CHAPTER I

BACKGROUND

A. Background

We already know that the atom consists of a nucleus of an atom and the
electrons circulating around it. Ordinary chemical reactions (such as combustion
reaction and salting), only involves a change in the atomic shell, especially
electrons in the outer shell, while the atomic nucleus unchanged. Reactions
relating to changes in the nucleus called a nuclear reaction or a nuclear reaction
(nucleus = core). No nuclear reactions that occur spontaneously or artificial.
Spontaneous nuclear reaction occurs in the nucleus of an unstable atom.
Substances containing an unstable nucleus is called a radioactive substance. The
nuclear reaction can not spontaneously occur in a stable core and the core is not
stable. Energy nuclear reactions accompanied by changes in the form of radiation
and heat.
Various types of nuclear reactions accompanied by the release of heat is
very powerful, larger and ordinary chemical reactions. It turns out, many elements
are naturally radioactive. All isotopes of atomic numbers above 83 are radioactive.
Element atomic number 83 or less have a stable isotope of technetium and
promesium exception. Radioactive isotopes are called radioactive isotopes or
radioisotopes, isotopes that are not radiaktif called stable isotopes. Today,
radioisotopes may also be made of stable isotopes. So in addition to natural
radioisotopes are also no artificial radioisotopes. The use of radioisotope
techniques today has expanded in various fields, such as chemistry, medicine,
animal husbandry and agriculture, steel industry, the food industry, the field of
hydrology and sedimentology field. These applications are intended for human
welfare in various fields.
Radioisotopes are commonly used in various fields of human needs such
as health, agriculture, hydrology and industry, especially in chemical midwife
who comes to the analysis of a sample, tracer techniques and the like are very
helpful in the study. In general, there is no radioisotope in nature because most of
its half-life is relatively short. Radioisotopes created within a nuclear reactor that
has a density (flux) high neutron by reaction between certain atomic nuclei with
neutrons. In addition, radioisotopes may also be produced using the accelerator
through the reaction between certain atomic nuclei with a particle, such as alpha,
neutrons, protons or other particles. Therefore, the existence of this paper is to
determine the usefulness of radioisotopes in chemistry both in terms of
application and specifications.

B. Problem

1. What are the application of radioisotopes in chemistry?

2. How does the use of radioisotopes in chemistry?

 CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION

A. Definition of Radioisotopes

Radioisotopes can occur naturally or intentionally (synthesis) created by

humans in the research reactor. Radioisotopes are commonly used in various
fields of human needs such as health, agriculture, hydrology and industry, in
general, does not exist in nature, as most paronya relatively short lifespan.
Therefore made radioisotopes synthesis. Radioisotope production with the
activation process (synthesis) carried out by shooting at stable isotopes with
neutrons in the reactor core. This process is commonly called a neutron
irradiation, while the irradiated material is called the target or targets. The process
created within a nuclear reactor that has a density (flux) high neutron by reaction
between certain atomic nuclei with neutrons. Neutrons are fired will be entered
into the target atomic nucleus so that the number of neutrons in the nucleus of the
target increases. These events can lead to instability of the nuclei thus transformed
into a radioactive nature. In addition, radioisotopes may also be produced using
the accelerator through the reaction between certain atomic nuclei with a particle,
such as alpha, neutrons, protons or other particles.
An element that is identical from the chemical properties of the material
may vary slightly in weight. These characteristics can be explained that the atoms
in the same element can have different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus.
Differences in these forms known as isotopes. Examples of carbon element that
has three natural isotopes is C-12, C-13, C-14. The third of these isotopes have the
same chemical properties as the same number of protons but a different number of
neutrons, this affects the physical properties of each atom. If the number of
neutrons equal to or more than the number of protons, the nucleus so stable and
so-called stable isotopes. When the number of neutrons less than the number of
protons, the nucleus is unstable nuclei will release energy in the form of radiation.
Isotope with an unstable nucleus is known as radioisotopes.
 Radioactive substances is any substance that emits ionizing radiation with a
specific activity greater than 70 kBq / kg or 2 nCi / g (seventy kilobecquerel per
kilogram or two nanocurie per gram). Figures 70 kBq / kg (2 nCi / g) is a
reference to a substance can be called a common radioactive substances on its
established by the International Atomic Energy Agency (International Atomic
Energy Agency). However, there are some substances that despite having a lower
specific activity than that limit can be regarded as radioactive substances as
defined may not limit the same for all substances given the nature of each of these
substances is different. Here are the benefits and dangers of radioactive substances
in everyday life.

B. Useful of radioactive chemistry

1. Tracer technique

Tracer technique can be used to study the mechanisms of various chemical

reactions. For example in the esterification reaction. With oxygen-18 can be
followed by a reaction between carboxylic acid and alcohol. From the analysis of
mass spectroscopy, esterification reaction that occurs can be written as follows.
(isotope oxygen-18 are colored). Results of this analysis showed that water
molecules do not contain oxygen-18.
If you want to know the water O atoms derived from the carboxylic acid or
alcohol, then I know is to use O-18 radioisotope. If the O-18 is used as an OH
group of carboxylic acids turned out to be found in water. Whereas if the O-18 is
used as the alcohol turns out that we find on the ester.
In addition, the use of radioisotopes in the field of chemistry is to study the
dynamic equilibrium, suppose the equilibrium between solid PbI2 with ions in a
saturated solution. We want to know whether, after equilibrium is reached, the
reaction is still in progress or not. The trick is to make a saturated solution PbI2 in
glass A and glass B. In A glass used PbI2 containing radioactive I-131 was on the
glass and used PbI2 not contain radioactive. Furthermore, some of the solvent
from the glass A (excluding sediment) was transferred to the glass B. After a
while deposition on glass and analyzed, turned out to contain radioactive PbI2. So
it can be concluded that after the equilibrium is achieved PbI2 formation reaction
was continued and at the same time took place PbI2 dissolution reaction.

a). The use of tracer principle

Tracer method (tracer) has been used in virtually every field of science and
technologies such as medicine, biology, chemistry, agriculture, physiology,
nutrition, physics, instrumentation, pharmaceutical, toxicology, biotechnology and
so on. Applications in this method is to perform tracing of the object under study
or called Tracee. Tracee may be a component of substan substan or as radicals,
molecules or atoms. The ideal tracer must have physical, chemical, or biological
weapons together with Tracee studied. The nature of these characteristics makes it
possible to detect in the system where Trace it.
The principle of tracer production involves a replacement (substitution) of
one or more atomatom of specific positions in the molecule with an isotope trace
in the atom. Stable isotopes and radioactive isotopes can be used as a tracer. The
difference lies in the masses of the isotopes of different numbers of neutrons, thus
not affect its chemical properties. Nature can not distinguish between stable
isotopes and radioactive isotopes in the same material, they can take part in
chemical reactions in the materials or the same element.
The use of tracer labeling requires an assumption that there will be no
difference between the molecules or atoms are labeled with molecules that are not
labeled and will trace the position or movement of the molecules that are not
labeled. As has been explained that the various isotopes in an element having
physical and chemical properties are almost identical, just have different masses.
This difference makes an isotopdapat distinguish between isotopes from one
another. The use of several isotopes for observing a process of evaporation or
rootuptake in plants, can be observed using elements with low molecular weight.
The radiation emitted by the radioisotope during decay can ionize the atoms
around it. A number of compounds will emit light when exposed to radiation, the
intensity of the emitted light depends on the radiation exposure. Light intensity is
measured with a scintillation counter and a Geiger counter or ionization chambers.

b. Measurement tracer
Radioisotope tracer can be detected based on the nature of decay, which is
a type of radiation emitted and energy as well as time paronya. When a small
amount of radioisotope used and the length of time it takes half a statistically
significant measurement technique dibutuhkanuntuk as stable isotopes. On the use
radioisotoptersebut is necessary to note these things:

1) The nature of the radioactive

Radioisotope tracer is a radioactive source was in the sample. Thus the

final enumeration must be corrected for decay background (Background)
agarmendapatkan absolute values. The radiation emitted in the decay of a single
nucleus can ionize the atoms around it but rarely have an influence on the bottom
line.

c. Measurement is based on the stimulation of the response to stimuli

To detect a stable isotope or radioisotope with low activity, then

measurements required by stimulation of a typical response (isotopic), can pass
through;

• Application of the electrical circuit to ionize the sample, thus atomatom and
molecules can be distinguished by a mass ratio charge (m / z values), so that the
tracer can be determined based on the mass of the core. As an example; tracer
contained in the sample can be determined by measuring the intensity of the
current according to the tracer ion using a detector such as Faraday cups,
secondary electron multipliers and so on.

• Induction of nuclear reactions by shooting a bullet with the samples using a

particular type and energy. Thus tracer distinguished based on the emission of
radioactive reaction products.
2. Use of Isotopes in the Field of Chemical Analysis

The use of isotopes in the analysis used to determine trace elements in the
sample. Analysis with radioisotopes or called radiometric can be done in two
ways, as follows:

1) Isotope Dilution Analysis.

Isotope dilution analysis to determine the levels of a substance is done by

adding a radioactive substance known activity of its kind and has been diluted into
a substance that will be assayed. The compounds used have properties identical to
the compound to be analyzed. On isotope dilution analysis, into a solution to be
analyzed is added a solution containing a known amount of radioactive species
and an unknown substance. The substance then separated, and radioactivity is
determined.

Isotope dilution analysis process in general is: Analysis mixture of

compounds based on the type of footage, with a component that has been known
to kind of activity; Quantitative determination of compounds in complex mixtures
can be implemented by adding the compound marked with the liveliness of the
type and number of known accurately; for this purpose should be used compounds
labeled with properties identical to the compound to be determined. When the
compound to be determined can be separated in a pure state, but it is not necessary
to obtain the results of the quantitative separation, the levels of the compounds in
question can be determined by comparing the activity types before and after
separation.

a) First, a known amount of an isotope is added to the sample. For example, to

determine the amount of I in the sample solution of KI, I131 labeled compounds
added AgNO3 and HNO3. (Standard solution or a solution with activity before
dilution) For the sample solution, a number of compounds marked
I131ditambahkan into KI solution that is going to react with AgNO3
stabil.Penambahan KI in the sample, causing AgI precipitate, whereas in the
standard AgI precipitate is formed as AgNO3 reacts with I131 which are
radioactive. HNO3 serve to acidic conditions, perfecting AgI precipitate
formation, and removes the matrix - matrix interrupt the reaction. Then the
precipitate is filtered AgI, counted and weighed. From the experiments showed
that the first mass in the sample amounted to 182.894 mg while the KI
concentration was 956.4 ppm.
Analyzed solution and standard solution was added a solution containing a
radioactive species. The substance then separated and determined activity.
Concentration of the solution being analyzed is determined by comparison with
standard solutions.
2) Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA). Analysis Activation Neutron, or
abbreviated with the APN (= NAA, Neutron Activation Analysis) is an analytical
technique un sur which is based on the emission of radiation y when nuclides an
element of catch and! Or react with thermal neutrons (neutrons with kinetic
energy less than 0 , 1 key). This technique is one of the utilization of nuclear
techniques in the fields of chemical analysis, in addition to other analytical
techniques such as radioisotope dilution analysis and radioimmunoassay. Rad
APN method can be used for qualitative and quantitative analysis.
This technique can also be used for the simultaneous analysis of multiple
elements at once without being distracted by the chemical form of each element
and the similarities or differences in the chemical properties of elements are
analyzed. This is due to the interaction of the elements with neutrons produce
nuclides sensitivity characteristics which are difficult or can not be achieved by
means of another analysis. Even the technique of APN otherwise be able to detect
and determine the level of trace element content and ultra-trace for no less than 75
kinds of elements.
APN technique was first introduced by Hevesy and Levi in 1936 while
doing research suggests that exposure to neutrons in materials containing rare
earth elements keradoaktivan very high yield. Oari observation of the onset
keradioaktivan. Neutron activation analysis can be used to determine the trace
elements in the sample being a solid. Eg for determining heavy metals (Cd) in the
samples of sea belt. Samples irradiated with neutrons in the reactor to become
radioactive. One of the emitted radiation is gamma rays. Further samples of
minced with a gamma spectrometer to determine the activity of the elements to be
determined.

Basic Principles state budget

If a nuclide element / atom is irradiated with the thermal neutron core

neutron capture reaction occurs that produces the species, which is very unstable
and are at the level of excitation energies corresponding to the neutron binding
energy with the target nuclides. In order very short period, between the species
suffered deeksitasi energy level is accompanied by emission of γ radiation called γ
radiation - prompt (prompt-y) and core transformation has occurred generate
radioactive nuclides (= radionuclide). lradiasi with thermal neutrons followed by
radiation emission of y-prompt terse but declared a nuclear reaction A (n, γ) A *
A is the target nuclide (= nuclide irradiated) and * A is a radionuclide produced.

Compared with the target nuclides, radionuclides nuclear reaction products (n, γ)
does not change the number of protons, but the number of neutrons increased by
one. Thus the product radionuclides are radioactive isotopes of the elements of the
target. Furthermore, A * decay and emit γ radiation or a particle or particles or
particles ~ + ~ - or a combination of ke'empatnya. Oalam relation to APN, γ
radiation accompanying the decay is called γ radiation -tunda (delayed- γ).
Nuclides decay product is new, it may still radioactive but which might also be
stable nuclides.

Grouping Techniques APN grouped by 2 different categories. The first is based

on the type of radiation y were measured, and the second based on the presence or
absence of component separation treatment footage before the measurement
process.

APN grouping based on the type of radiation γ.

Based on the type of γ radiation being measured, categorized APN

techniques in utilizing APN- prompt γ γ radiation -prompt, and APN- γ γ -tunda
using radiation from radionuclides decay product activation [3,4]. Oi in APN- γ-
prompt, detection and measurement carried out during the activation process. This
technique is usually used neutron beams extracted through a door beam of
neutrons in the reactor so that the neutron flux that is used is much lower than the
neutron flux in the reactor core, which is about one millionth of the neutron flux
in the reactor core. Because the technique APN- γ -prompt more done for the
analysis of elements that have a neutron absorption cross section is high, eg B,
Cd, Sm, and Od, element in the activation produce radionuclides with very short
half-life or a radionuclide that decays emit low energy γ radiation.
In APN- γ -tunda, detection and measurement carried out after the
completion of activation in the peri ode radionuclides decay time product
activation. The second technique is more of a public option that APN designation
is usually meant as APN- γ delay.

APN grouping based on whether there is a separation process

APN grouping in this category there are two kinds, namely APN
instrumental (APNI) and APN radiochemical (APNR). Oi in separation
techniques APNI not equal at all. After irradiation (activation), with or without a
cooling stage after irradiation, footage can be directly measured. Keradioaktivan
that is not mutually interfere with the implementation of the detection and
measurement of each. Adults 1 m APN analysis equipment generally been
equipped with automatic data processing system and computed. APNI technique
is becoming the choice of many people because it is much simpler and easier to
do so in connection with this category generally referred to APN is APNI.
To facilitate the separation of radiochemical techniques APNR, after the
cooling process after the irradiation, the footage analyte (either in a form absorbed
on filter paper or in the form of other preparation) was dissolved again in a
suitable solvent and then added a carrier prior to the separation process. Chemical
species added carrier must comply with the elements to be separated and are
intended to contain un sur which is intended to be the amount which enables the
separation chemistry. Furthermore, radiochemical separation process can be done
with appropriate techniques, such as precipitation. chromatography, extraction,
electrochemical and so on. Each [Raksi separated and left. When required to be
analyzed, measured and specified further in the geometric sarna with standard
footage.

b) Some Important Aspects In APN

Capability and sensitivity analysis

As one element analysis techniques, APN not only has high sensitivity, but
also can be applied to the analysis of approximately 70% of the elements that have
been known so far [1]. Footage analyte can be derived from a variety of materials,
such as foodstuffs, biological materials, environmental materials, industrial
materials, pharmaceutical materials and so on.

c) Advantages and limitations of APN as an analytical technique other elemental

analysis techniques

Excellence:

a). Is a multi-element analysis techniques simultaneously for qualitative and

quantitative analysis, and does not depend on the level of oxidation or chemical
and physical form of the element being analyzed.

b). The detection sensitivity is so high that only the required amount of euplikan
(mass weight or volume) of the Minor.

c) In many ways a non-destructive analytical techniques, it is not necessary for the

separation process analysis.

d). If the means of irradiation and measurement instruments have been available,
the analysis can be done with a procedure that is easy, fast and simple.

e). No analysis could be disrupted by chemical contaminants in the environment.

f). Can be applied to about 70% of this type of element on the Periodic Map
euplikan in a wide variety of materials.
g). Oari one irradiation process can be repeated measurements adjusted with the
span of half-element analysis.

Limitations:

a) Requires neutron source facility (nuclear reactor or neutron generator) that can
not always be shared by all laboratory chemical analysis.

b). Legality and require special permits with respect to aspects of safety and / or
radiation protection.

e). Does not provide information on the chemical form or degree of oxidation of
the analyte elements.

d). It can not be done for the analysis of certain elements such as elements cross
section of neutrons reaction is very low (for this type of analysis such as
activating proton activation analysis system using a cyclotron can be a
complement to the APN).

d) Some kind of interference in the APN

Some rnacarn disorders irnplernentasi dalarn APN can rnengurangi accuracy and
effectiveness analysis, among others:

• Spectral Disorders.

Spectral interference occurs when two rnacarn radionuclide results rnenghasilkan

activation energy y adjacent. It Inl rnenyebabkan chopped overlap that can
rnenghasilkan error information obtained. If this situation can not be overcome by
the use of high resolution detector, rnaka required re-measurement after a certain
time interval after a short half-life time of radionuclides that may be considered
rneluruh exhausted.

• Disturbance second order additive.

Second-order interference occurs when the additive element in dalarn rnatrik

analyte rnenghasilkan radionuclides rneluruh rnenjadi stable isotopes are equal to
the elements analyzed so happens pertarnbahan nuclear reactions produce
readionuklida analyzed. For example, in the analysis of phosphorus by reaction
31p (n, y) 32P, there will be disruption of the Si in the matrix, because Si will
undergo nuclear reaction 30Si (n, y) 31Si ~ 31p + ~ and further 31p from decay
31Si also 31p undergo nuclear reactions (n, y) 32P.

• Secondary Disorders.

This type of disorder is caused by the formation of the analyzed radionuclides that
do not originate from the analyte elements were intended. This can happen when
the activation reactions take place in addition to (n, y), for example activation
reaction (n, p) or (n, a) which is followed by decay of radionuclides produce
results equal to the activation reaction (n, y).

• Primary Disorders.

Primary disorder is a disorder in which the most dominant APN. Type these
disorders occur because the elements in the matrix of analyte undergo nuclear
reactions other than the (n, y) and immediately produce radionuclides matrix
analytes undergo nuclear reactions other than the (n, y) and directly produces
radionuclides equal with radionuclides reaction products (n, y) desired.
 CHAPTER III

CLOSING

A. Conclusion

Based on the above discussion it can be concluded that: Radioisotopes can

occur naturally or intentionally (synthesis) created by humans in the research
reactor. Radioisotopes are commonly used in various fields of human needs such
as health, agriculture, hydrology and industry, in general, does not exist in nature,
as most paronya relatively short lifespan. Radioisotope utilization in chemicals
include: tracer techniques, isotope in the chemical analysis consists of the analysis
of isotope dilution and neutron activation analysis (NAA).

B. Suggestions

For complemented content on this paper are expected criticism of readers,

especially the material into the contents in this paper.