2518, Strain Ganges sf metal conductor is strefehed or cowmpressed, its resistance changes on account of tus fact that both length end diameter of condustor cheage. Also there isa change in the value of resistivity of the conductor when it is strained and this property is called piezo resistive effect. Therefore, resistance stdin gauges are also known as piecoresstive gauges. the strain gauges areused for measure- ment of strain end associated stress, in experimental stress analysis. Secondly, many otber detectors and. transducers, aotably the load cells, torque aneters, cigphragm type pressure guess, ‘temperature seasors, accelerometers and flow meters, employ strain geuges as secondary transducers, 51st, Theory of Stan Ganges. ‘The change inthe vale of resistance by straining éhe gauge may be partly explained by the dosmal dimensional behaviour of elastic material, [fa strip of clastic material is subjected to tension, of in other words positively strained, its Jongitudinal dimension will icrease while there wil be a reduction i the fateral dimension So when a gauge is subjected to a positive strain, its length increases imbile its area of cross-section decreases. Since the res tance ‘ofa conductor is proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its area of cross section, the resistance of the gauge increases with positive strain. “The change in ‘the value resistance of strained conductor is more than what can be accounted for an increase in resistence due to dimensional changes. ‘The extra change in the value ofresistance is attributed t ofa condactor when tuned. This popes 2s described earlier, sealar wite,»The wire has the dimensions: “The material ofthe wit has a resistivity». 0 a change ia the value of resistivity js known as peizoreststive effect. Let ws consider a strain gauge made of i Tength=E,arer=4,damett= before beng strained, <1, Resistance of unstrained gauge Repl/de Let a tensile stress be applied to the wire. ‘This produces a positive strain causing the length to inorease and aoa to decrease. "Thus when the wire is strained there are changes in its. dimensions. Lat AL=chenge in length, 4 ~chenge it rea, D=ehange in diameter and, G R=change in resistances{n onder 1o find how £4 R depends upon the ateterial physieal quantities, the expression for R it uilfercatited vith respect to stress s. Thus we pet : aR ao a a ae) a a (2528, ak das os g Eqn, 25°20 throughout by resistance R=eL/4, we ave 1 dR 1% 1 ad, 1 oe (2521) RTE A ote os It is evident from Eqn. 25°21, that the per unit change in resistance is due to : (i) per unit change in length=AL/E. (if) per unit change in area=A\ A] 4. * A ag yD : Aca de DE 2, 5p. OP wf3822) 1 aA 2 ap : ° 4 kW 2s Das 523) Eqn. 2521 can be written as ¢ 1 dk 1h . Rds L a 57) vont tetera train , Now, Poisson’ ratio joaetadina strata (2595) or O8D/D=—»x OL{L VME t Dy (0526) For small variations, the above relationship can be witten a8 : TDR LAL ya AL ye AR AL. jy Ale 4H 052) “The gauge factor is defined as the ratio of per uait change ia resistance to. per unit change in length. Gauge factor Gn htt (2528) AR_, OL op ot AR MG, OE core 425291 where e=stain =O! ‘The gauge factor can be written as : Hel ayy Dele fest ang AF (250) “The strain is usually expressed in torms of microstrain. 1 microsteain —1 m/e. Ifthe change in the value of resistivity of a material when strained is neglected, the gauge factor is Grrlia (22°31)qa, 25°31 is valid only when Piezoresistve Eifect jc. bangs in resistivity de to. strain is almost negligible. ‘The Poisson’s ratio for all metais 18 between and O'S. This gives a gauge Tactor of approxi- ‘mately, 2. The common value Tor Poisson’s ratio for wites is 0'3, This gives a valve of | 6 for wire wound strain gauges. ‘Table 25°3 gives the value of gauge factors for the various materials TABLE 253 Gange Factors Materiel Gauge Factor Material Gauge Factor Nickel 101 Platinum +48 Manganin 4047 Carbon +20 Nichrome ) +20 Doped i 1c0—s000 Constantan +71 Crystals J Soft iron +42 | ‘Example 257, A resistance wire strain gauge uses a soft iron wire of small diameter. The gauge factor is +42. Neplsting the piezoresstive effects, calculate the Poisson's ratio. Solution, “The gauge fastr is given by Eqn. 2830, Gy~L+ 2448 Ii piezoresisive effect is neglected, the gauge Factor is given by Eqn. 25 5208: Gr—14'¥ G1 42-1 Ly, oe ts ‘Pxample 25'S. A compressive force is applied to a structural member. The strain is micro-strain. Two separate sirain ganges are attached to the structural member, one is 2 nickel wire Sain eauge baving a gauge factor of —12'l and the other is nichrome wire strain geuge having. a fuuge faclor of 2, Calculate the value of resistance of the gauges afer they are strained, The resi fance of strain gauges before being strained is 120 @. Solution According to our convention, the tensile strain taken as positive while the come pressive strain is taken as negative. Therefore,” stein €-=—$x1U"® (I micro strain=1 em/mn) Now ARIR=GE (See Eqn, 25°24) Change in value of resistance of nickel mire strain gauge ? AR=Géx R = (121) x(— 5x 10°F) x 120 = 7°26 x 10° Q=7'26 ma, Thus there is an increase of 7°26 m2 in the value of resistance, For nichrome, the change in the value of resistance AR=(2) X(—3K 108) X 12012 «10° O=— 12 im, ‘Thus with compressive strain, the value of resistance gauge shows 2 decrease of 12 mOQ in the value of resistance. 2519 Types of Strain Gauges ‘There are three types of strain gauges : (Q Wire wound strain gauges, (i) Foil type strain gauges, and (iil) Semiconductor strain gauges, Poisson's ratio980. Resistance Wire Strain Ganges Resistance wire strain gauges ore used in two forms These two formsare * (i) Unbonded, and (i) Bonded. 25201. Unbonded Strain Gauges. An usbonded strain gauge Soohown in Fig. 2515, ‘This gauge Diaohragm consisis of a wire strefched between two points in an insulating medium ek 4 such as air, The diameter of the . force ro¢ ‘his i about 28 pun and can be oT strained depending om the way a Spring eaute cement 10¥es Tn 25 15 the flexture ele- iment isconneezed via a sod toa dia pliagm which is used for pressure jounting measurement. The wires are tension- rings fl to. avoid buckling when they [es o experience compressive forces. ‘The unbonded strain gauges ss are uoually connected in a bridge cit Sapphire cuit, With no load applied to the ve Strain gauges, the bridge ie balanced. Whe un external Toad is Spring apple, the rcsistance of strain wlement sanzes elange causing an unbalance of the bridge circuit whieh results in ‘Strom gauge fan ontput vollage. This voltage. is windings (3 8.41 proportional to the strain, A dis- pleeemtent of the order of $0 em Fig. 2515, Unbonded resistance wire sala gauge. bray be detected with these strain gauges. 2810 Bonded Resistance Wire Straia Gauges. A roistanes wae stig gauge, consis of aid of ba eran ire of sbout 25 om (0028 my) i Sater cr Is. The gi of ine miei aa a earl (bate) which may be thin sbeet of paper or to 0 very thin akcie sheet or to cement: ion, The wine Is covered cn top wi a sbeet of thin materi so that i spot damaged ae er ene apreacing ofthe, wire permita_a uaifm ditibution of sis. Thelcarer Peet an adhesive atrial tothe suture under study. This permits « good transfor of tame maar to wes, ‘The most commoaly aed form of restance wie stain gauges is shown in Fie 2516 ‘The size ofthe strain gauges varies with application. ‘They can be as small 3s 3 nim by & thm square Usually they are larger, ‘poe seldom amore than 23 mam long and 12°5 mm ane For excellent and reproducible results it is desirable that the resistance Witt should have the following characteristics: (i The strain gauge should Bave a high value of gauge factor Gr, A. high value of gauge fac- tor indicates a large change in resistance for @ particular strain resulting in high sexsiivity, (ii) The resistance of the strain gauge should bo as high as possible since this miniarzes the ‘efivls of tadesirable varietions of resistance in the measurement cirouit. Although undesirable, but seeany, are. the sesktance of connecting leads and terminal, ele. ‘Typical resistances of stain Jaager ave. 120°, 350 Q-and 10002. Although a bigh resistance value of stra gauges is desiable Hang olat of view of swamping oUt the effects of variations of resistance ib other Parts ofthe lage citi in which they are invariably used but i results in lower sensitivity, in gaugesWie grid +Corrier (base] Terrrinais, Mire grid (a) Linear strain eau. Terminats "28 i Wire wie orig] (© Toray gauge. (a) Hibial gouge. Fig. 516, Resitagee wirostrain sao. \ ‘Thus in order to get high sensitivity higher bridge voltages have to be used. ‘The brides \ voltages limited by the maximum current carrying capacity of the wires which is typially 30 mA, Git) ‘The strain gauges shovld have a low resistance temperatute. co-oficent, unig is ‘essentie] to minimize errors on account of temperature ‘variations which affect the accuracy of measure~ ment. 44) The strain gauge should not have eny bysferess eneos in its response, (0) In order to maintaia constancy of calibration over the entire range of the srain gums it should hove near characteristics ce, the variations fn resistence should be e liar funetion of the strain, * Gi) The steain gauges ate frequently used for dynamic measurements and nouce thet Tieqasice response should be good. "The linearity should be maintained within accuracy lintts over the atite frequency range ‘The desirable characteristics of telial is able to satisfy all the properties since they ‘ol oetals and their alloys have been used ‘in! ssaki stance wird strain gauges are listed above but no single ma 2, many a times, conflicting in nature, Anumber esbtatige wire strain gauges, Some popalarmetals and alloys used for eoustruction of resistant, wiro strain gauges are listed in Table 254 along with theit properties. TABLE 25°4 Materials for Strain Ganges Material | Conpovion | Gane Fecior| Resistivity | Resivance | Upper Om perature. | Teraperature i Corefficient °C | _ | aac _ Niebrome 1oox 10"# txts | 1200 Constantan | 4exio® | 002x103 | 400 1 Tscelastio | wosxio® — | o175x 10-8 | 1200 Nickel | esx ‘ssxws | Pitino | loxi0 40x10 ~ ave (Carrier) Materials, Several types of base: or carrier materials ‘re used to supoort the wites, Impieenated paper is used for room temperature applications. The range of some of the other tnatesals are 200°C to 150°C pakelte impregnated cellulose or glss fibre filled materials: ‘C for continuous operation, And up to°300°C for limited operation, ‘Adhesives. ‘The achesives act as bonding materials. Like other bonding operations, sucessful steain gauge bondiag depends upon careil surface preparation and uso ofthe eortect bonding agent, order that the stain be faithfully transferred on to the strain gnu, the bond bas to be formed ‘between the surface to be strained and the. plastic backing material on which the guuge s mounted tis important thatthe adhesive should be suited to this backing ; nuserous materials are wed for packings which feanire diferent adhesive matetals. Te is usually desirable that the adbesive mate) Should be of quick disiug {ype and also be insensitive to moisture in order to have good adherence, Ethyleellucose cement, nitrocellucose cement, bakelite cement and epoxy cement are some of the commonly used ashesivé materials. ‘The temperature range up to. which they cam be used is usually below 175°C. Leads. The Feads should_he of such matcrals which have low ane! slable resistivity and also 4 low resistance temperature co-ficient. 2520°3, Foil Strain Ganges. ‘Ths cass of strain géucs is only an exteosion of the resistance wire strain gauges. The strain 18 sensed vith the help of metal foils as against metal mites as in wire stain gauges. The metals and lloye used forthe foil are listed in Table 25%. Foil gauges ‘axe a much greater dissipation capecty as ecmpared avith wire wound gouges on cesauat of their eater surface area forthe same volume. Por this reassn they can be Used for higher operating cperature range. Also the large surface aree_ of foil gauges leas to better bonding. The bonded ‘oi gages ate extensively used. Early strain ganges were made from fine wire, bu these anges have snow beso virtually superseded by fot! gnuges A typical foil gauge is shown in Pig. 2517, Foil type strata gauges have similar cherasteristiesvo thos of te wound sain gauges and hele gauge factors are typicly the sue ws al of to hose of i ugen The advetage of foi ype strain guages i that they can be fabricated, ceonoml- sr ainimsgh sale. Th>leciques used fr fabrication are sii to electronic miosis cally oa Titan technology commonly weed for yb integrated circuits (ICD. This eane Tie the foi strain. gauges can be fabricated in auy shape. The thas. een Toned is typically 02 mm thick. The resistance Fall reseithreace, vacuum canted with ceramic. film and are, deposited Gem htastie backing which provides insulation, and. fociktctes per~ Rar Bonding. In some cases tie backing is strippable, vinyle feel al thal can be peeled off so as fo cement che film divectly marine teat Unit with ceramic adhesive, The resistance vatue of eit gauges which ate coramercialy available is between 0 and ovo 9. Base Some commonly used forms of foil gauges are shown in i Fig. 25°18. | tis inferesting to earry_ out simple calcafations to find out vbot effect on applied sttess las on the esstonoe of « metal strain Mie, Hoots law gies the relationship beeen steess and strain for tinea tes stan core (for elavtic limls) in terms of es duu of elasticity of material under tension. Hook's Jaw may be written a3: ~ Soldered . . ‘connections Strain €=9/B (25°36) Fig, 241, Foil toe stioin gauss ‘ 4 ‘poetry ft pie hh ii) re He Fig, 2618. Strain Gauges and Rosette,where E=modulus of elasticity The change inthe valu of resistance fs quite small as is amply eléar from the following example : Example 289, A resistance, wite strain aauge with a gauge factor of 2 is bonded to 2 sleet structural member subjected to a sits of 100 MN/m®. The modalus of elasticity of steel. i 200 GNiv# Calculate the perentage change it the value of the gauss resistance due fo the applied stress. Cemment upon the results. 5 onc 100% 108 nt ‘costal Solation, Sitin€— Fem Syy ge = 00% 10%, (500 mirostran) wetwe: S% a, ¢2xs10x10=000 *. The change in resistance is only 017%. Comments, The above oxempleilutates that a very heay cress of 100 MNJ’ raul it resstace change of onl OT per cent, which is by all means avery amallchange, THs may, posse Cificulties in mensuremeat. Lower stresses produce still lower changes in resistance which may not be perceptible at all or the methods required to detect those, changes ray bave to be highly acournve ‘Tovovergome tis diffcolty We Ipust tse strain gauges which have a high guuge factor and thus produce largo changes in resistance. when strained. These changes are cae) to detect and measure with good degree of accuracy. Example 2510. A. single strain gauge baving resistance, of 129 {Vis iwounted on a ste} cantlores baw ata Uxtanee of O15 m from the free end. An unknown fores F applied at the fee Cad produces deletion of 12-7 mm of te fee end. The change-in gauge resistance is found 40 be Fee erhe ‘beam is 025 1 long with a-width of 20 mm anda Cepth of 3 mm. The Young's ‘modulus for stee! is 200 GN/m®, Calealate the gauge factor. Solution, Momént of inertia of Boars, £=1]12 (bd®)=1/12%0'02X(0'003)?=-45 10° m* i Fe Deflection a 3EIx _ 3% 300% 109% 45 x 10-18 x 19°F x 10° o. Fores Pa 025 -2N Bending moment at 0'15 m from free end M: 2x 011533 No. + 32, 0003, Sires at 0°15 m from free end $= Moot me gg pee X— SHO MN. 7 AL _s _ WOX108 oy 1 E* Ox 0°55 x 10 + ARIR __O'152/120 _; J Gauge factor= Fa = GER 10 2520'4, Sembeondactor Strain Ganges, It has been explained above in order to have a high sensiiviey, a high value of gauge factor is desirable. A high gauge factor ‘means a relatively higher change in resistance which can be easily measured with a good dearer of accuracy. ‘Semiconductor strain gauges are used where a very bigh gauge factor and a small envelope exe required. "The resistance of the seni-conduetors changes wi change in applied strain, Unlike in Taatise of metalle panges where the change fo resistance is mdinly dae to change in dimensions when te ca Ofna tetseeonductor strain geuges cepend for their action upon plezo-resistive efegt i, the change in the value of the resistance due to change in resistivity. Strain = 3.[TRANADUCERE Seni-conduciog materials sucka son and germanium are ied a, revive materials for emiconsntae stain. paages. A. typical siaia gouge consists of train sense crystal material semiconductor ra aeaviched in a protetive mattis. The production of his BARE employs and leads the esonductor technology using semiconducting. wafers or flere ‘which have & conventional errr and bonding thot on sable sulting substrates eH teflon, Gold Ihlcenssot ally employed for. making te eontects. Some the typen Sty onductor strain aupes ace abou ia Fig. 25°19. "These strain gauges oan be fabricated along with integrated ciccuit HAR rattnal amples which can cet as pressure seasiivetamsduees- Fig 2519. Semirconductor strain gauge. Advantages: (O Semi conductor stra gauges have the advantage, bt they have hgh gauge factor of soenteS 30. This alls measurement of very sual! strains ofthe order of (01 mlcronrain sonductor strain gauges afe excellent, Some units (ui) Hysteresis characteristics of set maintain it to less than U'05%. (i) Petigu life is in exess of 10x 108 operations andthe Frequency response upto 108 Hi (s) Semi-condustor strain pangs can be very small ranging in Fngth from O77 fo 7 mm {hey are very usefol for measurement of loca strains, ‘Dindvatages: (9 The major snd serious disadvantage of semHeonductor alo gsvges is ‘hat they are very sensitive to changes in temperature {u) Lineaityof th semi-conductor strain gauges is poor. The equation forthe fxcionsl change io resistance is : ARIRHASHB €¢ where A and Bare constants, “his gnuge is rater nonnar at comparatively Nigh asain levels, The guuge fest varies with state Forerampe if the gauge factor i 130 a0 er cent tain, then it is 112 at O pet Mite Mrain, ‘The characteristics can be made linear by proper doping (i) Semiconductor strain gagus are more expensive and ificut {0 attach to the object ‘ander stusy. 2521, Resistance Thermometers ‘The resistance of «conductor changes when its tempratore is changed, This property is lized for measurement of temperature ‘the variation ofrevlance R with temperature Team be represented bythe following reeton- hip for most of the metals as + ReR( tar beaP ty bet) (0592) where _ Rosrsstance at temperature T= and ft ob ae CONTR ‘he resistance thermometer ues the change in elec cesstance of conductor to determing