"Reactions against the Virtuoso.

" Instrumental Ornamentation Practice and the Stile Moderno

Author(s): Timothy A. Collins
Source: International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music, Vol. 32, No. 2 (Dec.,
2001), pp. 137-152
Published by: Croatian Musicological Society
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T. A. COLLINS, INSTRUM. ORNAMENTATION PRACTICE, IRASM 32 (2001) 2,137-152 137

>>REACTIONSAGAINST THE VIRTUOSO.<<1

INSTRUMENTAL ORNAMENTATION PRACTICE
AND THE STILEMODERNO

TIMOTHY A. COLLINS UDC:781.68

OriginalScientificPaper
12985EmersonAvenue, Izvorniznanstvenielanak
Received:May 16,2001
LAKEWOOD, Ohio44107
Primljeno:16.svibnja2001.
U.S.A. Accepted:July27, 2001
PrihvaCeno:27. srpnja2001.
E-mail:tacl0@po.cwru.edu

Abstract- Resume

While ornamentation plays an important
role in the performance of early Baroque music,
and is indeed fundamental to early seicento mu-
sical style, there is a growing penchant among
performers (instrumentalists in particular) for
what may be considered excessive ornamenta-
tion. Is it really appropriate to ornament such
elements as repeated sequences of motives, re-
curring cadential figures, repeated or strophic
sections or successive white notes beyond rec-
ognition, and in some instances even beyond
function? Moreover, what would the composer
himself have expected or approved? In this re-
gard it is particularly telling to explore period
sentiments regarding embellishment. This pa-
per presents the views and comments of late six-
teenth- and early seventeenth-century theorists,
composers and performers in an attempt to
shed new light on the role, function and extent
of ornamentation in the aesthetics of early
seventeenth-century instrumental music.

Performers of early seventeenth-century instrumental music are faced with

countless questions concerning matters of interpretation and performance prac-
tices. Not least among them is ornamentation. What should one do when encoun-
tering a repeated sequence of motives, recurring cadential figures, repeated or

Howard Mayer BROWN concluded his book EmbellishingSixteenth-CenturyMusic (Oxford: Ox-

ford University Press, 1976) with a chapter titled ,Reactions Against the Virtuoso< (pp. 73ff). In it Brown
gave only a very cursory glimpse of late sixteenth-century sentiments toward ornamentation, choosing
instead to pursue the topic of whether or not performers arranged multi-voiced works for solo per-
formance. This paper picks up where Brown left off exploring in much greater detail late Renaissance
and early Baroque views on ornamentation with particular emphasis on that pertaining to early seven-
teenth-century instrumental music and performance.

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138 T. A. COLLINS,INSTRUM.ORNAMENTATION IRASM32 (2001)2,137-152
PRACTICE,

strophic sections, or a even series of successive white notes? With today's appar-
ent penchant for embellishment, is it expected that one would cleverly ornament
such passages beyond recognition and in some instances even beyond function?
So often teachers and coaches have begged students to do something with these
seemingly boring passages, but what is appropriate? What would the composer
himself have expected or approved? While these questions can, and indeed do,
have no true answers, it is particularly telling to explore late sixteenth- and early
seventeenth-century sentiments toward ornamentation.
The period of ca. 1580 to ca. 1620 was unquestionably a dynamic time in mu-
sic. A virtuosic division style which featured elaborate intervalic and rhythmic
diminutions, known as passaggi or gorgie, flourished in both vocal and instrumen-
tal quarters. A spate of didactic manuals from that fertile period provide not only
a multitude of examples of intervalic divisions and ornamented cadences but some
173 diminutions on 126 different popular madrigals, motets and chansons.2 As the
division style reached its apex during the last decade of the sixteenth century, a
revolutionary new declamatory vocal style, advocated by a circle of Florentine
academicians and performers, took root and quickly became influential. In time
this ?new music,<<with its very power to delight the senses and ?move the affect of
the soul,03 became a chief vehicle for solo vocal expression, ornamental improvisa-
tion, and the display of vocal virtuosity. Its tremendous success is exemplified by
a proliferation of printed editions devoted to the genre well into the 1630's.4With
its capacity for musical and dramatic expression, this new style proved capable of
developing and enduring such that its influence reached well into the seventeenth
century and beyond.
Ornamentation played an integral, if not defining, role in both the division
and declamatory styles.5 Their differences can be summarized as one of prolific
ornamentation (passaggi and gorgie) versus small ornaments and expressive de-
vices (accenti, gruppi and trilli and dynamic effects). Passaggi and elaborate divi-
sions belonged to the old style and affective devices to the new. However, the
importance of ornamentation to musical practice ran much deeper.

2
For a full annotated listing see Andrew WALDO, So You Want to Blow the Audience Away;
Sixteenth-century Ornamentation: A Perspective on Goals and Techniques, The AmericanRecorder 27
(May 1986), 55-59; and Ernest T. FERAND, Didactic Embellishment Literature in the Late Renaissance:
A Survey of Sources, in J. La Rue, ed., Aspects of Medievaland RenaissanceMusic (New York, 1966), 154-
72.
3 >Muover l'affetto del'animo.< Giulio
Caccini, Le Nuove musiche, ed. H. Wiley Hitchcock (Madi-
son: A-R Editions, 1970), 45; see also Bruce DICKEY, Ornamentation in Early Seventeenth-Century
Music, in Stewart Carter, ed., A PerformersGuide to SeventeenthCentury Music (New York: Schirmer,
1998), 245ff.
4 See
Nigel FORTUNE, A Handlist of Printed Italian Secular Monody Books, 1602-1635, Royal
Music Association ResearchChronicle3 (1963), 27-50.
5 While the division and
declamatory styles coexisted for more than four decades they remained
distinctly separate practices for most of that period. It was only around 1620 that the two styles appear to
have come together for the first time (at least in print) in Francesco ROGNONI's diminution treatise Selva
de varii passaggi (Milan, 1620). See Stewart CARTER, Francesco Rognoni's Selva de varii passaggi (1620):
Fresh Details Concerning Early-Baroque Vocal Ornamentation, PerformancePracticeReview(1989), 31.

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T. A. COLLINS,INSTRUM.ORNAMENTATION
PRACTICE,IRASM32 (2001)2,137-152 139

In an undated letter, believed to have been written during the 1590's in re-
sponse to a series of questions posed by an unnamed prince, the virtuoso Ferrarese
cornettist Cavaliere Luigi Zenobi, himself a highly esteemed judge of musicians,
expounded at great length regarding the qualities that constituted a perfect musi-
cian, be he a singer, director, composer, or instrumentalist.6 He writes that >all the
requirements [of singers], or the greater part of them, are sought in an instrumen-
talist, whether he plays the cornett, the viola da gamba, the violin, the flute, the
shawm, or similar melody instruments.< But, he continues, >it is true that [of] players
of wind instruments more is required, for they must know the quality, quantity,
and variety of tonguings, the perfection of the instrument [i.e., tuning and intona-
tion], and the forte and piano when needed.<<7The requirements of singers to which
he referred included the ability to perform with >grace, good taste, noble embel-
lishments (passaggi), and art...,< to which he added ,>similarly [these are required]
with regard to the player of an instrument of one part [melodic instruments].<?8In
his discussion on singing, he later describes the role of the soprano part:

The soprano, then, has the obligation and complete freedom to improvise diminu-
tions, to indulge in playfulness(scherzare),
and, in a word, to ornamenta musicalbody.
But unless this is done with art,with graceand with good taste,it is annoyingto hear,
hard to digest, and loathsometo endure.9

Interestingly, in his discussion on the desired qualities of the perfect singer, Zenobi
speaks at great length regarding the use of ornaments and affective devices in
terminology that remarkably resembles that of Caccini.10
But there was much more to imitating the human voice than simply simulat-
ing through varied articulations the accentual contours of texts or the effect of
certain vocal techniques.1 The heart of vocal imitation, and indeed performance,
lay with the emulation of vocal style, to which belonged the important Renaissance
concept of >grace,? as well as the practice of ornamentation.
The theorist and vocal pedagogue Lodovico Zacconi explains >grace? and the
important function of ornamentationin his Prattica di musica (1592):

6 See Bonnie
J. BLACKBURNand EdwardE. LOWINSKY,Luigi Zenobi and his letter on the
perfectMusician,Studimusicali22, no. 1 (1993),61-114.
7 Ibid.,102. Dalla Casa also mentions the cornett's
ability to play >bothloud and soft, [and] in
every sort of tone [i.e., key], as does the voice.<<
(JesseROSENBERG, I1Vero Modo di Diminuir: A
Translation, Historic Brass Society Journal1 [1989], 112.)
8 BLACKBURN,
Zenobi,98-99.
9Ibid., 100.
10Close comparisonsmay also be made with ZACCONI'sPratticadi musica(1596and 1622)and
GIUSTINIANI'sDiscorsosoprala musica,which, thoughwrittenca. 1628,describesmusic customsfrom
the 1590s. (Ibid.,78, 98-102)
" Both Ganassi (OperaIntitulataFontegara[Venice,1535])and dalla Casa refer to the tonguings
used in performingdivisions as )linguadi gorgia< afterthe vocal gorgia,the vocal techniqueof throat
articulationfor passaggi.

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140 T. A. COLLINS,INSTRUM.ORNAMENTATION
PRACTICE,IRASM32 (2001)2,137-152

In all human actions, of whatever sort they may be or by whomever they may be ex-
ecuted, grace and aptitude are needed. By grace I do not mean that sort of privilege
which is granted to certain subjects under kings and emperors, but rather that grace
possessed by men who, in performing an action, show that they do it effortlessly, sup-
plementing agility with beauty and charm.
In this one realizes how different it is to see on horseback a cavalier, a captain, a farmer
or a porter; and one notes with what poise the expert and skillful standard-bearer
holds, unfurls, and moves his banner, while upon seeing it in the hands of a cobbler it
is clear that he not only does not know how to unfold and move it, but not even how to
hold it...
It is not, therefore, irrelevant that a singer, finding himself from time to time among
different people and performing a public action, should show them how it is done
with grace; for it is not enough to be correct and moderate in all those actions which
might distort one's appearance, but rather one must seek to accompany one's acts
with beauty and charm. Now, the singer accompanies the actions with grace when,
while singing, in addition to the things stated in the previous chapter, he accompanies
the voice with delightful accenti [ornaments].'2

The singer is thus obligated to supplement the music with ornaments accord-
ing to the sentiments of the words. Such things, according to Zacconi, are that
which nature itself teaches. In fact, Zacconi considered them so much a natural
reaction that he even apologized for discussing the topic at length. He did so only
>>because he has seen students graduate from music schools who have not mas-
tered the art of graceful embellishments (vaghezze & accenti).<<'3The ultimate goal
of the performer therefore, is to show through a natural and charismatic perform-
ance, which most importantly includes tasteful ornamentation, that what he does,
is done not only well, but seemingly without thought or effort. It is all a part of the
subtle yet complicated courtly art of sprezzatura14-making the difficult appear so
easy that it appears to be done without care (all the while not revealing that one is
working at not appearing to work).15
The concept of grace was an important aspect of instrumental performance as
well. Describing the qualities by which cornett players are to be judged, Zenobi
draws upon the very essence of Zacconi's example, saying that they are judged
>>bytheir grace... in the graceful manner of holding the instrument, in not contort-
ing the body while playing, and in many other things.<<6 It was therefore the seem-
ingly natural aura of >grace,<<and not necessarily virtuosity, that constituted the

12 Quoted in DICKEY,
Ornamentation,246.
13
Prattica, I, 56r-57r. ff.
A musically applicabletranslationof sprezzatura
14
is somewhat elusive. Within its historical
contexts it appears to refer as much to a certaincharismaticpoise and commandas it does musical
expressivity and rhythmicfreedom. In general it may be taken to mean a certaindegree of >noble
negligence,<arrogance,nonchalance,or suaveness. Interestinglyenough however,JohnFLORIO'sA
Worldeof Wordes,or Most Copious,and Exact Dictionariein Italianand English... (1598) defines sprezzatura
as >adespising or contemning[sic].<
15DICKEY,Ornamentation,247.
16
BLACKBURN, Zenobi, 103.

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T.A. COLLINS,
INSTRUM.
ORNAMENTATION
PRACTICE, 32 (2001)2,137-152
IRASM 141

consummate performer. Indeed, virtuosity was not even necessary; ideally it was
to be tempered by modesty, if not entirely abandoned in favor of graceful
simplicity.
The successful performer (singers are most often exemplified) also typically
possessed what was known as disposizione,defined as a certain affinity for under-
standing counterpoint and harmony and a naturally agile voice, all of which were
viewed as a God given gift. But not all singers possessed disposizione. For those
who lacked it, it was regrettably not something that could be learned. According
to Oratio Scaletta in his Scala di musica (Verona, 1598), such singers had to be
>content to sing [the music] as it stands, with polish, [and] gracefully adding a few
accenti [i.e.: small ornaments], for this [is] sufficient and... a pleasure to hear.<<7
Bartolomeo Barbarino, in his second book of motets (Venice, 1614) even went so
far as to publish a collection of sacred monodies with both ornamented and
unornamented versions appearing next to each other, claiming that

they will be useful to (1) singers who have no disposizione,for they can be content to
but no knowledge of counter-
sing the plain versions, (2) singerswho have disposizione
point, for they can sing the divisions as written out, and (3) singers who have both
disposizioneand a knowledgeof counterpoint,forthey cansing fromthe unornamented
versions, improvisingtheirown versions.18

While ornamentation was a principle element in expressing the sentiments of

text and displaying the grace which constituted the noble art of sprezzatura, orna-
mentation was, in the same manner, a crucial element in the vocal expressivity of
instrumental performance. In the same way that unornamented singing can nei-
ther be considered to possess the required >>grace?,unornamented instrumental
playing similarly can never be considered truly vocal nor, more importantly, to
possess grace.19Antonfrancesco Doni relates the following anecdote which amus-
ingly illustrates this point:

Signor Giovaniacopo Buzzino was playing the soprano violone, as he does so

marvelously,when somebody came up to him in the midst of his performanceto say:
>Osignore,move your fingersa bit moreslowly; it looks so ugly to see you move your
fingers so much on the neck of the instrument.<<Buzzino,accommodatinghimself to
this bit of insolence, began to play without diminutions,whereupon the poor dolt,
hearing the melody so lacking in grace, shamefacedlyasked him to startmoving his
fingers again.20
It was perhaps specifically to avoid such an incident that Girolamo dalla Casa,
in his diminution tutor, Il vero modo di diminuir (Venice, 1584) urged moderation

17 DICKEY, Ornamentation, 247.

18
Ibid., 247-8.
19Ibid., 266.
20
James HAAR, Notes on the 'Dialogo della musica' of Antonfrancesco Doni, Music & Letters47
(1966), 220.

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142 T. A. COLLINS,INSTRUM.ORNAMENTATION
PRACTICE,IRASM32 (2001)2,137-152

and care, saying that >moreover, with divisions do few things but make them good.
So let everyone strive for a good tone, good tonguing and good divisions and imi-
tate as much as possible the human voice.<<21

ReactionsAgainst the Virtuoso

The profound success of the declamatory vocal style was perhaps as much a
reaction against the perceived abuses of the division style as it was a fulfillment of
the Renaissance quest for a classical model. The ability to play or sing improvised
divisions was, as indeed it is today, often naively equated with virtuosity, hence
the potential for abuse. It is all too easily understandable how, as Howard Mayer
Brown put it, >>virtuosiin their narcissism often have destroyed the character of
the music they performed by their excessive and flamboyant embellishments.<<22
Frederick Neumann expressed a similar sentiment, referring to how the >never-
too-rare species of performers who are vain and lacking in judgment often indulged
in tasteless exaggerations that distorted many a composition.<23 But excessive or-
namentation was nothing new to the late sixteenth century. According to Vincenzo
Galilei, even the ancients, in whose name the new mannerist style was developed,
decried as >>lasciviousand effeminate< the >>runsof gorgia and many other artifices
[that] are prized [today].<<24More recently, an apocryphal anecdote from 1562
recounts Josquin de Prez's intolerance of embellishments:

When he heard a singer ornamentingone of his compositions,he went up to him and

said: >>youass, why do you add embellishments?If I had wanted them, I would have
written them myself. If you wish to improve on finished compositions make your
own, but leave mine unimproved.<<25

Gioseffo Zarlino, in his Istitutioniharmoniche(Venice, 1558), sharply criticized singers

who applied diminutions >>whichare wild and out of proportion, disturb the lis-
teners, and create many errors.<<26And Ercole Bottrigari, in his II Desiderio(Venice,
1594), shared this very same view, decrying passaggi as the principal cause of dis-
cord and confusion in performance:

21 Il vero modo, 112.

ROSENBERG,
22
BROWN, Embellishing,74.
2 Frederick NEUMANN, PerformancePractices of the Seventeenthand Eighteenth Centuries (New
York:Schirmer,1993),520.This anecdotewas also recountedby J.G. AHLEin his 1704revisionof his
Kurzedoch deutlicheAnleitung zu der lieblich-und loblichenSingekunst (p. 80) for much the same reason it
is recountedhere. For an extended discussion of the German>>reaction
againstthe virtuoso<<
during
the mid sixteenth through early eighteenthcenturiessee John BUTT,MusicEducationand theArt of
Performancein theGermanBaroque(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1994),121-165.
24I
primolibrodella pratticadel contrapunto. Quoted in Tim CARTER,Music in LateRenaissanceand
Italy(London,B. T. Batsford,1992),185.
EarlyBaroque
25BROWN, Embellishing,75; Helmuth OSTHOFF, JosquinDesprez (Tutzing, 1962), 1: 82.
26
BROWN, Embellishing,75; EINSTEIN, The Italian Madrigal,2: 842-43.

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T. A. COLLINS,INSTRUM.ORNAMENTATION IRASM32 (2001)2,137-152
PRACTICE, 143

Becauseof the presumptuousaudacityof performerswho try to invent passaggi,I will

not say sometimesbut almostcontinuously,all tryingto move at the same time as if in
a passage-makingcontest, and sometimes showing their own virtuosity so far from
the counterpointof the musicalcompositionthey have beforethem, that they become
entangled in their own dissonance-it is inevitablethat an insupportableconfusion
should occur.27

Zacconi, however, was more polite, saying that ?the singer who with a little orna-
mentation in good time [and] doesn't go too far afield will always be better appre-
ciated than another who digresses far too much, whether in good time or not.<28
Zenobi also pleaded for restraint and modesty, saying that
in this mannerone sings with good taste, and with art, and not haphazardly,and at
breakneckspeed,as nowadayssomebunglersdo, neverthelessclaimingto have touched
the depths in the matterof the art of singing and pleasantlypreeningtheirpride.29
It is apparent that by the early 1580's the practice of adding ornamental passaggi,
which had hitherto flourished virtually unchecked, must have reached abusive
proportions.
The preceding sentiments, >reactions against the virtuoso? as they were, were
fundamental in the development of the new declamatory style. Giovanni de Bardi,
whose Florentine Camerata was instrumental in bringing it about, wrote in his
Discourse on Ancient Music and GoodSinging (ca. 1590), that
... the noblest functiona singer can performis thatof giving properand exactexpres-
sion to the canzonaas set down by the composer,not by imitatingthose who aim only
at being thought clever (a ridiculous pretension)and who so spoil a madrigalwith
theirill-orderedpassagesthateven the composerhimselfwould not recognizeit as his
creation.3

Caccini himself cited excessive and incorrect divisions as the principal motivation
for his developing the new style of singing. In the preface to his Le nuove musiche,
he explains that the new manner of singing was >developed by me to avoid that
old style of passaggi (one more suited to wind and string instruments than the
voice) formerly in common use.<<31 Passaggi, he writes, are to be condemned as
>those long gyrations of the voice,? that serve only to >tickle the ear,< because
nothing is more contrary to the expression of affect.32 Caccini, however, appar-
ently felt that the abundant passaggi found in his own works were wholly justified

27
IIDesiderioorconcerning
ErcoleBOTTRIGARI, theplayingtogetherofvariousinstruments
(Venice,
1595) in Carol MacCLINTOCK, trans. and ed., MusicologicalStudies and Documents (AIM 9; Rome 1962),
61.
28 Pratticadi musica, 1: lxvi., 58ff. Quoted in Robert DONINGTON, Baroque
Music,StyleandPer-
formance(New York: W. W. Norton, 1982), 92.
29 BLACKBURN, Zenobi,83,100.
30 Oliver STRUNK, Source Readings in Music History (New York: W. W. Norton, 1950), 299.
31 CACCINI, Le Nuove Musiche, 43.
32 Ibid.

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144 T. A. COLLINS,INSTRUM.ORNAMENTATION
PRACTICE,IRASM32 (2001)2,137-152

and exempt from such disparagement. He admittedly allowed himself these in-
dulgences because they >pass quickly and are not passaggi but merely an addi-
tional bit of grace, and also because with good judgment there are exceptions to
every rule.<<33Regardless, he doesn't offer any explanation as to why many of his
final cadences appear to have been exempted from any restrictions whatsoever.
Apparently old practices, like bad habits, never die completely.
As the new declamatory style found a home in nascent musical drama so too
did the unwelcomed propensity for elaborate embellishments. Jacopo Peri, who,
along with Caccini was a founder of the new style, credited Emilio Cavalieri in the
preface to his opera Euridice(1600), with being the first to put >our [kind of] music
on the stage< with his Rappresentatione di anima et di corpo (1600). Cavalieri
explained in his preface to Euridicethat passaggi were to be prohibited because
they would get in the way of truedeclamationand could falsifythe affectivemeaning.
Instead [there should be] expressive singing, dynamic shadings and good declama-
tion accompaniedby appropriategestures,so thatthe totaleffectwill stirthe emotions
(muovereI'affetto).34
Marco da Gagliano asked singers in the preface to his own opera Dafne >>tolimit
their gruppi, trilli, passaggi et esclamazionito those places where the words permit
their logical or innocuous use and to refrain from using them everywhere else.<
Such >indiscriminateuse of ornaments,< he continues, are to be likened to >a painter
who paints cypress well and therefore crams them into every picture.<<35
By the end of the sixteenth century a distaste for extensive ornamentation
appears to have been firmly established. Even church composers found it neces-
sary to plead for self restraint against excessive embellishment. Lodovico Viadana,
in the preface to his Cento concertiecclesiasticiof 1602 instructed that

[these]concertsmust be sung sensitivelywith discretionand grace,using small orna-

ments (accenti)with judgment,and passaggiwith restraintand in their properplaces:
above all, nothing must be added to what is printedbecause nowadays thereare cer-
tain singers who, favoredby naturewith some vocal facility,never sing the songs the
way they are written,without realizingthattoday such proceduresare no longerwel-
come, indeed are held in very low esteem, especiallyin Romewhere the true manner
of good singing flourishes.3

As solo, duo, and trio motets became increasingly prevalent in church music
anthologies, composers practically begged performers in their prefatory essays not
to add passaggi and other elaborate ornaments to the music. Adriano Banchieri
instructed in both his Gemelliarmonici(1609) and Vezzo di perlemusicale (1610) that
the performer should abstain from embellishments or diminutions. The concerti,

33Ibid., 46-47.
34 Quoted in NEUMANN, Ornamentation,24.
35 Ibid., 26.
36 Ibid., 24.

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T. A. COLLINS,INSTRUM.ORNAMENTATION
PRACTICE,IRASM32 (2001)2,137-152 145

he says, should be performed >>strictlyas they are printed.<37 Giovanni Paolo Cima,
in his Concertiecclesiastici (1610), also requested that singers >do me the favor of
singing [the concerti] as they stand, with as much feeling as possible.< He further
implored >graceful singers< to be so kind as to add >only accenti and trilli.<38
>Ornamentationcan be most elaborate in theaters< wrote Giovanni Battista Doni in
his Trattatodellamusicascenica(ca. 1635),but ?in churches, where above all one should
use grave and moderate singing, long ornamentations [passaggi]are extremely un-
suitable. 39 Doni further suggested that >similarly in chambers, where one sings
some sort of refined melody, and in the company of people who understand music,
it is necessary to use [ornaments] not so... abundantly, but more sparingly.<<40
It is difficult to say whether or not composers' pleas had any actual effect on
ornamental practice. To be sure, their frequency in prefatory essays throughout
the period would suggest that performers had a tendency to nevertheless do as
they pleased. Enrico Radesca to his IIquintolibrocanzonette,madrigaliet arie... (Ven-
ice, 1614), evidently resigned himself to this fact when he offered unornamented
pieces so that ?those who by nature are not endowed with dispositione may not be
deprived of the work,< after all, he continues, >however skillful the singer may be,
he will never extemporaneously perform that ornamental passage exactly as it is
written down.<41
While the abuses of excessive ornamentation may largely have been the fault
of overly zealous singers, instrumentalists were certainly equally culpable. In his
Dialogo (1581), Vincenzo Galilei, undoubtedly speaking from experience, gives a
caustic appraisal of excessive instrumental divisions in his discussion of contem-
porary instrumental music:
Speakingin general,I say thateachone of these professors[playersof the viola d'arco,
cornett,and trombone]deserves to be reputedwhenever his work is of that excellent
standardwhich it is desirableto establish. I warn you, however, that those who have
need of this sole particular,in order to show the disposition of the lips, the agility of
the tongue, and the speed of their fingers,believing that knowledge consists of these,
will thus detractfrom the truebeing, air,semblance,effigy, and naturalbeauty of any
composition which they might have in hand, enveloping it from head to foot in the
confused fog of their >winged? passages or tirades, as they are called. Due to this
disproportionateand unbecomingdisguise-in orderto know it by name-there [oc-
curs] the same difficulty which existed in the times of Cimabueand Giotto... [here
Galileidigresses into a commentarycriticalof the late fifteenthcenturypropensityfor
excessive complexityin paintings]... Thereis also no lack of personslike these among
players of keyboardinstruments,but enough has been said.42

37 Ibid., 26.
38Timothy A. COLLINS, The Instrumental Music of Giovanni Paolo Cima's 'Concerti ecclesiastici'
(1610),(mastersthesis, The Universityof Hartford,1989),121.
39 Quoted in DONINGTON,
BaroqueMusic, 93.
40Ibid.
41
Ibid.
42 Robert HERMAN,
'Dialogo della musicaantica et della moderna'of VincenzoGalilei: Translationand
(Ph.D.dissertation,North TexasStateUniversity,1973),874-77.
Commentary

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146 T. A. COLLINS, INSTRUM. ORNAMENTATION PRACTICE, IRASM 32 (2001) 2,137-152

Bottrigari was similarly to the point:

Of all the causes proceeding from the instrumentsand their players which produce
the effect of discordanceand confusion,so detestablein our concerts... I believe that
the most potent and efficaciouswould be thatof thepassaggiunduly repeatedwithout
thoughtfulconsideration. And that explainswhy I have often heard similardiscords
and confusionsmadeby the singersin Churchwhen theyimprovisecounterpointabove
the cantusfermusof the Introit,whichbecauseof it becomesalmostodious and ridicu-
lous at the same time.43

Richardo Rognoni, who was himself an instrumentalist and author of a diminu-

tion treatise, even went so far as to suggest that instrumentalists were perhaps
even more prone to narcissistic excesses than vocalists. Despite making such a
boldface claim Rognoni graciously accepted responsibility, offering his own exer-
cises to remedy sloppy extravagance.44 Clean extravagance was certainly much
more palatable.
As even Caccini observed, ornamental passaggi were more suitable to wind
and string instruments than the voice. Indeed, the mere ability to play passaggiwas
a highly esteemed quality found in many instruments during the late sixteenth
and early seventeenth century. Instruments such as the cornetto, violin, viol and
recorder were the very media for which more than a half dozen instrumental dimi-
nution treatises were written. Among these instruments, the cornetto was univer-
sally praised for its vocal tone quality and its ability to play divisions. Ercole
Bottrigari writing in 1594 referred to the cornett as the >most excellent of the wind
instruments<<whose >divisions are neither scrappy nor so wild that they spoil the
underlying melody and the composer's design.<45 The violin, which had only re-
cently emerged, relatively speaking, from the ranks of common dance music into
more elevated company, proved itself to be a most versatile professional instru-
ment, which, along with its not too distant relative the viol, also possessed the
ability to perform virtuosic divisions. The violin was also the preferred alternative
to the cornetto. Technical virtuosity was similarly associated with the recorder.
Indeed, its ability to play florid divisions was its very hallmark. Even the trom-
bone was capable of virtuosic feats. Praetorius mentioned an Erhardus Borussus
from Dresden, who was not only capable of playing an extended range, but >was
capable of [playing] the rapid coloraturas and divisions that are played on the viola
bastardaor a cornett.?<46
However, an instrument's potential for virtuosity and what is wholly idiomatic
to the instrument are not necessarily one and the same. In this regard it is of no
little significance that the decline of the instrumental diminution practice at the

43 BOTTRIGARI,II Desiderio, 61.

44ROGNONI,
Passaggi, 2.
45 BOTTRIGARI,II Desiderio,85.
46Michael PRAETORIUS, Syntagma Musicum II, De Organographia,trans. and ed. by David Z.
CROOKES (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), 43.

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T. A. COLLINS,INSTRUM.ORNAMENTATION
PRACTICE,IRASM32 (2001)2,137-152 147

beginning of the seventeenth century in large part coincided with the rise of a
wholly idiomatic instrumental genre-the sonata.47Inspired and influenced by the
declamatory vocal style of the secondaprattica,the nascent instrumental sonata be-
came an expressive vehicle in its own right, despite being a purely abstract me-
dium.48 Rhetorical and metaphorical musical icons, hitherto dependent on direct
textual affiliations, became, through association, an important element of the in-
strumentalist's musical vocabulary, as did the concepts of grace and sprezzatura
associated with vocal performance. Long after his death, it was recalled that Biagio
Marini, who was himself a virtuoso violinist and pioneering figure in the new
instrumental genre, >played with such excellence that by allying an almost vocal
expression with harmonic sweetness, he rendered his listeners almost ecstatic...,<
furthermore, he possessed a >natural style that is almost as expressive as the
spoken word.?49 Even after instrumental performance had established itself as a
viable medium for purely musical expression, a certain vocal expressivity
remained both the ideal to which performers aspired, and against which they were
measured.
As the roots of the sonata genre took hold and spread, its success, in some
respects tantamount to a terza prattica,was driven by the trend away from vocal
models toward instrumental writing that was ostensibly idiomatic. Instrumental
idioms, many of which are themselves based on ornamental figures, increasingly
made up the compositional vocabulary of the instrumental composer, who was in
many, if not most, cases a virtuoso performer himself. While not necessarily less
affective because of the orientation toward virtuosity, the very medium of the in-
strumental sonata presented the composer with fewer technical limitations and a
much wider and more dynamic musical spectrum than its vocal precursor. Conse-
quently, the performer was often left with very little room for extraneous orna-
mentation other than occasional accenti, trilli and other small affetti-if even that.
Indeed, mature early seicentosonatas (i.e., Castello, Scarani, Fontana, etc.) are chal-
lenging enough without introducing additional ornamentation. Dario Castello rec-
ognized this in his preface to the 1629 reprint edition of his 1621 Sonateconcertante
in stil moderno,libroprimo (1629e):

47
Because the use of the terms such as >>sinfonia<and >canzonao with regard to solo and solo
ensemble works persisted well into the middle of the seventeenth century, often with little or no dis-
tinction from the term >sonata,< references here to the sonata and sonata genre are to solo/soloistic
instrumental forms in general and not necessarily to those specifically designated >sonatas<. For a
detailed discussion on the emergence of the sonata see Peter ALLSOP, TheItalian >Trio<Sonata,from its
Origins Until Corelli (Oxford: Clarendon, 1992), 3-105.
48Affective devices associated with the stile nuovo are evident in the emerging instrumental so-
nata from almost the beginning. Specific examples of this may be seen in the solo/duo sonatas that
Giovanni Paolo Cima appended to his Concertiecclesiastici(Milan, 1610); Salomone Rossi's aptly named
sonata >Detta la moderna? from the third book of Varie Sonate, Sinfonie, Gagliarde,Brandi e Correnti...
Opus 12 (Venice, 1613); and the sinfonias >La Ponte,< >La Orlandina,o and >La Gardana< of Biagio
Marini's Affetti Musicale (Venice, 1617).
49LibreriaBresciana, 1694; quoted in Andrew DELL'ANTONIO, The Sensual Sonata: Construc-
tion of Desire in Early Baroque Instrumental Music, Repercussions1 no. 2 (Fall, 1992), 52.

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148 PRACTICE,IRASM32 (2001)2,137-152
T. A. COLLINS,INSTRUM.ORNAMENTATION

To give satisfaction to those who take pleasure in playing these sonatas of mine, it has
occurred to me to advise them that although at first they may appear difficult, their
spirit will not be destroyed by playing them more than once; and in doing so they will
become practiced and this will render them very easy, since nothing is difficult when
pleasure is derived. I declare that having observed the modern style, I could not have
made them any easier.50

According to Peter Allsop, in his discussion on the development of stil moderno

sonata, it was the very practice of notating formerly improvisatory practices
(passaggi) in the new sonata, which itself was largely beholden to the ornamental
treatises of dalla Casa and Bassano (et. al) for its >large repertory of stock figura-
tions and vivacious roulades,< that represented >a change in attitude on the part of
the composer, denying the performer the option of free embellishment.<<5 Refer-
ring specifically to Venetian sonata composers (i.e., Riccio, Marini, Scarani, etc.),
Allsop continues:

the Venetians were unusually precise in their notation, not only of specific instrumental
idioms, such as bowing slurs and tonguings,52but even the addition of standard graces
such as gruppi, and trilli, while fully written out passaggisuggests an attitude similar to
that of G. P. Cima who firmly requested the player to perform his music as it stood.53

While Venetian printers, and composers for that matter, were indeed unusu-
ally precise in their notation, they were not always clear as to what was intended
by the affective devices or embellishments indicated. Not only is it sometimes dif-
ficult to determine whether or not affetti are being identified or prescribed, but
exactly how such an ornament could be applied to the specific passage.54 Never-

Sonata,33.
50ALLSOP,>Trio<
51Ibid.,91.
52The author, himself a cornettoplayer, knows of no tonguing indicationswhatsoever in the
early seicentosonatarepertoire.
53ALLSOP,)>Trio<< Sonata,91. EarlierAllsopparaphrasedCimaas >>politely request[ing]the 'Benign
Reader'to restrainfromaddinganythingbeyondaccentiand trilli,andtheextensivewrittenout passaggi
make this unnecessary.<< (Ibid.,44).
54For examplesillustratingthis see ALLSOP,>Trio<Sonata,258-59,examples10-11. Allsop has
also suggested that the rubric>comesta<indicatesthat a particularpiece should be performedas it
standsand not ornamentedby the performer(ibid.,44-45). He cites a certainSonata4 by Ottaviomaria
Grandi(Sonate... al, 2, 3, 4, & 6, Op. II,Venice 1628),and solo canzonifromGirolamoFrescobaldi'sII
PrimoLibroDelleCanzoni(partituraedition by Frescobaldi'sstudent,BartolomeoGrassi,Rome 1628).
Whilethis is not entirelybeyond the realmof possibility,in the case of the Frescobaldisolo canzoni?la
Bonuisia,<>>laBernardinia,<>LaLucchesina,<< and >>LaDonatina,<all of which are precededby the
label >Cantosolo comme sta,< there is little, if anything,about these pieces that particularlydistin-
guishes them from the other canzoni in the collection, specifically precluding them from being
ornamented.Interestinglyenough,Frescobaldi'sown editionof the canzoni(in partbooks)of 1628and
its reprintedition of 1634 do not include this particularrubric. It was apparentlyadded to the 1628
partituraedition by its compiler, BartolomeoGrassi,a studentof Frescobaldi.(Formore on these edi-
tions see FrederickHAMMOND,Girolamo HisLifeandMusic[Cambridge:HarvardUniver-
Frescobaldi,
sity Press, 1983],188-202).Exactlywhy Grassiwould have includedthis directionin his own edition,
when no such indicationappearsin the originalprintededition,is not clear. In any case,it is generally
understoodthat the direction>comesta<suggests thata particularpiece should not be transposed.

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T.A. COLLINS,
INSTRUM.
ORNAMENTATION IRASM
PRACTICE, 32 (2001)2,137-152 149

theless, it is clear that composers such as Castello, Riccio, Marini, and Scarani took
great pains at crafting their music, and that their fully written out passaggi and
other graces were not so much a denial of the opportunity for the performer to add
embellishment as it was a display of their own virtuosity and ideas about embel-
lishment.
Cima is perhaps the most often quoted early seicentocomposer with regard to
performing instrumental music strictly as written without additional embellish-
ment. However, the full context of his comments is rarely given. In his preface to
his Concertiecclesiastici(1610) he specifically requests the >>kindreader<<to

... do me the favorof singingthem [theconcerti]as they stand,with as much feeling as

possible. And further,if it would please the graceful singers to add something to
them,be good enough to do it only with accentiand trilli. Further,the skillfulorganist
will also oblige me when they play these [concerti](onlywith the Bassand Soprano)to
accompanythem with middle partsof the greatestpossible diligence,because pleas-
ant accompanimentsmake the song pleasant.And discoveringsomewhat licentious
passages, let them contemplatethe words togetherwith the musicaleffect,which they
will find to have been done with sound judgement. And even though therearegraces
in the score where they are found in the parts,I have included them in orderthat one
might see the style; besides, it is also very helpful to the singer to sometimesplay the
ornament[s]for them. Forthe most parthowever, I would deem it well to play them
straight [without embellishment], letting their perfect judgment fall upon me...<<
(emphasisadded)55

Nowhere does Cima specifically, or even generally, address instrumental perform-

ance practice, let alone that of the six instrumental works appended to his collec-
tion. While Cima's advice to organists to play the music straight (i.e., with simple
chordal accompaniment) is entirely sound, it nevertheless cannot be known for
sure whether or not he viewed the accompaniment and performance of vocal and
instrumental music differently. Pietro della Valle, however, was less enigmatic,
sharing Cima's preference for simple, yet graceful, accompaniment. In his Della
musica del' eta (Rome, 1640) he writes:

Playingin the companyof otherinstrumentsdoes not requireartificesof counterpoint

[ornamentation]so much as the gracesof art;for if the playeris good, he does not have
to insist so much upon makinga display of his own artas upon accommodatinghim-
self to all others...56

Giovanni Battista Buonamente was one of the few early seicento instrumental
composers to have spoken out about embellishing his music, apparently prefer-
ring that his works be performed without embellishment, though he recognized
the proclivity of less mature performers to add ornamental passaggi. In a letter to
Duke Francesco Gonzaga in the late 1620s, he writes >... I am at present enclosing

55COLLINS, Cima, 121-122.

56 Quoted in DONINGTON, BaroqueMusic, 93-94.

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150 T. A. COLLINS,INSTRUM.ORNAMENTATION
PRACTICE,IRASM32 (2001)2,137-152

a new violin solo which I hope you will be pleased to play without embellish-
ments, and for the convenience of the children I have not made it too difficult in
case they would like the opportunity of adorning it with passaggi.<<57
The proclivity of certain performers to add excessive embellishments persisted
throughout the seventeenth century and is reflected in the remarks of Giovanni Maria
Bononcini in the preface to his Sonateda chiesaa due violini,Opus II (Venice, 1672):

Nowadays there are some of so little intelligencein the Art, that when they sing or
play they always wish with theirill-orderedand indiscreetcapricesof Bow or Voice,
to alter or deform compositions (however carefullymade) so that the authors have
become obliged to ask these singersand playersto sing and play things simply as they
are written.8

Bononcini's comments are remarkably familiar. Some things apparently never

change.
In the end the issue at hand is not necessarily whether or not modem performers
should ornament early seventeenth-century instrumental music or what is stylisti-
cally appropriate. Without a doubt ornamentation was an intrinsic part of early sev-
enteenth-century musical style and practice.59 To a certain extent it was even the
obligation of performers to add accentiand trilli and other tasteful ornaments to the
music, and consequently such aspects of performance came to be appreciated as the
very hallmark of the consummate artist. This is wonderfully illustrated in an account
of Giulio Cesare Monteverdi's II rapimentodi Proserpinain 1611:

Forthis performancewere summonedthe most excellentsingers of which today Italy

vaunts herself, and suffice it to say that there came SignorFrancescoRasi and Signor
FrancescoCampagnolo,both musiciansof the MostSereneLordDuke of Mantua,who
are the two poles which in our time supportthe artof good singing, for who can make
heard [such] sweet accenti, faster passaggi, more moving affects, more ardent sighs,
more gracefulpoints of imitation,more entwinedgroppi,moredelightfultremoli,more
gracefultrilli,morebitingconsonancesand sweeterdissonancesthanthose which they
make us hear, thanksto whom we enjoyparadisethroughour ears,and we see occur
in realitywhat the ingenious poets ascribedin fableto the harmonyof Orpheus,Arion
and Amphion?60

57ALLSOP,>Trio<Sonata,58.
58W. KLENZ, Giovanni Maria Bononciniof Modena (Durham, NC, 1962), 75. Quoted in ALLSOP,
The Italian >Trio<Sonata (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), 44.
59 While there are numerous examples of situations which seemingly invite free ornamentation, it
is entirely possible that such instances may have lead to the practice of including extended passages of
slow white notes as a framework for improvisation (e.g., the sonata h 2 for Violino & Viola da gamba,
oueroviolino e TiorbaViola da gamba6 Tiorbaof Marco Antonio Ferro's Sonatea Due, Tre& Quatro... Opera
prima [Venice, 1649]), and wholly improvised interludes between the sections or movements of a so-
nata. For more on these so-called >blank passages< see Eleanor McCRICKARD, The Roman Repertory
for Violin before the Time of Corelli, EarlyMusic 18 (1990), 568-9, n. 16-18.
60Warren KIRKENDALE, The CourtMusicians in Florence(Firenze: Olschki, 1993): 580, as quoted
in Tim CARTER, Singing 'Orfeo': On the Performance of Monteverdi's First Opera, Recercare 11 (1999):
118.

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 PRACTICE,IRASM32 (2001)2,137-152
T. A. COLLINS,INSTRUM.ORNAMENTATION 151

Quite the contrary, the heart of the issue lies with the role of the performer. Is he
an interpreter or a creator? The two roles are more alike than one might think.
From the standpoint of the music he is the interpreter, or rather, conveyer, bring-
ing to life mere notes on the page, conveying them from the written (or visual)
medium to the aural, from the composer to the listener. Yet in many respects he is
an interpreter, translating from one language to another, selecting the appropriate
vocabulary, replete with adjectives, that faithfully renders the original printed idea.
But the performer is also a creator. Like an actor who creates a vivid personality
from mere words on a page, the performer creates a musical persona from the
printed music. In both of these roles ornamentation is an important element of the
artistic license that is the performer's fundamental prerogative. As such ornamen-
tation is but a tool, an important part of the means by which the performer achieves
his artistic end, the ultimate goal of which is to be convincing, delight the senses
and, as Caccini so succinctly put it, to move the affect of the soul. In the end there
is no true answer to the question of how much ornamentation is appropriate for
early seventeenth-century instrumental music. It is purely a matter of taste, and as
such it is impossible to legislate. Nevertheless, there is much insight to be gained
from period comments on performances. Late sixteenth-century theorists and com-
posers wrote disparagingly of profuse ornamentation (comments to the contrary
are conspicuously lacking), and early seventeenth-century instrumental compos-
ers appear to have been tacitly ambivalent, by and large content to stay out of the
issue entirely, apparently allowing performers to do as they please. What is ap-
propriate? Naturally, that is entirely up to the performer, according to the aes-
thetic he or she is trying to convey. Though the virtuoso performer may argue that
is hard to resist the old adage >if you've got it, flaunt it,? the concept of grace so
intimately connected with the early Baroque performance aesthetic would favor
graceful modesty, serving the music, over liberal ostentation, serving the performer.
And while the performer is indeed completely free to ornament, as Zenobi ob-
served, unless it is done with art, grace, and good taste, it is annoying to hear, hard
to digest, and loathsome to endure.61

61
See note 9.

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152 T. A. COLLINS,INSTRUM.ORNAMENTATION
PRACTICE,IRASM32 (2001)2,137-152

Sa:etak

>REAKCIJEPROTIV VIRTUOZA<: PRAKSA INSTRUMENTALNE ORNAMENTACIJE

I STILEMODERNO

Ornamentacija je temeljni element ranobaroknog izvoditeljstva i glazbenog stila. No,

do koje mjere? Ocekuje li se da izvoditelji ornamentiraju iznad granice prepoznavanja, ili
cak iznad funkcije, takve elemente kao sto su ponavljane sekvence motiva, ponavljane
kadencne figure, ponovljeni ili strofni odlomci ili prazne note u slijedu? U svjetlu snazne
sklonosti medu izvoditeljima instrumentalne glazbe ranog 17. stoljeca spram neCeg sto bi se
moglo smatrati pretjeranom ornamentacijom, istrazivanje osjecaja u kasnom 16. i ranom 17.
stoljecu s obzirom na ukragavanje djeluje rasvjetljujuce.
Ornamentacija je bila temeljni element rane barokne glazbene prakse, cvrsto ukorijenjen
u renesansni pojam ljupkosti koja je obuhvacala i ukrasavanje, ali ne kao razmetljivost u
svrhu isticanja virtuoznosti vec umjerenost kao sredstvo izra2avanja Ijepote i drazesti. Unatoc
tome, izvoditelji su bili skloni ornamentiranju do pretjerivanja sto je navodilo teoretikare i
skladatelje kasnog 16. stoljeca da pigu prezirno o raskosnoj ornamentaciji (premda se Cini
da su pjevaCi podnijeli najzeSde napade njihova otrova, instrumentalisti su bili jednako
okrivljeni). U tek propupaloj instrumentalnoj sonati skladatelji su cesto ostavljali malo
prostora za nebitna ukrasavanja osim za male ornamente i afektivna sredstva. Stovise,
instrumentalni kompozitori ranog 17. stoljeCa cini se da su bili presutno ambivalentni u
pogledu izvoditeljskih sadrzaja. Na posljetku, to nije stvar ukragavanja nego odredivanja
uloge izvoditelja. Je li izvoditelj tuma~ ili stvaralac? Premda izvoditelj virtuoz mo2e
prigovoriti smatrajui da je tesko odoljeti staroj poslovici >ako mozes, napravi se vazan<,
pojam ljupkosti, tako duboko intimno povezan s estetikom ranobaroknog izvodenja,
preferirao bi drazesnu umjerenost, sluzed glazbi, i s onu stranu slobodnog razmetanja, sluedi
izvoditelju.

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