/History, Present and

Future
History[edit]
The beginnings of CAD can be traced to the year 1957, when Dr. Patrick J. Hanratty
developed PRONTO, the first commercial numerical-control programming system. In 1960,
Ivan Sutherland MIT's Lincoln Laboratory created SKETCHPAD, which demonstrated the
basic principles and feasibility of computer technical drawing.

2D Time[edit]
The first CAD systems served as mere replacements of drawing boards. The design
engineer still worked in 2D to create technical drawing consisting from 2D wireframe
primitives (line, arc, B spline ...). Productivity of design increased, but many argue that only
marginally due to overhead – design engineers had to learn how to use computers and CAD.
Nevertheless modifications and revisions were easier, and over time CAD software and
hardware became cheaper and affordable for mid size companies. CAD programs grew in
functionality and user friendliness. (1974)

This is 100% true that CAD first started off with using a sketch pad.

3D Time[edit]
3D wireframe features were developed in the beginning of the sixties, and in 1969 MAGI
released Syntha Vision, the first commercially available solid
modelerprogram. Solid modeling further enhanced the 3D capabilities of CAD
systems. NURBS, mathematical representation of freeform surfaces, appeared in 1989 --
first on Silicon Graphics workstations. In 1993 CAS Berlin developed an interactive NURBS
modeler for PCs, called NöRBS.
Parametric Design[edit]
In 1989 T-FLEX and later Pro/ENGINEER introduced CADs based on parametric engines.
Parametric modeling means that the model is defined by parameters. A change of dimension
values in one place also changes other dimensions to preserve relation of all elements in the
design.

(for example “this must be parallel with that and in the middle of
...”).

MCAD systems introduced the concept of constraints that enable you to define relations
between parts in assembly. Designers started to use a bottom-up approach when parts are
created first and then assembled together. Modeling is more intuitive, precise and later
analysis, especially kinematics easier.

Present[edit]
CAD/CAE/CAM systems are now widely accepted and used throughout the industry. These
systems moved from costly workstations based mainly on UNIX to off-the-shelf PCs. 3D
modeling has become a norm, and it can be found even in applications for the wider public,
like 3D buildings modeling in Google Maps, house furnishing (IMSI Floorplan), or garden
planning. Advanced analysis methods like FEM (Finite Element Method as for structural
analysis), flow simulations are a ubiquitous part of the design process. CAM systems are
used for simulation and optimization of manufacturing, and NC code is created and loaded to
NC machines.

Future[edit]
The past of CAD has been full of unmet expectations; this continues. Some anticipate 3D
modelling without flat screens or mouse pointers -- a fully immersive 3D environment where
modelling tools include special gloves and goggles. In the future, designing will be closer to
sculpting than painting.

Up to now, 3D goggles cause nausea, immersive technologies are expensive and complex,
and most designers prefer using a keyboard, stylus, and mouse.

While some of these optimistic predictions may come true, the more likely course is that the
future changes will evolve in ways we do not see now. Still, some trends seem more likely to
succeed and be widely adopted than others.

The following speculations are separated into strong probability of adoption, medium, and
weak.
CAD format standardization based on XML (strong)[edit]
CAD formats will follow development in Office applications, where XML based ODF (Open
Document Format) format is becomming standard. Similar standardization efforts for 3D and
CAD related formats are represented by X3D.

Companies and developers will start to implement X3D import/export as default way for data
exchange. This will enhance interoperability between CAD, and related applications like
CAE, CAM. 3D models created in CAD could be immediately presented in web browsers that
will be able to display 3D models (and to zoom, rotate ...).

Full virtual prototypes (strong)[edit]

Increasingly 3D models are defined with physical properties, especially material and optical.
Developers of industrial CAD will increasingly integrate 3D modeling with analysis tools like
FEM, kinematics or flow simulations. Gap between 3D model and real objects will further
narrow, 3D models will look realistically and what is even more important, they will behave as
in reality. Virtual prototypes are reality in high tech environments, today. In future this
principle will spread even to low end 3D applications, and will become more precise on high
end ones. In some cases prototyping and tests will be skipped altogether.

CAD specialization (strong)[edit]

CAD systems will continue in the trend of specialization. There are general purpose CADs,
that can be enhanced for specific purpose and specialized CADs build upon generic engines
like Open CASCADE. Examples of specialized CADs goes from OrCAD, used by electronic
design engineers, Allplan for architects or ArtCAMfor jewelry design. In the future we will see
more task oriented and highly specialized CADs. However general purpose CADs will not
disappear, they will have more functions (integrated analysis, kinematics and simulations),
yet they will be easier to use.

=== Real time ray tracing Real time ray tracing is a resource intensive process. For example
one second of high resolution

Development of open source CAD (medium)[edit]

Many commercial and proprietary programs have their strong open source alternatives.
There is Windows and Linux, MS Office and OpenOffice, Oracle and Firebird and so on. But
there is no viable strong open source competitor to commercial CAD systems like AutoCAD
or SolidWorks. Yes, there are some open source CADs like BRL-CAD, but these are not
widely adopted and used in industry.

In future there may be a strong open source CAD solution. It will probably be based the
Open CASCADE engine. Other probable scenario is that a CAD company will start an open
source project to boost its more profitable products based on same engine (for example
CAM or CAE).

Small scale and rapid manufacturing (medium)[edit]

Development of hardware and software for both rapid prototyping and rapid
manufacturing will change manufacturing, marketing and business processes. Improvements
of hardware like 3D printers, laser and metal sintering will enable to produce complex parts
effectively even in small series and from various materials like plastics, textile, ceramics or
metal. Products will be bought in the form of license, 3D model will be downloaded from
Internet and manufactured on hardware connected to computer in local store or even at
home. Time needed for delivering product to market will be further decreased. It's also
usefull as special software for transfering CAD's files (as PRO-E, SolidWorks ) to CNC
machines, so after modeling and drawing comes programming CNC machines to make
designed models as solid objects.

Dynamic Physical Rendering (weak)[edit]

DPR - Dynamic Physical Rendering is collaborative research project between Carnegie
Mellon University and Intel. This project will evolve into new representation of 3D models.
Instead of 2D representations of 3D objects there will be real 3D models build in bottom-up
manner. Many versatile little building blocks will form larger objects like car model according
to computer program. This concept is also known as Claytronics.

CAD based on genetic programming (weak)[edit]

Genetic programming (GP) is machine learning technique that uses an evolutionary
algorithm to optimize a population of designs according to a fitness landscape determined by
a design ability to perform a given computational task. GP has been successfully used for
development computer programs, electronic circuits and antennas. GP technique will be
used for design of complex products which consists of many parts, but limited in number of
types. CAD packages will incorporate GP methods to ease, improve and speed up design of
hydraulics and fluid control systems or MEMS. Later will come new manufacturing processes
similar to protein creation in ribosome, where 3D protein complex structures are based on
only 20 building blocks (amino acids). Computer program will serve like DNA, manufacturing
hardware will serve as ribosome and one machine will be able to manufacture wide range of
different products.

Computer-aided design/Principles and

terminology
Introduction[edit]
Computer aided design is a complex process.

There are many specialized tools that can speed up your design, minimize errors and
improve your results.

In this lesson, we will:

 Familiarize you with terms used in CAD industry.

 Give the general idea of design process stages.
 Teach about available software tools and their general purpose.

Terminology[edit]
Read about frequently used CAD/CAE/CAM terms on Wikipedia:

 CAD (MCAD - mechanical, ECAD -electronic and electrical, AEC - Architecture,

engineering and construction ...) Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of a wide
range of computer-based tools that assist engineers, architects and other design
professionals in their design activities. The term CADD is sometimes used and it stands
for Computer-aided Drafting and Design.
 CAE, CAx Computer-aided engineering is the use of information technology for
supporting engineers in tasks such as analysis, simulation, design, manufacture,
planning, diagnosis and repair.
 CAM Computer-aided manufacturing is the use of software tools that assist
engineers, in the manufacture of product components.
 GD&T GD&T, also refered to as geometric dimensioning and tolerancing, is a
symbolic language used on engineering drawings and computer generated three-
dimensional solid models (CAD) for explicitly describing nominal geometry and its
allowable variation.
 PLM Product lifecycle management (PLM) is the process of managing the entire
lifecycle of a product from its conception, through design and manufacture, to service
and disposal. In the PLM process engineers use different CAD/CAE/CAM tools.

Follow the links to get acquainted with other terms and abbreviations used in the
CAD/CAE/CAM industry.
Design process[edit]

Scheme of Design Process (gif)

Scheme of Design Process (svg)

On the charts (gif and svg versions) you can see the generalized design, validation and
manufacturing process.

Each stage requires specific knowledge and skills, and often requires the use of specific
software.

Need or Idea[edit]

Usually the design process starts with a defined need. The need can be defined by market
research, by the requirements of a larger body of work (for example airplane part).
Sometimes, but more rarely than you may think, the design process is begun with a new idea
or invention.
At any rate, a needs analysis should precede any decision to undertake a project. This
includes defining the need in a highly detailed way, in writing. This is similar to the
requirements specification process in software engineering.

Research[edit]

Professionals tend to research available solutions before beginning their work. There is no
need to "reinvent the wheel".

You should study existing solutions and concepts, evaluating their weaknesses and
strengths. Your research should also cover available parts that you can use as a part of your
design. It is obvious, that Internet and search engines like Google are very helpful for this
task. There are also many libraries of standardized parts which you can import into your
project.

Concept[edit]

Based on your research, start with a high level concept. You should specify the main
principles and major parts. For example you can consider Diesel or Stirling engines for
stationary electric generators.

Draft[edit]

You can choose to create a draft by pen and paper. Some prefer to use simple vector
graphics programs, others even simple CAD (for example SmartSketch), yet others prefer to
start directly in their main CAD system.

Model Design[edit]

2D and 3D modeling in CAD. The designer creates a model with details, and this is the key
part of the design process, and often the most time consuming. This will be described in
greater detail in further lessons. asa ceva

Part Libraries[edit]

Standard parts, or parts created by other team members, can be used in your model (you
don't have to reinvent the wheel). Files representing a part can be downloaded from the
Internet, or local networks. They are also distributed on CD ROMs or together with CAD as
and extension (library). By putting these predefined parts into your project, you ensure that
they are correct and save a lot of time and effort. When working on a large project, this
becomes a requirement to ensure the parts operate together, swap out equivalent parts, and
coordinate distributed teams' work. This was, a standard part can be inserted into the project
by one team member, and used by all.hahaa
Assembly modeling[edit]

Parts are assembled into a machine or mechanism. Parts are put together using mating
conditions such as alignment of the axis of two holes. More about how to do this in further
lessons. cad is use in industries.

Analysis[edit]

Specialized programs (CAE -- Computer Aided Engineering) aid you in analysis of 3D model
robustness and performance. Many software tools are used for this task. Most notably FEM
(Finite Element Method) and Kinematics. Some CAD programs include these tools built in.

Engineering Drawings[edit]

From your 3D models, you generate a set of engineering drawings for manufacturing. These
drawings are then distributed to the departments and individuals responsible for producing
that work. Also these drawings must be toleranced for proper manufacturing.

Tool Design[edit]

You can use CAM software to simulate, optimize and prepare manufacturing. Generated NC
(Numeric Control) code is then executed by manufacturing machines like lathes or milling
cutters.

Planning[edit]

Critical Path Method, Gannt chart and other methods and tools are used by project
managers to plan and optimize manufacturing. Project management and ERP systems are
used.

Presentation[edit]

You should create photo realistic images and/or animations to present your design. This
allows you to get customer feedback even before the product is actually manufactured. You
can also consider using rapid prototyping techniques to present a physical 3D model.

Major CAD/CAE/CAM software companies develop and sell tools that cover the whole cycle.
These complex software tools support change management, teamwork, versioning and
resource planning.

Tasks to do[edit]

1. Play the role of an engineer who has to select an appropriate software package for
manufacturing.
 2. Select a manufacturer of a specific consumer product. Choose a company that you
know, or find one on the Internet (preferably one with well-described products and
manufacturing processes).
3. Find at least two (2) appropriate CAD/CAE/CAM packages suitable for your selected
manufacturer. These software tools should support all the major design process
stages (modeling, analysis, tool design, and presentation). Tools for teamwork,
project management and planning is a plus.
4. Compare and contrast your selected tools in terms of functionality, their added value,
and price. (Use a weighted evaluation methodology to determine which included
CAD/CAM/CAE software functions are most valuable/appropriate to your chosen
manufacturer.)

Outcomes[edit]
Your focused research of CAD/CAE/CAM industry gives you an overview about available
tools and their producers. You have also become familiar with industry lingo and terminology.

After successfully accomplishing this task you will be able to initialize the CAD/CAE/CAM
software selection process for a specific industry.

Learning Assignment[edit]
Write a Paper (approxiamately 2 pages) with:

1. Description of one of your chosen manufacturers.

2. Discuss the manufacturer's business critical needs and requirements.
3. Compare and contrast at least two software tools that meet these needs and
requirements.
4. Provide a weighted evaluation of your selected software tools (their major functions
and features). Hint: Use tables.

Computer-aided design/Objects
Introduction[edit]
A three dimensional (3D) computer model, for example a gear box, consists of many objects.
These objects are of several types, for example solid and surface types. We will look at 3D
model types and briefly discuss when to use them.

Workplane[edit]
Also called reference plane or coordinate-system. The workplane acts as a reference from
which the model data is calculated.
Point[edit]
A point represents a position in the 3D workspace and so is defined by x,y,z coordinates.
Points are usually used as reference to snap other objects onto.

Wireframe objects[edit]
Examples are lines, circles, arcs or curves in 2D or 3D space. Wireframe objects are defined
by control points and equation.

For example circle has center a,b (control point), radius r and equation defining set of all x,y
circle points.

Implicit function:

Parametric equation can be written using the trigonometric functions sine and cosine:

x = a + r cos(t)
y = b + r sin(t), where t is parametric variable.

CAD systems use parametric versions of equation.

Some wireframe objects like Beziér spline cannot be defined by control points
and simple function only. These objects are defined by many control points,
vectors in control vertices that define shape and set of x,y is is calculated by
algorithms (instead of simple equations).

Commonly used wireframe objects are:

 Line
 Arc
 Circle (full arc)
 Ellipse
 Polyline - set of connected lines and arcs
 Rectangle (special case of polygon)
 Regular polygons
 Polygon
 Bézier curve (special case of B-spline)
 B-spline (special case of NURBS)
 NURBS - Nonuniform rational B-spline
Surfaces[edit]
You can understand surface as a part the the outer shape of an object or as an
idealized sheet metal with zero thickness. Surface can be represented in several
ways, but the most common is as a Parametric surface.

Types of surfaces:

 Regular (or canonical) surfaces include surfaces of revolution such as

cylinders, cones, spheres, and tori, and ruled surfaces (linear in one
direction) such as surfaces of extrusion.
 Surface mesh
 Facet surface
 Voxel surface
 Freeform surfaces (usually NURBS) allow more complex shapes to be
represented via freeform surface modeling.

Solid objects[edit]
A solid represents a complete physical body, usually part that can be
manufactured from one piece of material. Most CADs use method
called Boundary Representation (abbrev B-rep or BREP) , to represent solid in
computer. The object is represented by connected surfaces forming a closed
solid volume. Surface elements create boundary between solid and non-solid.
Solid objects have a volume and other physical and optical properties (mass,
density, opacity ...).

Solids can be constructed from primitives or by sweeping base 2D shape along

a path. Complex shapes are constructed by boolean operations as union,
subtraction or intersection of two or more solids.

Sets of predefined solid primitives differ in various CADs. Commonly used are:

 Box, Cuboid
 Wedge
 Cylinder
 Cone
 Sphere
 Torus
 Sweeping
Imagine that you want to model bent pipe. You can create it, by draw two
concentric circles that will form a doughnut shape. The doughnut shape is the
profile. Then you will draw and axis of the pipe. Axis can be straight line, arc or
any other curve. Then you will sweep the doughnut along the defining path (pipe
axis).

Extrusions or rotations are special cases of sweeping. You can create a solid
box from a 2D rectangle by extrusion along the Z axis, or you can draw a 2D
circle and rotate it 180 degrees to create sphere.

You can use boolean operations to create more complex solid objects.
Subtraction is similar to drilling. Draw a box and a cylinder inside it. By
subtracting the cylinder from the box you will get a box with a hole. Unions are
similar to welding in that it joins two solid bodies together.

Feature[edit]
Many modern CADs use features.

Features are for example a hole or slot applied to solid object. Often features
are used with parametric geometry constraints. For example a hole must be in
the center of the disk.

Features are applied to base solids one by one.

When to use wireframe, surface or solid objects[edit]

Wireframe objects are typically used for drawing construction lines and basic 2D
shapes from which you will create solid objects by sweeping.

Solid modelling should be used for models that consist from relatively regular
shapes. Engines, gear boxes and machinery like lathe are typical examples.
Parts are usually put together by assembly modelling. Making changes is
usually fast, especially when features and parametric modelling is used.

Surface modelling is used for models with non-prismatic features, mainly

freeform, doubly curved surfaces. Airplane body and bodies of consumer goods
like electric razor are typical examples. Making changes is usually more difficult
and time consuming than with solid modelling.

Tasks to do[edit]
Learn about CAD math background. Learn more about parametric equations.

Use examples and on-line demos:

  Engineering fundamentals - Parametric Surface
 Paul's Online Math Notes
 Tom Leathrum's mathlets for Math Explorations

Achievements[edit]
You now have a basic understanding of CAD objects. You also have an idea of
how these objects are represented in a computer. You also know some math
behind the construction of these objects.

Deliveries[edit]
Parametric equations for some simple 3D surface (cylinder, sphere, ellipsoid).

You will need:

 Internet access and browser (with enabled Java applets)

Computer-aided design/Software
Introduction[edit]
We will discuss how a CAD software works. We will even create our own 2D CAD, ... well
sort of ...

Main CAD building blocks[edit]

CAD Software Layers

Database[edit]

Typically CAD software is built upon some database stored in the hard disk. From the user's
point of view it is a file. CAD objects such as a line or circle, however, are stored as
structured records. The CAD engine has implemented methods for fast data retrieval and
storage.

Object model[edit]

Data is read from the hard disk into memory RAM as an object model. Each graphical
element is represented as an object. Changes are made by manipulating these objects in
RAM. And then stored in the database on permanent storage such as the hard disk.

Modeling kernel[edit]

The modeling kernel is a set of methods generally programmed in a low level programming
language such as C. Libraries contain methods for creating graphical objects (draw line,
extrude, etc.) as well manipulating them (rotate, join, union, etc.). These operations are
mainly based on parametric equations and due to the number of objects and vertexes are
often time consuming. Since these arithmetical operations are running in the
computer's CPU, computers used for CAD tend to have high end processors.

Visualization[edit]

Objects are displayed on screen. Visualization, especially 3D graphics, consumes a lot of

resources, memory, and processor time. 3D geometry, transparency, light and shadow, fog,
different material properties, etc. all must be taken into account when calculating a scene.
Simplified views shown during on-screen part rotation must even be calculated several times
a second. To ease the burden and speed up operations, the visualization layer is distributed
between the CPU and GPU(graphics card). DirectX and OpenGL APIs are used. The GPU is
specially designed for processing images, so CAD visualization layers are increasingly being
designed to take advantage of graphics card capabilities.

Tasks to do[edit]
As good engineers, we will create a simple CAD from cheap and widely available
components. Quite probably you have them already installed.

We will use:

 Text file as the database.

 Database records must have some defined structure, we will use SVG for this
purpose.
 Text or XML editor to create and change records.
 SVG enabled browser such as Firefox or Opera to read SVG file and to view it.

To:

 Understand SVG basics and create really simple vector graphics.

 Manipulate SVG in memory i.e. change DOM dynamically
 Create GUI to interact with user using ECMAScript (JavaScript)

... and to "program" a 2D "CAD" in three simple steps

You will need[edit]

 Browser with SVG support like Mozilla Firefox or Opera

 Any text editor as Notepad will be sufficient. However XML editor will make your
editing easier.

Lesson[edit]
Step One - Draw Line[edit]
Let's start with something simple, very simple. We will draw SVG line from point 0,0 to
100,100. SVG is a standard defined by W3C Consortium. We will use W3C SVG 1.1
reference, especially line definition and examples. Write following code using any text editor
such as Notepad.

<?xml version="1.0"?>
<svg width="200" height="200" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"
version="1.1">
<line x1="0" y1="0" x2="100" y2="100" stroke="black"/>
</svg>

... save it as a text file, for example linetest.svg. Open it in browser and ... you should see the
line.

Although XML is almost self explainable and you probably have got the idea, let's comment
the example a little.

 First line <?xml version="1.0"?> defines that structure is XML, and you must follow
the rules like "every element has name, element must be enclosed in <>, element must
be closed, element can have attributes ..."
 <svg width="200" height="200" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" version="1.1">
means that SVG standard is used and graphics will be displayed in 200x200 square.
 <line x1="0" y1="0" x2="100" y2="100" stroke="black"/> means "draw black line from
point 0,0 to point 100,100"

Play with SVG commands a little. For example cross the thin black line (you already have)
with thick blue line. To achieve this, just add one line to text file and reopen it in browser
(reload works, too). Use above mentioned SVG reference and examples.
Your text should look like this:

<?xml version="1.0"?>
<svg width="200" height="200" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"
version="1.1">
<line x1="0" y1="0" x2="100" y2="100" stroke="black"/>
<line x1="0" y1="100" x2="100" y2="0" stroke="blue" stroke-
width="2"/>
</svg>

And the result in the browser should look like this:

File:SVGCADLesson1.jpg

If you do not see lines as depicted above, check if your browser hads SVG support (in the
case of MS IE, you need to have a SVG plugin installed such as Adobe). Also check if your
text is valid XML-SVG document, for example all elements must be closed
(<XXX>...</XXX>), double check mistypings...

If everything works, let's extend our example a little and create something more fancy to get
acquainted with SVG capabilities. Just a few tips:

 add a rectangle and a overlapping circle

 fill them with RGB color
 make one of them transparent
 add some descriptive text
 rotate the rectangle
 draw a curve (path)
Step Two - Use DOM and JavaScript to manipulate XML
dynamically[edit]
We will use JavaScript to create a line dynamically in memory. Similarly as in the big CAD
systems (instead of JavaScript C language is usually used, objects look differently, but
principles are the same).

<?xml version="1.0"?>
<svg
id="svgarea"
onload="createRandomBlueLine()"
xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"
width="200"
 height="200"
>
<script type="text/ecmascript"><![CDATA[
var svgNS = "http://www.w3.org/2000/svg";
function createRandomBlueLine() {
var newUseEl =
document.createElementNS(svgNS,"line");

newUseEl.setAttributeNS(null,"x1",Math.random() * 200);

newUseEl.setAttributeNS(null,"y1",Math.random() * 200);

newUseEl.setAttributeNS(null,"x2",Math.random() * 200);

newUseEl.setAttributeNS(null,"y2",Math.random() * 200);
newUseEl.setAttributeNS(null,"stroke-
width","1");
newUseEl.setAttributeNS(null,"stroke","blue");

document.getElementById("svgarea").appendChild(newUseEl);
}
]]></script>
</svg>

... again save this code as text file, and open it in your browser. You should see the blue line.
After refresh or reopening you should observe lines in random directions and lengths.

Let's look at the code again. There is svg root element similar as in previous static example.
But it has additional attribute onload="createRandomBlueLine()", meaning "Immediately after
text file content is loaded call function that will create blue line with random length and
direction". There is also another new attributeid="svgarea". This attribute is an identifier
which is used to locate the correct element in the tree. In our simple example, where we
have only one element it has no obvious meaning, but the tree can be quite large and
searching can be quite long. Worse than that, there can be more elements with the same tag
(name) and the program might not easily decide with which element it should work. The ID
must be unique in the scope of XML document and so the ID fully identifies one element. We
will use this identifier later to address svg element in JavaScript function.

JavaScript function createRandomBlueLine(). When browser reads XML from file, it also
creates objects and places them into tree structure. This process takes place in computer
memory. Objects and tree structure is called DOM. Root DOM object is called document.
That is why var newUseEl = document.createElementNS(svgNS,"line"); will create new
element with tag line as a part of document object. Now we can enhance our new
element line. CommandnewUseEl.setAttributeNS(null,"x1",Math.random() * 200); creates
attribute x1 with calculated random value. Similar result you can get by writing <line
x1="123"/> in XML document. Next few lines in JavaScript function just adds few more
attributes with random or fixed values. Last
commanddocument.getElementById("svgarea").appendChild(newUseEl); finds element by
its identifier (in our case it is element <svg id="svgarea" ...>) and places newly created
element (line) to correct place in the tree (as a child of svg element).

If you will think about this small example a little more, you could see, that XML is parsed from
text to memory representation called DOM and you can see the way, how to manipulate it
using programming language. Try to add an error for example add unclosed element for
example one line with <x>. You should see error message after trying to display it in the
browser. What happened? Browser tried to create DOM, but failed due to syntax errors.
Further execution was stopped, while without valid DOM all other tasks does not make
sense.

If everything works, we can enhance our example to RSCAD (Really Simple CAD). We will
add functionality, that will enable user interactions.

Step Three - Add menu and user input[edit]

The code that will do the trick is:

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8" standalone="no"?>

<!DOCTYPE svg PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD SVG 1.0//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/2001/REC-SVG-20010904/DTD/svg10.dtd">
<svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="800" height="600">
<script type="text/ecmascript"><![CDATA[
var svgNS = "http://www.w3.org/2000/svg";
function createRandomBlueLine() {
var newUseEl =
document.createElementNS(svgNS,"line");

newUseEl.setAttributeNS(null,"x1",Math.random() * 500);

newUseEl.setAttributeNS(null,"y1",Math.random() * 500);

newUseEl.setAttributeNS(null,"x2",Math.random() * 500);
 newUseEl.setAttributeNS(null,"y2",Math.random() * 500);
newUseEl.setAttributeNS(null,"stroke-
width","1");
newUseEl.setAttributeNS(null,"stroke","blue");

document.getElementById("drawGroup").appendChild(newUseEl);
}
function createLine() {
var newUseEl =
document.createElementNS(svgNS,"line");
var x1 = prompt('1st point X','10');
var y1 = prompt('1st point Y','10');
var x2 = prompt('2nd point X','100');
var y2 = prompt('2nd point Y','100');
var color = prompt('Stroke color','black');
newUseEl.setAttributeNS(null,"x1",x1);
newUseEl.setAttributeNS(null,"y1",y1);
newUseEl.setAttributeNS(null,"x2",x2);
newUseEl.setAttributeNS(null,"y2",y2);
newUseEl.setAttributeNS(null,"stroke-
width","1");
newUseEl.setAttributeNS(null,"stroke",color);

document.getElementById("drawGroup").appendChild(newUseEl);
}
]]></script>
<g id="menuGroup">
<text x="10" y="30" font-size="12px">Click to
draw:</text>
<text x="25" y="45" onclick="createRandomBlueLine()"
font-size="14px">- random line</text>
<text x="25" y="60" onclick="createLine()" font-
size="14px">- line</text>
</g>
<g id="drawGroup" transform="translate(150,10)">
<rect x="0" y="0" width="650" height="590" fill="none"
stroke="black" stroke-width="1"/>
<text x="0" y="0" font-size="10px">0,0</text>
<text x="500" y="0" font-size="10px">500,0</text>
 <text x="0" y="500" font-size="10px">0,500</text>
</g>
</svg>

Copy this code to file, for example rscad.svg and open it in the browser.

Explanations and hints: We added new SVG element <g id="menuGroup">. This is group
element that groups several elements together. Attributetransform="translate(150,10)" then
transforms all X,Y coordinates in the group. SVG text element <text x="25" y="60"
onclick="createLine()"> display text and calls JavaScript function createLine() when user
clicks on the displayed text. JavaScript command var x1 = prompt('1st point X','10'); then
displays edit box and stores value to variable. Variable is then used to set attribute values
of line SVG element.

Result should look like this

Now we have really simple CAD. You can even use it for some real tasks. However you will
probably use server-side technology like PHP and Apache, you will probably create menu
not as SVG text, but HTML menus instead, but in general, principle will remain the same.

Tasks to do[edit]
Study the example and play with it. Then try to enhance it. Add functions and menu entries
for:

 rectangle (filled, RGB colors, transparency)

 circle
 polygon
 dimension (line, arrows and dimension text)

and (not so easy) functions as Move, Copy and Delete.

If you will have something valuable, do not hesitate to place it here, so that others can be
inspired by your example.

Achievements[edit]
You have a basic understanding of how CAD software is made and how it works. More than
that, you can even create your own simple 2D CAD and show it on Internet.

Deliveries[edit]
Simple 2D CAD model based on SVG and ECMA script.