CHEMISTRY FOLIO : CHAPTER 9 : MANUFACTURED SUBSTANCES IN

INDUSTRY

PREPARED BY :

MUHAMMAD ALIF ASYRAF ZULKIFLI

4 JAYA
9.1 SULPHURIC ACID
9.1.1 USES OF SULPHURIC ACID
1. One of the most important industrial chemicals.
2. Used in most industries ranging from agriculture fertilizers to paints, soap and the
cleaning of rust.

3. The main use of sulphuric acid is in producing fertilizers, particularly

“superphosphate” and ammonium sulphate.
a. Superphosphate fertilizer:
It is manufactured from the reaction between sulphuric acid and calcium
phosphate.
2H2SO4(l) + Ca3(PO4)2(s) → Ca(H2PO4)2(l) + 2CaSO4(s)
b. Ammonia slphate fertilizer:
It is manufactured by the reaction between sulphuric acid and ammonia.
2NH3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → (NH4)2SO4(aq)
c. Potassium sulphate:
It is manufactured by the neutralization of sulphuric acid and potassium
hydroxide.
2KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
4. Initially, sulphonic acid is produced by the reaction between sulphuric acid and
hydrocarbon compounds.
5. Sulphonic acid the reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium alkyl sulphonate
which is a detergent.
 6. Accumulators need an electrolyte to carry charges and to react with the positive
and negative plates during the charging and discharging processes.
7. In the acid accumulator, sulphuric acid acts as the electrolyte.

Uses of sulphuric acid Example

Drying agent Concentrated sulphuric acid is generally
used to dry gas in the laboratory. However
it is not suitable to dry alkaline gases such
as ammonia.
Oxidising agent Concentrated sulphuric acid oxidizes
copper to form copper(II) sulphate.
2H2SO4(l) + Cu(s) →
CuSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) + SO2(g)
However dilute sulphuric acid does not
react with copper.
Dehydrating agent When concentrated sulphuric acis is added
to sugar, a violent reaction occurs. The
water content in the sugar is extracted by
the acid and the sugar become carbon.
C6H12O6(l) → 6H2O(l) + 6C(s)
Strong acid It reacts with the salt of the weak acid such
as sodium ethanoate to form a weak acid.
2CH3COONa(s) + H2SO4(l) →
2CH3COOH(aq) + Na2So4(aq)

9.1.2 MANUFACTURE OF SULPHURIC ACID

Today, sulphuric acid is made from sulphur dioxide, by the Contact Process. There are
three stages for the production of sulphuric acid by the Contact Process.

STAGE 1
a. In the furnace, sulphur is burnt in dry air to produce sulphur dioxide.
S(l) + O2(g) → SO2(g)
b. In the Contact Process, sulphur powder is sprayed inside a furnace at a
temperature of 100°C. Here sulphur is converted to sulphur dioxide.
c. Sulphur dioxide can also be produced by heating metal sulphides such as zinc
sulphide.
2ZnS(s) + 3O2(g) → 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2(g)

STAGE 2 (Preparation of sulphur trioxide)

a. Sulphur dioxide and air are passed over a catalyst called vanadium(V) oxide,
(V2O5).
b. The temperature used here is about (450 – 500)°C. If the temperature is less than
this range, the vanadium(V) oxide may not be able to catalyse.
c. The reacting pressure is about 2 to 3 atmospheres.
d. At this stage, sulphur trioxide is produced.
2SO2(g) + O2(g) ↔ 2SO3(g)
e. This reaction will produce about 98% sulphur trioxide.

STAGE 3 (Formation of sulphuric acid)

a. The sulphur trioxide is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid to form a product
called oleum, H2S2O7. This is carried out until the concentrated sulphuric acid has
reached a concentration of 99.5%.
b. The product, oleum will not show any property of an acid. This is because, oleum
will ‘not ionise’ without the presence of water.
c. Water is then added to the oleum to produce concentrated sulphuric acid.
H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) → 2H2SO4(l)
d. The reaction (a) and (b) is equivalent to dissolving sulphuric acid in water.
SO3(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(aq)
e. However, this reaction is not carried out in industry. This is because the reaction
is too vigorous.
f. It produces a large cloud of sulphuric acid mist. This mist is corrosive and
pollutes the air.
9.1.3 SULPHUR DIOXIDE AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
1. Sulphur dioxide is present to some extent in the natural unpolluted atmosphere.
The sulphur dioxide sources are from:
a. Bacterial decay of organic matter.
b. Volcanic gases.
c. Forest fires.
However, their concentrations are low and they are normally considered as non-
polluting.
2. → Sulphur is normally found in coal and petroleum. When these fossil fuels burn
they produce sulphur dioxide.
S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g)
→ When this gas is released to the atmosphere, they pollute the air. In fact, the
burning of coal and oil is the major source of sulphur dioxide pollution in our
environment.
→ This gas is considered as the most serious health hazard among the pollutants.
This is true especially for people with respiratory difficulties.
3. When SO2 dissolves in water or rain, they form sulphurous acid H2SO3.
4. Atmospheric SO2 can be oxidized to SO3 also. When SO3 dissolves in water, it
forms sulphuric acid H2SO4.
SO3(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(aq)
5. Acid rain affects marine and forest ecology. In acidic environment, less fish will
breeed in polluted lakes. More trees will die in the forests.
6. Sulphur dioxide is harmful to human health and property. Many of the
environmental effects are actually due to the reactions of sulphuric and
sulphurous acids.
7. Acids react with metals and carbonates. Thus, acid rain is corrosive both to metals
and to building materials made of carbonates. For example, marble buildings and
marble statures will be corroded by acid rain. This will make them less beautiful.
8. The release of SO2 gas to the atmosphere can be reduced by reacting the gas with:
a. Calcium carbonate
SO2(g) + CaCO3(s) → CaSO3(s) + CO2(g)
b. Calsium oxide
CaO(s) + SO(g) → CaSO3(s)
4CaO(s) + 4SO2(g) +2O2(g) → 4CaSO4(g)
9. Some gases released from industries also contain sulphur dioxide. These gases are
mainly produced from the burning of fossil fuels. They are also produced during
the manufacture of sulphuric acid.
9.2 AMMONIA AND ITS SALTS
9.2.1 USES OF AMMONIA
1. Most of the ammonia prodced are used to produce nitrogen fertilizers and nitric
acid as shown in the flow chart below.

2. Ammonia is an alkaline solution. It dissolves grease. Thus, it is used in the

manufacture of many household cleaning agents.
3. Ammonia is an important refrigerant (cooling agent) in refrigerators. It is suitable
because it has:
a. A low boiling point and
b. Is very volatile.
4. In the Ostwald Process, ammonia is used to produce nitric acid.
5. Ammonia is also used to make explosive chemicals such as TNT. This explosive
is produced when ammonia reacts with toluene.
6. In the rubber industry, ammonia is used to prevent the coagulation of latex. This
is because many products such as foam mattresses cannot be made from solid
rubber.
7. Ammonia is widely used in the manufacture of fertilizers.
Chemical name Formula Use
Ammonium chloride NH4Cl In dry batteries
(sal-ammonia)
Ammonia sulphate (NH4)2SO4 As fertilizers
Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3 As explosive and fertilizers
Ammonium carbonate (NH4)2CO3 As smelling salts

9.2.2 PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA

1. The physical properties of ammonia gas include the following:
a. Ammonia, (NH3), is a colourless and pungent gas.
b. It is less dense than air.
c. It is highly soluble in water.
NH3(g) + H2O(l) → NH4OH(aq)
d. A weak alkaline solution.
e. It is easily liquefied (at about 35.5°C) when cool.
2. The chemical properties of ammonia gas:
a. Ammonia gas dissolves in water to form a weak alkali.
NH3(g) + H2O(l) → NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
b. The presence of hydroxide icon causes the aqueous solution to become
alkaline. Thus aqueous ammonia solution:
i. Turns red litmus paper blue.
ii. React with acid to form only salt and waterin neutralization occurs.
NH3(aq) + HCI(aq) → NH4CI(aq)
2NH3 + H2SO4(aq) → (NH4)2SO4(aq)
iii. React with solution of metallic cations to produce precipitates.
Fe²+(aq) + 2OH(aq) → Fe (OH)2(s)

9.2.3 MANUFACTURE OF AMMONIA (HABER PROCESS)

1. Ammonia is made by synthesis through Haber Process.
2. Nitrogen and hydrogen are combined directly together to form ammonia.
3. To supply the Haber Process:
a. Nitrogen gas can be distilled from liquid air.
b. Hydrogen is produced by electrolysing brine (sea water).
4. Nitrogen and hydrogen can also be obtained from natural gas (methane).
a. Methane is heated with steam over a catalyst of nickel at a high pressure.
CH4(g) + H2O(g) → CO(g) + 3H2(g)
b. Carbon monoxide and hydrogen are mixed with air and again heated at
high pressure over nickel acting as a catalyst. Some of the hydrogen reacts
with the oxygen in the air and leaves behind nitrogen.
[CO + H2] → H2O + N2 + CO
The steam (H2O) and carbon monoxide are removed, leaving just the
nitrogen and hydrogen.
5. Those two gases are then mixed under 300 atmospheres of pressure and at a
temperature between 450°C and 500°C.
6. This hot high-pressure mixture is then fed into a reaction chamber containing an
iron catalyst.
7. The iron catalyst speeds up the reaction. Three hydrogen molecules combine with
one nitrogen molecule to produce an ammonia molecule.
N2(g) + 3H3(g) → 2NH3(g)
8. The temperature, pressure and catalyst help to produce as much ammonia as
possible.
9. The gases from the reaction chamber are passed over the catalyst several times so
as to enable more nitrogen and hydrogen to combine to form ammonia.
10. The gaseous ammonia is quickly cooled below the boiling point of ammonia. At
this low temperature, ammonia gas condenses as a liquid, and is collected and
stored.
11. Unconverted nitrogen and hydrogen gas are recycled through the reaction
chamber.
9.2.3 PREPARATION OF AMMONIUM FERTILISERS
1. Nitrogen is required in large amount by plant to make proteins which are
necessary for growth and cell repair.
2. Most plant are not able to get a nitrogen supply directly from the air although it is
abundant in the air (78%). Plants can only absorb soluble nitrogen compounds
from soil through their roots.
3. The nitrogen compounds are usually soluble nitric salt, ammonia and ammonia
salt which are manufacture as chemical fertilizer.
4. Reactions of ammonia with acids produce ammonium fertilizers.
NH3(aq) + HNO3(aq) → NH4NO3(aq)
3NH3(aq) + H3PO4(aq) → (NH4)3PO4(aq)
2NH3(aq) +H2SO4(aq) → (NH4)2SO4(aq)

9.3 ALLOYS
9.3.1 MEANING OF ALLOY
1. Alloys are materials that contain more than one element.
2. Usually, alloys are mixtures of metallic elements – two or more metals.
3. Pure aluminium is light but not strong enough to make aeroplane bodies. If a
small amount of manganese and magnesium are added then an alloy duralumin is
formed. This alloy is hard and strong for aeroplane frames.
4. Thus, an alloy is a mixture of metals made for a certain purpose.

9.3.2 ARRANGEMENT OF ATOMS IN METALS

1. In pure metals, the atoms are all of the same size.
2. The atom of pure metals are packed together closely. This causes the metal to
have a high density.
3. The forces of attraction between atoms (metallic bonds) are strong. More heat
energy is needed to overcome the metallic bond so that the atoms are further apart
during the melting. This is why metals usually have high melting point.
4. Heat energy can be transferred easily from one atom to the next by vibration. This
make metal good conduct of heat.
5. The freely moving outermost electrons within the metal’s structure are able to
conduct electricity. Metal are, therefore, good electrical conductors.
6. Since atoms of pure metal are of the same size, they are arranged orderly in a
regular layered pattern. When a force is applied to metal, layer of atom slide
easily over one another. This make pure metals soft, malleable and ductile.
9.3.3 ARRANGEMENT OF ATOMS IN ALLOYS
1. Alloys have more than one kind of atoms. These different atoms are of different
sizes. They are mixed when they are in the molten state (liquid).
2. The layers of atoms in an alloy cannot slide over each other easily.
3. The movement of atoms get jammed up. This makes them difficult to move.
4. This makes the alloy not ductile and not malleable.
5. However, alloys are harder and stronger than the original constituent metals.
6. There are different ways of arranging the different atoms in alloys.
a. Solution alloys are homogenous alloys in which the different atoms are
distributed uniformly throughout.
b. In heterogeneous alloys, the different atoms are not distributed uniformly.
7. Homogenous alloys have definite properties and composition.

9.3.4 AIM OF PRODUCING ALLOYS

1. To increase the strength and hardness of a pure metal.
2. To increase the resistance to corrosion of a pure metal.
3. To improve the appearance of a pure metal.
a. To increase the strength and hardness of a pure metal
In the process of making alloys, atoms of other elements are added,
usually in small amounts, into a molten pure metal. When the metal
becomes solid again, the positions of some of the atoms of the pure metal
are replaced by atoms of other elements of different sizes.
The presence of the atoms of other elements disrupts the orderly
arrangement of the pure metal. The layers of metal atoms are
prevented from sliding over one another easily. This makes alloys
stronger and harder than pure metals.
During the making of steel, carbon atoms which are smaller that
iron atoms are added into iron atoms. As a result, the uniformly of
the arrangement of iron atoms is disrupted and it is more difficult
for the layers of the iron atoms to slide over one another. This
makes steel harder and stronger than pure iron.
b. To increase the resistance to corrosion of a pure metal
Unreactive metals such as gold and silver can be found in the free
state. This is because they do not react with oxygen and water
vapour in the air.
Most metals such as iron and copper corrode readily in air.
Alloying can prevent metals from corrosion. This is because alloying
helps to prevent the formation of oxide layer on the surface of the
metal.
For example, carbon, chromium and nickel are added to iron to make
stainless steel. Cutlery made from stainless steel does not corrode.
 c. To improve the appearance of a pure metal
Metals have lustrous surfaces. However the formation of dull metal
oxide on the surface of a metal makes it quickly lose its shine.
Alloying helps to keep the metal surface shiny as it prevents the
formation of the metal oxide.
For example, atoms of antimony and copper are added to tin to
make pewter. Pewter has a more lustrous surface than tin.

9.3.5 COMPOSITION, PROPERTIES AND USES OF ALLOYS

Alloys Parent metal Other metals Special Main suitable

properties uses
Alnico Fe: (75-49)% Al: (6-12)% Strongly Permanent
Ni: (14-13)% magnetic magnets
Co: (5-35)%
Constantan Cu: 60% Ni: 40% High Thermocouple
resistance
Copper-nickel Cu: 75% Ni: 25% Hard, shining Coins
and lasting
Brass Cu: 70% Zn: 30% Does not Ship boilers
corrode easily
Bronze Cu: 90% Sn: 10% Very hard and Ship
strong propellers
Duralumin Al: 95% Cu: 3% Strong and Aircraft bodies
Mn: 1% light
Mg: 1%
Magnaleum Al: 70% Mg: 30% Hard but light Aircraft
structures
Pewter Sn: 97% An and Cu: Hard and Decoration
3% shining items and gifts
Solder Pb: 70% Sn: 30% Low melting Soldering wire
point
Stainless steel Fe: 74% Cr: 18% Strong and Hospital and
Ni: 8% does not rust chemical
equipment,
cutlery
Soft steel Fe: 99.8% C: 0.2% Malleable, Cables, nails,
ductile chains
Medium steel Fe: (99.8- C: (0.2-0.6)% Stronger than Railways,
99.4)% soft steel cantilevers
High carbon Fe: (99.4- C: (0.6-1.5)% Very hard Knives,
steel 98.5)% springs
9.4 SYNTHETIC POLYMERS
9.4.1 MEANING OF POLYMERS
1. Most of the covalent molecules we have studied are small molecules.
2. However, some molecules are very big. They are called macromolecules.
3. Some macromolecules are formed when a large number of small molecules join
together to form a longer or bigger molecules. The small molecules are called
monomers.
4. The big molecules formed are called polymers. Thus, we define polymers as the
following:
Polymers are large molecules made up of identical repeating sub-units of
monomers which are joined together by covalent bonds.
5. The process of forming polymers is called polymerisation.
6. If the molecules simply join together, then this type of polymerisation is called
additional polymerisation.
7. There are two main groups of polymers:
a. Man-made polymers or synthetic polymers.
b. Natral polymers

9.4.2 NATURAL POLYMERS

1. Rubber is an example of a natural polymer.
2. Other natural polymers are:
a. Fat in cells.
b. Carbohydrate in cells.
c. Protein in cells.
3. All these substances are large molecules made from smaller molecules that are
joined together. Thus, fats, carbohydrates and proteins are natural polymers.
9.4.3 SYNTHETIC POLYMERS
1. Synthetic polymers are widely used today.
2. Examples of synthetic polymers are polythene, perspex, polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
polystylene and nylon.

Polymer Monomer Use Characteristic

PVC Chloroethene, Drain pipes, Tough and flexible
C2H3Cl insulation for
electric wiring,
artificial leather,
water-proof clothes,
shoes
Polythene Ethylene, CH2CH2 Plastic bags, cups, Not easily torn
and wrappers
Polypropene Propene CH2CHCH3 Film for packaging, Strong and light
(polypropylene) snap-on lids, bottles
Perspex Methyl 2-methyl Lenses, window Light, strong and
propenoate glass stable to sunlight
CH2C(CH3)COOCH3
Nylon (polyamide) Carboxylic acid Curtain rails, Strong and long
hinges, fibres for lasting, easy to
clothes, ropes, wash. Can be drawn
stocking, into threads
parachutes, fishing
line.
Terylene (polyester) Ethylene glycol and Fibres for clothes, Keep in shape after
terephthalic acid video tapes, plastic washing, light and
bottles soft but strong
Polystyrene Styrene Foam drinking Strong and light.
cups, insulation, Can be made into
furniture, packing foam
materials
Teflon Tetrafluoroethene As a coating for Non-reactive and
non-stick pots and non-stick surface
pans
Importance of Polymers
1. Polymers products play a very important part in our life. In fact, thousands of
products we use are made from polymers.
2. They are used in making household objects such as toys, casing, etc. most textile
materials are mixtures of synthetic fibres and natural fibres.
3. In fact, polymers have replaced many natural materials for several reasons.
a. They are relatively cheap.
b. They are strong.
c. They last for a long time.
d. Easy to be moulded or shaped.
e. They are very stable and do not corrode.

9.4.4 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION FROM SYNTHETIC POLYMERS

1. Land Pollution
2. Air Pollution
3. Green House Effect

9.5 GLASS AND CERAMICS

9.5.1 GLASS
1. Sand mixed with limestone can be melted into a thick, hot liquid.
2. When sand is heated to about 1600°C, it flows like a thick liquid.
3. if this liquid cools, it forms a clear, solid material with no crystal structure. This
solid material is called glass.
4. Glass makers add limestone and sodium carbonate to the melting sand. The
mixture melts at a lower temperature than pure sand alone. This type of glass is
used to make bottles, jars and window panes.
5. If lead oxide is used to replace limestone, then the glass is able to bend light in
useful ways. This kind of glass is used to make eye glasses, microscopes and
telescope lenses.
Type Composition Use Properties
Fused silica glass SiO2: 99% Laboratory glass Very high melting
B2O3: 1% apparatus, mirrors point 1700°C.
Transparent to
ultraviolet and
infrared light.
Difficult to form
into different
shapes. Not easily
cracked when
temperature changes
too fast. Resistant to
chemicals
Soda-lime glass SiO2: 75% Windows, mirrors, Melting point:
Na2O: 15% bottles 700°C. Easily
CaO: 10% broken when
temperature changes
too fast. Changes
shape easily with
heating. Transmits
visible light but
absorbs UV
radiation.
Borosilicate (pyrex SiO2: (60-80)% Used as cooking Low thermal
glass) B2O3: (10-25)% glassware and in expansion,
Na2O: (3%) laboratory apparatus transparent to
Al2O3: (1%) such as test tubes visible and infrared
and beakers light. Not
transparent to UV
radiation. Can
withstand heating at
high temperatures.
Optical glass SiO2: 100% Lenses in cameras, Low thermal
spectacles, and expansion,
projectors transparent to wide
range of
wavelengths. Used
in optical research.
Lead-crystal glass SiO2: 55% Bowls, vases and Melting point
PbO: 30% decorative glasses 600°C. High
K2O: 10% density. High index
Na2O: 3% of refraction. Easily
A;2O3: 2% refract light, thus
making them shiny.
General Properties of Glass
1. Glass can be transparent or translucent.
2. They can refract light.
3. They are:
a. Hard
b. Brittle
c. Non reactive to chemicals
d. Good heat insulators
e. Good electric insulators
4. Glass is easy to clean.
5. They are not porous.
6. However, glass is brittle and can be easily broken.

Use Example
Scientific equipment/apparatus Test tubes, beakers, burettes, flasks,
pipettes, lenses, prisms
Household equipment Glass, bowls, lamps, bottles
Industrial equipment Bulbs, glass tubes, optical fibres, television
Building materials Window panes, mirrors

9.5.3 CERAMICS
1. Ceramics are made from clays, such as kaolin. It contains silicates such as
aluminium silicates.
2. Ceramics are hardened by heating them at high temperatures.
3. Like glass, the main component of ceramics are based on silicates.
4. Glass can be melted and remelted as often as it is desired. However, once a
ceramic has been hardened, it is resistant to extreme temperatures.
General Uses of ceramics
1. Ceramics have been used for thousand of years to:
a. Store food.
b. Protect food from moisture.
2. Ceramic are used to make:
a. Roofing tiles
b. Bricks
c. Sewer pipes
3. Ceramics are used as insulators in light fixtures and in electric equipment such as
plugs and lamp holders.
4. Ceramics tiles are the only materials that can withstand the temperature of over
1600°C. Thus, they are used:
a. As heat insulating tiles to protect space shuttles.
b. To line the wall of furnace or oven.
General Properties of Ceramic
1. Ceramics have the following properties:
a. Hard and strong
b. Brittle, (easily broken)
c. Cannot be compressed
d. Easily crack when the temperature changes too quickly
e. Resist moisture
f. Do not conduct electricity
g. Do not conduct heat
h. Can withstand very high temperatures
i. Resistant to action by chemicals
2. The strength of ceramics is due to the strong bonds between the elements in it.

Modified Properties of Ceramics

1. Some specialised ceramics can be made to conduct electricity. They are silicon
carbide SiC and aluminium carbide Al4C3.
2. Some ceramics are made to function as semiconductors. They are used in
microchips.

Properties Uses Examples

Strong and hard
Rust proof and chemical
resistance
Long lasting and pleasing
High melting point
Hard and not compressible
Electric insulators
Building materials
Kitchen ware
Decorative items
Heat insulator
Dental and medical uses
Electrical items
Tiles and pipes
Cups and bowls
Porcelain, pots souvenirs
Lining of oven and furnace
Sealing surface of space
shuttles
False teeth and artificial
limbs
Spark plugs, insulators in
toaster and electric iron

New Uses of Ceramics

1. Superconductor
2. Engine block
9.6 USES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS
9.6.1 MEANING OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS
1. Every substance has its advantages and disadvantages.
2. If we can take the best properties of two substances and then put them together,
we produce a composite material that is better than the two original materials.
3. Thus by combining the useful properties of two or more materials, chemists can
produce a new better material called composite material.
4. Composite materials are made p of high-strength fibres. These fibres could be
from:
a. Glass
b. Graphite
c. Ceramics
5. These fibres are usually held together by thermosetting plastics.
6. The fibres provide the support. The surrounding plastic acts to protect the fibres
from breaking.
7. The most commonly used composite materials are polyester reinforced with glass
fibres.

Composite materials Components Uses

Reinforced concrete
Superconductor
Optic fibres (composite of
glass fibres)
Composite of glass fibres
(fibre glass)
Photochromic glass
Steel bars and concrete
Yttrium oxide (Y2O3),
barium carbonate (BaCO3),
copper(II) oxide (CuO)
Silica SiO2, sodium
carbonate Na2CO3, calcium
oxide CaO
Polyester resin glass
Glass and silver chloride or
silver bromide
Used in the construction
industry such as houses,
bridges and offices
Used in superconductors to
make magnets and
electronic chips
Used in optic fibres for
communication
a. Sports equipment
such as tennis
rackets
b. Boat hulls
c. Model chairs
d. Car panels
Photochromic glass used to
make spectacles