Professional Documents
Culture Documents
"
Useful drugs and cancer causing chemicals in
Kenya edical and toxic plants . ~
Inaugural Lecture
Unive••sity 01 Nairobi
Education ture Theatre n
zznd November 1.977
": ,p
.•
USEFUL DRUGS AND CANCER
CAUSING CHEMICALS IN
I(ENYA MEDICINAL AND TOXIC·
PLANTS '.
NAIROBI Well known in Veterinary and Medical circles particularly for his
research into liver and kidney cancer.
J4'OR USE J1=N--THEI Professor Mugera is married to a Nurse Tutor with two sons and two
LIBRARY ONLY I daughters. When not teaching, carrying out research or writing he is
often travelling abroad to attend veterinary and scientific conferences .
• n..rn.1l:;Q<;:TTY OF NAIROBI
Professor Gerald M. Mugera
USEFUL DRUGS AND CANCER CAUSING CHEMICALS IN
KENYA MEDICINAL AND TOXIC PLANTS
By
G.M. Mugera, Dip. Vet. Med., u.s«, Ph.D.
Professor of Veterinary Pathology
5
is used for extraction isolation and fractionation. The plant extracts tests, ovaries and skin germinal layer. The drug is currently on human
are tests against animal tumours, Bacterial infections using both Gram clinical trial at the National Cancer Institute with leukemia, solid
positive and gram negative organisms, parasites and the physiological carcinoma and sarcomas.
effect and toxic effect on the animal body. The National Institute of
Health at Washington U.S.A. in their National Cancer Institute has
(b) Thallcarpine
also been collecting material from plants in Kenya and have been
testing the plant extract for their antitumour activities in animal
Thalicarpine is a dimeric isoquinaline alkaloid of Thalictrum spp.
tumour system.
of the family Ranunculaceae. It has been isolated from Thalictrum
dyscarpurm. Thalictrum Minus and Thalictrum rhynchocarpum. Thalic-
1. Anticancer Drugs
trum rhynchocarpum (Mumori Kikuyu) is a glabrous perenial herb
bearing much divided leaves with orbicular segments. It is common
(a) Indicine-Nvoxide
at the forest edges in Mount Kenya especially Kangaita area of
Kirinyaga District and Kamuruana Hill. Ground leaves and roots
This is a pyrrolizidine alkaloid isolated from plants of Heliotro-
have been used as a purgative and as homicidal poison. Thalicarpine
pium species. These plants are perenial herbs with large leaves and
is active against the following experimental tumours, the walker 256
long spikes of white flowers. They are common in Kenya Highlands
carcinosarcoma and mouse leukemia L-12l0. Thalicarpine inhibit the
especially on the Forest edge. Two species of Heliotropium are used
incorporation of thymidine into DNA and uridine into RNA. It also
in traditional medicine in East Africa. The juice of the leaves of the
inhibits the early steps nuclearide triphosphate biosynthesis. This
Heliotropium Scotbeae pendles (Mugwata Ngondu) which grow in great
inhibition of nucleic acids thereby prevent cell growth. Thalicarpine
abundance in Nyambeni Hills in Meru District and Kangaita Forest in
is at third stage of clinical test at National Cancer Institute in
Kirinyaga District is used by the tribes around Mt. Kenya for treatment
of wounds, local inflamation and insect bites. The leaves are also boiled Washington.
in water and the mixture taken for treatment of gonorrhoea. In Tanza-
nia Heliotropium supium/martelli or Heliotropium Indicum boiled Vinca Alkaloids
leaves. is used as a Febrifuge, especially in Febrile attacks to which
women are subject after childbirth. It is also used as a colic remedy for These are alkaloids isolated from Vinca rosea or catharanthus
children and as expect rant, the fresh juices of the two species in Tanza- roseus. This is a much branched herb up to 1m. tall with white or
nia is applied to sore eyes, gums, boils, sores caused by biting insects rose coloured flowers. The plant is a native of Madagascar and is com-
and for cure of snake bites. The Heliotropium species mixed with other monly cultivated as an ornamental plant throughout the tropics.
plants ground and suspended in water has been used for treatment of It is commonly seen growing in bushes in dry areas like Machakos
East Coast Fever in cattle as drench after the animal swollen lymph District. Two alkaloids from this plants vinblastine and vincristine
nodes have been branded with a hot iron bar by the Kikuyu tribe around are established in cancer chemotherapy as of clinical value. The two
Mt. Kenya Indicine-Nvoxide possess significant antitumour activities alkaloids are active in several animal tumour system such as Murine
against following experimental tumour lines. Mouse leukemia 1210, Pl534 and P388 leukemia. In human these alkaloids are used for
P388 lymphocytic Ieukem.a. Melanosarcoma B-16 and walk 256 treatment of lymphomas, especially Hodgkin's disease, children acute
carcinosarcoma. leukemia choriocarcinomas and embryonal or mesenchymal carcinoma
such as Wilm's tumour, neuroblastoma, rhabdomysarcoma and car-
The mechanism of action is by inhibition of mitotic division. cinoma of the testis. Responses have also been obtained with some
The drug acts on tissues which are rapidly dividing as cancer cells. frequency in oat cell carcinoma of the lungs breast carcinoma and
bone narrow, thymus, lymphocytes in the lymph nodes and spleen, some central nervous system neoplasms.
6 7
Maytansine: Lapachol
Maytansine is a novel ansa marcolide isolated from plants of 3 (methyl-2 butenyl)-2-hydroxy-14 naphthoquinone and its deriva-
celastraceae family. May terns seregalensis (Mwenyeke Embu) May tenus tive dichloroallyl lawsome are quinones isolated from plants of the
buchananii (Mdiziadzia Digo) Maytenus Mossambicensis (Muthuthi family bignoniceae. Lapachol occurs in Lawsonia inermis which is
Kikuyu) Extracts from these plants have been used in traditional grown in Coast Province of Kenya as medicinal plant and used for
medicine in humane for treatment of venereal diseases, rheumatic various treatment in the Coast. Lapachol has a significant antitumour
pains and swellings of various kinds. Maytansine is active against activities against Walker 256 carcinosarcoma. The Dichloroallyl law-
experiment animal tumours including sarcoma 180, Lewis Lung car- sone is a considerably more patent antitumour agent to walker
cinbma, B16 melanoma and Walker 256 carcino-carcinoma. It inhibit tumour than lapachol.
the incorporation of thymidine into DNA in the cells and induces
mitotic arrest at metaphase stage. Maytansine is currently undergoing Conclusion
Clinical trials in human at National Cancer institute in Washington.
Recent developments in the field of anticancer drugs isolated
Bruceatin from plants are yielding chemical compounds active against many
different experimental tumour system. These compounds provided a
Bruceatin is Quassinoid isolated from Brucea antidysenterica basis from which attempts can be made to develop practical drugs.
(Mukuriahungu, or Murianugu - Kikuyu). This iis a tall tree and its Since there is merit in the concept of chemotherapy of cancer, princi-
powdered roots and leaves have been used by the Kikuyu for relieve ples from plants should play on increasingly important role in this
of abdominal pain. In Ethiopia the juice from the leaves has been field as more become available.
used for treatment of warts. Bruceatin 'is active against animal
experimental tumours including P388 leukemia, LI210 leukemia" Lewis (2) Antimicrobial Drugs
lung carceinoma B16 melanoma and Walker 256 carcinosarcoma. The
mechanism of antitumour action of Bruceatin is through an effect on Over the last thirty years an intensive effort has been made to
protein synthesis. uncover new clinically useful, antibiotics. This search has resulted
in the preparation in more or less homogeneous form of more than
one thousand antibiotics. However, of this large number only about
Vennolepin and Vernomenin II
a dozen or so have found significant clinical use. For a number of
reasons, the search for new antibiotics has been mostly intensive
These are elemenolide dilactones isolated from vernonia hymeno-
among the lower plants especially streptomycetes and a few fungi.
lepis (Mucatha Kikuyu). The two chemicals have tumour-inhibitory
Certain disease entities however, remain serious problem and some of
activity against Walker 256 carcinosarcoma in rat.
the major antibiotics have considerable drawbacks in terms of limited
antimicrobial spectrum or serious side effect.
Gnidin, Gnitrin, Gnidicin
These factors call for a continuous search for a new antimicrobial
agents and especially those that can be safe and effective against clini-
These are diterpenoid isolated from Gnidia lamphratha and cal infections caused by fungi, viruses, mycobacteria and gram-negative
Gnidia kraussiana which are perenial herbs up to 50 cm. high with a
organisms.
herbaceous stem found commonly in Machakos district and known to
be very poisonous to livestock. These diterpenoid have a high It is rational therefore to suppose that clinically and commercially
activity against P388 leukemia in mice. significant new antimicrobial agents with activities supplemental to
8
and structures widely different from those in current use might be District. Roots and leaves from the plant has been used for treatment
found in sources which have hitherto not as thoroughly explored as of various diseases. An organic acid isolated from the plant has shown
traditional microorganisms. A new area that might spring to promi- activities against Pseudomonas auroginosa, Bacillus subtilis, Escheri-
nence in future as a source of these agents is higher plants. Alkaloids chia coli. Staphylococci aureus, Streptococci pyogenes and Candida
and organic acids from plantswhich have been reputed to have medici- albicans.
nal values have been extracted and have been screened against gram-
positive and gram-negative bacteria and fungus in vitro using agar 1 Withania somnijera (Mwanzo-Kamba). A small shrub growing in
dry areas of Eastern Province and Masai land. The plant is used for
dilution-streak. The criteria of useful activity are inhibition of one 1 treatment of diarrhoea. An alkaloid isolated the plant leaves has shown
several successive series of tests. The extracts have been tested the activities against Staphylococci aureus and Streptococci pyogenes.
or more of the test organisms and reproducibility of the activities in
following organisms Pseudomonas aureginosa, Bacillus subtilis, Conclusion
Escherichia coli. Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes arid
Candida albicans, Pure extracts from Heliotropium Scotteae have While no compound from higher plant has come into significant
shown activities against Pseudomonas aureginosa, Bacillus subtilis, clinical use as antibiotic, this study has indicated availability of large
Staphylococo, aureus, Streptococci pyogenes and CAndida albicans. range of extractable antimicrobial agents with high potentiality and
The active principles are Indicine-Nsoxide or an organic adds. encourages the belief that clinically active agents may be found and
Dracaena usambarensis (Mronje Digo), This is a well branched tree earn a significant place in human and Veterinary therapy.
to 30 ft high with black and' rugged bark. It is very common in Coast
Province. Roots have been used for treatment of gonorrhoea. The 3. Anti-Theileria activities.
extract from this plant have shown activities against Staphylcocci
aureus Pseudomonas aureginosa, Bacillus stubulis, Escherichia coli. East Coast Fever (E.C.F.) is the most important tick-bone disease
The active principles in Dracaena are organic acids, Aeriia Persica. of cattle in Eastern and Central Africa. There is no drug for treatment
This is a wooly erect perenial herb which grow in dry parts of of the disease and no vaccine. Alkaloids isolated from Maytenus spp:,
Southern Meru District, and Narok. The flowers ate ground' into a Heliotropium scottle, Thalictrum rhynchocarpum. Aerva persica and
paste with water and is given to cattle as a remedy for East Coast Spirostachys venenifera have demonstrated anti-Theileria activities.
Fever. An alkaloid extracted from the flower of the plant has shown These alkaloids induces rapid necrosis of lymphocytes in Thymus.
activities against Staphylococci aureus, Streptococci pyogenes and lymph nodes. Spleen and lymphocyte precussor in the bone marrow
Candida albican. also causing destruction of Theileria parva in lymphocytes.
Antispasmodic Drugs Plants, including those used as food and medicine by man and
animals, are potential sources of carcinogenic chemicals.
These drugs depresses the function of the parasypathetic division
of the automic nervous system and because they relieve spasms of Cycads:
smooth muscle tubes, such as the gastrointestinal tract bronchi,
ureters and bile ducts, they are commonly known as antispasmodic These are palm-like plants which are distributed in nine genera.
drugs. The group of these drugs have been isolated from a number of The two genera found in coastal region of East Africa (Kenya, Tan-
plants of solanaceae family. In Kenya the plant known as Datura zania and Malagasy) are cycas and Encephalartos, In Kilifi and Lamu
Stramonium which is a bushy annual herb attaining a height of about districts of Kenya the stem and seeds of cycas thouorsii or cycas cir-
1.5 m. which grows on the road side and non-cultivated land. The cinalis (swahili mtapo or mtapuu) and Encephalartos hildebrandtii
plant contain antispasmodic alkaloids either as hyoscyamine or hyo- (swahili mtapo mwitu or mtapu mwltu) provide a source edible starch.
scine is the predominant alkaloid. The starch prepared from these plants is used as an emergency starch
supply for families during famine or wherever there is shortage of
Drugs for treatment of Asma food. There are several stages of preparation of these starches to re-
move the toxic factor. The starch before it is detoxicated is toxic to
Ephedrine. This is used for the treatment of asma and hay fever to man and livestock (Mugera +Nderito 1967) Mugera and Nderito
constrict the capillaries in the nose in the treatment of colds and sus- (1968) induced tumours in the liver, kidneys and lungs of rats after
tain. the blood pressure in spinal anaethesia and other forms of hypo- chronic ingestion of starchy kernel prepared from Encephalartos hild-
tension such as circulatory collapse, shock and haemorrhages. The ebrandtii.
seeds of Sida Cordifolia which is an erect woody shrubs very common The toxic and carcinogenic factors in these plant is cycasin,
as weed in Machakos District contain. alkaloid ephedrine. methylazoxy B-D glucoside which is hydrolysed in the animal intestine
1') 11
to an aglycone methylazoxymethanal CH3. NO: N CH20H. Methyla- symptoms occur after the plant has been consumed for two or more
zoxmethanal is the proscimate carcinogenic chemical liberated from months. The major toxic manifestation following ingestion by cattle
the cycasin by the action of the intestinal bacterial B-glucosdase in the is chronic enzootic haematuria. Braken Fern poisoning has been
intestinal tract. Methylazoxymethanal is carcinogenic by both the oral associated with the tumour of urinary bladder in Kenya cattle in
and the intraperitoneal routes. while cycasin is active only by the oral Limuru area and other areas next to the Forest. (Mugera + Nderito
route. (1968). Feeding studies has demonstrated that Bracken Fern induce
tumours in urinary bladder of cows. (Evans + Mason 1965; Price and
PLANTS CONTAINING PYRROLIZIDINE ALKALOIDS Pamukeu). Feeding experiments in rats has shown that all parts of
the bracken Fern are carcinogenic (Hirano, Fushimi, and Mori 1973)
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids occur in several genera of plants like carcinogenic component of Bracken Fern is shikimic acid (Evan and
senecio, crotalaria and Heliotropium. Many of these alkaloids are of Osman 1974).
considerable Veterinary and Medical interest and economic importance.
because of their toxic action on grazing animals, probably on human Conclusion:
population as they find their way to the food by contamination of
cereals and their use as herbal medicine. The toxic action of It is important in Kenya, as in every other country, to screen
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids takes the form of chronic liver damage. plants that are used as traditional remedies. in every area of the country.
Priority should be given to plant species which belong to the genera
In East Africa senecio moorei (Kikuyu Muguruka) contain a known. to contain pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Such hepatotoxic plants are
toxic and carcinogenic alkaloid Ruwenine. The plant causes deaths to a hazard to health not only of the people who ingest them directly
livestock in many part of East Africa. Kamau and Mugera 1975 but if ingested by lactating Females their milk will be toxic. The
induced tumours of the liver in rats after prolonged feeding with drled milk of lactacting cattle which has ingested the plant is also toxic.
young shoots of senecio moorei. In Kenya cynoglossum geometricum This is of great practical importance as the very young for whom
(Kikuyu Muramata) and Heliotropium scottie (Kikuyu Mugwatangondu milk is the principal constituent of diet, are many times more suscep-
and Heliotropium indicum are used in herbal medicine and several tible than the adults to the toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids.
species of crotalaria are used in Tanzania and Ethiopia for herbal
medicine. Gynoglossum and Heliotropium species contain indi- The public should be educated about the danger of these plants
cine-N-oxide. Mugera and Ward (1976) have induced tumour of the in their farms as they cause great losses of livestock and are dangerous
liver to rats after several injection with indicine-Neoxide. Crotala- to humane life. It is likely that more than realized, some unexplained
ria Spp. contain a pyrrolizidine alkaloid termed monocrotine. incidences of cancers of different organs in man and animals may be
Schoental and Head (1955) induced hepatoma in rats after treatment due to the ingestion, at some previous occasions, of insiduously acting
toxic or medicinal plants.
with monocrotine. The work of Schoental (1968); Schoental + Coady
1969; Schoental, Flowlerand Coady 1970, Kayanel Heath 1969 and
REFERENCES:
Schoental and Caranaugh 1972 has demonstrated that the pyrrolizidine
alkaloids can induce acute and chronic disease of the liver and tumours
Allen L.M., and Creaven P.I .. Inhibition of Macromolecular biosyn-
of the liver, lungs and certain other organs even with a single dose.
thesis in cultured L 1210 mouse leukemia cells by thalicarpiae
(NSC 68075).
BRACKEN FERN
Allen L.M.. and Creaven P.I. Binding of a new antitumor agent,
Bracken Fern is widely distributed in East African highlands, thalicarpine, to DNA 1. Pharm. Sci. 63: 474-475 1974.
Ingestion of the plant produces accumulative type of poisoning and Block J.B., Serpick AA, Miller W. et al. Early clinical studies with
1.
14
tenus species. Rev. Inst, Antibiot Univ. Ped. pernambuco, Recife
lapachol (NSC-11905). Cancer Chemother Rep. Part 2, Vol. 4 (4):
9: 17 (1971) via Chern. Abs 75: 95370.
27-28 1974.
Hahn. RA. Nelson, J.W .. Tye, A. et al. (1966): Pharmacological
Chapra R.N. et al. 1942. Alkaloids of Rauwblfia serpentina: A com-
activity of thalicarpine. J. Pharm. Sci, 55: 466-469.
parative studies of their pharmacological action and their role in
experimental Hypertension. J. Indian Med. Res. 30:319. Johnson, I.S .. Wright, H.F. and Svoboda, G.H. (1959;): Experimental
Chemical Examination of Gloriosa superb a Linn. By AY. Subbarat- basis for clinical evalution of antitumor principles derived from
nam. Bulletin of the Nat. Sc. of India No.4 p. 27-31. Vinca rosea Linn. (Abstr.) J. Lab. cu« Med. 54: 830.
Creaven P.J., Cohen M.H., Selawry O.S .. et al. Initial clinical trial of Johnson, I.S., Armstrong, J.G., Gorman, M., et al. (1963): The vinca
thalicarpine, an antineoplastic plant alkaloid of novel. structure. alkaloids: a new class of oncolytic agents Cancer Res. 23:
(Abstr). In Proceedings of the 9th International Congress of 1390-1427.
Chemotheraphy, London. 1975. IC Kamau, J.A. and Mugera, G.M. (1975): Induction of liver tumours in
Creaven PJ., Allen L.H., and Willsams CP, Clinical
Clinical Pharmacology of thalicarpine, a new antineoplastic plant
alkaloid. (Abstr). In Proceeding of the 6th International Congress
-
Z
<
11'I
rats following feeding with Senecio moorei for a long period.
Bull. A.B. and Production. Vol. XXIII: 3:249.
Kohls, M.M., Draper, M.P., Keller, F., et al. (1954): The isolation of
of Pharmacology, Helsinki. Finland, July 20-26. 1975. ;U reserpine from Rauwolfia canescens, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 76: 1381.
en
Creasey M.A., Vinca alkaloids and colchicine. In antineoplastic and -
-I
Kupchan, S.M., Chakravarti, K. and Yokoyama, N. (1963): Thalicar-
Immunosuppressive Agents (Sartorelli AC., and Johns D.G ..
-< pine, a new hypotensive alkaloid from thalictrum
J. Pharm, Sci, 52: 985-988.
dasycarpum.
.. ...,....-
eds). New York. Springer-Verlag, 1975, Vol. 2. pp 670-694.
Creasey W.A, Scott AI., Wei C-C, et al. Pharmacological studies with
o Kupchan, S.M., Hemingway, RJ., Werner, D., et al (1968: Tumor
•••••
vinblastine in the dog. Cancel' Res 35: 1116-1120, 1975. z inhibitors. Vernolepin, a novel elemanolide dilactone tumor
Courts W.E., The alkaloids of Rauwolfia mombasiana Stapf. Can J. >- inhibitor from Vernonia hymenolepis. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 90: 3596.
Kupchan S.M., Hemingway RJ., Werner D., et al. Tumor inhibitors.
Pharm. s«.
1:83-84, 1966. ::u
Driscoll J.S., Hazard G.F., J.R. Wood H.B., J.R. et al Structure- o XLVI. Vernolepin, a novel sesquiterpene dilactone tumor inhibitor
m from Vernonia hymenolepis A. Rich. J. Org Chern 34: 3903-
antitumor activity relationships among quinone derivatives. Cancer
- 3907, 1969\
Chemother. Rep Part 2. Vol. 4 (2): 1-362 1974. r
m-
Evans J.A, and Mason J. Carcinogenic activity of bracken. Nature Kupchan S.M., Recent advances in the chemistry of tumor inhibitors
of plant origin. Trans NY Acad Sci. 32: 85-106, 1970.
180; 913-914, 1965. ':1
Evans I.A, and Osman M.A, Carcinogenicity of bracken and shiki- Kupchan S.M., Britton RW., Ziegler M.F., et al. Bruceantin a new
mic acid. Nature 250: 348-349, 1974. ::u potent antileukemic simaroubolide from Bruccea antidysenterica.
Farnsworth, N.R. et al. 1968. Biological and Phytochemical evaluation -< J. Org, Chem, 38: 178-179, 1973.
of plants n. Test results from additional two hundred accessions. Kupchan S.M., Komoda y, Branfman AR, et aI. Novel maytansinoids.
Structural inter-relations and requirements for antileukemic activity.
Lloydia 31: 237.
J. Am. Chem. Soc. 96: 3706-3708, 1974.
Gaind K.N., and Budhiraja R.D., 1967. Antibacterial and anthelmintic
activity of withania coagulcens Indian J. Pharm, 29: 185. Kupchan S.M., Briton R.A, Lacadie J.A., et al. The isolation and
Gharbo S.A, et al. 1973. Alkaloids of Thalictrum XN. Isolation of structural elucidation of bruceantin and bruceantinol, new potent
alkaloids having antimicrobial activity from Thalictrum polygam- antileukemic quassionoids from Brucea antidysenterica, J. Org.
Chem. 40: 648-654, 1975.
urn. Lloydia 36: 349.
Goncalves de Lima, O. et al. 1971. Antimicrobial and antitumoral Kupchan S.M., Sweeny J.G., Baxter R.L., et al. Letter: Gnididin,
activity of maytenin isolated from the cortical root zone of may- gniditrin and gnidicin, novel potent antileukemic diterpenoid
17
16
esters from Gnidia lamprantha. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 97: 672-673, Economic Botany, 13: 281.
1975. Nishida, K., Kobayashi, A, and Nagahama, T. (1955): Cycasin, a
Laqueur G.L., Mickelsen 0., Whiting M., et al, Carcinogenic proper- toxic glycoside of Cycas revoluta. I: Isolation and structure of
ties of nuts from Cycas circinalis L. indigenous to Guam. 1. Natl cycasia. Bull. Agric, Chem. Soc. 19: 77-84.
Cancer lnst, 31: 919-951, 1963 Noble, R.L., Beer, C.T. and Cutts, J.H. (1959): Further biological
Liao L-L, Kupchan S.M., and Horwitz S.B. Mode of action of the activities of vincaleukoblastinean alkoloid isolated for Vinca
antitumor compound bruceantin. an inhibitor of protein synthesis. rosea (L). Biochem Pharmacol, 1: 347-348.
Mol Pharmacol 12: 167-176, 1976. Pamukeu, AM .. (1957): Tumors of the urinary bladder in cattle and
Malcolm, J.A. + E.A. Sofowora 1969. Antimicrobial activities of water buffalo affected with enzootic bovine hematuria. Zentralbl
selected Nigerian Folk remedies and their constituent plants Veterinaermed (A) 4: 185-197.
Lloydia 32: 512. Pamukeu, AM., Gokscy, S.T. and Price, I.M. (1967): Urinary bladder
Mattocks, AR, Schoental R., Crowley, H'C. and Culvenor, C.C.I., neoplasms induced by feeding Bracken fern (Pteris aquilina) to
Indicine: Major alkaloid of Heliotropium indicium. 1. Chem. Soc. cows. Cancer Res. 27: 917-924.
1961. pgs. 5400-5403. Schoental, R., Fowler. M.E -. and Coady, A. (19.70): Islet cell tumors
Matsumoto R., and Strong F.M., Occurrence of methylazoxymethanol of the pancreas found in rats given pyrrolizid.ne alkaloids from
in Cycas circinalis, Arch Biochem. Biophys. 101: 299-310, 1963. Amsinckia intermedia Fisch and Mey and from Heliotropium
Mitscher, L.A et aJ. (1972). Antimicrobial agents from higher plants. supinum L. Cancer Res. 30: 2127-2131·
I Introduction, rationale and methodology. Lloydia, 35: 157. Schoental, R. and Cavanaugh J.B. (1972): Brain and spinal cord tumors
Mitscher, L.A et al. (1972). Antimicrobial agents from higher plants. in rats treated with pyrrolizidine alkaloids. J. Nat! Cancer Inst.
II. Alkaloids from Thalictrum rugosum .. Lloydia, 35: 167. 49: 665-669.
Mitscher, L.A, et al. (1972). Antibiotics from higher plants Thalictrum Schoental, R, and Head, N.A (1955): Pathological changes in rats as
rugosum. Thalrugosamine, a new bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloid a result of treatment with monocrotaline. Br. J. Cancer 9: 229-237.
active vs. Mycobacterium smegmatis, Experimeniia 28: 500. Schuler Bog, and Warren. F.L., Rauwolfia alkaloids. I: Reserpine and
Muller;, J.M., Schlittler, E., and Bein, R.I. (1952). Reserpine, the seda- ajmaline from Rauwolfia natalensis. J. Chem. Soc., 1956, pp.
tive compound from Rauwolfia serpentina. Experientia 8: 338· 215-216
Mugera, G.M. and Nderito.P. (1968): Tumours of the urinary bladder Trease, G.E. and Evans, W.e. Pharmacognosy. 10th Edition.
and liver associated with enzootic haematuria in Kenya cattle. Williams & Wilkirs Co., Botimore 1971.
Vet. Rec. 83: 457. Watt, J.M. and Breyer-Brandwijk, M.G. Medicinal and Poisonous
Mugera, G.M. and Nderito, P. (1968): Tumiurs of the 1iver,kidney Plants of Southern and Eastern Africa. Second Edition, E. and S.
and lungs in rats fed Encephalortos Hilderbrandtii. Brit. Jour. Livingstone Ltd., Edinburg and London 1962, pp. 257-289 and
Cancer. Vol. XXII: No .. 3: 563. 577-590.
Mugera, G.M. (1970): Toxic and Medicinal Plants in Kenya. Williaman. J.J. and Li, H.L. Alkaloid-bearing plants and their con-
PartI: Bull. epiz ins, Air. Vol. 18: No.4. tained alkaloids, 1957-1968. Lloydia 33: 1-286, 1970.
Mugera, G.M. (1970): Toxic and Medicinal Plants in Kenya. Wolpert-Defilippes, M.K., Adamson, R.H., Cysyk, RL., et al. (1975):
PartII: Bull. epiz. tn». Air, Vol. 18: No.4. Initial studies on the cytotoxic action of maytansine a novel ansa
Mugera, G.M. and Ward, J.M. (1976): Acute toxicity of Maytansine macrolide. Biocham, Pharmacol. 24: 751-754·
in F344 rats. Cancer Treatment Report, Volume 61, No.7. Wolpert-Defilippes, M.K., Bono, V.H .• J.R, Dion RL. et a1. (1975:
Mugera, G.M. and Mworia, G.M. (1977): Unpublished data. Initial studies on maytansineinduced metaphase arrest in L1210
Nickell, L.G. (1959): Antimicrobial activity of Vascular plants. murine leukemia cells. Biochem. Pharmacol. 24: 1735-1738.
18 19