Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Abstract
This article analyses the botanical material that is contained in the Iatrosophikon, a collection of prescriptions from a monastery in Cyprus written
down during the island’s Ottoman period (1571–1878). A total of 494 herbal prescriptions were detected in the record and 231 plants belonging
to 70 different botanical families, as well as 21 various substances of botanical or mixed origin were identified. The distribution of the plants, the
plant part used, the use of the material, and the mode of application are discussed. Parallels with other medical writings of the Greek-speaking
Ottoman world suggest a local popular as well as a classical Greek and Byzantine influence. The latter is particularly supported by the relationship
of the majority of the plants described to plants mentioned by Dioscorides. Additionally the question of what other sources might have contributed
to this herbal knowledge is discussed. The results also show that most of the plants described originated from the island itself, only a minority
of the botanical material presumably had to be imported. All the mentioned plants of local origin are also cited in modern ethnopharmacological
studies on Cyprus, the Iatrosophikon demonstrates their use at a time from which no other written source of comparable detail exists.
© 2006 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction sical Greek medicine became increasingly lost in the Latin West,
it survived in the Byzantium. However, due to the perception of
The research of the medicinal plant treasures of humans Byzantine Christianity, which considered the ancient medicinal
is not only based on present-day existing but also on his- scriptures as dogmas of faith that consequently impeded any
torical systems of traditional and local medicine. An impor- alterations, Byzantine medicine was of a conservative nature
tant approach to historical sources constitutes the rediscov- (Fronimopoulos and Lascaratos, 1988; Petrucelli, 1994).
ery of the knowledge that has been preserved in monaster- During the times of the Ottoman Empire, many important
ies. In accordance with this, a research group focusing on Greek Orthodox monasteries featured well-organized hospi-
monastic medicine has recently been established in Wuerzburg tals of the Byzantine tradition. These hospitals were run by
(Forschergruppe Klostermedizin, 1999). Consequently, there is physicians who used pharmacists employed to gather medici-
increasing research activity in this area, at least as far as herbal nal plants and prepare remedies, originating from both classical
medicinal scriptures from monasteries in Western Europe are Greek and popular medicinal practice (Littlewood et al., 2002;
concerned (Mayer and Goehl, 2001; Piendl, 2001; Windhaber, Varella, 1999). On the Eastern Mediterranean island of Cyprus,
2001). In contrast, so far only minimal knowledge from con- monasteries played an important role in the conservation and
vents of the Byzantine tradition in the Eastern Mediterranean tradition of knowledge of medicinal plants. The only extensive
has been made accessible. During the spread of Christianity, record of local origin in this respect is the Iatrosophikon (“iatr-
this area was mainly part of the Byzantium, the Eastern Roman ”, medicine-/healing-; “sophia”, wisdom), which is a monastic
Empire. Whereas, after the fall of Rome, the knowledge of clas- scripture from the Ottoman period on the island (1571–1878).
This manuscript contains prescriptions that were compiled and
written down in 1849 by the monk Mitrophanous (1790–1867)
∗ Present address: Thurwiesenstrasse 16, 8037 Zurich, Switzerland.
at the Greek Orthodox monastery of Makhairas in Cyprus. The
Tel.: +41 44 350 63 17. monastery lies in the eastern Troodos massif at 884 m above sea
E-mail address: andreas.lardos@swissonline.ch. level and 37 km south-west of the capital Nicosia and is still in
0378-8741/$ – see front matter © 2006 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jep.2005.12.035
388 A. Lardos / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 104 (2006) 387–406
operation today. According to the Byzantine foundation docu- drugs derived from exotic taxa, references quoting ver-
ments, it was founded by a Palestinian monk from Jordan in the nacular names, along with scientific names, were used
middle of the 12th century and became a bishop’s residence a (Afifi and Abu-Irmaileh, 2000; Blaschek et al., 1998;
few decades later (Constantinides et al., 2000). Ghazanfar, 1994; Greek Food and Drink Codex/Kodikas
Although the Iatrosophikon is known by local specialists and Trofimon Kai Poton, 1988 (edition 1993); Hanlidou et al.,
is quoted in the relevant literature about the area, no detailed 2004; Hänsel et al., 1992–1994; Turkish Food Codex/Türk
investigation has been published so far. Therefore, it was the Gıda Kodeksi, 1997 (edition 2005)). As complementary
aim of the present study to systematically review the botani- references the ancient treatise of Disocorides (Berendes,
cal material contained within the Iatrosophikon to elucidate its 1988/1992; Mazal, 1999), as well as studies from neigh-
identity and use. In addition, the historical background and the bouring regions quoting vernacular plant names in Greek
origin of this herbal knowledge has been addressed. or Turkish, respectively, were consulted (Akçin et al., 2004;
Ertuğ, 2000, 2004; Hanlidou et al., 2004; Sezik et al., 2001).
2. Methodology
The name of the drug was first checked with the references
2.1. Approach of the text under (i) and (ii) and any information relevant for the subsequent
assignment to a botanical taxon was collected. The references
The original manuscript of the Iatrosophikon is stored in the under (iv) were considered most reliable. Therefore, identifica-
archives of the library at the Makhairas monastery and is usually tion and verification was primarily done using these references.
not accessible to the public. Therefore, an identical transcription The references under (iii) were used as a supplementary source
in print, which was written by monk Filaretos of the Makhairas for verification in the first line and only in the case of a lack of
monastery in 1924, was used as the primary tool (Filaretos, other references were they used as a main source for identifica-
1924–1925). However, to rule out the taking over of transcrip- tion. The reliability of all the used sources was cross-checked.
tion errors, the collected data were verified with the original The distribution status of local plants was checked with the
manuscript, which could be studied at the monastery with the Flora of Cyprus (Meikle, 1977/1985) and the origin of exotic
permission of the monastic community. plants with major pharmacognostic references (Blaschek et al.,
1998; Hänsel et al., 1992–1994; Wichtl, 2002).
2.2. Identification of the botanical material mentioned in
the “Iatrosophikon” 2.3. Relationship to the “materia medica” of Dioscorides
Each prescription mentioned in the record was numbered and The relationship of a plant to the materia medica of
those containing botanical material were included in this study. Dioscorides was analysed by consulting the following editions:
The name of the drug including – if available – the plant part Codex Neapolitanus–Codex medicus Graecus I (Berendes,
used, as well as the use of the corresponding prescription and the 1988/1992) and Codex Constantinopolitanus (Vienna Diosc-
mode of application, were recorded in a database. The identifi- orides)–Codex medicus Graecus I (Mazal, 1999).
cation of a drug was carried out by comparing the corresponding
drug name mentioned in the record with the following literature: 2.4. Interviews
(i) “Explanatory Table to the Iatrosophikon of Makhairas”–an Interviews based on the subject of the Iatrosophikon were
etymological glossary quoting most of the drugs mentioned conducted with members of the monastic community during
in the Iatrosophikon (Myrianthopoulos, 1925). two visits to the Makhairas monastery. The purpose of these
(ii) Old and recent Cypriot–Greek and Greek etymologi- interviews was to gather information on the background and the
cal encyclopaedias and dictionaries containing data on origin of the record and on the role of the monastery in herbal
botanical drugs (Gennadius, 1914; Hadjiioannou, 2000; drugs and medicine.
Papangellou, 2001).
(iii) Old (Chrysanthis, 1942) and recent (various publications, 3. Results and discussion
journal/newspaper articles) popular literature references on
local herbal medicine (complete literature list available 3.1. Content, structure and language of the
from the author). “Iatrosophikon”
(iv) Recent scientific, popular technical and official refer-
ences: (a) for drugs derived from local taxa, ethnob- There are a total of 671 prescriptions listed in the record:
otanical and ethnopharmaceutical references on Cyprus 494 contain botanical material, 177 exclusively mineral and/or
quoting vernacular names (Cypriot–Greek and standard animal material (the investigation of material of non-botanical
Greek or Cypriot–Turkish and standard Turkish, respec- origin lies outside of the scope of this study). Within the record
tively), along with scientific names, were used (Arnold- the prescriptions are arranged according to the part of the body
Apostolides, 1985; Della, 1995; Georgiades, 1987/1992; or according to the ailments that they are used for. At the end
Kyprianou, 2000, 2001; Savvides, 2000; Tsintides et al., of the record, there is a chapter containing prescriptions of non-
2002; Viney, 1994; Zanettou-Panteli, 1998, 2000); (b) for medicinal use, such as cosmetics, colourings and incense. The
A. Lardos / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 104 (2006) 387–406 389
structure of a prescription usually follows the same pattern: the The greater part of the taxa cited in Appendix A have a rela-
headline giving the use or the ailment to be cured, followed tionship to the plants mentioned by Dioscorides; in 154 of the
by a text or a table listing the ingredients with the correspond- cases (67.5%) the species is identical and in 32 of the cases
ing amounts. The second part of the prescription describes the (14.1%) the genus is identical but the species is different. Only
method of preparation and the mode of application. The lan- in 42 of the cases (18.4%) there is no relationship to any plant
guage used is the Greek popular speech of that time, with a mentioned in this reference. This suggests an influence of the
strong influence from the Cypriot–Greek dialect. ancient materia medica on the choice of drugs mentioned in
the Iatrosophikon (cf. Section 3.4). A considerable share of
3.2. The botanical material in the “Iatrosophikon” Dioscorides plants in the herbal inventory is also reported from
ethnobotanical studies in Greece (Hanlidou et al., 2004).
All botanical material traced in the record is presented in The majority (200; 86.6%) of all the taxa can be found in
Appendices A and B. Appendix A is arranged according to plants Cyprus; most of them are wild growing, either as indigenous,
and Appendix B contains miscellaneous drugs. A total of 231 adventive or escapes from cultivation (142 taxa; 61.5%) or as
taxa (Appendix A: 228; Appendix B: 3) (species, subsp., var., endemics (7 taxa; 3.0%), others are found only planted (51 taxa;
undefined species) were identified. 22.1%). Only 31 taxa (13.4%) are exotic (Appendices A and B).
In Appendix A, Angiospermae, Gymnospermae and Pteri- The high percentage of local taxa corresponds to findings of an
dophyta belonging to 70 different families are listed. The best- extensive ethnopharmacological research conducted by Arnold-
represented families in relation to the total number of taxa are Apostolides (1985), in which 830 of the approximately 2000 taxa
Labiatae (18 taxa; 7.8%), Compositae (16 taxa; 7.0%), Legumi- of the local flora were categorized as medicinal plants used in
nosae (15 taxa; 6.5%), Rosaceae (12 taxa; 5.2%), Liliaceae (11 the 1980s. This wealth of the medicinal herbs may be explained
taxa; 4.8%), Graminae (4.3%) and Umbelliferae (9 taxa; 3.9%). by the island’s geographical position at the junction of three con-
In Appendix B, 21 miscellaneous drugs are listed. Among tinents, as well as its topographical diversity that creates various
these are products obtained by further processing of certain plant microclimatic zones. The fact that all the mentioned taxa of local
parts (e.g., wines and spirits) but also mixtures, such as the- origin are cited in the above-mentioned study or in other modern
riac. Theriac was an important multi-ingredient preparation from publications on local herbal medicine (Georgiades, 1987/1992;
antiquity until modern times. Initially designed as an antidote to Kyprianou, 2000, 2001; Savvides, 2000; Zanettou-Panteli, 1998,
all known poisons it became a universal panacea containing more 2000), allows to draw the conclusion that they have been in con-
than 50 ingredients including various mineral, herbal and even tinuous use on the island over the period of the last two centuries.
animal drugs (Parojcic et al., 2003). There are also drugs, which Whole aerial parts or flowers, fruits, leaves and roots are the
could not be assigned to one defined taxon as different sources most frequently recorded plant parts to be used. Specific plant
are possible (flower water, gum resin, manna, spirits of turpen- parts (e.g., petals, stigmas) or plant tissues (e.g., fruit skin, root
tine, tar/pitch) or such that are of unclear origin (amber, soot). bark) but also products of plant metabolism (e.g., gums, resins
In the record, drug names are usually given in their or balms) or products obtained by processing of certain plant
Cypriot–Greek form. Many of the names are derived from parts (e.g., distillates, essential oils) are recorded for other cases.
Turkish or Arabic but also from Romance languages or are Nineteen different cases where the part to be used was referred
directly given in one of these languages (Appendices A and to by a commercial name, most of them gums, resins and balms
B, superscripts “c1, c2, d1, d2”). Cypriot–Greek has always (e.g., benzoin, ladanum, olibanum), were mentioned (Appendix
been receptive to influences of foreign languages, the cultures A). In many prescriptions, however, the part to be used was not
of which came in contact with the island (Hadjiioannou, 2000; specified. It can be assumed, therefore, that it was clear to the
Papangellou, 2001). Some of the drug names listed in Appendix adept, which part had to be used in these cases.
A are similarly applicable to two or more taxa (same or differ- Most of the drugs were applied externally (topical applica-
ent genus). These cases refer to morphologically related taxa tions or baths) and/or orally. In some cases, the drug’s scent (e.g.,
within the same genus (e.g., “trisakida” for Centaurea spp., or essential oils) or fume (e.g., resins) was applied by inhaling,
“moloha” for Malva spp.) but also between different genus (e.g., air-conditioning or exposing the part of the body to be treated
“periplokadin” for Convolvulus spp. and Calystegia sepium). (Appendices A and B).
This shows that in certain cases plants of similar habit were not Given the extensive number of different indications men-
distinguished, and it can be concluded from this that they were tioned in the record, some of them had to be summarized
used as equivalent substitutes for the same indication. This is into categories according to indication range (e.g., rheumatic
also confirmed by the results of an ethnopharmacological study conditions) or disorder of the corresponding apparatus (e.g.,
on local herbs (Arnold-Apostolides, 1985). Moreover, it was urinary-tract disorders). Categories comprising different indi-
found that the plant source of a drug can change in the course cations were subgrouped. As far as possible, indications are
of time, whereas the name of the drug remains unchanged (e.g., reported as quoted in the record. Most of them are clear or can be
Cyprus turpentine, “trimintina”, from Pistacia terebinthus or translated into medical terminology, a few, however, appear odd
sugar, “zaharin”, from Saccharum officinarum) (cf. Appendix and seem to be connected to diseases or infections difficult to
A, superscripts “n” and “o”). The influence of the time factor on define (e.g., fever accompanied by fainting and coated tongue,
the botanical identity of the plant source is of particular impor- laboured breathing, paralysis, worms in the ear). The indications
tance in the analysis of historical data such as the present study. refer to different organs or body parts, to acute (e.g., common
390 A. Lardos / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 104 (2006) 387–406
cold) or chronic diseases (e.g., asthma) and to bacterial infec- tion 2.2. The great majority of the names were identified and
tions (e.g., leprosy, malaria) or parasites (e.g., leeches, worms). verified by two or more scientific, popular technical or offi-
Some deal with injuries (e.g., burns, cuts, wounds) or animal cial references of recent time (cf. Section 2.2 (iv)). In 12 cases
bites/stings, others aim at health maintenance, prophylaxis or (Appendix A, superscript “a”) the plant name could be identified
convalescence. A few of the prescriptions are not intended for by only one of the latter, not allowing a cross-check verification
use in man but describe the manufacturing of incense or colour- with comparable references. Ten cases (eight plant names and
ing for painting. As the results in Appendices A and B show two plant part names) (Appendix A, superscript “b”) could be
most of the botanical material is used in combination with other identified only by etymological and/or popular literature refer-
drugs. Mixtures of different ingredients are common in herbal ences (cf. Section 2.2 (i–iii)). They can be assigned to one or
medicine and are also reported from other monastic prescrip- more of the following problems: (1) the name is old and hardly
tions (Piendl, 2001). used today; (2) the name is a regional idiom; (3) the name is
The most cited species of local origin are Ruta chalepen- foreign. In these cases, therefore, the identity established for a
sis (35×), Vitis vinifera (23×), Allium sativum (21×), Laurus respective name is less sure. Difficulties with the identification
nobilis (20×), Allium cepa (18×), Artemisia arborescens (18×), of drug names are also reported from other studies dealing with
Ficus carica (16×), Mentha spicata (16×) and Punica grana- historical data (Lev and Amar, 2000; Moussaieff et al., 2005;
tum (16×). Plants that played an important role as a source for Vokou et al., 1993).
the manufacturing of various products were Rosa damascena
(e.g. distillate, essential oil) and Vitis vinifera (e.g. wine, vine- 3.4. The role of the Makhairas monastery in traditional
gar) (Appendices A and B). These plants and products thereof medicine and the cultural-historical background of the
are reported as being among the most important herbal drugs in knowledge described in the “Iatrosophikon”
today’s traditional medicine of the island (Arnold-Apostolides,
1985; Kyprianou, 2000; Zanettou-Panteli, 2000). On the other Until the first half of the 20th century, the Makhairas
hand, the most cited clearly defined botanical drug is mas- monastery was an important medical centre. It provided medic-
tic (34×) from Pistacia lentiscus followed by anise seed from inal preparations, advice and care as one of its main features,
Pimpinella anisum, olibanum from Boswellia sacra, cinnamon especially for the inhabitants of the villages in this part of the
from Cinnamomum zeylanicum and cloves from Syzygium aro- island. With the loss of the monastery’s medical role due to the
maticum (each 19×), cumin seed from Cuminum cyminum, olive introduction of a modern healthcare system and the spread of
oil from Olea europaea, resin from Pinus spp., Rhubarb root allopathic medicine, the use of the knowledge that is described
from Rheum spp. and sugar from Saccharum officinarum (each in the record had come to an end.
16×). Mastic, anise and cumin seed as well as olive oil and Today, no other literature on herbal medicine that could
rhubarb root are widely used in the popular medicine of the have influenced the Iatrosophikon can be found in the library
neighbouring al-Sham/Levant but are also reported from Greece of the Makhairas monastery. A devastating fire struck in 1892
(Hanlidou et al., 2004; Lev and Amar, 2000, 2002; Said et al., destroying a large part of the monastery’s original buildings
2002). Olibanum, cinnamon and cloves are exotic substances (Constantinides et al., 2000). Although it is unknown to what
that are well-established in local herbal medicine (Arnold- extent this fire has affected the library, it cannot be excluded
Apostolides, 1985). This suggests that the island must have been that relevant literature has been lost.
well connected to the corresponding trading routes, which enable Detailed information, which could shed light on the origin
them to secure a constant availability of these materials. of the prescriptions that are contained in the Iatrosophikon, has
The number of plants used for a particular range of indi- not been handed down. However, to approach the question of the
cations provides a certain insight into the frequency of the historical background of this record, it should be put in relation to
related diseases; the following therapeutic categories seem to be other medical literature of the Greek-speaking Ottoman world. A
of particular importance: respiratory tract diseases (RS)—122 profound influence of classical Greek and Byzantine heritage is
plants (52.8%); skin diseases (SK)—83 plants (35.9%); gastro- well known for numerous manuscripts and medical books of the
intestinal tract disorders (GI)—70 plants (30.3%); wounds Ottoman period in Greece. The evaluation of these sources has
(WO)—49 plants (21.1%). These indications are related to living revealed that the greatest part of them consisted of iatrosophia.
conditions, work and climate of the time; some of them include The iatrosophia, initially a product of hospital medicine of the
infectious diseases and may be linked to poor hygiene. They Byzantine Empire, were compiled manuals for practical use that
all seem typical for a population group living in a rural envi- kept being enlarged (Varella, 1999). They contained identical or
ronment. The area around the Makhairas monastery is a remote modified copies of classical Greek or Byzantine texts, as well as
mountain region, still today the economy of the local villages prescriptions of folk medicinal origin and the author’s personal
is based on agriculture. Many of the people seeking help at the experience (Karamperopoulos, 2004; Varella, 1993; Vokou et
monastery must have been farmers coming from this area. al., 1993). Several parallels to this kind of medical writings can
be found in the Iatrosophikon:
3.3. Reliability of the found identification
(i) In some prescriptions popular-healers and classical Greek
The identification of the drug names mentioned in the record or Byzantine authors, such as Aetios, Dioscorides, Galen
was carried out according to the procedure described under Sec- and Mithridates are mentioned as sources.
A. Lardos / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 104 (2006) 387–406 391
(ii) The majority of the plants cited have a relationship to the introduced into the local herbal inventory when these languages
plants mentioned by Dioscorides (cf. Section 3.2). were prevailing in the region’s trade. Myrianthopoulos (1925)
(iii) The role of the record as a practical tool is emphasized by writes that the exotic substances mentioned in the Iatrosophikon
the author Mitrophanous, who stated that the Iatrosophikon were mainly imported from Syria and Egypt and that they could
was designed for the practitioners within the monastic com- be bought from the akhtarides (druggists). The akhtarides (Turk.
munity to help other monks or any sick person calling at aktarcı) were found in all cities of the Ottoman Empire, they pur-
the monastery. veyed herbal remedies and products but also dispensed advice
of various kinds (Murphey, 1992). The results also suggest, that
These findings also support the view of the monks of not only material obtained from exotic taxa, but also materi-
the Makhairas monastery, which believe that different sources als that actually could be obtained from the native flora, were
have provided the basis for the knowledge described in the imported from abroad. This can be recognized by the Turkish
Iatrosophikon: (i) old, handed-down prescriptions once kept names that are used for corresponding materials (e.g. karapash
in the Makhairas monastery; (ii) practical experience gathered yaghi – lavendar oil from Lavandula stoechas or neft yaghi –
by the practitioners of the monastic community; (iii) various spirits of turpentine from Pinus spp.). Presumably these drugs
external sources, such as folk-healers, other monasteries and were also provided by the akhtarides, and their Turkish names
literature. suggest that they were imported from Anatolia or other parts of
Based on this, it seems reasonable to understand this record the Ottoman Empire.
as representative of the iatrosophia. In Greece, these compila- Even though some of the drugs described in the Iatrosophikon
tions maintained their fundamental position during the whole had to be imported, already Myrianthopoulos (1925) stated, that
Ottoman period. In some monasteries, they were updated with most of them could be obtained from plants growing in Cyprus.
new prescriptions until the first half of the 20th century (Varella, This is supported by the analysis of the distribution of the plants,
1999). Considering this, the late that date the Iatrosophikon was which reveals that the great majority of them can be found in
written down (1849) becomes more comprehensible. Moreover, Cyprus (cf. Section 3.2). It is notable that many of these local
it can be concluded that, especially in rural areas, the monaster- taxa are also reported to be used medicinally in neighbouring
ies in the mid-19th century could still retain their position in the regions, such as south-western and central Anatolia and the al-
island’s health-care system. Sham/Levant (Ali-Shtayeh et al., 2000; Ertuğ, 2000; Honda et
The nature of medical writings of the kinds of the iatrosophia al., 1996; Said et al., 2002; Sezik et al., 2001; Yeşilada et al.,
suggest a popular as well as a classical Greek and Byzantine 1993). This congruence in the herbal inventory can be attributed
influence. The question remains of what other sources have to comparable climatic and environmental conditions, but may
influenced the Iatrosophikon. Data analysis of the results in also be understood as evidence for the culture linkage between
Appendix A has revealed that 42 plants are not mentioned by Cyprus and its neighbouring regions.
Dioscorides (cf. Section 3.2). This suggests that many of them
were not in use in classical Greek medicine. Among these are 4. Conclusion and outlook
important crops, such as representatives from the Citrus fam-
ily or plants that were cultivated earlier such as Gossypium The analysis of the herbal prescriptions mentioned in the
herbaceum and Saccharum officinarum. Numerous exotics also Iatrosophikon of the Makhairas monastery has led to an insight
belong to this group: Cinnamomum camphora, Coffea arabica, into the nature of the botanical material contained in this record
Commiphora opobalsamum, Liquidambar orientalis, Myristica and its use in the traditional medicine of Cyprus. The results
fragrans, Piper cubeba, Senna alexandrina, Styrax benzoin, allow an analysis of a large part of the herbal medicine in
Syzygium aromaticum and Tamarindus indica. Most of them are use during the Ottoman period on Cyprus (1571–1878). Given
considered to have become established in the traditional medic- the fact that the Iatrosophikon is particularly related to the
inal system of the al-Sham/Levant in the course of the spread of Greek–Cypriot tradition of the island, it would be interesting
Muslim medicine and still belong to the herbal inventory of Mid- to compare corresponding data from Turkish–Cypriot sources.
dle Eastern countries (Ghazanfar, 1994; Lev and Amar, 2000; A detailed comparison of the content of this record with classical
Lev, 2002; Lev and Amar, 2002). Unknown in classical Greek Greek, Byzantine and local popular medicinal but also Ottoman
medicine were also those of the exotic taxa which originated and European references will allow a deeper insight into the
from the New World. Of these, Cinchona pubescens, Croton origin of this medical knowledge.
eluteria, Pimenta dioica, and Smilax medica are mentioned here In a continuation of this work, a critical evaluation of the pre-
for the first time as being used in traditional medicine of Cyprus. scriptions with respect to not only their scientific plausibility, but
It should be noted that 10 of the above-mentioned exotics are also regarding the way of preparation, needs to be undertaken. In
referred to by a Turkish or Arabic name or by a local name doing so, new ranges of indication and synergistic mechanisms
not related to the Greek standard but directly derived from one of herbal mixtures, which have not been recognized until now,
of these languages. Another two are referred to in a foreign might be detected.
name related to a Romance language. The origin of the name Although the present study considers only the botanical
allows us to draw conclusions regarding the trading routes of material contained in the record, the Iatrosophikon consti-
the corresponding material. Therefore, it can be assumed that tutes a significant document of its time in terms of medical
the majority of the above-mentioned exotics must have been history, ethnopharmaceutical and ethnobotanical aspects–not
study the original manuscript of the Iatrosophikon.
the Makhairas monastery for their help and the possibility to
Acknowledgement
area.
only for Cyprus, but also for the whole Eastern Mediterranean
392
The author would like to thank the monastic community of
Acacia senegal (L.) Willd. Leguminosae Gum Arabic tree + x kommi aravikon Gma (rs) n CO 3
Acorus calamus L. Araceae Calamus + x eghric2 , kalamos rt o GI 7; HP; HR 1
aromatikos
Adiantum capillus-veneris L. Adiantaceae Venus maidenhair + w skorpidkia (pl.) lf e RS 2; SK 3,9; WO 3
Aeonium arboreum (L.) Webb et Crassulaceae Tree-like houseleek + w amarantona lf, ts e EA 1; EY 2; HA; SK 3 4
Berthel.
Alkanna tinctoria Tausch Boraginaceae Alkanet + w havachouac1 rt e CM 4; SK 5 1
Allium cepa L. Liliaceae Onion + p krommidin bl e, o CM 3; CV; EA 1; FV; GI 18
3; LP; MS; PR; RP; SB;
SK 3,8,10; VD 2
Allium porrum L. Liliaceae Leek + p kouraththesc1 igoun ap, fl, lf, rt, sd e, o CV; EA 1; EY 4; HG; 12
prasa (pl.) HR; IL; IS; MS; PA 4
Allium sativum L. Liliaceae Garlic + p skordo bl, lf e, o CV; FV; GI 8; IS; MT 3; 21
PA 4; PR; PS; RD; RP;
RS 2; SB; SK 2,6,7,10;
TP 4
Alnus orientalis Decne. Betulaceae Oriental alder − w sklidros lf, tw e RS 2 2
Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. Liliaceae Bitter aloe + w aloin Alo (sl) e, o AL; CL; CU; EA 5; EY 11
2,10; FG; GI 1,2,4,5,8; HA;
JD; LX; PR; PS; RS 2,3,5,6;
SC; SK 4,7,9; VD 3
aloin igoun asvain Als (so) e, o EY 5; GI 4; SK 8; WO 6
Anchusa azurea Mill., and spp. Boraginaceae Italian alkanet + w voudoglossa rt e CU; WO 1
Apium graveolens L. Umbelliferae Celery + w sellino ap, sd o BB; CL; GI 6; PR 3
Apium nodiflorum (L.) Lag. Umbelliferae Fool’s water cress − w agriosellino lf e SK 3 1
Arbutus andrachne L. Ericaceae East. strawberry tree + w antrouklia fr, lf, tw e, o HG; RS 2 2
Aristolochia sempervirens L., Aristolochiaceae Birthwort + w aristolokhia lf, rt e, o EA 5; EY 2,10; HA; MS; 3
and spp. RS 2,5,6; SC; WO
Artemisia absinthium L. Compositae Common wormwood + x artemisia, avrotanon, ap, rt e, o HR; RP 2
(pilinos)
Artemisia arborescens L. Compositae Tree wormwood + w apsithkia, apsinthion, ap, fl, rt, sd, ts e, o AL; DR; EA 5,6; GI 4,7; 18
393
394
Appendix A (Continued )
Scientific name Family Common name Dioscorides Distribution Name according to Part used Application Indication Citation
Iatrosophikon
395
396
Appendix A (Continued )
Scientific name Family Common name Dioscorides Distribution Name according to Part used Application Indication Citation
Iatrosophikon
Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Leguminosae Liquorice + w glykorizon, ppiambalic1 rt o RS 1,3 4
Gossypium herbaceum L., et al Malvaceae Levant cotton − (p) vamvakia sd e, o GI 4; SK 2,10; WO 5
spp.
Hedera helix L. Araliaceae Common ivy + w kissos fr, lf e, o AS; EY 1; HA; RS 2; UT 1 5
Helleborus niger L. Ranunculaceae Christmas Rose + x skarfib rt o VD 3 1
Hippeastrum spp. Red cultivars Amaryllidaceae Red amaryllis − p krinos o kokkinosa rt o VD 1 1
Hordeum vulgare L. Graminae Barley + p kritharin sd e CU; GI 1; RD 3
Hypericum perforatum L. Guttiferae St. John’s wort + w soummakin, t’agiannitou fh, fl e CU; RS 2 2
Hypericum triquetrifolium Turra Guttiferae St. John’s wort + w psylitta, kaloiraki fh, fl e CU; RS 2; WO 2
397
398
Appendix A (Continued )
Scientific name Family Common name Dioscorides Distribution Name according to Part used Application Indication Citation
Iatrosophikon
Papaver rhoeas L., et al spp. Papaveraceae Poppy + w argemonib ap, cp, fl e CU 2
Papaver somniferum L. subsp. Papaveraceae Opium poppy + w argemoni, haskashinc1 ap, cp, fl e CU 2
setigerum
DC. Corb.j afhioninc1 , afkioninc1 Opm (mj) e, o AL; BA; GI 3,4,7; HA; 13
HP; HR; PA 4; RS 2,3;
SK 3,6,8; TP 4
Paronychia argentea Lam. Caryophyllaceae Silver nailroot (+) w kalangkaththina ap, rt e SK 5; WO 3
Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Umbelliferae Parsley + w makidonisin ap o UT 2 1
A.W. Hill
Phalaris brachystachys Link, Graminae Canarygrass + w skanniola sd o PS 1
and spp.
Phaseolus vulgaris L., and spp. Leguminosae Kidney bean + p fasoulin sd e MB 1
399
400
Appendix A (Continued )
Scientific name Family Common name Dioscorides Distribution Name according to Part used Application Indication Citation
Iatrosophikon
Ruta chalepensis L. Rutaceae Fringed rue (+) w piganos lf, rt, sd, ts e, o DR; EY 9; GI 1,3; IS; 35
HA; HM; MT 1,2; PA 1;
PO; PR; PS; RS 2,3; SB;
SK 6,7,10; TP 4
Saccharum officinarum L.o Graminae Sugar cane − (p) zaharin Sgr (sa) e, o, f EY 3,7,9; GI 8; FV; IN; 16
RS 1,3,4
Salix alba L. Salicaceae White willow + w adgia bk, lf, tw e, o RD; RS 2; TP2 5
Salvia fruticosa Mill., and Labiatae Three-lobed sage (+) w faskomilia, lf, ts e, o FV; GI 9; MA; MS; PR; 9
khahomilia RS 2,3; SU; WO
Salvia willeana (Holmboe) Troodos sage (+) E
Hedge
1977/1985).
j Imported qualities of opium (afhionin, afkionin) presumably were obtained from Papaver somniferum L. subsp. somniferum.
k Resin (pissa tou pefkou/retsinin) can also be obtained from this planted species. However, indigenous Pinus brutia and Pinus nigra seem to be the original source (Tsintides et al., 2002).
l This species yields a special kind of mastic (mastihin) from the Pafos district known as “pissa pafitiki”, which is used for dental care (Myrianthopoulos, 1925; Meikle, 1977/1985; Arnold-Apostolides, 1985).
m Even though mastic (mastihin) can be obtained from local trees of this species (Meikle, 1977/1985), it remains unclear if the used qualities were of local origin or if they were imported from abroad.
n This species is the officinal source for Cyprus turpentine (trimintina) (Blaschek et al., 1998). Local references, however, refer to Pistacia atlantica as the original source (Viney, 1994; Zanettou-Panteli, 2000).
Cyprus turpentine (trimintina) from Pistacia terebinthus or more likely Pistacia atlantica subsequently was superseded by the chemically distinct, far cheaper substance obtained from Pinus spp. (Viney, 1994).
o Sugar (zaharin) must have been obtained from Saccharum officinarum, being the only source for sugar available at the time the Iatrosophikon was written down. Only in the second half of the 19th century the
cultivation of sugar beet (Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris var. altissima Döll) as a source for sugar began to spread from Germany (Oltmann, 1984).
401
402
Explanation to the table columns and abbreviations:
Scientific name: Only the most important taxon according to relevant literature on local herbal medicine (Arnold-Apostolides, 1985; Zanettou-Panteli, 1998, 2000) or, for
exotic drugs, according to major pharmacognostic references (Hänsel et al., 1992–1994; Blaschek et al., 1998; Wichtl, 2002) was included. In case of a local taxon, the
possibility of further applicable taxa within the same genus is indicated by the extension “and spp.” (e.g., Cucurbita pepo L. and spp.).
Dioscorides +: The species is identical to a species mentioned by Dioscorides; (+): The species is different, but the genus is identical; −: There is no relationship to any
plant mentioned in this reference.
Distribution: w: wild growing (indigenous, adventive, escape from cultivation); e: endemic; p: only found planted (agriculture, forestry, gardening); (p): planted earlier; x:
exotic.
ap Aerial part es Essential oil ol Oil sa Sap so Soot of dried leaf sap
as Ash of wood fl Flower, inflorescence pt Petal sd Seed sp Current year sprout
bk Bark fh Flowering herb/shoot rb Root bark sg Stigma st Stamen and style
bl Bulb fr Fruit rs Resin, gum, balm sh Fruit shell tb Tuber
cp Capsule lf Leaf rt Root, rhizome sk Fruit skin ts Tip of shoot
ds Distillate mj Milky juice rw Resinous wood sl Dried leaf sap tw Twig
If the part used was referred to by a commercial name, it is indicated separately (e.g., Olb). The identity of the material is added in italics and in brackets after the name
(e.g., Olb (rs)).
Alo Aloes Bnz Benzoin Ldn Ladanum Opm Opium Stl Levant storax
Als Soot of aloes Cmp Camphor Mst Mastic Scm Scammony Tpc Cyprus turpentine
Arp Asphodel root powder Glb Galbanum Myr Myrrh Sgr Cane sugar Tpv Venice turpentine
Blm Balm of Mecca Gma Gum Arabic Olb Olibanum Sta American storax
Mode of application: e: external (topical applications, baths); f: fume (by inhaling, air-conditioning or exposing the concerned part of the body); n: not for use in man; o:
oral; s: scent (by inhaling or air-conditioning).
Indications: Indications for which only the one plant or plant part, respectively, rather than a mixture of (herbal) drugs was used, are highlighted in bold letters.
AL Internal ailments (not specified) EY Eye problems HA Headache, migraine 3: Pain in the chest 7: Ringworm
AS Asthma 1: Clearing of the white of the eye HG Haemorrhage (internal) 4: Pleurisy and pneumonia 8: Scabies
BA Belly-ache (not specified) 2: Impaired vision HM Health maintenance 5: Diffuse pain in body and limbs 9: Skin tumour, skin ulcer
BB Bad breath 3: Irritated, itching eye HP Heart pain PO Antidote in case of poisoning 10: Swelling
BL Bile flow regulation 4: Night blindness HR Haemorrhoids PR Prophylactic in cholera, plague SP Spleen disorders
BU Burns 5: Pain in the eye HS Haemostatic (in external wounds) PS Internal parasites (leeches, worms) ST Strong thirst
CL Cleansing (cholagogue, laxativ) 6: Prophylactic for eye diseases IA Inducing abortion PY Paralysis SU Supporting treatment in pleurisy
CM Cosmetic 7: Reddened eye IL Inducing labour RD Rheumatic conditions and pneumonia
1: Hair-tinting lotion 8: Suppurative lachrymal gland IN Incense RP Repellent against arachnids,insects, TN Tonic
2: Hair loss 9: Swollen and inflamed eye IS Insect/scorpion sting, spider bite snakes TP Tooth problems
3: Promote growth of hair 10: Watering eye JD Jaundice RS Respiratory tract diseases 1: Dental health maintenance
4: Skin care FB Aching, swollen breasts in females LB Laboured breathing 1: Angina, sore throat 2: Inflamed and bleeding gums
5: Split hair FF Fever accompanied with fainting LE Leprosy 2: Catarrh and common cold 3: Loose teeth
and coated tongue 3: Cough 4: Toothache
CO Colouring LP Promote lactation 4:Hoarseness, loss of voice TR Tremor
CU Cuts FG Feverish gastroenteritis LS Stop lactation 5: Improvement of sense of smell UT Urinary-tract disorders
CV Convalescence after poisonings FV Febrile conditions (not specified) 6: Tonsillitis 1: Bladder or kidney stones
orvenomous animal bites/stings
DR Dropsy LX Laxative 2: Blood in urine
EA Eear diseases GI Gastro-intestinal tract disorders MA Malaria fever (external treatment) 3: Dysuria
403
Appendix B
404
The botanical materia medica of the Iatrosophikon—other plant derived drugs
Common name Name according to Iatrosoph. Applic. Indication Citat. Source of the drug Distrib.
Agaric (White) agarikon aspron o EA 5; EY 2,10; HA; LX; RS 3 Polyporus officinalis Fries, and other related fungi x
Amber khehriparon, kehriparoladon o EA 5; EY 2,10; HA; LB; RS 2,5,6; SC 2 Fossilised resin of undefined taxa -
Candied Sugar kandion e EY 5 2 Saccharum officinarum L. (p)
Carob Molasse teratsomelon e RD; VD 1 2 Ceratonia siliqua L. w
Commandaria (Cyprus kommandaria e, o CV; GI 8; PA 2; RS 3 4 Vitis vinifera L. w
Sweet Wine)
Flower Water anthoneron f IN 1 Citrus spp. p
Prunus spp. p, w
Grape Molasse petmezinc1 e, o LE; RD; RS 3; SK 7,8; WO 5 Vitis vinifera L. w
Gum Resin komidin n CO 2 Various tree species, mainly:
Prunus avium (L.) L. w
Prunus domestica L. p
Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A. Webb w
ornus L. (Oleaceae).
q The composition could be found only in the references quoted under 2.2.i and ii.
* Plant not mentioned in Table 1 belonging to the Oleaceae family.
** Plant not mentioned in Table 1 belonging to the Fagaceae family.
For the abbreviations and the explanations to the table columns (Name acc. to “Iatrosophikon”, Mode of Application, Indications, Citations, Distribution) refer to Appendix A.
A. Lardos / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 104 (2006) 387–406 405
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