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A Holistic Approach
To Imp roving
Thinking Skills
i~~~~~~~~~~~~~i
*iS is the author of numerous books
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? Ad _ ^ -a ;| - . - - ^ ffi
z~~~~~~~~i~~i..;.. * articles about thinking and problem solv
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~~~ing. Both authors work as consultants to in
_- A d z _ interestedin improvingthinking
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providedmore encouragingevidence that volving learners in the process of acquir perience.9 We are now clearly aware
the winds of change are blowing educa ing knowledge.5 that an inner dialogue within the learner
tors from around the world in this new Such psychological research, along must accompany the external dialogue
direction.2 with 10 years of trial-and-error ex between teacher and student. Thus a
We were heartened to see an endorse perience in the classroom, have led us to practicalapplicationof the importanceof
ment of this approach in a pair of arti formulate the following six principles that communicationto learningto think is to
cles devoted to the improvement of think guide the holistic approach to teaching provide opportunitiesfor studentsto ar
ing skills, by Barry Beyer, in theMarch cognitive skills used by teachers at Robe ticulate their thinking and to receive a
and April 1984 issues of the Kappan.3 son High School and Bloomfield Col great deal of feedback. In contrast to
Beyer argued cogently that, until we lege.6 By applying these principles, it quietly performing discrete behaviors,
change the way we have been doing has been possible for us to develop gener students can be encouraged to think out
things in education, we will not see an ic thinking competencies in a systematic loud, to communicatewith themselves
improvementin thinkingskills.With that way, so that students really appear to and others. In short, to learn cognitive
we agree. grow smarter. skills, studentsneed to become actively
However, Beyer went on to argue that 1. Teaching active learning. One of the involved throughboth questioning and
a complete taxonomyof thinking skills most important features of our approach talking.Ernest Boyer is surely right to
must be developedbefore theschoolscan to thinking is to teach students such strat emphasize the mastery of language; he
effectively improve thinking.Here we egies for effective learning as raising calls it the "basic of basics" because it is
disagree. We have found that the use of questions. Past practices in the schools so fundamental to the development of in
a taxonomy of thinking skills merely mis have emphasized giving answers, and telligence. 10
leads our understandingof the learning students have often learned the bad hab One way we have found to facilitate
process and interfereswith teachers'ef it of "answer grabbing" rather than pro this process is to break our classes into
forts to improve the analytical ability of ductive thinking. They have not learned pairs or small groups. Teachers can help
students.Trying to break thinkingskills to work things out for themselves. As students attack a problem by raising ques
into discrete units may be helpful for di Jack Lochhead of the University of tions that involve students actively in the
agnostic purposes, but it does not seem Massachusetts has put it, students don't questioning process and thenby allow
to be the right way tomove in the teach need to be taught methods they can ing them to reflect externally on what
ing of such skills. We believe that teach mindlessly follow; instead, "they need they are learning.
ing people to think is like teaching some to be taught to think about whatever Another tactic is to assign many short
one to swing a golf club. It is most im problem-solving method they happen to papers or problems for students to work
portant to get the feel of the whole ac choose."7 Students have to learn how to on. This maximizes opportunities for
tion. If you start by working on just one learn effectively on their own. both expression and feedback, which are
small piece of the swing, you'll surely We have systematically structured essential components in communication.
make a mess of it. learning so that students are required to For example, in theBloomfield College
As an alternative to the method Beyer raise questions about what they are read Freshman Core Program, in which stu
proposed, we will describe amore holis ing or about problems they are supposed dents are trained to perform analytical
tic approach, which is being used at a to solve. For example, when listening to thinkingat progressively higher stages,
numberof schools, includingBloomfield a lecture or reading a chapter, students they are required to write papers for al
College, in New Jersey, and Paul can be taught to formulate questions that most every class. The assignments usual
Robeson High School, in Chicago. The are implicitly raised by thematerial. Thus ly take the form of arguments. That is,
National Commission on Excellence in they can see that information is a re students must follow a question through
Education has described the Freshman sponse to a question. To truly under to a conclusion, giving their reasons for
Core Program at Bloomfield College as stand, one must first ask the right ques establishing a set of points as they write.
one of 12 notable programs for fresh tion. By becoming question-raisers, stu Inworkshops and conferences, students
men.4 In it, a holistic approach com dents learn to assume responsibility for then have opportunities to explain to
bines the teaching of analytical thinking their learning rather than to depend solely teachers and other students why they fol
with communication in order to improve on teachers or textbooks.8 lowed a certain line of reasoning. The
a student's total intellectual functioning. We are also learning that, in order to goal of such exercises is to help students
We have learned through experience that develop this skill to the fullest, students take charge of their own learning by
neither reading nor analytical thinking must become conscious of their own monitoring theirown thinkingprocesses.
can be taught effectively without also thinking. In this way they can monitor Another method that makes effective
teaching communication, because such their thought processes and provide them use of the importance of communication
complex mental processes depend on a selves with the feedback they need to
student'stotalintellectualfunctioning,not reach a conclusion. This is an important
on a set of narrowly defined skills. insight,which leadsus toour next point. TOT E SPELLI
This pedagogicalwork hasbeen helped 2. Articulating thinking.A second im ES O' L& ,
by the discoveries of modern psycholo portantprinciple of teachingstudents to
gy. For instance, the study of thinking thinkis thatcommunicationis at theheart
has shown thatlearningis an activeproc of theprocess bywhich intelligence(and
ess. Although behavioristsand cognitive learning,which is a primary formof in
psychologists disagreewith one another telligence)develops. Early in thiscentu
inmany areas, they agree on thispoint. ry, such thinkers as George Herbert
Keller andSkinner,Bruner andPiaget - Mead emphasizedthatthinkingoriginates
all have emphasizedthe importanceof in and develops through verbalizing ex
200 PHIDELTA
KAPPAN
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to thinking is paired problem solving.11 practicalapplicationof efforts to achieve lo often students
At Robeson High School we have helped intuitiveunderstanding.For example, in
teachers develop this approach at all lev a physics class students can discover arenot challenged
els and in all subjects. In each pair of stu through their own experience what such
dents, one acts as the problem solver, concepts as mass, volume, and density
to figure out how to
while the other acts as monitor. The first mean. Using what is sometimes called the use what they already
must articulate each thought as he or she "discoveryapproach,"theyvisually ex know. Thus they fail
works througha problem, giving reasons perience squares covering a surface,
for choosing one answer rather than an cubes filling containers, and the displace to transferlearning
other. The monitor can challenge what ment of matter. Through simple experi
ever is said, forcing the first student to ments they experience the fact that den
tonew situations.
substantiate or clarify his or her reasons sity is a ratio between mass and volume.
for taking each step. Actually, there is In contrast to students who merely plug
nothing sacred about the number two; we numbers into a formula to solve prob
have found that trios and quartets can lems, these active learnersunderstand which involvesanalyzingtheassumptions
serve the same purpose. why formulas have been developed and and values of a stated position, students
Although it is too soon to certify the how they can be applied in different sit need first to learn how to analyze ideas.
long-rangeresultsof thepaired-problem uations. 13 Otherwise, theirresponses to suchques
solving approach at Robeson, the short Similarly, in classes in the humanities tions as "What do you think about that?"
term results in this all-black high school and the social sciences, teachers open dis will consist of opinions and blind reac
have been impressive. An observer im cussions about new topics by eliciting tions rather than thoughtful critiques. 14
mediately notices that the classes are very from students their sense of what they are As partof a sequentialdevelopmental
noisy, but also very productive.Students working on and by encouraging students approach, it is also important to insist
are involved in learning. They even tes to relate what they know from their own on the mastery of a learning skill before
tify that they like this kind of learning. experience towhat theywill be studying. proceedingto thenext step.However, we
Tests and papers indicate such an im Ideally, students should be able to work do not believe that mastery means per
provement in learning that theprincipal from experience to new knowledge and fection. Students should be expected to
has established a policy that all teachers competence. Once students have an in demonstrate a reasonable competence
will receive special trainingin effective tuitive understanding of a problem or within the context of a given assignment.
lymanaging paired problem solving. task, they can move with greater confi At BloomfieldCollege, teacherslook for
Moreover, the climate of the class dence to become independentlearners, steady progress in learning in all areas,
rooms has been changing, so that learn able to transfer skills and knowledge to but they have also developed a sense of
ing has become a respected and impor many different situations. learning growth as a spiral. That is, what
tant objective for most Robeson students. 4. Structuringcourses developmental is learned at one level comes up again and
Classroom noise and activity now signi ly. The fourth principle on which we base is reinforcedat another,more difficult
fy not lack of discipline but the develop our teaching of thinking follows natural level.This spiralpatternof reinforcement
ment of serious learning, conceived as an ly from the third. We need to structure helps produce a sense of thoroughness
active process of thinking and com developmental sequences for learners. that is essential to dependable intellectu
municating. While some learning doubtless occurs al competence.
3. Promoting intuitiveunderstanding. through intuitive flashes, ordinary learn 5. Motivating learning. A fifth princi
A third insight into learning that we use ing follows the cumulative pattern of ple of teaching effective thinking is that
in our approach to teaching thinking is scientific inquiry: insights and compe it is essential to work on the motivation
that students need to have an intuitive tences build on one another. Like many of learners. Some scientific evidence -
understanding of whatever they're work textbooks, learning programs are too of and a lot of common sense - suggests
ing on. 12One defect of the old-fashioned ten disjointed. They produce the scattered that people learn better when they are re
drill method is that it ignores the impor thinking that is characteristic of poor warded. But much experience also shows
tance to learners of acquiring an overall learners. To help students improve their that learning sometimes produces un
sense of materials, ideas, or operations. own process of cognitive development, pleasant consequences, when, for exam
Perhaps through countless repetitions teachers can build a course around the ple, people who have learned to think
some of the better students might under stages of learning. hard about moral dilemmas are forced to
stand what a subject is all about, but For example, in developmental writ make difficult, even painful, decisions.
many others never do. This is one rea ing classes at Bloomfield College, stu The motivation in this case is internal; it
son that so many students find it so diffi dents are shown how to verbalize their comes from a developed sense of com
cult to apply whatever they have suppos thinking by first articulating amain point. petence in thinking things through, from
edly learnedto new and unfamiliarsitu Once theyhave learnedtoexpress clear an awareness of principles, and from a
ations. Too often studentsare not chal ly a positionon a topic, they learntogive sense of responsibility.This is the kind
lenged to figureout how tousewhat they reasonsformaintainingit, alongwith evi of motivation thatis really importantand
alreadyknow. Thus they fail to transfer dence that supports it. After they have needs to be developed.
their learningto new situations.Our ap learned to formulatea simple argument, In thebeginning stages, it is particu
proach encourages studentsto articulate theyare readyto thinktheirway through larly importantfor teachers to concen
what they know and to break down as a more complicated one. trate on studentmotivation. Recently,
signed problems into smaller ones that The same process works with amul students in a tough remedialmathemat
they already understand. tiplicityof assignments.For example, if ics class made exceptional progress. In
-Again, many possibilities exist for an objective is to teachcritical thinking, explaining this achievement, the course
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in a very low range. Yet all of them made
Ta l e 1 impressive gains in their ability to rea
son quantitatively. It is remarkable how
some extremely weak students demon
Prts n PotetSTYre ofaRmdaC.g strate competence to learn and perform
at above-average levels within less than
four months. Most of these Bloomfield
students go on to complete college-level
math and science courses.
ls o optainadApedrihetc In the Bloomfield College Freshman
MA Core Program, nearly 50% of the incom
ing students manifest weaknesses that re
quire at least one semester of remedia
tion. In the lowest-level developmental
reading and writing classes, students be
gin with a task of questioning fairly sim
ple material. Their assignment is towrite
a response to a question. The following
example is taken from one such class:
202 PHIDELTA
KAPPAN
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In this passage the student has gener "RedefiningLiberalEducationThrough Skill De
alized from his reading of the entire nov velopment," Journal of Learning Skills, Winter
1983, pp. 4-15. Additional information may be ob
It helps to el; he has formed clear and precise ideas tained by writing William Sadler at Lock Haven
and supported them with evidence gath
have clearly set ered from his own reading. There are
University, Lock Haven, PA 17745.
5. A brief, spirited argument for this point was giv
objectives,so that clear indications of sound analytical en by Fred Keller in the Journal of Learning Skills,
Fall 1982, pp. 12-17. Skinner has made this point
thinking, effective communication,and
teachersand students acceptablewriting skill.
in numerous works; see B. F. Skinner,
Behavior (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts,
Verbal
have aworking At BloomfieldCollege diagnostic tools 1957) and TheTechnologyof Teaching (Appleton
were developed that make it possible to Century-Crofts,1968). An impressiverestatement
consensusaboutwhat assess the growth of a class as well as in of Jerome Bruner's views can be found in his au
tobiography,InSearchofMind (NewYork:Harper
their goals are. dividual progress. There are also estab & Row, 1983). Some of Piaget's key ideas are
lished stages or steps thatmust be passed presented briefly in Jean Piaget, The Child and Real
successfully (with grades of C or better) ity(NewYork: Penguin, 1976).For a fullerdescrip
tion and a critical discussion of Piaget's ideas about
in order for students to move to higher
learning, see JohnH. Flavell, TheDevelopmental
level courses. So the Freshman Core Pro Psychology of Jean Piaget (Princeton,N.J.: Van
gram produced an ongoing, objective Nostrand, 1963).
self according to his race and culture. verification of achievement and failure. 6. This approach has been used much more wide
He was also proud of his race and This evaluation process has made it ly than just in these two institutions. We have previ
wanted to share black culture with the ously described the approach within the context of
easier to construct developmental learn
students. its development in America inWilliam A. Sadler,
ing sequences, and it has provided Jr., and ArthurWhimbey, "TeachingCognitive
At the price of losing his job, he was teachers and students alike with consis Skills: An Objective for Higher Education," Nation
able to express himself with dignity and
tent motivation for completing tasks al Forum, Fall 1980, pp. 43-46.
he felt victorious.
and improving intellectual functioning. 7. Jack Lochhead, "An Anarchistic Approach to
Though we have no hard data to confirm Teaching Problem Solving," Journalof Learning
In the selection above, the student has Skills,Winter 1982, pp. 3-12.
formed her own concepts about dignity or deny it, teachers also feel that by us 8. A much fuller description of this method of
and courage and applied them to the sto ing this approach they are growing smart teaching question-raising can be found inMarcia
ry to explain it. In addition to a notice er along with their students. Heiman, "Learning to Learn: A Behavioral Ap
The winds of change have been blow proach to ImprovingThinking,"paperpresentedat
able gain in reasoning power, the writ the Harvard Conference on Thinking, Cambridge,
ing has improved considerably. Such im ing educators and the makers of public
Mass., 1984. Copies of this paper are available from
provement is typical.16 policy in a number of directions. We Marcia Heiman, c/o Learning to Learn, Boston Col
have been recommending that educators lege, ChestnutHill, MA 02167.
take a tack toward teaching cognitive 9. George HerbertMead, Mind, Self, and Society
skills, an approach supported by psycho (Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1962).
10. Ernest L. Boyer, "Reflecting on the Great De
xW
r STUDENTS have logical insight and growing experience
THEN bate of '83," Phi Delta Kappan, March 1984, pp.
demonstratedmastery of within schools anduniversities.We hope 525-30. Boyer also stressed the importance of mas
the basic steps in reasoning that the six principles we have discussed tery of language inHigh School (New York: Harper
here will help others move in this direc & Row, 1983).
and communicating, they
tion and carry learners of all ages to 11. One text that stresses this principle is Arthur
move to a higher-level course in which Whimbey andJackLochhead,ProblemSolvingand
the same operations are required even as higher educationaland intellectualdes Comprehension (Philadelphia:Franklin Institute
new ones are being taught. Thus, at the tinations. Press, 1982).
end of the series of courses - the last two 12. JeromeBruner stressedthe intuitivedimension
of learning in The Process of Education (Cam
being college-level general educationre bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1960).
quirements - Bloomfield College stu 1. GlendaGreenwald, "Venezuelan Ministry Ends, The importance of intuition to acquiring insight and
dents can construct an analytical discus IntelligenceProjectsContinue,"Hwnan Intelligence intellectualcompetencehas been discussed recent
sion of a difficult modem novel or social InternationalNewsletter, Spring 1984, p. 1; and ly by Howard Gardner in Frames of Mind (New
sciencemonograph. Rachel Peleg and Chaim Adler, "Compensatory York: Basic Books, 1983).
Education in Israel:Conceptions, Attitudes, and 13. A similar approach to learning in the labora
The following sample from an intro
Trends,"AmericanPsychologist,November 1977, tory has been developed at the University of
ductory paragraph typifies the level of pp. 945-58. Washington. See a series of three articles by Lil
their work. This student was asked to dis 2. William Maxwell, ed., Proceedings of the Sec lian C. McDermott, "Helping Minority Students
cuss a character change in Nick Carra ond InternationalInterdisciplinaryConference on Succeed in Science," Journal of College Science
way, the narrator of The Great Gatsby. Thinking,Held atHarvardUniversity(Philadelphia: Teaching, January, March, and May 1980.
Franklin InstitutePress, forthcoming). 14. Lawrence Kohlberg has made a similar point.
Here is how he began his essay:
3. Barry K. Beyer, "ImprovingThinking Skills: At the Harvard Conference on Thinking, he said
Defining theProblem,"Phi Delta Kappan,March that for people to operate on the highest level of
Q. Has Nick changed? 1984, pp. 486-90; and idem, "ImprovingThinking moral thinking - what he calls the "universal
A. Nick haschanged. When he first Skills: PracticalApproaches,"Phi Delta Kappan, ethical-principleorientation"- they need first to
introducedhimself to us, he seemed April 1984, pp. 556-60. be able to perform formal operational thinking.
verysnobbyandclosedminded.Grad 4. The National Commission's descriptionof the KohlbergDemonstration Workshop, HarvardCon
ually,hebecamelesssnobbish,andfi Bloomfield FreshmanCore Programwas present ference on Thinking, Cambridge,Mass., 22 Au
ed inCliffordAdelman, ed., Startingwith Students, gust 1984.
nally,madea gestureof friendshipand 15. ArthurWhimbey and JackLochhead,Develop
love.Also, Nick never seemedvery Vol. 1 (Washington,D.C.: National Instituteof
Education, 1983), pp. 30-31. For more complete ingMathematicalSkills (NewYork:McGraw-Hill,
perceptive.He saw lifeby its surface descriptions of the approach and its application to 1981).
andnotbeyond.He was simplyblind higher education, see William A. Sadler, Jr., "A 16. Readerswho wish to see a statisticalanalysis
toothers'feelingsandthemotivations Model forGeneral Education,"Journal of Learn of studentgalns froma similarkindof programare
behindtheiractions. ing Skills, Winter 1982, pp. 35-40; and idem, referred toHeiman, "LearningtoLearn... 1
NOVEMBER
1985 203
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