FLOW VISUALISATION ON LAMINAR FLOW TABLE

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this experiment is to visualize the streamlines of basic potential flows and
flows formed by combining the basic potential flows.

THEORY

Potential flows are governed by laplace equation, which is a linear partial differential
equation.It therefore flows that the various basic potentials and stream functions can be combined to
form new potentials and stream functions.Whether such combinations yield useful results remains to
be seen.It is to be noted that any streamline in an inviscid flow field can be considered as a solid
boundary, since the conditions along a solid boundary and a streamline are the same – that is, there is
no flow through the boundary and the streamline.Thus, if we can combine some of the basic velocity
potentials or stream functions to yield a streamline that correspond to a particular body sahpe of
interest, that combination can be used to describe in detail the flow around that body.This method of
solving some interesting flow problems, commonly called the method of superposition.

The simplest plane flow is on efor which the streamlines are all straight and parallel and the
magnitude of the velocity is constant.This type of flow is called a uniform flow.A uniform flow of
constant velocity parallel to the x-axis satisfies the continuity equation and teh irrotationality
condition identically.

A simple source is a flow pattern in the x-y plane in a which flow is radially outward from the
z-axis and symmetrical in all directions.The strength of the source is the volume flow rate per unit
depth.

In a simple sink, flow is inward.Sink is a negative source.A source or sink represents a purely
radial flow.

Another basic potential flow to be considered is one that is formed by combining a source and
sink in a special way is called doublet.This flow is produced mathematically by superposing a source

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and a sink of numerically equal strengths which are located at an infinitesimally small distance from
each other.

EQUIPMENT

The Laminar Flow Table is an improved version of the classical Hele-Shaw apparatus with the
addition of sinks and sources. It consists of two closely spaced sheets of laminated glass, arranged
horizontally on a glass fibre moulding. An inlet tank a discharge tank are incorporated in the
moulding which is supported on a floor standing, metal frame. Three adjustable feet allow rapid
levelling of the flow table.

Eight miniature tappings which may be used as sinks or sources are arranged about the
centerline of the lower glasplate in a cruciform configuration. A doublet (a sink and source in close
proximity) is located at the centre of the pattern. A system of pipes, valves and manifolds enables any
combination of the sinks and sources to be used.

A row of control valves mounted above the flow table is used to adjust the flow through each
individual source.

A row is used to the flow through each individual sink. A row of hypodermic needles attached
to a manifold is positioned between the glass plates at the inlet edge. To visualise the flow of water
between the glass plates, dye is injected through the equally spaced needles. The position of each
streamline is clearly indicated by the dye which is supplied from a reservoir fitted with a flow control

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valve. A black graticule on a white background is printed on the underside of the lower glass plate to
aid visualisation of the streamlines.

The patterns created by the potential flow may be recorded by tracing on the top glass sheet or
by photography if required.

A diffuser in the inlet tank and an adjustable weir plate in the discharge tank help to promote a
uniform flow of water. Valves are incorporated in the base of these tanks to aid draining. The flow of
water is controlled by an inlet flow control valve. A pressure regulator reduces the mains water
pressure and helps to minimise variations in flow.

The top glass plate may be raised at the front edge and retained in this position to allow
models to be placed in the working section. A set of models are supplied for basic flow studies.

These models are manufactured from plastic sheet and are trapped in the required position
when the top glass plate is lowered. Alternative models can be fabricated from any convenient
material and used to investigate the associated flow patterns.

Two-dimensional laminar flow is created between the two glass plates by the combination of
low fluid velocity and the narrow gap between the plates. The resulting flow is free from turbulence
and gives a close approximation to the behaviour of an ideal fluid. Since the flow is controlled by
potential, the flow table can be used to model any physical system which obeys Laplace's Law. For
example, two-dimensional steady heat flow through conductor of varying cross section canbe
simulated. In this instance the heat flow is represented by the flow of water and the temperature
difference in the system is represented by the fluid pressure potential.

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 Similarly, the sinks and sources may be used in combination with the flow of water between the
plates to simulate a variety of flow situations. For example, the patterns of flow in the vicinity of
wells which draw water from underground supplies (aquifers) may be represented using one or more
of the tappings as sinks. The effect of recharging the underground supply may be represented by
utilising one or more of the tappings as sources.

PROCEDURE

1-Open water inlet control valve fully.

2-Allow time for water inlet reservoirs to fill with water and for water to flow across table.
3-Fill the ink source container.Open the ink valve the injector rake should be submerged int the
inlet reservoir to allow the air bubbles in the line to be released.
4-Place the injector rake between the table and the glass.Keep the needles submerged so that
the air is not caught under the glass.
5-Turn on the sink or source or doublet tapping.
6-Allow time fort he streamlines to form.When the streamlines are satisfactory, use the digital
camera to take a picture of the streamlines.
7-Estimate the volumetric flow rate of water through the slot by discharging the sump pump
effluent in to a bucket for specified amount of time.Divide this volumetric flow rate by the cross
sectional area of the slot normal to the directon of flow to determine the average fluid velocity.

DATA ANALYSIS

Viscous and Inviscid Flow

Viscous problems are those in which fluid friction has significant effects on the solution.

The Reynolds number can be used to evaluate whether viscous or inviscid equations are
appropriate to the problem.

Stokes flow is flow at very low Reynolds numbers, such that inertial forces can be neglected
compared to viscous forces.

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 On the contrary, high Reynolds numbers indicate that the inertial forces are more significant
than the viscous (friction) forces. Therefore, we may assume the flow to be an inviscid flow, an
approximation in which we neglect viscosity at all, compared to inertial terms.

This idea can work fairly well when the Reynolds number is high, even if certain problems,
such as those involving boundaries, may require that viscosity be included. Viscosity often cannot be
neglected near boundaries because the no-slip condition can generate a region of large strain rate (a
Boundary layer) which enhances the effect of even a small amount of viscosity, generating vorticity.
Therefore, to calculate net forces on bodies (such as wings) we should use viscous equations. As
illustrated by d'Alembert's paradox, a body in an inviscid fluid will experience no force. The standard
equations of inviscid flow are the Euler equations. Another often used model, especially in
computational fluid dynamics, is to use the Euler equations far from the body and the boundary layer
equations, which incorporate viscosity, close to the body.

The Euler equations can be integrated along a streamline to get Bernoulli's equation. When the
flow is everywhere irrotational and inviscid, Bernoulli's equation can be used throughout the field.

Uniform Flow

The simplest possible potential flow is a uniform flow, U1 = C. The velocity potential is given
by

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where C is the constant of integration, which can be chosen to be zero. The stream function for
uniform flow can be easily calculated and is given by,

As an exercise the student is asked to write the velocity potential andstream function for flows
for which (a) u = 0; v = V and (b) u = U1 cos®.

Source and Sink

Consider a radial flow going away from the origin at a velocity vr as shownin Figure. This
constitutes a Source Flow. This is a purely radial flow withno component of velocity in the tangential
direction, i.e., vµ = 0. If m is the volumetric flow rate we have

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 We can now write down velocity potential and stream function for this flow

It is easily verified that vµ = 0 for this flow. Further, the equation we started out with , namely,
Equation is the continuity equation for the sourceflow. It states that the Volumetric flow rate (mass
flow rate when multiplied by density) is constant in a radial direction and is equal to m, which is
called the Strength of the source. Another point to make is that the radial velocity vr becomes infinite
at r = 0. So the origin is a singularity of the flow. If m is negative we have a flow which flows
inwards and is called a Sink flow, which again has a singularity at the origin.

Vortex

We now consider flows which go in a circumferential direction with no radial

flow. These are Vortex flows as shown in figure..
The velocity potential and stream function are given by,

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 It is seen that vµ is infinite at the origin and decreases as r increases and becomes zero as r
approaches infinity. A question arises now as to whether we are contradicting ourselves? How is it
that a vortex flow is irrotational? We should note that the term ”Irrotational” refers to the behaviour
of a fluid element and not to the path taken by it. At an elemental level the flow is still irrotational.
Such a vortex is called a Free Vortex. A good and familiar example is that of a bath tub vortex.
Contrary to this we have a Forced Vortex which behaves like a solid body. These have their velocity
given by vµ = K r, with a zero velocity at the origin. The velocity increases as one moves away
from the origin. A water filled tank is a good example.

Uniform Flow and a Source

Let us now place a source in the path of a uniform flow. The stream function and the velocity
potential for the resulting flow are given by adding the two stream functions and velocity potentials
as follows,

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 One of the interesting features to determine for the resulting force is the stagnation point of
the flow, i.e., where the velocity goes to zero. One could calculate this from the equations. It is clear
that for this flow the stagnation point will occur on the x-axis. The location can be arrived at purely
intuitionally. The source produces a radial flow of magnitude

while the uniform flow produces a velocity of U in the positive x-direction. When these two cancel
out at a point we have the stagnation point. A negative radial flow that can cancel the uniform flow is
possible only to the left of the x-axis, say at x = ¡b. Hence,

At x=-b, we have µ = ¼ and r = b. Substituting these values in the expression for Ã, i.e., Equation we
get the value of à at the stagnation point to be

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An equation to the streamline passing through the stagnation point, i.e.,stagnation streamline is
obtained as follows,

The streamlines for this flow are sketched in Figure. It is clear that we can make the stagnation
streamline the solid body. In fact any streamline

Rankine Half Body

of a flow can be treated as a solid body since there is no flow across it. In the present example if we
ignore the streamlines inside the ”body” we have described the flow about a solid body given by
Equation. This body is referred to as a Rankine Half Body as it is ”open” at the right hand end.

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Limits of µ for this body are 0 and 2¼. At these values we have y approaching §¼b, which is called
the Half Width of the body. The velocity components for this flow are given by

If the pressure in the free stream is p1 it follows from Bernoulli Equation that,

which enables us to calculate the pressure. Usually in aerodynamic applications involving significant
velocities and pressures any contribution due to elevation changes is negligible. The equation for
pressure assumes a simple form,

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It is left as an exercise for the student to show that the maximum velocityover the surface of the body
occurs at the location µ = 630 and is approximately equal to 1:26U1.

Rankine Oval

We saw that the previous example defined a half body open at one end. Can we come up with
a closed body by a suitable combination? An inspection of the streamlines suggests that by placing a
sink in addition to the source one should be able to define a closed body. In other words a uniform
flow past a source-sink combination is what we are after. The stream function for this is given by

Rankine Oval

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 When the streamlines for this flow are plotted (Fig.25) one discovers that the one given by
à = 0 forms a closed curve. This obviously forms then”body”, i.e., the stream function we have
written describes the flow about this body. Shapes such as this are called Rankine Ovals. The distance
to the stagnation points from the origin or the Half Body Length is given by

The other feature of interest, Half Width is found by determining the point of intersection of y-
axis with the body, i.e., Ã = 0 line. An expression for h is,

the solution for which is to be obtained by iteration. Rankine ovals include a wide range of bodies
which can be obtained by varying the value of the parameter ¼U1a=m. These could be bodies
stretched in any of the two directions. When stretched in x-direction one obtains elliptic bodies with a
small half width compared to the span. The solution obtained could be a good approximation to the
flow especially if viscous effects are small. On the other hand a considerable half width would
indicate a bluff body prone to effects like separation. The solution obtained can hardly be accepted in
this case.

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PICTURES OF EXPERIMENT

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 REFERENCES

1. Munson, B.R., Young, D.F., Okiishi, T.H., Fundemental of Fluid Mechanics, 4th Edition, John
Willey and Sons Inc, New York, 2002.
2. Fox, R., McDonald, A.T., Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, 4th Edition SI Version, John
Wiley and Sons Inc, New York, 1994.
3. http://www.armfield.co.uk/c10_datasheet.html
4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_dynamics
5. http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/AERO2201/docs/Elements%20of%20Potential
%20Flow.pdf
6. http://eis.bris.ac.uk/~memag/Teaching/MechFl/potential.pdf

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