LETTERS IN HEAT AND NtASS TRANSFER Pergamon P r e s s , Inc.

Vol. i, pp. 147 - 158, 1974 P r i n t e d in the U n i t e d States of A m e r i c a

SOME PROBLEMS OF THE HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER THEORY.I.

A. V. Luikov
Heat and Mass Transfer Institute
Minsk, BSSR, USSR

(Communicated by A.V. Luikov and O.G. Iviartynenko)

ABSTRACT: The paper deals with the following urgent problems on the theory of heat and mass
transfer; heat transfer by conduction in the materials with memory; heat conduc-
tion in bodies with phase conversions when transfer coefficients and thermodynamic
properties vary spasmodically; heat and mass transfer in capillary-porous bodies
conformably to wick materials of heat pipes.

Nomenclature

g Temperature gradient
T Temperature
k(e) : Relaxation function of a heat flux
w Heat propagation velocity
q
a Thermal diffusivity (a = l/cp)
e Internal energy
e Internal energy constant
o
C Volumetric heat capacity (C = cp)
c Specific heat capacity
k(O) : Instantaneous thermal conductivity
c(O) : Instantaneous heat capacity
Position vector in the Cartesian space: x - coordinate
6 : Dirac-function or thermogradient coefficient 6(u)
H(u) : Heaviside single function
U Mass content (moisture content)
r Specific heat of phase conversion
Moisture diffusion coefficient
am :
P : Total pressure P = (Pl + P3)
Pl : Partial vapor pressure

P2 : Partial pressure of inert gas

c : Specific heat capacity at constant pressure
P

147
148 A.V. Luikov Vol. I, No. 2

k : Convective diffusion coefficient

P
V : Volume
v : Liquid or gas velocity
: Porosity
T, @ : Time
: Thermal conductivity
~(@) : Relaxation function of internal energy in equation (1.9)
a(@) : Relaxation function of internal energy in equation (1.13)
~(0) : Instantaneous thermal conductivity
~(T) : Coordinate of phase conversion surface
: Density
e : Phase conversion factor
: Potential of heat and mass transfer

Subscripts
1,2 : Separation zones of a body in Stefan's problems
[formulae (2.1) - (2.9)]
i(i = 0,1,2,3,) : Substance state in a capillary-porous body
(0-body skeleton, 1-vapor, 2-1iquid, 3-inert gas in a porous body)
i,j = 1,2,3 : indices of kinetic transfer coefficients (3.1)
f : Phase conversion surface
m : M a x i m u m value
e : Equivalent value
r : Relaxation value

First of all, some urgenl problems of the heat conduction theory will be considered.
For anisotropic m e d i a the thermal conductivity ~ is a tensor quantity. It is therefore
of interest to obtain a number of solutions to the heat conduction problems for anisotropic
solids. The thermal conductivity of some liquids is also a tensor quantity at sufficiently
high liquid velocities. In this case the thermal conductivity depends on a deformation
rate tensor (i).

The differential heat conduction equations for ~aterials with variable m e m o r y (2) are,
however, of greatest interest.

I. Heat Conduction of Materials with Memor~

In (3) the specific heat flux is determined by

P
~(T) = - 1 k(@) ~ (T - @)d8 (i.i)

0
where g = gradT is the temperature gradient. Thus, the specific heat flux does not depend
Vol. i, No. Z HEAT TRANSFER PROBLEMS 149

on a value of the temperature gradient at a given time moment. Moreover, relation (l.1)
is valid for isotropic materials If ~ does not depend on time 8, then designation of the
quantity

I = 1 k(0)d8 (1.2)

o
through I gives the classical Fourier heat conduction formula q = -I gradT where I is the
thermal conductivity in the equilibrium state. If one assumes

0
k(8) = ~ exp (- T ) (i.3)
r r
where 3 is the relaxation time (4,5), then the expression for the heat flux is obtained
r
with r e g a r d f o r a f i n i t e h e a t p r o p a g a t i o n v e l o c i t y

= -I gradT -Trq (1.4)

3 r is inversely proportional to the square of the finite velocity of heat propagation w

q
and is directly proportional to the thermal diffusivity a(3 r = a/w2).
q
If use is made of the linearized constitutive equation for the heat flux ~ and inter-
nal energy e (3)

q : -
( o
k(8)~ (3 - e)de :
So
k' (e) ~T (e)de (1.5)

e = e ° + cT - ~ 81(8) T 3(8) de (1.6)

0

where
d--~d ~T (e) = ~T (e) = +-'s,3- e)
(1.7)
C is the voltEaetric heat capacity of a solid, 8(8) is the relaxation function of internal
energy, then the following relations are obtained for time derivatives of ~ and ~:

q
= -k~0,g - I k'(e)~ (3 - e)de (1.8)
0

= cT + 8(8)T + ~ 8' (8)T(T - 8)d8 (1.9)

0
150 A.V. Luikov Vol. I, No. 2

There upon, if the conservation energy equation is used, then the following generalized
linear heat conduction equation is obtained:

c ~ 2T(I'~) + S(e) ~ T(~,T) 8' ~ T(X,T-8)

1 0
+ dO =

k(0)V2T(~,T) + k'(8)V2T(x,r-8)d8 + Q (x,T)

+ (i.i0)

where Q(x,T) is the external heat source. Equation (i.i0) differs from the differential
hyperbolic heat conduction equation by the presence of additional integral terms which
account for the relaxation functions of heat conduction and internal energy. Relations
(1.8) - (1.9) show that relaxation times of thermal stress and internal energy are diffe-
rent. In (6) for an isotropic medium use is made of the linearized constitutive equation
for the heat flux in the form:

f
~(T) = -I(0)VT(T) - % I' (8)VT(T-8)VT(T-8)d8 (i.ii)

which accounts for the temperature gradient-dependent heat flux at a given time moment. If
I'(8) = 0, then Fourier's classical heat conduction equation is obtained. At I(0) =0 the
relation similar to (i.i) is got. The quantity I(0) is referred to as the instantaneous
thermal conductivity.

Use of equation (1.6) for internal energy from the energy balance equation yields the
differential heat conduction equation with a finite velocity of heat propagation.

Replacement of Fourier's classical parabolic heat conduction equation by the hyperbolic

heat conduction one is predetermined by the value of the Veron number, Ve, equal to:

Ve = ewa a£ ~ (1.12)
q

where Wq is the heat propagation velocity (Wq = k(0)/c). Equation (I.i0) was solved for a
semi-space provided that the kernels of £~e integral relations a(8) and k(8) are the power
or exponential time functions 8. Integral relations in equation (i.i0) do not involve diffi-
culties to solve it since in these relations integration over time is made from 0 to ~ (7).
Temperature waves in the materials with memory are of special interest since their propagation
velocities and damping coefficients differ from those in the classical heat conduction theory.
Vol. I, No. Z HEAT TRANSFER PROBLEMS 151

2. Heat Conduction and Diffusion with Discontinuous

Transfer Coefficients

The problems on freezing of moist grounds and solidification of stagnant liquid (Ste-
fan's problem) are the simplest heat conduction problems with moving boundaries. In these
problems the surface of phase conversion, for example, the surface of crystallization
recesses deep into a body. Such problems were solved in (8,9). These problems may be re-
duced to those with immovable boundaries but involving the discontinuous functions for
analytical description of transfer coefficients and effective heat capacity. The simplest
one-dimensional Stefan problem (10) is considered to elucidate the method

~i 8 [ ST. i = I; 0<X4~(T)
Ci(Ti) = ~x hi(T) ~ x ] ; (2.1)
i = 2; ~(T)~X<L
at boundary conditions (2.2) - (2.5)

T l(x,0) = ~l(x)--~ Tf; T2(x,0) = ¢2(x)Z Tf (2.2)

TI(0,T) = fl(T) <Tf, T2(L,T) = f2(T)~Tf (2.3)

T 1 (~,T) = T2(~,T ) = Tf = const (2.4)

11(T) ~8x -
~I(T) a--XT1-r~T
~x
d~ -
(2.5)

The problem is reduced to that on heat conduction with immovable boundaries

Cef(T) ~ " = ~ x (T) ~ (2.6)

where

Cef (T) = c(T) + r~(T - Tf)

C(t) = CI(T); T < T f C(T) = C2(T) ; T>Tf (2.7)

I(T) = 11(T) ; T*Tf, I(T) = 12(T) ; T>Tf (2.8)

where ~ (T - Tf) is the Dirac function. Transition from equation (2.1) to (2.6) is made by
introducing the body skeleton Ief f by

Ieff(T) -- ~ C(T)dT + rH(T - Tf) (2.9)

T
o
where H(u) is the Heaviside single function
H(u) = 1 u >_ 0
H(u) = 0 u < 0 (2.10)

Hence, the thermal conductivity I(T) and effective enthalpy Ieff(T ) change spasmodically
152 A.V. Luikov Vol. I, No. Z

when the temperature achieved is equal to phase conversion (T = Tf). Integration of equation
(2.6) with respect to the coordinate x from (~ - A) to (~ + A) where A is infinitesimal
yields the relation

~+A T(~+A,r)

£im C(T) dx + r~(T - Tf) ~ d T = r~T (2.11)

h+0
~-A T(~-A,T)

which allows the problem to be solved to the end.

Integration of the right handside of equation (2.6) gives

£im
A+0 ~XX ICT)~x dx = r ~ (2.12)

according to condition (2.5). Thus, the heat conduction equation with a moving surface of
phase conversion is reduced to that with a heat source where the transfer coefficients and
heat source are described by the discontinuous functions

C(T) ~ = div I(T) VT - r6(T - Tf) 8T (2.13)

where
C(T) = C 1 (T)H(Tf - T) + C2(T)H(T - Tf)

I(T) = II(T)H(T f - T) + 12(T)H(T - Tf)

However, such problems may be described otherwise. The phase conversion surface is Monge's
surface Tf(x,y,z,T) which separates a medium into two regions, Transition from one region to
another is accompanied by discontinuity. Hugonio and Hadamard obtained the following condi-
tions of compatibility of the state of a medium separated by Monge's surface:
2
~Tf ~I 8f 8 Tf e2 8f 8f
~x. Hf 8x. ; ~--~-~.
3 x. 2 8x. 8x.
l l m 3 Hf m 3

2 £2 8 f2
~Tf ~i 8f ~8 ~ Hf 8~ (2.14)

where H2f = (8 f ~ x i) 2, wf is the propagation velocity of Monge's surface f equal to:

i=l

dn 8 f~
wf dr 8f~n (2.15)
Vol. i, No. Z HEAT TRANSFER PROBLEMS 153

E l and e 2 are constant parameters of first and second order discontinuity, respectively,
6 is Appel's symbol which means transition through Monge's surface. From relations (2.14)
and (2.15) we have

6V2Tf = e2 , ~ZT-~T = E2w~ (2.16)

with account for the rules of permutation of Appel's symbol

' ~-'-n 6 = (2.17)

from relation (2.16) we have:

v2Tf= ~1 =v~-f
B2T
(2.18)
Equation (2.18) is a wave telegraphy equation. The quantity wf is a continuous function of
coordinates and time at all space points, therefore, the operation 6 is reversible. Use of
relations (2.12) and (2.18) will be made. If a temperature change of the thermal conducti-
vity is neglected, it may be written:

~+~

g ira ~x x (T) dx = £im I 1 (T) B 2T

4+0 w~ ~ dx (2.19)
A+0 J

~-~
Then, instead of the differential parabolic-type heat conduction equation (2.13) we arrive
at
c~-~ = d i v (XVT) - X ~ ~--~ (2.20)

Though equation (2.20) is hyperbolic but it differs from equation (i.i0) by its physical
meaning.

Use of the discontinuous functions (Dirac-function, Heaviside single function) allows

new mathematical formulation of problems on heating of porous bodies with recess of a phase
conversion surface to be made. In this case use may be made of the ordinary differential
equations for heat and mass transfer with drying of moist capillary-porons bodies

T aV2T + er ~u
~--~ = C ~T (2.21)

~-'~ am2VZu +
~u am262V2T + ~~u (2.22)
where ¢, the phase conversion factor (0<¢<i), is described by the following discontinuous
functions:
e = H(u) - H(u - uf) (2.23)
154 A.V. Luikov Vol. I, No. Z

/ '(")~(,)-,(--..) .¢Cu):,(u)-,1~,(u-q~

1,(u)

m-- T

8
,j~j ww~/i/Jl J1111//, wt
o ut u 0 8 ~J

FIG. 1

Dependence of the phase conversion factor e : a - on mass content u ; b - experimental

curve e(u) for quartz sand and its approximation by the discontinuous function. Moisture
content u,kg/kg (u I S uf).

I
m
[
/
4m
l

/ ! i~''~:'~X
m u.~
0

FIG. 2

Dependence of the thermogradient coefficient 6 on moisture content u for a colloidal capil-

lary-porous body (clay T = 35°C) and approximation of the curve ~(u) by the discontinuous
function.
Vol. i, No. Z HEAT TRANSFER PROBLEMS 155

uf is the moisture content corresponding to an evaporation surface (Fig. la). If £ is a

discontinuous function of moisture content, then in some cases it may be given as (Fig. ib)

£ = H(u) - (i - e0)H(u - uf) (2.24)

where e0 is the value of e with moisture content u ~ u f .

Analytical solution of differential equations (2.21) - (2.22) involves certain difficul-

ties at a discontinuous value of e described by formula (2.23). However, this problem may
be solved by the numerical methods to the end. The problem on drying of some capillary-
porous bodies may be simplified assuming the phase conversion factor to be dependent of
coordinates and time. For example, for a one-dimensional problem it is assumed

e(X,T) = H(X) - H(X - bE) (2.25)

where b is the recess velocity of the evaporation surface (b = d~/dT) which is constant for
some materials (ii). The thermogradient coefficient ~ depends on moisture content. This
dependence ~(u) is of a sinusoidal nature. To a first approximation it may be presented as
(Fig. 2)

~(u)
l ~ m Um lu [H(u) - H(U - U m ~ + (2urn - u) [ H(u - u m ) - H(u - 2urn)l}

(2.26)
Here, it should be noted that the relative thermogradient coefficent 6/6m of nu~nerous mate-
rials does not depend on a temperature. The maximum value of 6 and maximum heat content
m
u m (moisture content of swelling) are constants in formula (2.26).

In the theory of heat conduction and heat and mass transfer the solution of differen-
tial transfer equations is therefore urgent when transport and thermodynamic properties of
materials vary spasmodically, i.e. are described by discontinuous functions. Such descrip-
tion more correctly reflects a physical transfer mechanism and does not require the empiri-
cal formulae to be found for transfer coefficients and thermodynamic properties depending
on temperature and mass content.

3. Heat and Mass Transfer in Capillar~-Porous Bodies

Recently the problems on heat and mass transfer in capillary-porous bodies have
received much attention because of their use as wicks in heat pipes. If the gradients of
concentration V u ( V u - V $ i ) , temperature V T ( V T - V$2) and totalpressure (pressure of vapor
and inert gas) V p ( V p - V$~) are taken as thermodynamic moving forces to transfer a heat
agent (liquid and vapor), then in some assumptions (transfer coefficient and thermodynamic
properties are constant) and with no account for convective heat transfer the system of the
differential transfer equations is of the form:
156 ,%. V. L u i k o v Vol. 1, No. 2

• Ki4J V2$j , i,j = 1,2,3 (3.1)

j=l
where the kinetic coefficients K.. are found in terms of the heat and mass transfer coeffi-
13
cients, and thermodynamic properties. Specific mass content of vapor u I and inert gas u 3
of some capillary-porous bodies is negligibly small, as compared to specific mass content
of liquid u2, i.e. mass content of a liquid is equal to total mass content u
3

u2~L u i = u,
i=l
In this case the system of three differential transfer equations (3.1) may be reduced to
that of two equations by eliminating the quantity V2~3 by the relation for a vapor source

I12 . .I21. .-divJl kp V2P (3.2)

since for filtrational vapor flow in a porous body differential vapor transfer may be ne-
glected

amlPo(VU + 61VT) << kp VT.

Relation (3.2) shows that total pressure gradient arises as a result of intensive evapora-
tion and presence of drag to filtrational flow of vapor and gas through a capillary-porous
body. The system of the differential heat and mass transfer equations with regard for
convective heat transfer is thus of the form:

~T%T = KII V2T + ~ 2 v2u - ~ (Cpi/C0i/c0°)JiVT+ (3.3)

~u~T = K21 V2T + K22 V2u (3.4)

where the coefficients K.. (i,j=l,2) are determined in terms of the transfer coefficients (12).
13

If an assumption is made that the vapor pressure inside a body is a single-valued tem-
perature function Pl = f(T), then when the gradient of the partial pressure of an inert gas
inside body capillaries (Vp3 << Vpl) is negligible and ~ P ~ T does not depend on the coordi-
nates, equations (3.3) - (3.4) are simplified and reduced to:

~-T = aeV2T + Y (VT)2 (3.5)

(3.6)
~~u
T = am2 V2u + am2 ~e V2T
where a and are the coefficients equivalent to a and 6 and equal to:
e e
Vol. i, No. Z HEAT TRANSFER PROBLEMS 157

rk
= a + P (~P
~), 6 e = ~2 + P (~~P) , (3.7)
ae CPo Qoam2
y is the convective transfer coefficient:

Cplkp ~) (3 .S)

y = Cp °

convective heat transfer being neglected. Once convective heat transfer (y=0) is neglected,
equation (3.5) is transformed into Fourier's classical heat conduction equation. Solutions
of (3.5) - (3.6) are well known. The transfer coefficients (Y,am2,a,62,am2) in the above
equations should be determined experimentally since these depend on a structure of a porous
body. The wall temperature of capillaries was assumed to be equal to the temperature of
liquid and vapor in a capillary. Such an assumption is valid at small transfer rates. If
the heat transfer rate is high, then this assumption will be wrong. Moreover, the heat
agent velocity will vary over a capillary cross-section. In this case the mean temperature
and velocity of a heat agent are introduced. In such a model it is advisable to separately
describe heat and mass transfer of liquid and vapor by introducing structural-mechanical
properties, the simplest of which is porosity H. Any quantity ~, mean over the volume V 3 of
pores filled with liquid is designated through ~. The mean temperature T and mean linear
+
liquid velocity v will then be equal, respectively, to:

1
= i-~ ~o = ~ ÷2' v2 = ~2/P2 ~ (3.9i
In case of liquid motion inside a porous body (liquid evaporates only on the body surface)
we have:

c2P2 ~ + CoPo(l -~) ~ + c2P 2

= div I12~ + 1° (i - ~)gradT I + div q* (3.10)

+
where the heat flux vector q* is determined by the relation (13):

= c2P 2 I v 2T2 - ~v2T 21 + (I 2 - I0) 1 I T • ~i dA (3.11)

A.
l
Integration occurs along the surface A. of a liquid being in contact with the walls of body
l
capillaries, +I
n is the unit normal to the surface A confining the volume V. From equation
(3.10) it follows that unlike the Fourier-Kirchhoff equation heat is transported not only
by conduction (expression in braces) but also by contact transfer between a body skeleton
and liquid (integral term in formula (3.11) and by "turbulent" transfer (expression in
square brackets in formula (3.11)).

Thus, additional heat transfer due to a complex mechanism of liquid motion exists in
a capillary-porous body. The same situation takes place in the filtrational liquid flow
 158 A.V. Luikov Vol. 1, No. Z

inside a porous body. Apart the external and hydrostatic pressure forces in liquid flow
inside a porous body, the additional force emerges, at which liquid flow effects the po-
rous structure. The value of this force f calculated per unit volume is equal to (13):
g

g = V - p~ ° gtaA = R v ' (3.12)

A.
1
where R is the drag coefficient, which is the function of a liquid velocity locally averaged
over the volum~V 3. The porous body is assumed to be an unoriented porous structure. The
differential equation of filtrational liquid transfer will then be of the form:

T
Vp - ~iv (v~) + ~ = 0 (3.13)

Equation (3.13) differs from the ordinary differential Darcy filtration equation by the
additional term ~ . Poisseuille's formula for laminar liquid flow in capillaries is obtained
as a specific case (R = 0) from this equation.

References
i. A.V. Luikov and V.L. Kolpashchikov, Journal of Engineering Physics, 2 5 (1973).

2. W.A. Day, The Thermodynamics of Simple Materials With Fadin ~ Memory, Springer-Verlag,
Berlin (1972).

3. M.E. Curtin and A.C. Pipkin, Arch. Rational Mech. Anal., 31, 113 (1968).

4. J.C. Maxwell, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (London), 157, 49-88 (1866).

5. C. Cattaneo, Saminario Matematico e fisico dell 'Universito de Modena, 3,3 (1948).

6. J.W. Munzioto, Quarterly Appl. Mat., 187 (1971).

7. F.R. Norwood, Trans. ASME, J. Appl. Mech., No. 3 (1972).

8. G. Grinberg, J. Appl. Mat. i Mech., 31, 193 (1967).

9. A. Datzeff, Sur le probleme de la propagation de la chaleur d'.ns des corps solids,

Gautmer-Villars Editeur, Paris (1963).

10. C. Bonacino, G. Comini, A. Fasano and M. Primicerio, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 16,
No. i0, 1825 (1973).

ii. A.V. Luikov, Drain @ Theory, Energiya, Moscow (1968).

12. A.V. Luikov, Journal of Engineering Physics, 26, 18 (1974).

13. J.C. Slattery, Momentum, Ener~ and Mass Transfer in Continua, McGraw-Hill, New York (1972)