Professional Documents
Culture Documents
discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311162969
CITATIONS READS
2 28
1 author:
Jeanne Gamble
University of Cape Town
9 PUBLICATIONS 154 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
All content following this page was uploaded by Jeanne Gamble on 05 October 2017.
Jeanne Gamble
To cite this article: Jeanne Gamble (2016) From labour market to labour process: finding a
basis for curriculum in TVET, International Journal of Training Research, 14:3, 215-229, DOI:
10.1080/14480220.2016.1254367
Download by: [Dr Jeanne Gamble] Date: 30 January 2017, At: 04:38
International Journal of Training Research, 2016
VOL. 14, NO. 3, 215–229
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14480220.2016.1254367
Introduction
The relation between education and work is both complex and contested, particularly when
it comes to arguments about the extent to which education should have labour market
entry as a main objective (Allais, 2014; Wolf, 2002). Technical and vocational education (TVET)
is usually excluded from such debates, as its direct purpose of skilling the potential workforce
is, after all, what distinguishes it from schooling (or ‘general’ education) and higher education.
Similarly, educational critiques of standards-based or competence-based approaches to
curriculum usually exclude TVET because it is considered to be the kind of teaching and
learning to which such approaches are most appropriate.
This paper argues that critiques of competence as the basis of curriculum also need to
extend to TVET. A relation to work undoubtedly distinguishes TVET from other forms of edu-
cation but the basis of the TVET curriculum lies in the labour process itself. Work needs to be
described not as what workers can do or should be able to do (competence) but in terms of
objective features that emanate from design-production logic. It is this logic that tells us what
kind of knowledge is built into different labour processes. In Bernstein’s (1996, 2000) terms,
the logic of work provides the ‘recontextualising principle’ for the TVET curriculum.
In this paper, a methodological framework that derives from the sociology of education
sets up the relationality between education and work as the primary unit of analysis. Moving
to the level of curriculum, different interpretations of ‘competence’ are discussed to show
why competence is not suitable as a basis for curriculum. It is then argued that we need to
look at work itself as a labour process to find a form of logic that allows work to connect with
knowledge. The feasibility of such an approach is demonstrated through a discussion of a
recent research study in four industry sectors in South Africa. The study, which looked at
diagnostic and problem-solving practices in two medium-large and two small firms in each
sector, was set up in a way that enabled inferences to be drawn between the logic internal
to each labour process studied and the type of knowledge artisans and technicians draw
on when diagnosing and solving production problems. The conclusion drawn is that such
an approach has potential as a basis for designing work-related TVET curricula that avoid
simple ‘correspondence’ relations and foreground knowledge as the crucial ingredient of
technical systems complexity.
Representations of competence
Commenting on the widespread involvement of the professions in the competency move-
ment in Australia, Gonczi (1994) identifies three basic conceptions of the nature of compe-
tence: behaviourist, generic and holistic. Behaviourist or task-based competence conceives
of competence in terms of discrete behaviours connected to the completion of single tasks.
In a generic approach, competencies are thought of as general attributes of the practitioner
that are crucial to effective performance, with a particular focus on underlying attributes
which provide the basis for transferable or more specific attributes. Generic competencies,
such as critical thinking, or communication skills, are deemed to apply to a broad context
of professional development, despite, as Gonczi asserts, ongoing evidence from novice/
expert research and critical thinking literature that expertise is domain-specific. The third
approach, described as integrated or holistic and adopted by some professions in Australia,
views competence as a ‘complex structuring of attributes needed for intelligent performance
in specific situations’ (1994, p. 29). This form of competence incorporates the idea of profes-
sional judgement and seeks to bring together combinations of attributes and tasks in par-
ticular contexts.
Jones and Moore (1995), writing from a UK perspective, join Gonczi in supporting a holistic
approach, although they prefer the term ‘relational competence’ to indicate a broader the-
oretical perspective on competence and its contextual and social locatedness. They describe
their approach as follows:
…the relational acknowledges that competence is tacit, informally acquired, culturally embed-
ded and contextually located in practice. Competence is to do with culture and social practice.
These relationships between inner and outer and between capacity and practice are well cap-
tured in the term ‘embodied knowledge’. Essentially, competence is to do with membership
– with the tacit acquisition of group cultures. As opposed to the core behaviourist view that
competence can be directly represented in a simple, empirical form (checklist of skills), the rela-
tional approach recognises that it can only ever be inferred. Competence is that which makes
holism holistic – the whole that is greater than the sum of the parts. Though always present in
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TRAINING RESEARCH 219
social practice, it can never, by definition, be directly represented. (Jones & Moore, 1995, p. 88;
author reference in cited text omitted)
The fault line that runs through these different representations of competence is easily
discernible. The most salient criticism of the industrial training variety of competence is that
it ‘“recontextualises” by “de-contextualising” – by denying context’ (Jones & Moore, 1993,
p. 395); or, as Willbergh (2015, p. 3) puts it more directly, ‘people do not have competence
independent of context’.
If competence is criticised for having little to do with the actual reality of the ‘world of
work’, why would employers accept competence statements and profiles as representing
‘the world of work’? In order to understand how this can be the case, the focus needs to shift
to the ‘world of work’ and to changes in corporate management practices that coincided
with the rise of neoliberal corporate reform in the 1980s.
the standard to be attained, using ‘judgement, care and dexterity’ as assessment criteria
(Pye, 1968, p. 7).
In competence terms, complex problem-solving is considered the key skill of the twen-
ty-first century (World Economic Forum, 2016a, 2016b). Problem-solving refers to part-whole
connections. Work of certainty and risk brings two kinds of problem-solving into focus. Where
solutions have been worked out before, either through generalisation by experience or
pre-coded as an SOP, or as an ISO (International Organization for Standardization) standard,
then problem-solving is a routine process which proceeds in a sequential or step-by-step
manner. Each step is predetermined and jobs are arranged so that work can be done in a
machine-like way (Ainley, 1993, p. 22). What Thompson and Davidson (1995, p. 19) describe
as a sequential ‘techno-logic’, is the basis of reasoning. In contrast, in novel and non-routine
problem-solving the problem is solved in the mind or on paper through theoretical gener-
alisation and inferential reasoning (Clarke & Winch, 2004; Davydov, 1990), before a solution
is attempted in practice.
It may seem as if these two types of problem-solving logic are oppositional but they are
in fact complementary as both types occur in all work, even though one could predominate.
It is a fallacy that only semi-skilled or low-skill occupations are predictable and routined,
while high-skill occupations are non-routined and complex. A very recent 27-country study
on the impact of global value chains on employment (Marcolin, Miroudot, & Squicciarini,
2016) found no necessary relation between the level of skill required and the routine intensity
of an occupation. Certain occupations classified as ‘high-skill’ were also classified as high-
routine occupations and certain occupations in ‘medium-skill’ categories were classified as
non-routine occupations (Marcolin et al., 2016, p. 13).
The distinctive logics that govern all types of work can broadly be described in two ways.
The logic of work is procedural where problem-solving is standardised and the end result
predefined. The logic of work is principled where problems are novel and unpredictable and
‘general principles’ that explain how something works, guide specific problem-solving. Each
of these logics rests on specialised kinds of knowledge that support that particular logic. It
is at this point that it becomes possible to identify a strong approximate correspondence
between the structure of work and the structure of curriculum.
of course, a contested issue (Gamble, 2006; Mutereko & Wedekind, 2016; Winberg,
Engel-Hills, Garraway, & Jacobs, 2013). The argument throughout this paper has been that
the vocational curriculum needs to draw on investigations of work and labour process to
understand ‘theory’ and ‘practice’ as curriculum categories. Research of this nature was
recently undertaken in South Africa (Gamble, 2016) and a component of the larger project
is presented here as a case study. Adopting a definition of skill proposed by the European
Commission (as cited by Bohlinger, 2007 [2008], p. 99) which describes ‘skills’ as the ability
to apply knowledge and use know-how to complete tasks and solve problems and ‘knowledge’
as the body of facts, principles, theories and practices that is related to a field of study or work,
the study wanted to find out what kinds of knowledge artisans and technicians draw on
when they employ the skill of problem-solving in their work practices.
The study hypothesised that each ‘work logic’ would draw on different types of situated
and formal knowledge. The terms ‘situated’ and ‘formal’ refer to sites of knowledge. Situated
knowledge describes familiar work routines in a workplace (‘how to’ knowledge). It also
describes familiar and/or novel part-whole relations in a trade or technical operation (craft
knowledge). Both types of situated knowledge are acquired through experience in a work
practice. Formal knowledge lies outside informal workplace routines, trades or occupations.
It takes the form of general work procedures documented as SOPs or ISO standards (systems
knowledge). It also describes specialised disciplinary and scientific knowledge which func-
tions at a general level (scientific knowledge). Formal knowledge is written down and can
be learnt as ‘theory’.
The four kinds of knowledge are presented as a typology ( See Figure 1 below) and labelled
K1 to K4 for ease of reference.
Problem-solving activities were studied in four different economic sectors: Boat Building
(Occupation: Boat Builder and Repairer); Engineering (Occupation: Mechatronics Technician);
Film Production (Occupation: Camera Assistant); and Tourism and Hospitality (Occupation:
Confectionary Baker). In each sector, the sample comprised two medium/large firms and
two small businesses. In each site, a researcher job-shadowed an artisan or technician for
one full shift and then interviewed two artisans and/or technicians, their immediate super-
visor and a manager/business owner (separate interviews). Respondents were asked to talk
about intermediate level problem-solving by reviewing a list of suggested problem-solving
activities and then allocating a rating from a Likert-type scale with five rating preferences
to each activity. They were then asked how they thought work would change in the next
Figure 1. Types of knowledge investigated in LMIP study (adapted from Gamble, 2016, p. 18).
224 J. GAMBLE
10–20 years and thereafter repeated the rating exercise to indicate change envisaged in the
future. Each problem-solving activity linked to a knowledge type and in this way we could
build a current and future knowledge profile for each site.
Figure 2 provides a spatial representation of the combined current and future aggregate
rating at a sectoral level for each of the four occupations studied. The light grey background
shows the maximum possible knowledge base that could have emerged if all respondents
had given a rating of 5 to each problem-solving activity. This provides a context for inter-
preting actual and envisaged knowledge bases for each occupation. The larger grey surface
in the middle represents the current knowledge base as a sectoral aggregate, with the very
dark grey reflecting future change. Where the lines are very close together, minimal future
change is anticipated.
Numerous conclusions can be drawn from the data, but for the purpose of thinking about
the possible knowledge content of vocational curricula, the most obvious finding is that a
labour process view on curriculum such as the one presented here, provides substance to
the ubiquitous generic skill of ‘problem-solving’. Extension along the horizontal axis (K1 and
K2) shows problem-solving of certainty with a predefined end result, while extension along
the vertical axis (K3 and K4) shows problem-solving of risk where the end result is not known
beforehand.
Figure 2. A spatial representation of the depth and breadth of occupational knowledge bases at sectoral
level (adapted from Gamble, 2016, p. 24).
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TRAINING RESEARCH 225
A second important general finding is that all four types of knowledge are found in tech-
nical occupations at the intermediate work level in each sector. The extent to which a knowl-
edge base veers to the right-hand side depicts a strong presence of formal knowledge. A
shift to the left-hand side depicts strong reliance on situated knowledge. Overall patterns
have a lot to do with the three-way relation between work and its organisation, levels and
type of technology and materials used. In baking, the mechanisation and automation of
mass-production bakeries and the resulting standardisation of work prioritises ‘how to’
knowledge. In film production, shifts from analogue to digital format are viewed as increasing
the technical sophistication of a sector that has always had a strong artistic craft base.
In each sector, there is also a dynamic view of change. In sectors such as engineering,
where work is organised around formal qualifications, the knowledge base displays stability.
In the other three sectors, where market conditions regulate work organisation, knowledge
bases are more volatile.
Finally, the findings confirm that principled and procedural logics of work co-exist in all
sectors. Despite fears that workers might get displaced by machines, there is no indication
that problem-solving of certainty will be the dominant work mode of the future. Any version
of curriculum that prepares learners only according to pre-specified standards or outcomes
does both learners and prospective employers a disservice.
Conclusion
The argument of this paper has been that the dual purpose which competence serves, make
competence-based approaches conceptually unsuitable as a basis for curriculum. Discussions
often point to technical differences in various versions of competence or competency as a
marker of required work performance, but what remains opaque is the normative role of
competence in setting up an ‘idealised’ labour market currency to serve the neoliberal prom-
ise of a direct relation between education, employment and financial rewards. Competence
attaches labour market value to individuals and this value cannot be indeterminate. It
requires exact pre-specifications of excellence in employee performance, stipulated and
controlled through adherence to substantive and technical criteria for the assessment and
appraisal of individual performance. All of this is good news for work and problem-solving
of certainty, but, by their very nature, such versions of competence cannot take into account
the basis of innovative judgement as a tacit ‘inner’ capacity. In his argument about personal
knowledge, this is what Polanyi describes when he claims that ‘the aim of a skilful perfor-
mance is achieved by observance of a set of rules which are not known as such to the person
following them’ (Polanyi, 1958, p. 49). It is this side of human endeavour that is closed off
when the requirements of market standards demand that all elements of competence should
be able to be stated explicitly and precisely and assessed accordingly.
If competence does not provide an adequate basis for curriculum, then knowledge is the
obvious alternative. However, this route is by no means unproblematic. From a liberal edu-
cation perspective, disciplinary knowledge is the bedrock of curriculum. This has led to an
‘applied knowledge’ approach to the vocational curriculum, aimed at transcending the
restrictive limits of narrow competence-based approaches. However, there is no neat and
direct correlation between ‘real world’ problems, specialised disciplinary knowledge and the
organisation of such knowledge into curriculum. Science educators in the schooling sector
argue, for instance, that there can be no such thing as ‘applied science’. Given that science
226 J. GAMBLE
is characterised by generality and comprehensiveness, it does not come in a form that makes
it useful for practical action in an immediate and straightforward manner (Layton, 1993).
Adopting an ‘applied’ approach unproblematically continues adherence to an assumption
of underlying continuity between education and work, except that this time it would be the
‘education’ side, assuming such causal direction.
The labour process approach suggested in this paper agrees with competence approaches
that work should be the basis of the vocational curriculum, but disavows an assumption of
direct relationality between education and work. In viewing the relation as indirect, I have
argued that we need to search for contextual and structural parallels that allow relative
correspondence. I have tried to show that when the sought-after skill of ‘complex prob-
lem-solving’ is viewed through the lenses of certainty and risk, two oppositional yet com-
plementary forms of work logic emerge. Taken together, procedural and principled logics
provide the basis for understanding work as predefined routines and standardised task
sequences interspersed with novel, unexpected and unpredictable problem-solving that
requires ‘parts’ to be fitted together in new ways, or even for new ‘parts’ to be made. When
this understanding is employed as the recontextualising principle for the transition from
work to curriculum, it becomes possible to explore relations between different types of
knowledge in ways that enrich the vocational curriculum and prevent stereotypical theo-
ry-practice interpretations.
One of the most troublesome aspects of certain kinds of competence-based approaches
is that they are conceived, within an HRM paradigm, as applying to workplace training where
the notion of curriculum would be interpreted as a manual plus a workbook plus a form of
competency test, with the trainer as facilitator, rather than instructor. This often leaves edu-
cational institutions such as schools, colleges and universities of technology at a loss as to
how they should translate competency specifications into a curriculum with substantive
content and assumptions about conceptual progression. It is for these reasons that we need
to continue searching for a more nuanced and complex understanding of what ‘theory’ and
‘practice’ might mean in the preparation of intermediate level artisans and technicians.
Notes
1.
I am endebted to Jim Hordern (2016) for a diagrammatic depiction of education-work relations
intended to emphasise ‘the distinctive logics and parameters of the two “domains”’ (2016,
p. 2). Hordern, in turn, acknowledges his debt to Bernstein’s ‘pedagogic device’ (2016, p. 5).While
I follow both Hordern and Bernstein in a three-level typology, I do not imply a necessary
hierarchical relation between the three levels (Bernstein, 2000, p. 28). My interest is more in
horizontal relations at any level.
2.
In this literature a distinction is drawn, in Marxian terms, between ‘education and production’.
At the level of curriculum and pedagogy, this translates into a distinction between ‘school and
work’ or ‘school and the “world of work”’ (Bernstein, 1977; Moore, 1985).
3.
See, for instance, Muller and Gamble (2010) for a discussion of this time period in relation to
the work of Basil Bernstein.
4.
See, for instance, Burke (1989); Gonczi (1994); Jones and Moore (1993, 1995); Wheelahan (2007).
5.
The breakdown between contemporary labour market rhetoric and labour market realities
is discussed extensively in (Brown, 2013; Brown, Lauder, & Ashton, 2008; Brown et al., 2011).
6.
Education’s broader concern with the ‘whole person’ is not intended to be minimised by an
exclusive focus here on knowledge transmission.
7.
In the discussion that follows the paper draws on a range of literature from the early 1980s to
1990s that coincides with the rise of competence-based approaches in Anglophone countries.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TRAINING RESEARCH 227
Northern European approaches and traditions are not included in the discussion as they
draw on different philosophical and historical traditions (Brockmann, Clarke, & Winch, 2009;
Deissinger, 2005; Green, 1995).
8. Cohen finds what she calls ‘an echo of Taylor’s “one best way”’ (Cohen, 1995, p. 50) in the
work that the authors of procedures manuals do when they impose discursive order on the
‘flux of organisational life’ to create precisely defined work procedures that reflect a ‘smooth
linearity’ and a ‘seamless procedural rationality’. These procedures are subsequently taken up
by management as the ‘right way’ (1995, p. 55).
9. See, for instance, Fowler (1987); Miller (1989); Keenoy (1990).
10. Philosophical and sociological discussions about work often distinguish between work and
labour (Arendt, 1958/1998; Standing, 2009; White, 1997) I use the two terms interchangeably to
refer to work that is related to the ‘production of marketable output or services’ (Standing, 2009,
p. 6)Philosophical and sociological discussions about work often distinguish between work and
labour (Arendt, 1958/1998; Standing, 2009; White, 1997) I use the two terms interchangeably to
refer to work that is related to the ‘production of marketable output or services’ (Standing, 2009,
p. 6)Philosophical and sociological discussions about work often distinguish between work and
labour (Arendt, 1958/1998; Standing, 2009; White, 1997) I use the two terms interchangeably
to refer to work that is related to the ‘production of marketable output or services’ (Standing,
2009, p. 6)
References
Ainley, P. (1993). Class and skill: Changing divisions of knowledge and labour. New York, NY: Cassell.
Allais, S. (2014). Selling out education. National qualifications frameworks and the neglect of knowledge.
Rotterdam: Sense.
Arendt, H. (1958 [1998]). The human condition. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Ashworth, P. (1992). Being competent and having ‘competencies’. Journal of Further and Higher
Education, 16, 8–17.
Beck, J., & Young, M. (2005). The assault on the professions and the restructuring of academic and
professional identities: A Bernsteinian analysis. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 26, 183–197.
Bernstein, B. (1977). Class, codes and control, volume 3: Towards a theory of educational transmissions
(2nd Ed.). London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Bernstein, B. (1996). Pedagogy, symbolic control and identity: Theory, research, critique. London: Taylor
and Francis.
Bernstein, B. (2000). Pedagogy, symbolic control and identity (Revised). Lanham, NY: Rowman and
Littlefield.
Bohlinger, S. (2007 [2008]). Competences as the core element of the European Qualifications Framework.
European Journal of Vocational Training, 42, 96–112.
Braverman, H. (1974). Labor and monopoly capital: The degradation of work in the twentieth century.
New York, NY: Monthly Review Press.
Brockmann, M., Clarke, L., & Winch, C. (2009). Competence and competency in the EQF and in European
VET systems. Journal of European Industrial Training, 33, 787–799.
Brown, P. (2013). Education, opportunity and the prospects for social mobility. British Journal of Sociology
of Education, 34, 678–700.
Brown, P., Lauder, H., & Ashton, D. (2008). Education, globalisation and the future of the knowledge
economy. European Educational Research Journal, 7, 131–156.
Brown, P., Lauder, H., & Ashton, D. (2011). The global auction. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Burke, J. (Ed.). (1989). Competency based education and training. Lewes, UK: Falmer.
Clarke, L., & Winch, C. (2004). Apprenticeship and applied theoretical knowledge. Educational Philosophy
and Theory, 36, 509–521.
Cohen, C. (1995). Striving for seamlessness: Procedures manuals as a tool for organizational control.
Personnel Review, 24, 50–57.
Curzon, L. B. (1985). Teaching in further education. An outline of principles and practice (3rd ed.).
Eastbourne, UK: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
228 J. GAMBLE
Davydov, V. V. (1990). Soviet studies in mathematics education. Volume 2. (J. Teller, Trans.). Reston, VA:
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
Deissinger, T. (2005). Links between vocational education and training (VET) and higher education: the
case of Germany. In J. Gallacher (Ed.), A contested landscape: International perspectives on diversity in
mass higher education (pp. 92–115). NIACE: Leicester.
Fowler, A. (1987). When chief executives discover HRM. Personnel Management, January 3.
Gamble, J. (2006). Theory and practice in the vocational curriculum. In M. Young & J. Gamble (Eds.),
Knowledge, curriculum and qualifications for South African further education (pp. 87–103). Pretoria,
SA: HSRC Press.
Gamble, J. (2013). Why improved formal teaching and learning are important in technical and vocational
education and training (TVET). UNESCO-UNEVOC e-publication: Revisiting global trends in TVET -
Reflections on theory and practice (pp. 204–237). Bonn: UNESCO-UNEVOC International Centre for
Technical and Vocational Education and Training. Retrieved from http://www.unevoc.unesco.org/
go.php?q=Revisiting%20global%20trends%20in%20TVET%20Reflections%20on%20theory%20
and%20practice
Gamble, J. (2016). Work and qualifications futures for artisans and technicians. Labour Market Intelligence
Partnership Report 19. Retrieved from http://www.lmip.org.za/document/work-and-qualifications-
futures-artisans-and-technicians
Gonczi, A. (1994). Competency based assessment in the professions in Australia. Assessment in
Education, 1, 27–44.
Green, A. (1995). Technical education and state formation in nineteenth century England and France.
History of Education, 24, 123–139.
Guest, D. (1989). Personnel and HRM: Can you tell the difference? Personnel Management, 21, 48-51.
Holmes, L. (1995). HRM and the irresistible rise of the discourse of competence. Personnel Review, 24,
34–49.
Hordern, J. (2016, February 24-26). Recontextualisation and the education-work relation. Paper
presented at the REAL Symposium on Knowledge and Work, University of the Witwatersrand.
Hyland, T. (1994). Competence, education and NVQs: Dissenting perspectives. London: Cassell.
Jones, L., & Moore, R. (1993). Education, competence and the control of expertise. British Journal of
Sociology of Education, 14, 385–397.
Jones, L., & Moore, R. (1995). Appropriating competence: The competency movement, the New Right
and the ‘culture change’ project. British Journal of Education and Work, 8, 78–92.
Keenoy, T. (1990). HRM: A case of the wolf in sheep’s clothing? Personnel Review, 19, 3–9.
Layton, D. (1993). Science education and the new vocationalism. In E. W. Jenkins (Ed.), School science
and technology: some issues and perspectives (pp. 5–14). Leeds, UK: Centre for Studies in Science and
Mathematics Education, University of Leeds.
Mager, R. F. (1984). Preparing instructional objectives (Revised 2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Pitman Learning.
Marcolin, L., Miroudot, S., & Squicciarini, M. (2016). Routine jobs, employment and technological innovation
in global value chains. OECD Science, Technology and Industry Working Papers, 2016/01. Paris: OECD
Publishing.
Marx, K. (1867 [1976]). Capital: Volume 1. London: Penguin Books.
McLagan, P. A. (1989). Models for HRD practice. Alexandria, VA: American Society for Training and
Development.
Miller, P. (1989). Strategic HRM: What it is and what it isn’t. Personnel Management, February, 46-51.
Moore, R. (1985). Education and production: A generative model. (Unpublished PhD dissertation). Institute
of Education, University of London, London.
Moore, R. (1987). Education and the ideology of production. British Journal of Sociology of Education,
8, 227–242.
Muller, J., & Gamble, J. (2010). Curriculum and structuralist sociology: The theory of codes and
knowledge structures. In P. Peterson, E. Baker, & B. McGaw (Eds.), International Encyclopaedia of
Education (3rd ed.). (pp. 505–509). Oxford: Elsevier Science.
Mutereko, S., & Wedekind, V. (2016). Work integrated learning for engineering qualifications: a spanner
in the works? Journal of Education and Work, 29, 902–921. doi:10.1080/13639080.2015.1102211
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TRAINING RESEARCH 229
Packard, T. (2014). How competent are competencies? Human Service Organizations: Management,
Leadership and Governance, 38, 313–319. doi:10.1080/23303131.2014.937953
Polanyi, M. (1958). Personal knowledge: Towards a post-critical philosophy. London: Routledge and Kegan
Paul.
Pye, D. (1968). The nature and art of workmanship. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rose, M. (1978). Industrial behaviour. Hammondsworth, UK: Penguin.
Standing, G. (2009). Work after globalization. Building occupational citizenship. Cheltenham, UK: Edward
Elgar.
Stewart, J., & Sambrook, S. (1995). The role of functional analysis in national vocational qualifications:
A critical appraisal. British Journal of Education and Work, 8, 93–106.
Stoller, A. (2015). Taylorism and the logic of learning outcomes. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 47,
317–333.
Thompson, P., & Davidson, J. (1995). The continuity of discontinuity. Managerial rhetoric in turbulent
times. Personnel Review, 24, 317–333.
Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago
Press.
Wheelahan, L. (2007). How competency-based training locks the working class out of powerful
knowledge: a modified Bernsteinian analysis. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 28, 637–651.
Wheelahan, L. (2010). Why knowledge matters in curriculum: A social realist argument. Abingdon & New
York: Routledge.
White, J. (1997). Education and the end of work: A new philosophy of work and learning. London: Cassell.
Willbergh, I. (2015). The problems of ‘competence’ and alternatives from the Scandinavian perspective
of Bildung. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 47, 334–354.
Winberg, C., Engel-Hills, P., Garraway, J., & Jacobs, C. (2013). Professionally-oriented knowledge and the
purpose of professionally-oriented higher education. Pretoria: Council on Higher Education.
Wolf, A. (2002). Does education matter? Myths about education and economic growth. London: Penguin
Books.
World Economic Forum (2016a). The future of jobs employment, skills and workforce strategy for the fourth
industrial revolution. Global challenge insight report. Geneva: World Economic Forum.
World Economic Forum (2016b). New vision for education: Fostering social and emotional learning through
technology. Geneva: World Economic Forum.
Young, M. (2005). National qualifications frameworks: Their feasibility for effective implementation in
developing countries. Geneva: International Labour Organization.
Young, M. (2006). Conceptualising vocational knowledge: Some theoretical considerations. In M.
Young & J. Gamble (Eds.), Knowledge, curriculum and qualifications for South African further education
(pp. 104–124). Cape Town: HSRC Press.
Young, M. (2013). Overcoming the crisis in curriculum theory: A knowledge-based approach. Journal
of Curriculum Studies, 45, 101–118.
Young, M. (2014). Standards and standard setting in the post-school curriculum. Perspectives in
Education, 32, 21–33.
Young, M., & Gamble, J. (Eds.). (2006). Knowledge, curriculum and qualifications for South African further
education. Cape Town: HSRC Press.