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Review
Abstract
Bubble columns are intensively used as multiphase contactors and reactors in chemical, biochemical and petrochemical industries. They
provide several advantages during operation and maintenance such as high heat and mass transfer rates, compactness and low operating and
maintenance costs. Three-phase bubble column reactors are widely employed in reaction engineering, i.e. in the presence of a catalyst and in
biochemical applications where microorganisms are utilized as solid suspensions in order to manufacture industrially valuable bioproducts.
Investigation of design parameters characterizing the operation and transport phenomena of bubble columns have led to better understanding
of the hydrodynamic properties, heat and mass transfer mechanisms and flow regime characteristics ongoing during the operation. Moreover,
experimental studies are supported with computational fluid dynamics (CFDs) simulations and developed mathematical models to describe
better the phenomena taking place in a bubble column reactor. This review focuses on bubble column reactors, their description, design and
operation, application areas, fluid dynamics and regime analysis encountered and parameters characterizing the operation are presented
together with the findings of published studies.
# 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Bubble columns; Bioreactors; Gas holdup; Heat transfer; Mass transfer; Fluid dynamics
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2264
1.1. Applications of bubble column reactors in bioprocesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2264
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 212 359 6869; fax: +90 212 287 2460.
E-mail address: ulgenk@boun.edu.tr (K.O. Ulgen).
0032-9592/$ – see front matter # 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.procbio.2004.10.004
2264 N. Kantarci et al. / Process Biochemistry 40 (2005) 2263–2283
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2279
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2280
2267
2268 N. Kantarci et al. / Process Biochemistry 40 (2005) 2263–2283
More specifically, in order to design bubble column et al. [49] found that the gas holdup in the bubbly flow
reactors, the following hydrodynamic parameters are regime increases linearly with increasing superficial gas
required: specific gas–liquid interfacial area, axial solids velocity.
dispersion coefficients, sauter mean bubble diameter, axial The churn-turbulent regime, also called the heteroge-
dispersion coefficients of the gas and liquid, overall heat neous regime is maintained at higher superficial gas
transfer coefficient between slurry and immersed heat velocities (greater than 5 cm/s in batch columns). This
transfer internals, mass transfer coefficients for all the regime is characterized by the disturbed form of the
species, gas holdups, physicochemical properties of the homogeneous gas–liquid system due to enhanced turbulent
liquid medium. In order to estimate these design parameters motion of gas bubbles and liquid recirculation. As a result
for the system, experimental studies benefit from specialized unsteady flow patterns and large bubbles with short
measuring devices and accessories. The gas flow into the residence times are formed by coalescence due to high
column is measured via rotameter and the superficial gas gas throughputs. This flow regime is thus sometimes referred
velocity is adjusted. The gas is distributed by a gas as coalesced bubble flow regime, indicating the much
distributor, which has different alternatives such as ring type, different sizes of the bubbles [48]. As a matter of fact, by
perforated plate or arm distributor. An electric heater can be bubble coalescence and break-up, a wide bubble size
installed to maintain constant temperature in the column. distribution is attained. The average bubble size is governed
The pressure measurement system may contain liquid by coalescence and break-up which is controlled by the
manometers or pressure transducers (pressure transmitters). energy dissipation rate in the bulk [21]. Vigorous mixing,
Pressure measurements are used to estimate gas holdup in bubble cluster formation and wide bubble size range were
the system. Thermocouples are used wherever temperature also pointed out by Hyndman et al. [45]. Matsuura and Fan
variation is needed to be recorded. Heat flux sensors may be [50] reported that this regime consisted of a mixture of small
used to estimate the heat flux and to measure the and larger bubbles with diameters ranging from a few
corresponding heat transfer coefficients between the heated millimeters to a few centimeters. Recently coalescence and
immersed object and slurry or the slurry and wall. For better break-up have been studied numerically by solving related
control and adjustment, the equipments are usually transport equations [51–54]. Churn-turbulent flow is
accompanied by PID controllers. Data acquisition systems frequently observed in industrial-size, large diameter
may be utilized for instantaneous parameter investigations, columns [45]. It has been shown that the gas–liquid mass
for instance for recording the pressure fluctuations and transfer coefficient is lower at churn-turbulent (hetero-
estimation of instantaneous gas holdups and bubble geneous) regime as compared to homogeneous flow.
properties. However, despite this fact, bubble columns are mostly
operated under heterogeneous flow conditions in the
2.2. Fluid dynamics and regime analysis chemical industry and the interpretations of effective
interfacial area measurements, the design parameter
The fluid dynamic characterization of bubble column estimations and reactor modeling concepts have been based
reactors has a significant effect on the operation and on the assumption of two distinct bubble classes [48]. For
performance of bubble columns. According to literature, the these models, information on the holdup fractions,
experimental results obtained by parameter investigations, contributions to the overall flow, rise velocity and superficial
strictly depend on the regime prevailing in the column. The gas velocity fractions are required for small and large
flow regimes in bubble columns are classified and bubbles.
maintained according to the superficial gas velocity A slug flow regime has been only observed in small
employed in the column. Three types of flow regimes are diameter laboratory columns at high gas flow rates [45]. This
commonly observed in bubble columns which are the regime takes its name from the formation of bubble slugs
homogeneous (bubbly flow) regime; the heterogeneous when larger bubbles are stabilized by the column wall. Hills
(churn-turbulent) regime and slug flow regime [45]. There [55] and Miller [56] reported that bubble slugs have been
also exists the so-called ‘‘foaming regime’’ which is not so observed in the column diameter up to 15 cm. Fig. 1 best
commonly encountered in bubble columns. illustrates the differences between the possible regimes
The bubbly flow regime, also called the homogeneous discussed.
flow regime is obtained at low superficial gas velocities, The detection of regime transition from homogeneous to
approximately less than 5 cm/s in semibatch columns churn-turbulent flow and the investigation of the transition
[46,47]. This flow regime is characterized by bubbles of regime are quite important. As the transition takes place,
relatively uniform small sizes and rise velocities [48]. A significant changes are observed in the hydrodynamic
uniform bubble distribution and relatively gentle mixing is behaviour of the system. There exists an onset of upward
observed over the entire cross-sectional area of the column liquid circulation in the column centre and downward liquid
[45]. There is practically no bubble coalescence or break-up, circulation near the column wall. As a result more gas entry
thus bubble size in this regime is almost completely dictated takes place in the centre, leading to build-up of transverse
by the sparger design and system properties [21]. Kawagoe holdup-profile that enhances liquid circulation. Recently,
N. Kantarci et al. / Process Biochemistry 40 (2005) 2263–2283 2269
Table 3
Experimental values of transition velocity and gas holdup for air–water
system bubble columns [95]
Research group Vg,trans (m/s) eg,trans
Bach and Pilhofer [96] 0.046 0.277
Oels et al. [97] 0.039 0.178
Krishna et al. [72] 0.033 0.198
Yamashita and Inoue [98] 0.040 0.234
Hyndman et al. [45] 0.037 0.137
column systems [4]. It is basically defined as the volume with increasing superficial gas velocity [3,14,32,43,45,48,
fraction of gas phase occupied by the gas bubbles. Likewise 60,63,64]. Although the systems investigated in these studies
it is possible to characterize the liquid and solid phase are quite different from each other, all conclude that the gas
holdups as the volume fraction of liquid and solid phases, holdup increases with increasing superficial gas velocity. This
respectively. All studies examine gas holdup because it plays increase has been found to be proportional to superficial gas
an important role in design and analysis of bubble columns. velocity in the bubbly flow regime [65,66]. For the churn-
As reported by Li and Prakash [14], in a three-phase slurry turbulent regime, the effect of superficial velocity on gas
bubble column, the static pressure drop along the bed height holdup is less pronounced [66,67]. Hyndman et al. [45]
can be expressed as analyzed the contribution of small and large bubbles to overall
holdup via equations. The authors pointed out that in the
DP ¼ ðrg eg þ rl el þ rs es ÞgDH (1)
churn-turbulent regime, as the superficial velocity increases
In the above equation, eg, el and es are the volume fractions of the overall holdup increases due to the large bubble holdup
gas, liquid and solid phases, respectively. eg is also named as increase. The contribution of small bubbles to overall holdup is
the gas holdup, g, r and DH are the gravitational accelera- constant and equal to the transition holdup, i.e. it does not
tion, the density and height difference between the transdu- increase with increasing superficial velocity. But the large
cers, respectively. The subscripts g, l and s stands for gas, bubble holdup increases with increasing superficial velocity,
liquid and solid phases. By proper substitutions, starting leading to the increase of the overall holdup. However, in
with Eq. (1), one can factor out the gas holdup as bubbly flow, small bubble holdup is not constant but changes
significantly as the superficial velocity is changed. Recently
1 DP
eg ¼ 1 (2) Veera et al. [11] reported an experimental study based on
gðrl fl þ rs fs Þ DH
investigation of effect of gas velocity on gas holdup profiles in
Eq. (2) can be directly applied for estimation of gas holdup foaming liquids. They observed that the superficial gas
in a slurry bubble column. The most widely used technique velocity has a large influence on radial holdup profile at high
in estimating gas holdup is the pressure profile method foaming agent concentrations.
which is based on measuring the static pressure at two or
more points along the column using manometers or more 2.3.2. Liquid phase properties
recently pressure transducers and thus obtaining the pressure The liquid phase property has an impact on bubble
drop, DP, along the bed [56,59,61,62]. formation and/or coalescing tendencies and hence is an
The spatial variation of gas holdup, i.e gas holdup profile is important factor affecting gas holdup. An increase in liquid
another important factor which gives rise to pressure variation viscosity results in large bubbles and thus higher bubble
and thus liquid recirculation. Since liquid recirculation plays rising velocities and lower gas holdup [68]. It is also reported
an important role in mixing and heat and mass transfer, that adding a small amount of a surface acting material
predictions of radial gas holdup profiles would lead to better (surfactant) to water, results in significantly higher gas
understanding of these phenomena and thus more reliable holdup values. Moreover, the presence of electrolyte or
bubble column scale-up. The magnitude of gas holdup radial impurities also increases gas holdup [61,69]. Ozturk et al.
gradients depends on superficial gas velocity, column [70] investigated the gas holdups in various organic liquids
diameter, physical properties of the system and operating and they reported that in several mixed and adjusted
conditions [51]. There exist various correlations in literature in mixtures, the gas holdups were higher as compared to pure
order to predict the gas holdup in both two-phase bubble liquids with the same properties (surface tension, density,
columns and three-phase slurry bubble columns. In Table 4, viscosity). They also concluded that the gas holdups were
several frequently used gas holdup correlations for bubble and higher with high density gases. Veera et al. [11] investigated
slurry bubble columns are summarized. gas holdup in the presence of foaming liquids and concluded
It is reported that the basic factors affecting gas holdup that the effect of foaming agent concentration on holdup
are: superficial gas velocity, liquid properties, column profiles depended upon the sparger design, column aspect
dimensions, operating temperature and pressure, gas ratio and superficial gas velocity. The authors also claimed
distributor design, solid phase properties. In the subsections that the gas holdup profiles were flatter at higher foaming
below, the findings of various studies on the effects of these agent concentrations. Recently, Tang and Heindel [10]
factors are presented. suggested that regular tap water, which is the most
frequently used liquid in bubble columns, might cause
2.3.1. Superficial gas velocity significant reproducibility problems in air–water two phase
Superficial gas velocity is the average velocity of the gas studies. They observed time-dependent variation of gas
that is sparged into the column which is simply expressed as holdup which was then related to water quality, column
the volumetric flow rate divided by the cross-sectional area of operation mode, sparger orientation and superficial gas and
the column. Gas holdup in bubble columns depends mainly on liquid velocities. They attributed this time-dependency to
superficial gas velocity [2]. For both bubble columns and coalescence inhibition caused by the existence of volatile
slurry bubble columns, gas holdup has been found to increase substances present in tap water.
N. Kantarci et al. / Process Biochemistry 40 (2005) 2263–2283 2271
Table 4
Gas holdup correlations for bubble columns
Research group Correlation Reference
Joshi and Sharma [99] Vg [99]
eg ¼ 0:3þ2Vg
Lockett and Kirkpatrick [65] 2:39 [65]
Vg ð1 eg Þ þ Vl eg ¼ Vb eg ð1 eg Þ ð1 þ 2:55e3g Þ
Koide et al. [79] Vg 0:18V 1:8 [79]
eg ¼ pffiffiffiffi ; b ¼ 4:5 3:5 expð0:064D1:3T Þ; e¼ bg
31þbð1eÞ Vg
Sada et al. [69] 4 0:21 0:086 0:068 [63]
eg ¼ 0:32ð1 eg Þ Bo Ga Frðrg =rl Þ
Kumar et al. [100] eg ¼ 0:728U 0 0:485U 0 2 þ 0:0975U 0 3; U 0 ¼ Vg ½r2l =fs l ðrl rg Þgg1=4 [63]
Grover et al. [101] 0:27 0:09 0:35 [63]
Vg ml 0:76 m4l g rg mg
eg ¼ 1þaP
bPv
v
sl rl s 3l rl ml ; a ¼ 1:1 104 and b ¼ 5 104
Zou et al. [102] 0:15 [63]
m4 g Vg ml 0:58 PþPv 1:61
eg ¼ 0:17283 r ls 3 sl P
l l
Galilei number, third term: Froude number, a = 0.2 for pure liquids and
non-electrolyte solutions, a = 0.25 for salt solutions
Hikita and Kikukawa [105] 2=3 0:0010:05 [70]
eg ¼ 0:505Vg0:47 0:072
s ml
Hikita et al. [61] ug ml 0:578 m4l g 0:131 rg 0:062 mg 0:107 [44]
eg ¼ 0:672f s r s3 r m , f = 1 for pure liquids and
l l l
1=3 0:44
Roy et al. [109] [63]
s =rs
eg ¼ 3:88 103 ReT sswl ð1 ys Þ3 ; for ReT > 500; ys ¼ ðWs =rWÞþðW =r Þ s l l
temperature dependence of gas holdup only in the two- 2.3.5. Gas sparger
phase system. Gas sparger type is an important parameter that can alter
bubble characteristics which in turn affects gas holdup
2.3.4. Column dimensions values and thus many other parameters characterizing
The effect of column diameter and height on hydro- bubble columns. The sparger used definitely determines the
dynamics is also widely investigated in literature. Shah bubble sizes observed in the column. Small orifice diameter
et al. [2] reported that in bubble columns, the effect of plates enable the formation of smaller sized bubbles. Some
column size on gas holdup is negligible when the column common gas sparger types that are used in literature studies
diameter is larger than 10–15 cm. Luo et al. [4] reported are perforated plate, porous plate, membrane, ring type
that the influence of the column height is insignificant if the distributors and arm spargers. Bouaifi et al. [5] stated that,
height is above 1–3 m and the ratio of the column height to the smaller the bubbles, the greater the gas holdup values.
the diameter (aspect ratio) is larger than 5. Possible wall Thus, they concluded that with small orifice gas distributors
effects brought about by the use of small diameter columns their gas holdup values were higher. In another study by Luo
(10 cm) were also pointed out [60,63]. It was reported et al. [4], gas holdup was found to be strongly affected by the
that the gas holdup was not highly dependent on column type of gas distributor. The effect was more pronounced
diameter when the column diameter was larger than 10 cm, especially for gas velocities below 6 cm/s. Schumpe and
as long as mixing was well maintained. Daly et al. [64] Grund [48] worked with perforated plate and ring type gas
found that the holdup is independent of the column height. spargers. They concluded that with ring type distributor, the
Additionally, though not so significant, they obtained some total holdup was smaller. They also added that the small
differences in holdup with variation of the column bubble holdup showed a gradual increase with increasing
diameter. It was observed that the holdup in small diameter superficial velocity with ring type sparger. Another
column was slightly higher than that in larger diameter conclusion about the type of spargers was that the
columns. The effect of column dimensions on gas holdup contributions of both small and large bubbles to gas velocity
in foaming systems has not received significant attention in were lower with ring sparger as compared to the perforated
literature. Pino et al. [32] observed no appreciable plate.
differences in the gas holdup of foaming systems between
columns of 10 and 29 cm in diameter, in the semibatch 2.3.6. Solid concentration
mode of operation. It was also reported that the effect of The effect of solid concentration and particle size on gas
column height was insignificant for height to diameter holdup has been investigated by a number of researchers.
ratios between 3 and 12. At high gas velocities when Several researchers concluded that an increase in solids
foaming occurred, both column height and diameter had no concentration generally reduced the gas holdup
effect on gas holdup, whereas, for non-foaming systems [32,43,60,66–69,74]. Sada et al. [69] also reported that
and for column diameters up to 15 cm, gas holdup was for low solids loading (<5 vol.%), the behaviour of the
found to decrease with increasing column diameter. slurry bubble column is close to that of a solid-free bubble
According to the two-phase model developed by Krishna column. Contrarily, Kara et al. [66] found a strong
et al. [43,57,72] the effect of column diameter on gas dependence of gas holdup on solids concentration at low
holdup should be separately analyzed for small and large solids concentrations. Kato et al. [74] reported that the effect
bubble gas holdups. It was found out that the small bubble of solid concentration on gas holdup becomes significant at
gas holdup is independent of column diameter, while the high gas velocities (>10–20 cm/s).
large bubble gas holdup decreased with increasing column Many studies have been conducted to investigate the
diameter. As a result the overall holdup is reported to effects of particle size on gas holdup as well [66,69,74]. The
decrease with increasing column diameter due to large influence of particle size has been found to depend on a
bubble holdup. The dependence of large bubble holdup on number of factors including flow regime, gas velocity, liquid
column diameter was described by the following correla- properties and slurry concentration. It is generally reported
tion proposed by Krishna et al. [43]: that addition of solids to a two-phase system decreases the
1 holdup [14,32,43,63,68]. For a fixed gas velocity and solid
eb;lg ¼ a2 ðVg Vdf Þ0:58 (3) concentration, increasing the solid diameter also decreased
DNT the holdup and this effect of particle size was more
Here, eb,lg is the holdup due to large bubbles which constitute pronounced for low concentration slurry systems [63]. Pino
the dilute-phase, a2 and N fit parameters (a2 = 0.268 and et al. [32] investigated foaming regime by using four
N = 0.18 for gas–liquid systems and solid concentrations up different types of solid packings with various particle
to 16% by volume and a2 = 0.3 and N = 0.18 for higher diameters. They observed that using coarser particles
solids concentrations), DT the column diameter, Vg the increased foaming and at high velocities, for all type of
superficial gas velocity entering the column and Vdf is the solid particles increasing the solid concentration reduced the
superficial velocity of the dense-phase or the superficial gas holdup. In fact, the decrease of holdup in the presence of
velocity of large bubbles. solid is attributed to decrease of small bubble holdup [43].
N. Kantarci et al. / Process Biochemistry 40 (2005) 2263–2283 2273
On the other hand, large bubble holdup is reported to be 2.4. Bubble characteristics
independent of solids concentration. Based on this, Krishna
et al. [43] proposed a correlation for small bubble holdup Bubble populations, their holdup contributions and rise
showing its dependence on solids concentration: velocities have significant impact on altering the hydro-
dynamics, as well as heat and mass transfer coefficients in a
0:7
edf ¼ edf;0 1 f (4) bubble column. For this reason it is important to obtain
edf;0 s
information on bubble properties of the slurry. Various
Here, edf is the dense-phase gas holdup (small bubble holdup), studies proposed several methodologies to follow the
edf,0 the gas holdup for only gas–liquid system, and fs is the estimation of bubble properties. In fact, all of these methods
solids volume fraction. The dense-phase gas holdup for the are based on two-bubble class model proposed by Krishna
gas–liquid, edf,0, can be estimated using the correlation pro- et al. [72]. Hence, bubble holdups and rise velocities are
posed by Reilley et al. [75] for the gas voidage at the regime estimated for large and small bubble groups. Krishna and
transition point etrans as suggested by Krishna et al. [43,57]. Li coworkers [57,72] proposed simplified equations that
and Prakash [14,68] reported a decrease in holdup with describe the bubble classes and behaviour in a bubble
increasing solid concentration up to 25% by volume concen- column operating in the churn-turbulent regime. Based on
tration. Afterwards, the gas holdup showed a slight increase. their correlation, given the regime transition properties
This unusual behaviour was attributed to the accumulation of between bubbly flow and churn-turbulent flow, namely the
fine bubbles at high slurry concentrations and decrease in the transition superficial velocity, Vg,trans and transition (critical)
rise velocity of small bubbles. holdup eg,trans, the small and large bubble velocities and
There are very few studies in literature on the use of holdup contributions can be estimated. Researches on
actual cells in slurry bubble columns as the solid phase, in bubble size distributions and factors affecting bubble sizes
contrast to many studies which report the decrease of gas such as gas density, liquid viscosity, surface tension and
holdup with solids concentration. In the study of Prakash operating conditions (pressure, temperature) are widely
et al. [3], holdup was observed to increase with solids reported in literature [15]. Many literature correlations are
concentration. During the operation of the column, it was proposed to predict the bubble holdups and their rise
observed that a foam layer was formed, at the top of the velocities and sizes of bubbles and most important ones are
dispersion, due to the presence of surface active agents like presented in Tables 5–7, respectively.
alcohols, proteins, etc. in the solutions used. Increasing the The dynamic gas disengagement (DGD) technique is a
yeast concentration just increased the surfactant concentra- very widely adopted method to study bubble groups, bubble
tion which in turn increased the foam bed and resulted in holdup structures and rise velocities. The principle involves
higher gas holdup values. tracing the drop in dispersion height after the gas flow has
been shut off. The resulting disengagement profile can be
2.3.7. Summary of gas holdup studies used to separate the contributions of small and large bubbles
Summarizing the studies discussed so far about gas to the total gas holdup [48]. The technique was first
holdup it can be said that, the gas holdup increases with introduced by Stiram and Mann [76]. More specifically it
increasing gas velocity and operating pressure; whereas it requires an accurate measurement of the rate at which the
decreases with increasing liquid viscosity and solid level of gas–liquid dispersion drops after the gas flow to the
concentration. Adding a surface active reagent into the bubble column is shut off [64]. The underlying idea in this
slurry increases the holdup. In bubble columns, the effect of technique is that different bubble classes in dispersion can be
column size on gas holdup is negligible when the column distinguished if there are significant differences between
diameter is larger than 10–15 cm and the height is above 1– their rise velocities. Li and Prakash [14] reported that the
3 m, in other words with height to diameter ratios (aspect rate at which the instantaneous gas holdup drops would
ratio) larger than 5. At low gas velocities, gas holdup depend on the fraction and rise velocities of different bubble
depends on the number, pitch and diameter of the orifice classes. Thus, initially when the fast rising larger bubbles
holes. For orifice diameter larger than 1 mm, the effect of were escaping, a fast drop in gas holdup was observed. After
orifice diameter becomes insignificant. the disengagement of large bubbles was completed, slower
Table 5
Correlations for small and large bubble holdups
Research group Correlation Reference
Krishna et al. [57,72] Vg Vg;trans [57]
Homogeneous regime: eg;hom ¼ ub;sm , heterogeneous regime eb;sm ¼ eg;trans ¼ ub;sm ;
Vg Vg;trans n
eb;lg ¼ ub;lg ; eb;lg ¼ AðVg Vg;trans Þ
Ellenberger and Krishna [110] eb;sm ¼ eb;sm0 0:7 f ;
1 eb;sm0 eb;lg ¼ a2 D1N ðVg Vg;trans Þ0:58 ; [43]
s
T
Vg;trans ¼ ub;sm eb;sm with fs = slurry volume concentration, DT = column diameter,
N = 0.18, a2 = 0.268 for fs < 10%, a2 = 0.3 for fs > 10%
2274 N. Kantarci et al. / Process Biochemistry 40 (2005) 2263–2283
Table 6
Correlations for bubble rise velocity
Name Correlation Reference
Stoke’s equation gr 2 [111]
ub;small ¼ 18m db for Re < 1
Hadamard–Rybczynski equation gr 2 [111]
ub ¼ 18m db
h i
Schügerl equation rl g 21þn 4pð2nÞ3 1=n ð1þnÞ3n rl dbn u2n [111]
ub ¼ K Xn 3 Vb , Xn = (drag coefficient) K
b
,
X = 24 for Stoke’s regime, X = 16 for Hadamard regime, X = 48 for Levich regime
3 0:273 0:03
Wilkinson equation ub;sm ml ub;lg ml u ml ðVg Vg;trans Þml 0:757 [57]
s ¼ 2:25 sgmrl rl
rg ; s ¼ b;sm
s þ 2:4 s ;
l
0:077
s 3 rl rl 0:077 V
gm4l rg ; ug;trans
b;sm
¼ 0:5 expð193r0:61
g m0:5
l sl
0:11 Þ
h i
Equation proposed by Li and Prakash ub;sm ¼ ub;sm0 1 þ u1:073 f [14]
b;sm0 s
moving small bubbles disengaged. However, the rate of drop superficial gas velocity, whereas the rise velocity of large
in this period would slow down. bubbles increased with increasing superficial gas velocity
The average bubble size in a bubble column has been [3]. Schumpe and Grund [48] also investigated the variation
found to be affected by gas velocity, liquid properties, gas of the small and large bubble rise velocities with superficial
distribution, operating pressure and column diameter. The gas velocity. They reported that the small bubble rise
rise velocity of a single gas bubble depends on its size. Thus, velocity decreased gradually as the superficial velocity was
the size and rise velocity of a bubble depend on each other increased and the small bubble rise velocity attained an
and affected by the same parameters. In the following almost constant value afterwards. However, the large bubble
subsections, the results of various studies on bubble rise velocity continuously increased with superficial gas
characteristics such as bubble size, rise velocity, bubble velocity.
holdups are analyzed.
2.4.2. Liquid phase properties and operating conditions
2.4.1. Superficial gas velocity The liquid properties also have a significant effect on
Due to the differences in the distributor design, column bubble properties. The rise velocity of a single gas bubble
diameter and range of gas velocities studied, literature depends on the size of the bubble. Thus, possible effects of
studies report different average bubble sizes and bubble rise liquid properties on bubble sizes would be also reflected in
velocities. The effect of gas flow rates on bubble size and bubble rise velocities. The average bubble size was reported
bubble rise velocity was investigated by Akita and Yoshida to decrease with decreasing surface tension of liquid [77]
[77] and a decrease in bubble size with increasing gas flow and increase with increasing liquid viscosity [68]. Luo et al.
rate was reported. Contrarily, Fukuma et al. [78] and Saxena [4] investigated the effect of pressure on bubble dynamics
et al. [63] reported that the bubble sizes increased with and concluded that at elevated pressures bubble sizes were
increasing superficial gas velocity and at a certain gas reduced. Enhanced pressures were also claimed to increase
velocity, maximum bubble size was attained. Similarly, Li gas inertia and decrease the surface tension thus leading to
and Prakash [14] reported that the bubble size increased with reduced maximum stable bubble sizes. Schäfer et al. [15]
increasing superficial gas velocity. In the centre of the carried out an experimental study based on bubble size
column larger bubbles were more dominant and smaller distributions under industrial conditions. They investigated
bubbles were collected in the near wall more densely. It was the effect of gas density, surface tension, liquid viscosity,
also reported that the contribution of small bubbles to overall sparger design and operating conditions on bubble sizes. The
holdup was more than the contribution of large bubbles. The authors reported that as the liquid viscosity or surface
rise velocity of small bubbles decreased with increasing tension decreased the stable bubble diameters also
Table 7
Correlations for the size of bubbles produced at an orifice
Researcher Correlation Reference
Miller [112] h i1=3 [111]
db ¼ gðr6sd o
r Þ for low gas flow rates
l g
Moo-Young and Blanch [111] 4Qr [111]
db ¼ 0:19do0:48 Re0:32
o , Reo is the orifice Reynolds number and Reo ¼ pdo m
g
g
Leibson et al. [113] 1=2 1=3 [111]
db ¼ 0:18do Reo Re < 2000
Kumar and Kuloor [114] 4p1=3 15ml Q3=4 [111]
Vb ¼ 3 2rl g
Bhavaraju et al. [115] db 4rl Q 0:1 Q2 0:21 [111]
do ¼ 3:23 pm do d5 g
l o
N. Kantarci et al. / Process Biochemistry 40 (2005) 2263–2283 2275
decreased. The influence of operating pressure and decrease increasing foaming agent concentrations. Small
temperature were also discussed and it was observed that bubble contribution to total holdup is essentially constant in
increasing temperatures or pressures resulted in reduced churn-turbulent regime, being approximately equal to
bubble sizes, which supported the findings of Luo et al. [4]. transition holdup. Large bubble holdup depends on the
Veera et al. [11] carried out experiments with foaming column diameter but not on solids concentration whereas for
liquids and reported that bubble sizes were reduced with the small bubble holdup just the opposite is valid.
increasing foaming agent concentrations.
2.5. Mass transfer coefficient
2.4.3. Column dimensions
Although not commonly reported, the effect of column The overall mass transfer rate per unit volume of the
dimensions on bubble characteristics have been investi- dispersion in a bubble column is governed by the liquid-side
gated by several researchers. Daly et al. [64] analyzed the mass transfer coefficient, kla assuming that the gas side
sauter mean bubble diameters (mean surface to volume resistance is negligible. In a bubble column reactor the
diameter) in two different bubble columns and reported variation in kla is primarily due to variations in the
that the column height was not effective. For gas velocities interfacial area [59]. Assuming spherical bubbles, the
above 4 cm/s, the sauter mean bubble diameter was slightly specific gas–liquid interfacial area is related to the gas
higher in small diameter column. This was attributed to holdup, eg and the sauter mean bubble diameter, ds by
different flow regimes in the two columns at these 6eg
velocities. The authors claimed that, at this superficial as ¼ (5)
ds
velocity the large diameter column operated in churn-
turbulent regime where small bubbles were more domi- Thus, a precise knowledge of the gas holdup and bubble
nant, because of the increased liquid circulation and size distribution is needed to determine the specific gas–
turbulence in large diameter column. Under these condi- liquid interfacial area [64]. In gas–liquid reactors, mass
tions, the small diameter column operated in the slug flow transfer from the gas to liquid phase is the most important
regime where larger bubbles dominated. Li and Prakash goal of the process. The volumetric mass transfer coeffi-
[14] reported that the diameter of the column has an effect cient is a key parameter in the characterization and design
on the rise velocity of large bubbles only. They discovered of both industrial stirred and non-stirred gas–liquid reac-
that as the column diameter increased, the rise velocity of tors. However, very few data are found dealing separately
large bubbles also increased. Koide et al. [79] measured with mass transfer coefficient (kl) and interfacial area in
average bubble sizes in two columns with different bubble columns or stirred reactors [5,80]. Most investiga-
diameters and a higher average bubble size was obtained tions performed are limited to the determination of the
in the larger diameter column. volumetric mass transfer coefficient, kla, which is the
product of the liquid mass transfer coefficient ‘kl’ and
2.4.4. Solid concentration interfacial area ‘a’. Unfortunately, this parameter is global
The presence of solids and solid concentration also has an and not sufficient to provide an understanding of the mass
impact on bubble properties. It was reported that the transfer mechanisms. The separation of the parameters ‘kl’
presence of solids led to larger bubble sizes [4,14,68]. This and ‘a’ should be considered for better comprehension of
was attributed to an increase in the apparent slurry viscosity the gas–liquid mass transfer mechanisms. It also allows us
with increasing slurry concentration. The study by Krishna to identify which parameter (kl or a) controls the mass
et al. [43] showed that the large bubble holdup was transfer.
independent of solids concentration but the small bubble Since mass transfer is the key phenomenon in the
holdup was a decreasing function of solids concentration. chemical reactions taking place in the reactor, it is important
Prakash et al. [3] utilized yeast cells in their column and to estimate the mass transfer coefficients for design and
reported that, as the yeast concentration increases, the rise scale-up of these reactors. Literature studies are reviewed
velocity of large bubbles increases, whereas rise velocity of from the aspect of the effects of operational parameters on
small bubbles decreases. This situation actually reflects the mass transfer characteristics and several important correla-
possible differences between actual cell particles and solid tions to predict the mass transfer coefficient in bubble
particles such as glass beads used in above-mentioned columns are presented in Table 8.
studies.
2.5.1. Superficial gas velocity
2.4.5. Summary of bubble characteristics studies Krishna and Van Baten [30] developed a CFD model to
Summarizing so far, the published work discussed on describe mass transfer for air–water bubble column
bubble characteristics showed that the bubble sizes increase operating in both homogeneous and heterogeneous regime.
with increasing superficial gas velocity, solid concentration The volumetric mass transfer, kla, increased with increasing
(up to a certain value), liquid viscosity and surface tension. gas velocity in the same trend as the gas holdup increased
On the other hand, the average bubble size was reported to with superficial gas velocity. Verma and Rai [28] measured
2276 N. Kantarci et al. / Process Biochemistry 40 (2005) 2263–2283
Table 8
Mass transfer coefficient correlations for gas–liquid bubble columns
Research group Correlation Reference
Ozturk et al. [70] 0:5 2 0:33 gr2 d3 r 0:04 [70]
kl adb2 ml grl db Vg 0:68 rg 0:04
pffiffiffiffiffi
ffi Sh ¼ 0:62Sc0:5 Bo0:33 Fr0:68 g
DAB ¼ 0:62 rl DAB
l b
s ml2 gdb rl ; rl
0:31
Akita and Yoshida [116] kl aD2T yl
0:5 gD2 r 0:62 gD3T [6]
DAB ¼ 0:6 DAB
T l
s y2
e1:1
g
l
Shah et al. [2] kl a ¼ 0:467Vg0:82 [6]
Kawase and Moo-Young [87] 1=2 3=5 V 2 7=60 [6]
kl aD2T yl DT Vg 3=4 gD2T rl g
DAB ¼ 0:452 DAB y s DT g
the ionic mass transfer coefficient for electrolytic solutions 2.5.3. Solid concentration
in a bubble column using an electrochemical technique. A Mass transfer measurements were carried out in the
monotonic increase of the average mass transfer coefficient transition and heterogeneous flow regimes. It was reported
with gas velocity was observed. Letzel et al. [81] used the that kla values decreased with increasing solid concentration
dynamic pressure-step method to measure kla and found that [27,67]. At low solids concentrations kla values increased
the ratio of kla to gas holdup was independent of superficial with fine particles, whereas, the gas–liquid interfacial area
gas velocity for pressures up to 1 MPa. Behkish et al. [27] decreased with increasing solid concentration [48,83].
investigated the volumetric mass transfer coefficient and Vandu and Krishna [31] observed that addition of solids
bubble size distribution for four different gas phases and in and high solid concentrations caused reduced values of kla/
two different organic liquid mixtures and kla values were eg due to increased large bubble sizes.
also found to increase with gas velocity.
2.5.4. Bubble properties
2.5.2. Liquid phase properties Fukuma et al. [78] suggested proportionality between the
Experiments performed with viscous media showed that mass transfer coefficient values and volume–surface mean
the volumetric mass transfer coefficient, kla, decrease with bubble diameter. Krishna and Van Baten [30] reported that in
increasing liquid viscosity [27,78]. It was pointed out that the heterogeneous regime the mass transfer was significantly
higher viscosity led to increase of the volume fraction of enhanced by the continuous bubble break-up and coales-
the large bubbles, leading to much lower gas–liquid cence tendencies. Behkish et al. [27] reported that at high
interfacial areas. Ozturk et al. [70] investigated mass solids concentrations, large bubbles were formed with
transfer coefficient in various organic liquids and observed bubble coalescence tendencies and they limited the mass
that kla values increased with increasing gas density. transfer in the column. As a result the authors concluded that
Interestingly, the authors reported that kla values in mixed for industrial bubble columns, the presence of small bubbles
liquids were close to those in pure liquids of similar should be preferred and the presence of large bubbles should
properties. Muller and Davidson [82] performed experi- be avoided for effective mass transfer rates.
ments with viscous media and pointed out the effect of
surface active agents on the mass transfer. They reported 2.5.5. Column dimensions, gas sparger and operating
that kla values increase in the presence of surfactants. The conditions
authors attributed this increase to the creation of small Vandu and Krishna [31] observed that kla/eg showed a
bubbles and reduced bubble coalescence due to surfactants. slight increase with column diameter. Krishna and Van
Recently, Vandu and Krishna [31] reported experimental Baten [30] carried out CFD simulations and showed that kla
work on estimation of volumetric mass transfer coefficient decrease with column diameter. Verma and Rai [28] reported
in a bubble column. While most of the published work is that the mass transfer coefficient was independent of initial
restricted to low gas velocities, low slurry concent- bed height. Higher values were obtained with the spargers
rations and small column diameters, the study of Vandu for which the gas holdup values were also higher, i.e. higher
and Krishna [31] dealt with high slurry concentrations and values of mass transfer coefficient were obtained with
high superficial gas velocities. They reported that kla perforated plate distributor. Vafopulos et al. [84] investi-
values closely followed the trend in gas holdup and that kla/ gated the mass transfer in an air–water bubble column at
eg was found to depend on the liquid-phase Schmidt pressures from 0.1 to 1 MPa. They reported that pressure has
number. no significant effect on gas holdup and volumetric liquid-
N. Kantarci et al. / Process Biochemistry 40 (2005) 2263–2283 2277
phase mass transfer coefficient. However, many studies Most of the previous studies on heat transfer in bubble
report a significant effect of pressure on mass transfer rates. columns concerned the steady-state time-averaged heat
For instance, Wilkinson and Haringa [85] worked in the transfer of the object-to-bed and wall-to-bed [89,90].
pressure range of 0.1–0.4 MPa and reported that both the However, measurements of instantaneous heat transfer
interfacial area and volumetric mass transfer coefficient coefficients provide more insight into bubble dynamics
increase with pressure. Similarly, experiments in the and mechanism of heat transfer. Chen et al. [26] reported
pressure ranges 0.1–0.8 MPa showed that kla values that the use of average heat transfer coefficient causes the
increased with increasing pressure [27,86]. This was loss of information related to the effect of instantaneous
attributed to the corresponding increase of the gas–liquid bubble dynamics on heat transfer. Hence, the authors
interfacial area. Still higher pressures (up to 5 MPa) were emphasized the importance of studying the instantaneous
examined in the study of Maalej et al. [29] and it was heat transfer in bubble columns under wide range of
reported that both interfacial area and the volumetric mass conditions for a comprehensive understanding of the heat
transfer coefficient (kla) were affected by pressure, whereas transfer mechanism and reliable modeling to improve design
the mass transfer coefficient (kl) was independent of and operation. Kumar et al. [91], Li and Prakash [13,23] and
pressure. It was concluded that for a fixed gas mass flow Cho et al. [25] are some of the recent studies based on local
rate, the interfacial area and the volumetric mass transfer instantaneous heat transfer coefficient measurements.
coefficient decrease with increasing operating pressure. Very few heat transfer data have been published on the
However, for a fixed pressure, they increase with increasing biochemical studies with microbial media so far. Especially,
gas mass flow rates. studies with non-Newtonian fermentation media have not
received considerable attention, despite its wide occurrence.
2.5.6. Summary of mass transfer studies Kawase and Moo-Young [87] developed a theoretical model,
Summarizing the literature studies, it can be concluded which accounts for both the Newtonian and non-Newtonian
that the volumetric mass transfer coefficient, kla increases cases. Their model was based on turbulent heat transfer in
with gas velocity, gas density and pressure whereas bubble column reactors where the heat transfer enhancement
decreases with increasing solid concentration and liquid due to shear-thinning of the media had been investigated.
viscosity. It is also concluded that the presence of surfactants Measurements of heat transfer coefficients in general
increase kla, due to small bubbles. Thus, presence of large require a heat source and measurements of surface and bed
bubbles should be avoided in industrial columns for effective temperatures. To estimate the local instantaneous heat
mass transfer. transfer coefficient h (W/m2 8C) for a heated object-to-bed
system for instance, the temperature difference between the
2.6. Heat transfer coefficient probe surface and the bulk, DT (8C) and the corresponding
heat transfer flux, Q (W/m2) should be measured. The
Thermal control in bubble columns is of importance following relation can then be applied:
since in many chemical and biochemical processes, Q
chemical reactions are usually accompanied by heat h¼ (6)
DT
supply (endothermic) or removal (exothermic) operation.
Therefore, turbulent heat transfer from the reactor wall and Many literature correlations exist for estimation of heat
inserted coils to the liquid has been the topic of much transfer coefficient that can be applied to two-phase bubble
research in the literature [87]. Bubble columns have been columns and three-phase slurry bubble columns. Several of
widely adopted in many industrial productions and these correlations are presented in Table 9. The basic para-
operations due to high heat transfer rates [88]. The heat meters affecting the heat transfer are mainly the superficial
transfer rate in gas–liquid bubble columns is reported to be gas velocity, particle size and concentration, liquid viscosity,
generally 100 times greater than in single phase flow [89]. particle density, axial/radial location of the heat transfer
Many hydrodynamic studies investigate the heat transfer probe and column dimensions.
between the heating objectives and the system flow to
understand the effects of hydrodynamic structures on the 2.6.1. Superficial gas velocity
heat transfer for improving the design and operation of The effect of gas velocity on heat transfer coefficients in
bubble column reactors [24]. two and three-phase systems have been widely investigated
Literature studies reported on heat transfer measurements [3,60,63]. Generally, it was demonstrated that the introduc-
in two- and three-phase systems can be divided into: (1) tion of gas into a liquid or liquid–solid bed enhances the
estimation of bed-to-wall heat transfer coefficients, and (2) turbulence in the medium and thus increases the heat transfer
estimation of immersed object-to-bed heat transfer coeffi- coefficients. Moreover, higher gas velocities just enhance
cients [89]. Bed-to-wall heat transfer was investigated in the heat transfer more. Therefore, though the system
detail by Kato et al. [90]. The investigations of immersed properties, operating conditions and measurement techni-
object-to-bed heat transfer have been reported by a number ques differ, many studies reported that the heat transfer
of researchers [25,60,63,68]. coefficients increase with increasing superficial gas velocity
2278 N. Kantarci et al. / Process Biochemistry 40 (2005) 2263–2283
Table 9
Heat transfer correlations for bubble and slurry bubble columns
Research group Correlation Reference
0:308
Hikita et al. [117] V m 0:851 m4l g [63]
StðPrÞ2=3 ¼ 0:411 gs l r s3 l l
irrespective of the solid phase properties (diameter, shape, alteration of the bubble properties with solid addition was
and concentration) or liquid phase properties (density, also needed to be taken into account. Addition of solids and
viscosity, etc.) [3,14,60,63,68]. Studies also showed that the increasing the solids concentrations increase the bubble
rate of increase of heat transfer coefficients with gas velocity coalescence leading to the formation of larger size bubbles
was more pronounced at low gas velocity, and more gradual with higher rise velocities. As a matter of fact, addition of
at higher gas velocities. solids causes larger bubble sizes with induced velocities and
thus higher heat transfer rates are likely to be obtained. On
2.6.2. Liquid phase properties the other hand, Li and Prakash [68] reported an opposite
The effect of liquid phase properties on heat transfer, trend with Deckwer et al. [60]. They reported that as solid
especially the impact of liquid viscosity has been reported in concentration increased the heat transfer coefficient
several studies. The heat transfer coefficient has been found decreased. This was explained by the promotion of viscosity
to decrease with increasing liquid viscosity in three-phase of the medium with increase of solid concentration which in
fluidized systems [26,60,68,92] regardless of particle size. turn resulted in the decrease of turbulence in the system.
This was actually attributed to lower turbulence attained in
the viscous media. 2.6.4. Axial/radial location of the heat transfer probe
The position of the heat transfer probe in the column was
2.6.3. Solid size and concentration also reported to alter the values of the heat transfer
The influence of particle size and concentration on heat coefficient. Thus, several studies were performed by
transfer coefficient has been investigated by many research- locating the heat transfer probe at various axial/radial
ers in both three-phase bubble columns and fluidized beds locations in the column and determining the corresponding
[14,60,63,68,93]. In three-phase fluidized beds, the heat values of the heat transfer coefficients at those locations. In
transfer coefficient increased with particle size at low gas fact, the axial heat transfer measurement differences in the
velocities (<5 cm/s). At higher gas velocities, it passed column stem from measurement distance to the gas
through a minimum value at a particle size of about 1.5 mm. distributor and radial differences from the bubble popula-
In general, the effect of particle size on heat transfer tions. Saxena et al. [63] compared the heat transfer
coefficients was negligible at particle sizes larger than coefficients at two different axial locations. The probes
3.0 mm, particularly at high gas velocities. Some studies were at 2.9 and 0.52 m from the distributor. Their results
reported that the heat transfer coefficients increased with indicated that the heat transfer coefficients at 2.9 m were
increasing slurry concentrations [60,93]. The reason given systematically higher than at the 0.52 m. This was attributed
for that was the alteration of thermo-physical properties of to the influence of the distributor region. The height of
the slurry with the introduction of solids and also enhanced 0.52 m from bottom was less than two times the column
exchange rate of fluid elements on the heated surface of the diameter (0.305 m) corresponding to the developing region
probe due to motion of solid particles. Moreover, the for bubble growth and liquid phase flow pattern. The
N. Kantarci et al. / Process Biochemistry 40 (2005) 2263–2283 2279
influence of the distributor region is reported usually to change significantly especially at low concentrations
extend up to three or four times the column diameter [94]. In however it can definitely be said that the presence of solids
the distributor region the bubble sizes are definitely smaller just promotes heat removal from the surface of the heated
than the ones in the bulk region. This is due to the fact that object and in a way that enhances the turbulence in the
the external pressure around the bubble decreases as the system. Axial profiles of heat transfer measurements
bubble rises up in the column. Thus, large bubbles would be indicate that the heat transfer coefficient in bulk region is
more dominant away from the distributor. Since faster higher than in the distributor region. The heat transfer
moving large bubbles would be more effective on heat coefficient in the centre of the column is greater than the near
transfer as compared to small bubbles, higher heat transfer wall due to the fact that large bubbles collect at centre and
coefficient values could be observed at the top sections of the they are more effective in enhancing heat transfer in the
column, i.e. away from the distributor as compared to the system.
distributor region. Heat transfer measurements at different
radial locations were carried out by Li and Prakash [68] and
Prakash et al. [3]. It was reported that the column centre heat Acknowledgement
transfer coefficients were higher than the near wall heat
transfer coefficients, due to the fact that large bubbles collect This research was supported by the Boğaziçi University
more dominantly at the centre. In addition to that, obviously Research Fund through project B.A.P 04A501.
there existed more turbulence in the centre as compared to
near wall, due to possible wall effects.
Appendix A
2.6.5. Column dimensions and operating conditions
The effect of column diameter on heat transfer was as gas–liquid interfacial area
investigated in detail by Saxena et al. [63]. The authors Ar Archimeds number
reported that heat transfer coefficients measured in a larger Bo Bond number
diameter slurry bubble column (30.5 cm) was greater than in Cp specific heat
a smaller diameter column (10.8 cm). They attributed this C0p slurry specific heat
result to a higher mixing rate attained in the larger diameter Cs solid concentration
column. Saxena et al. [63] also performed experiments to Cs0 solid concentration at column bottom
study the effect of bed temperature on heat transfer d diameter
coefficient. It was reported that with increasing temperature do orifice diameter
the heat transfer coefficient also increased. This could be db bubble diameter
explained by the reduced liquid viscosity and enhanced dbi size of bubble i
turbulence maintained at higher temperatures. Chen et al. de dimensionless bubble diameter
[26] investigated the effect of operating pressure on heat dmax maximum bubble diameter
transfer characteristics. The authors observed that the heat dp particle diameter
transfer coefficients increased with increasing pressure. dR reactor diameter
dS sauter mean bubble diameter
2.6.6. Summary of heat transfer studies Dc column diameter
Summarizing the studies discussed so far on heat transfer DL diffusion coefficient
it can generally be concluded that the heat transfer DT tower diameter
coefficient increases with increasing temperature, super- F flow number
ficial gas velocity, and particle size, but a decreasing Fr Froude number
function of liquid viscosity and particle density. Two Fr Froude number for slurry phase
opposing conclusions for the effect of solid concentration on g gravitational acceleration
heat transfer coefficient exist. Some studies [60,93] report Ga Gallilei number
that increased solid concentrations increases the heat h heat transfer coefficient
transfer coefficient values, while some report the opposite h0 clear liquid height above transducer at time zero
[68]. The increase of the heat transfer coefficient with hI clear liquid height above transducer in phase I
increasing solid concentration has been attributed to a hw max maximum wall side heat transfer coefficient
corresponding increase of the slurry viscosity which results H distance
in greater bubble sizes and higher large bubble rise velocities DH height difference between the transmitters
and thus higher heat transfer rates. On the other hand, the k thermal conductivity
contrary result obtained by Li and Prakash [68] was k0 slurry thermal conductivity
explained by the fact that turbulence is reduced by an kl liquid thermal conductivity
increase in viscosity of the system. In fact the viscosity of the ks solid thermal conductivity
system by addition of inert bead-like solids would not ksl slurry thermal conductivity
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