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MIT TECHNOLOGY REVIEW TECHNOLOGYREVIEW.COM THE FUTURE OF WORK
to quantify how likely jobs are to be com- A growing number of platforms like
The Big Question puterized by evaluating how much cre- Upwork, TaskRabbit, Uber, Airbnb, and
ativity, social intelligence, and dexterity others that connect freelancers to clients
DATA: BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS; CARL BENEDIKT FREY AND MICHAEL A. OSBORNE,
of Law, is researching computers’ impact
DIAGNOSTIC MEDICAL 110,400 $60,350 46% medium
on the practice of law. SONOGRAPHER
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THE FUTURE OF WORK TECHNOLOGYREVIEW.COM MIT TECHNOLOGY REVIEW
nology can both create new types of jobs for almost 13,000 software engineers, “Across STEM, very few fields are
and improve the quality of work. Mobile 1,568 data scientists, 1,691 programmer declining,” says Bureau of Labor Statistics
and sensor technologies could support analysts, and 4,033 database adminis- economist Michael Wolf.
health workers and help elderly people trators. (Overall, the U.S. economy is Salaries and demand are both rising
stay in their homes, for example, while adding about 230,000 jobs a month.) fast. A UCLA analysis of 2013 data pub-
machine learning could help doctors Depending on the job title, 60 percent lished this June contended that the average
make decisions. to 75 percent were at non-IT companies, tech worker in San Mateo County, which
Some jobs will surely be automated out Chamberlain says.
of existence, but technology has the poten- R e g u l at o r y c h a n ge s h av e a l s o
tial to create new jobs as well.
—Nanette Byrnes
increased the focus on data. The Dodd-
Frank law imposes new reporting
13,000
Number of recent listings for software
requirements on banks. The Affordable engineers on Glassdoor
Care Act is driving hospitals and inde-
Data Analysis pendent doctors toward quality manage-
ment and measurement programs that includes Facebook’s Menlo Park headquar-
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MIT TECHNOLOGY REVIEW TECHNOLOGYREVIEW.COM THE FUTURE OF WORK
brought nearly two dozen companies to $1 Which jobs will survive? neurs all the time that think big. Those
billion in value before exiting. Jurvetson In the long run, 500 years from now, are the people we should be finding and
spoke to Business Reports senior editor everyone is going to be involved in some funding. Most of them will fail, but the
Nanette Byrnes about why he thinks 90 kind of information or entertainment. ones who succeed will change the world,
percent of people will be unemployed in Nobody on the planet in 500 years will and that is progress.
500 years and how we might transition to do a physically repetitive thing for a living.
that sharply different future. There will be no farmers, there will be no
people working in manufacturing. To me Data Analysis
Are today’s new digital technologies it is an impossibility that people would do
destroying or creating jobs?
I absolutely believe in the near to medium
that. People might do it for fun. You might
have an organic garden in your backyard The Measured
term there is going to be net job creation,
as there always has been. Think of all the
because you love it. Five hundred years
from now I don’t know if even 10 percent Working Man
Uber jobs. The opportunity is not yet fully of people on the planet have a job in the
tapped to, in a sense, distribute [over the sense of being paid to do something. The technology that illuminates worker
Internet] the service economy. The ser- productivity and value also contributes
vice economy is bigger than the goods It’s hard to imagine what that life would to wage inequality, Tyler Cowen argues.
economy, so the online equivalent should be like.
be even bigger and more powerful than It pretty much will be what life was like for ● Discussions of income inequality typi-
the online marketplace for physical goods. most of human history—just without the cally focus on how information technol-
ogy raises the return to skilled labor, or
on the rise of global trade, or perhaps on
“Five hundred years from now, everyone is going to be involved the way that politics skews power toward
in some kind of information or entertainment ... There will be no the rich and well-connected. But there’s
farmers, there will be no people working in manufacturing.” another fundamental driver of income
inequality: the improved measurement
of worker performance. As we get better
Many of these new jobs, including those gruesome servitude. The concept of a “job” at measuring who produces what, the pay
at Uber, are taking shape on what you call is pretty recent. If you go back a few hun- gap between those who make more and
the “edge of automation.” Do you fear dred years, everyone was either a slave or a those who make less grows.
that these jobs might quickly disappear serf, or living off slave or serf labor to pur- Consider journalism. In the “good
as technology keeps evolving? sue science or philosophy or art. We’ll live old days,” no one knew how many peo-
Everything about Uber has been auto- off the production of robots, free to be the ple were reading an article like this one,
mated except for the driver. The billing, next Aristotle or Plato or Newton. Unless or an individual columnist. Today a digi-
the fetching—every part of it is a modern, we’re miserable without doing busy work. tal media company knows exactly how
information-centric company. Interest- many people are reading which articles
ingly, what that means is as soon as auto- Is there some way, some government for how long, and also whether they click
mated vehicles arrive, that driver is easily policies or strategies, to minimize the through to other links. The exactness and
removed. You don’t have to restructure pain of such a dramatic shift? the transparency offered by information
any part of that business. I don’t think that anyone in Washington technology allow us to measure value
What you’re farming out to humans is going to get their head around this and fairly precisely.
today are those things that computers just make meaningful change. No politician The result is that many journalists
barely can’t do. We know from Moore’s has a 50-year horizon. I see zero chance turn out to be not so valuable at all. Their
Law and improvements in computing that that long-term thinking will govern policy. wages fall or they lose their jobs, while
in two or three years [much of this] work the superstar journalists attract more
will be automated. The knock on Silicon Valley today is that Web traffic and become their own global
If a startup or new business venture it’s not taking on big problems either. brands. Some even start their own media
has created a job that involves human I do lament how many investors focus companies, as did Nate Silver at FiveThir-
labor, it probably has done so in a way on all the short-term sugar buzz of some tyEight and Ezra Klein at Vox. In this
that is pretty marginal. Whether you’re a marginal improvement in something— case better measurement boosts income
technology enthusiast or a detractor, the nothing history books are ever going to inequality more or less permanently.
rate at which this will shift is probably be written about. In many cases these are In any organization or division many
going to be unprecedented. There will be quick and easy ways to make money. I do colleagues do good work, but only so
massive dislocation. think there are more and more entrepre- many would be truly difficult to replace.
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THE FUTURE OF WORK TECHNOLOGYREVIEW.COM MIT TECHNOLOGY REVIEW
And those are the people who, with better uate individual productivity, even if the close such information voluntarily. Over
measurement of economic value, receive employer has a fairly noisy data set about time schools may offer more information
higher salaries and bonuses. what is going on in the workplace. about their students than just GPAs and
Imagine a situation where a group This analysis, if only in crude forms, letters of recommendation, as statistical
of workers produces some output collec- starts when workers are applying for a analysis improves in its ability to assess
tively. The tendency is to resort to equal job. A significant percentage of bosses their potential.
pay scales, perhaps with some inequal- in America look up an employee’s credit Looking further ahead, and more
ity built in for seniority and other highly score before making a hiring decision. speculatively, employers might request
visible characteristics, such as working Some employers are even using perfor- genetic information from workers. Any-
overtime. Relatively equal pay structures mance in online video games to evaluate one who doesn’t want to turn it over might
help build group solidarity, and in the individual talent. There are also Facebook, be seen as having something to hide, and
meantime the superior producers cannot Twitter, LinkedIn, and numerous other thus this information will spread even if
easily demonstrate their worth to other social-media outlets, all of which do give you may feel that our society doesn’t want
potential employers because no publicly us some clues about character, effort, and to tolerate genetic discrimination. Or per-
observable measurements capture that the quality of a person’s social connec- haps the information can be lifted from a
added value. tions. It’s not hard to imagine a future doorknob or from a cup of coffee during
But as information about productiv- where an individual’s eBay and Uber rat- an interview visit. It’s hard to imagine that
ity improves, the better workers demand ings, among other pieces of information, this valuable source of information will
more and can get it; in fact, bosses will are up for sale in the marketplace. The stay confidential forever, given that most
want to offer more to preëmpt them more reliable job candidates might dis- databases have proved hackable.
from leaving. Workers also T his e xplanation for
stop thinking of themselves growing inequality has some
as bringing the same value to potentially distressing fea-
the table, and that can make tures, but also some upside.
inegalitarian pay structures The upside, quite simply,
less damaging to morale and is that measuring value tends
thus more attractive. to boost productivity, as has
One unfortunate pos- been the case since the very
sibility, or shall I say likeli- beginning of management
hood, is that some workers science. We’re simply able to
may not produce much of do it much better now, and
anything at all. They may be so employers can assign the
major shirkers, or perhaps most productive workers to
they are smart and talented the most suitable tasks. Work-
workers who nonetheless are place incentives can also be
poison for workplace morale. more closely geared to the
Their office scheming takes actual production of value for
away more than their labor the enterprise.
adds. These “zero marginal The downsides are sev-
product” workers, as I have eral. Individuals don’t in fact
labeled them elsewhere, may enjoy being evaluated all the
have a hard time holding time, especially when the
down a job. In the modern results are not always stellar:
world it is harder for them for most people, one piece
to hide behind the labor of of negative feedback out-
others. weighs five pieces of positive
Insofar as workers type feedback. To the extent that
at a computer, everything measurement raises income
they do is logged, recorded, inequality, perhaps it makes
and measured. Surveillance relations among the workers
of workers continues to tenser and less friendly. Life
MIGUEL PORLAN
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MIT TECHNOLOGY REVIEW TECHNOLOGYREVIEW.COM THE FUTURE OF WORK
those whose morale is easily damaged. that he can complete as many as 10 trips Uber’s not waiting. With the newly set
Privacy in this world will be harder to before noon. up UberChina, the ride-hailing service
come by, and perhaps “second chances” “Right now a lot of people are using plans to expand into 100 Chinese cities, at
will be more difficult to find, given the these services,” says Mr. Dong, 38, who least half with a population over five mil-
permanence of electronic data. We may gave only his last name to avoid jeopar- lion, in the next year. (It currently oper-
end up favoring “goody two-shoes” per- dizing his full-time job. On top of cover- ates in 11 cities, including Tianjin, with
sonality types who were on the straight ing his monthly gas money of about 1,000 an average population of 14 million.) The
and narrow from their earliest years and yuan ($156), he can earn between 800 company also plans to invest more than
disfavor those who rebelled at young ages, yuan ($125) and 1,000 yuan every month seven billion yuan ($1.1 billion) in China
even if those people might end up being by driving for Uber. in 2015.
more creative later on. In China, private Uber drivers are Drivers of China’s 1.37 million tra-
That said, measurement of worker making almost a million trips per day, ditional taxis are already reacting. In
value isn’t going away anytime soon. The according to the CEO of Uber. Less than May, dozens of cabbies blocked the roads
real question is not whether we want it
or not, but how to make it better rather
than worse. Ideally we’d have a system Uber is in a legal gray area. Speculation has increased that regulation
where individuals can correct measure- of online taxi reservations may be coming.
ment errors in their records to prevent
injustice and preserve accuracy. We’d also
like a system where individuals are not two years after its launch here, Uber has around the Olympic stadium in Tianjin
tracked and segmented too early, where developed a fierce rivalry with the home- with their cars and lured private-car driv-
outsiders and immigrants receive a fair grown Didi Kuaidi, which reports that its ers to the area using ride-hailing apps.
hearing, where risk taking is rewarded daily private-car requests have tripled to As soon as they arrived, the two groups
rather than punished, and where some three million since May, and engendered started fighting.
degree of privacy, including privacy in the resentment among traditional taxi drivers. “I’m a bit dispirited,” says Lu Lifang,
workplace, remains. Chinese cities in some ways seem 48, a traditional taxi driver. “If the gov-
Obviously, that is a tall order. ripe for a technology-driven transpor- ernment doesn’t regulate the private cars,
I wonder, by the way, if MIT Technol- tation overhaul. The roads are jammed. my profession will disappear sooner or
ogy Review will tell me how many people According to government figures, there later.” She and her fellow cabbies also
clicked on this article. —Tyler Cowen were almost 126 million private vehicles complain about dwindling income. Wang
in China at the end of 2014, a 15.5 per- Hongyong, 47, says he earns about 150
The author is a professor of economics at cent increase from the previous year. The yuan ($23) less per day now than he did
George Mason University. 2014 TomTom Traffic Index shows that a in 2014. “I’m also more tired,” he says. “I
third of the 50 most congested cities in don’t rest in between.”
the world are in China. Other commut-
Mobile Apps ing options are painful, too—during rush
hours a rider in the Beijing subway has
1,000,000
Uber’s Bumpy to wait for several loaded trains to pass
before squeezing in.
Number of trips being made daily by
Uber drivers in China
Ride in China The Chinese State Council has iden-
tified transportation as one of the tradi-
tional industries whose efficiency could be Driving is not a livelihood for most
Chinese Uber drivers are making a improved by online platforms, but Uber Uber drivers. Most, like Mr. Dong, drive
million trips a day, pleasing consumers remains in a legal gray area. Its drivers for extra cash. Xing Gao, who works at
but threatening traditional taxi drivers. are considered private car operators and an insurance company in Tianjin, hasn’t
do not pay all the registration fees, value- picked up any calls on his Uber app since
● Mornings at 5, Mr. Dong, a manager added tax, and income taxes traditional June because the company has dropped
at a livestock farming company in Tian- cabbies do. Uber drivers say they often to nearly zero the subsidy it was paying
jin, logs in to his Uber account. Before he avoid places where there are a lot of police him for each completed trip. In 2014, he
heads off for work at 7, he can make three officers, such as airports and train stations. had a guaranteed 30 yuan ($5) subsidy
to four trips around the city center in his If they are caught, the fines can be as high per trip. “They want to test the bottom
Buick. After he leaves his office at 6 p.m., as 10,000 yuan ($1,564). Recently specu- line of drivers,” says Xing, 32, “just to see
he continues driving until 9 p.m. On week- lation has increased that online taxi reser- how much lower they can go before you
end mornings, he’s in such high demand vations will become a regulated business. quit.” —Yiting Sun
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THE FUTURE OF WORK TECHNOLOGYREVIEW.COM MIT TECHNOLOGY REVIEW
eyestrain to aching joints become increas- reach 65 can expect to live another 17.9
Tools ingly prevalent. In response, technologists years on average, the National Center for
and ergonomics experts are rethinking Health Statistics calculates, while women
● The American tradition of retirement at million will be 75 and over. cal stamina.
age 65 is crumbling. As older workers stay One reason for this demographic shift While it’s easier to wield a stapler than
on the job longer, challenges ranging from is improved longevity. American men who a rivet gun at age 70, some aspects of office
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MIT TECHNOLOGY REVIEW TECHNOLOGYREVIEW.COM THE FUTURE OF WORK
life can still vex people beyond a certain ows and dark zones is just as crucial. That workers how to create slower-moving
age. “Many products are designed with has led to new types of overhead lighting pointers or magnified screen displays by
younger users in mind,” says Sara Czaja, fixtures that bounce most of their light off adjusting their computer’s settings. Now
scientific director of the Center on Aging the ceiling for optimal dispersion, rather Ai Squared, based in Manchester, Ver-
at the University of Miami. “Designers than aiming directly below. mont, has developed software for people
don’t always think about older people.” Older workers also often need more with macular degeneration, a condition
Consider smartphones’ tiny screens. back support, Anderson says, which cre- predominantly affecting older people, in
Office workers who frequently text or check ates problems if sustained use of laptops which a deteriorating retina causes vision
their news feeds and e-mail may switch or tablets tempts people to lean forward loss in the center of the visual field. Its
between near and far vision 100 or more at their desks. One Herman Miller solu- technology can transform display col-
times a day, say researchers at Germany’s tion: a desk with a sliding surface that ors so that people who have trouble with
Carl Zeiss Vision, a leading manufacturer can be drawn nearer to the user, making black type on a white background might
of eyeglass lenses. That’s a particular strain it possible to sit upright and rest against see their e-mail and Web pages as yel-
for older workers with a diminished abil- a chair back while using a mobile device low type on a black background, which is
ity to focus on nearby objects, a condition at close range. often easier to read. “One gentleman uses
that typically begins between ages 40 and At Florida State University, Neil our software to make everything purple
50 and then gets steadily worse. Charness, director of the Institute for Suc- on a pink background,” says Ai Squared
To minimize digital eyestrain, Zeiss cessful Longevity, has taken an interest marketing project manager Megan Long.
shifts the reading area in its progressive in the challenges that using a computer “That’s what works best for him.”
lenses higher and closer to the eyes, taking mouse can present for older workers. “I’ve For older workers who stand—rather
into account the position in which people been studying aging for a long time,” he than sit—on the job, specialized floor
hold their smartphones. says, “and now, at age 67, I’ve become one pads better balance the load on ankles,
Another challenge: the eyes of of the people I study.” He is glad that many knees, and hips. These “anti-fatigue mats”
60-year-olds take in only about a third operating systems can be set to allow pro- have been common since the 1980s, but
as much light as those of 20-year-olds, grams and documents to be activated by inventors keep refining the concept. One
because their pupils are smaller and single-clicking; double-clicking can be version, with arrays of hollow rubber cyl-
their lenses cloudier. That necessitates harder for older users. He reduces his inders fused in place under the mat’s sur-
brighter office lighting, with as few shad- own need to scroll down with a mouse by face to provide a mild springiness, was
ows and dark spots as possible, says Ryan turning his computer monitor sideways; patented in 2009. Hospitals are major
Anderson, director of product and port- eye movements tend to be easier for older buyers. The average age of U.S. nurses
folio strategy at Herman Miller, the office adults than hand movements. climbed to 50 in 2013, according to the
furniture maker based in Zeeland, Michi- Microsoft has for years provided an National Council of State Boards of Nurs-
gan. It’s not enough to blast more lumens online “Guide for Individuals with Age- ing, up from about 47 in 2004.
onto people’s desktops; minimizing shad- Related Impairments,” showing older A broad array of technologies that are
being developed to help those with dis-
abilities could also end up helping other
Swelling Ranks of Older Workers people work longer. Boeing, for example,
By 2022, more than 8 percent of the U.S. workforce will be 65 or older. has a project to help travelers glide
Age: 55–64 65–74 75+ through airports on a driverless cart, and
Carnegie Mellon is working on robot
30 million escorts for those with limited vision. The
U.S. Department of Transportation has DATA: U.S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR, BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS
8
The Easiest Way to Set and Manage Goals
www.BetterWorks.com | 844.438.2388
MIT TECHNOLOGY REVIEW TECHNOLOGYREVIEW.COM THE FUTURE OF WORK
teleradiology is used in remote areas and has achieved over 80 percent accuracy
Computation and Data Science in overnight urgent care. with certain medical conditions—in the
Technologies beyond digitization, range of a good radiologist. Its education
10
SET BIG GOALS
GET ALIGNED
BUILD A LEGACY
ENGAGE THE TEAM
BEAT THE QUARTER
A lasting legacy is created by getting better every day,
staying true to a company's beliefs and building a team
that's committed to the vision.
Guse’s cite surveys finding that 53 mil- more than a billion dollars a year. Build-
Online Marketplaces lion Americans do some freelance work ing on the technologies underlying social
today, or the fact that staffing companies matchmaking sites and the analytical
12
POWERING GOALS FOR THE ENTERPRISE
[1] Bersin by Deloitte. “High-Impact Performance Management Using Goals to Focus the 21st-Century Workforce,” Stacia Sherman Garr, December 2014.
MIT TECHNOLOGY REVIEW TECHNOLOGYREVIEW.COM THE FUTURE OF WORK
example, do business in a more Ameri- has created a simple new line of work for clashes between hosts and guests peri-
canized way than those in many parts of 1.1 million people worldwide: renting out odically make headlines, though Airbnb
Southeast Asia, Palombo says, but they extra rooms for a few days at a time via says its vetting systems are designed to
have had challenges like an unreliable Airbnb’s home-sharing site. avoid this. City governments want Airbnb
power grid and bad weather. The Bugays have worked this new to collect hotel taxes, which the company
Eventually Palombo began trying to calling to perfection. They are among generally is willing to do, while affordable-
build relationships with a small group of Airbnb’s most active hosts, renting so con- housing advocates sometimes argue that
contractors, rather than moving from one sistently that their spare bedrooms enjoy the rise of Airbnb hosting is making life
to another according to price. “Now I have a remarkable 92 percent occupancy rate. harder for renters. A San Francisco refer-
regular guys who get paid like a salary,” They hardly need to do any marketing endum scheduled for November will test
he says. “They are free to work on other themselves; testimonials from more than whether or not voters want to clamp down
things, but I do offer them some security 170 previous guests keep sending new vis- on Airbnb’s most active hosts.
and stability.” He pays experts $2,000 a itors their way. All told, the Bugays calcu-
month for work that would cost $8,000 to late that they are booking about $90,000
81%
$15,000 a month if he hired experienced a year in rental revenue.
developers in the U.S., he says. Airbnb’s software is so efficient at
Beyond managing a remote workforce organizing the rental calendar that Bugay Proportion of hosts who rent
on Upwork, Palombo has set up a virtual figures it takes only about five hours a rooms in their primary residence
work system. He uses Slack to commu- week for him and his wife to run their
52%
nicate, schedule and hold meetings, and rental business. A few minutes of e-mail
track assignments. All the work is done correspondence, a little socializing with
using Google programs and is stored in guests over meals and card games, a Proportion of hosts who have
the cloud, where it is safe in the event of a round of laundry between visitors, and— low to moderate income
lost laptop or hardware mishap. He orga- voilà—everything is ready for the cycle
nizes assignments and tasks on Trello.
All this has allowed Palombo himself
to continue. If guests don’t speak much
English, he says, “we use Google Translate 48%
Proportion of host income used to pay
more freedom. He and his wife and three to take care of breakfast requests or some
children have spent more than a year trav- advice about sights to see.” for household expenses like rent
eling the U.S. in an RV, while he works a San Francisco–based Airbnb is not
few hours a day from the road or in a Star- the only company providing an online
bucks. The arrangement hasn’t hurt his marketplace for hotel-style rentals in peo- When mass adoption of Internet con-
business, which he says has grown about ple’s homes. Other major players include nectivity took hold in the late 1990s, the
28 percent over the last six months. VRBO, HomeAway, and FlipKey. But travel industry was often cited as an area
—Nanette Byrnes Airbnb, which began as an impromptu where the efficiencies afforded by new
online listing by three housemates in technology were squeezing out old jobs.
2008, has grown to be the category leader. Travel agents gave way to do-it-yourself
Online Marketplaces It operates in 34,000 cities around the online reservations; guidebooks lost their
world and has rented to more than 40 appeal in the face of competition from
extra bedrooms in tourist havens often sat room or two intermittently. And the busi- cal support, in return for 15 percent of
idle. No more. Today, digital connectivity ness is not without controversy. Violent booking revenue. —George Anders
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THE FUTURE OF WORK TECHNOLOGYREVIEW.COM MIT TECHNOLOGY REVIEW
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MIT TECHNOLOGY REVIEW TECHNOLOGYREVIEW.COM THE FUTURE OF WORK
our lives, including cars, wearables, and forecast the jobs of the future, they
factory robots. World Robotics: Industrial Robots conclude that work will increasingly
2014, Executive Summary focus on factors that cannot be
Virtually Human: International Federation of Robotics, automated, including social interaction
The Promise—and the Peril— 2014 and empathy, creativity, and skill.
of Digital Immortality
by Martine Rothblatt An oft-cited report on industrial robot “A World without Work”
St. Martin’s Press, September 2014 sales. By Derek Thompson
The Atlantic, July/August 2015
Entrepreneur Martine Rothblatt looks at “Technology and Inequality”
what could happen if software becomes by David Rotman For centuries, experts have predicted
part of our brains. MIT Technology Review, that machines would make workers
November/December 2014 obsolete. If that moment has finally
Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, arrived, could it be a good thing?
Strategies The gap between the very rich and poor
by Nick Bostrom is especially wide in Silicon Valley. David
Oxford University Press, September 2014 Rotman attempts to find out how much
technology has to do with it.
Can humans stay in control when Calendar
machines become smarter than we are? Fastest Declining Occupations,
Next: Economy
Philosopher Nick Bostrom explores 2012 and projected 2022
November 12–13, 2015
questions like these in this book, Employment Statistics Program, U.S. San Francisco
recommended by both Bill Gates and Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor http://conferences.oreilly.com/next-economy
Elon Musk. Statistics, December 2013
Robotics Alley Conference & Expo
December 1–2, 2015
The Future of Employment: U.S. government data shows which jobs
Minneapolis
How Susceptible Are Jobs to are expected to decline the most quickly http://roboticsalley.org/
Computerisation? over the next decade.
by Carl Benedikt Frey and Michael A. 11th ACM/IEEE International Conference on
Osborne Learning by Doing: The Real Human-Robot Interaction (HR1 2016)
March 7–10, 2016
University of Oxford, September 2013 Connection between Innovation,
Christchurch, New Zealand
Wages, and Wealth http://humanrobotinteraction.org/2016/
This report looks at how vulnerable By James Bessen
certain workers are to being replaced by Yale University Press, 2015 ICRA 2016: IEEE International Conference on
robots. Robotics and Automation
May 16–21, 2016
Much of the value from innovations
Stockholm, Sweden
“Will Your Job Be Done by a comes over time as they are www.icra2016.org
Machine?” implemented, the author argues, and
by Quoctrung Bui while technology transforms work in RoboBusiness Europe
Planet Money, May 2015 profound ways, it can take a long time June 1–3, 2016
Odense, Denmark
for workers and society to fully adapt.
www.robobusiness.eu/rb/
NPR has turned the above-mentioned
Oxford study into an interactive graphic “Technology and People: The IEEE CASE 2016
that readers can use to determine the Great Job Creating Machine” August 21–25, 2016
likelihood of losing their job to a robot. Ian Stewart, Debapratim De, and Fort Worth, Texas
http://sites.ieee.org/case-2016/
Alex Cole
AI, Robotics, and the Future Deloitte, December 2014 IROS 2016
of Jobs October 9–14, 2016
by Aaron Smith and Janna Anderson This study of employment data from Daejeon, Korea
Pew Research Center, August 2014 England and Wales over the last 140 www.iros2016.org
years concludes that when machines
Automate
This report from a prominent think tank replace workers, the result is faster April 3–6, 2017
explores how the rise of robots could growth and rising overall employment. Chicago
affect humans’ jobs. Though the authors don’t attempt to www.autmateshow.com
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