How reliable is it?

Consider this: You measured the length of your dining room table. It was 72 inches long. What
if you measured it the next day and it was 68 inches? You would have to find out what went
wrong with the measurement. Did you use the tape measure incorrectly? Is your tape measure
faulty? A reliable measure should yield the same result. If it did not we would say that the
measure is unreliable.

So, similar to a pre-employment test, if, for example, if a person scores high in a trait such as
dominance, that result should be the same if that same person takes the test six weeks later. If
however, that same person scores low in dominance, you would have to conclude that the
measure (or test) was inaccurate and unreliable and, therefore, of minimal value.

How valid is it?

Validity is the most important issue in selecting a test. It refers to what characteristic the test
measures and how well the test measures that characteristic. It also tells you if the characteristic
being measured by a test is related to job qualifications and requirements. Validity evidence
indicates that there is linkage between test performance and job performance. It can tell you
what you may conclude or predict about someone from his or her score on the test.
It is important to understand the differences between reliability and validity. Validity will tell
you how good a test is for a particular situation; reliability will tell you how trustworthy a score
on that test will be. You cannot draw valid conclusions from a test score unless you are sure
that the test is reliable. Even when a test is reliable, it may not be valid. So, therefore you should
be careful that any test you select is both reliable and valid for your situation.

When is a test both valid and reliable?

So, while reliability and validity are closely inter-related, the distinct difference is best summed
up with an example: A researcher devises a new test that measures IQ faster than the standard
IQ test:

• If the test delivers scores for a candidate of 82, 63, 141 and 100, then the test is not reliable
or valid.
• If the test consistently delivers a score of 99 when checked, but the candidates real IQ is
122, then the test is reliable, but not valid.
• If the test delivers a consistent score of 118, then that is pretty close, and the test can be
considered valid and reliable.
Methods for conducting validation studies
The Uniform Guidelines discuss the following three methods of conducting validation
studies. The Guidelines describe conditions under which each type of validation strategy
is appropriate. They do not express a preference for any one strategy to demonstrate
the job-relatedness of a test.

• Criterion-related validation requires demonstration of a correlation or other

statistical relationship between test performance and job performance. In other
words, individuals who score high on the test tend to perform better on the job
than those who score low on the test. If the criterion is obtained at the same time
 the test is given, it is called concurrent validity; if the criterion is obtained at a
later time, it is called predictive validity.
• Content-related validation requires a demonstration that the content of the
test represents important job-related behaviors. In other words, test items should
be relevant to and measure directly important requirements and qualifications for
the job.
• Construct-related validation requires a demonstration that the test measures
the construct or characteristic it claims to measure, and that this characteristic is
important to successful performance on the job.

The three methods of validity-criterion-related, content, and construct-should be used to

provide validation support depending on the situation. These three general methods often
overlap, and, depending on the situation, one or more may be appropriate. French (1990) offers
situational examples of when each method of validity may be applied.
First, as an example of criterion-related validity, take the position of millwright. Employees'
scores (predictors) on a test designed to measure mechanical skill could be correlated with their
performance in servicing machines (criterion) in the mill. If the correlation is high, it can be
said that the test has a high degree of validation support, and its use as a selection tool would
be appropriate.
Second, the content validation method may be used when you want to determine if there is a
relationship between behaviors measured by a test and behaviors involved in the job. For
example, a typing test would be high validation support for a secretarial position, assuming
much typing is required each day. If, however, the job required only minimal typing, then the
same test would have little content validity. Content validity does not apply to tests measuring
learning ability or general problem-solving skills (French, 1990).
Finally, the third method is construct validity. This method often pertains to tests that may
measure abstract traits of an applicant. For example, construct validity may be used when a
bank desires to test its applicants for "numerical aptitude." In this case, an aptitude is not an
observable behavior, but a concept created to explain possible future behaviors. To demonstrate
that the test possesses construct validation support, ". . . the bank would need to show (1) that
the test did indeed measure the desired trait and (2) that this trait corresponded to success on
the job" (French, 1990, p. 260).

Scenario One

You are in the process of hiring applicants where you have a high selection ratio and are
filling positions that do not require a great deal of skill. In this situation, you might be
willing to accept a selection tool that has validity considered "likely to be useful" or even
"depends on circumstances" because you need to fill the positions, you do not have many
applicants to choose from, and the level of skill required is not that high.

Now, let's change the situation.

Scenario Two

You are recruiting for jobs that require a high level of accuracy, and a mistake made by a
worker could be dangerous and costly. With these additional factors, a slightly lower
validity coefficient would probably not be acceptable to you because hiring an unqualified
worker would be too much of a risk. In this case you would probably want to use a selection
tool that reported validities considered to be "very beneficial" because a hiring error would
be too costly to your company.

Here is another scenario that shows why you need to consider multiple factors when
evaluating the validity of assessment tools.

Scenario Three

A company you are working for is considering using a very costly selection system that
results in fairly high levels of adverse impact. You decide to implement the selection tool
because the assessment tools you found with lower adverse impact had substantially lower
validity, were just as costly, and making mistakes in hiring decisions would be too much
of a risk for your company. Your company decided to implement the assessment given the
difficulty in hiring for the particular positions, the "very beneficial" validity of the
assessment and your failed attempts to find alternative instruments with less adverse
impact. However, your company will continue efforts to find ways of reducing the adverse
impact of the system.

Substance Abuse Testing

Workplace Drug Testing

Drug testing is one action an employer can take to determine if employees or job applicants are using
drugs. It can identify evidence of recent use of alcohol, prescription drugs and illicit drugs. Currently,
drug testing does not test for impairment or whether a person’s behavior is, or was, impacted by
drugs. Drug testing works best when implemented based on a clear, written policy that is shared with
all employees, along with employee education about the dangers of alcohol and drug abuse,
supervisor training on the signs and symptoms of alcohol and drug abuse, and an Employee Assistance
Program (EAP) to provide help for employees who may have an alcohol or drug problem.

Why do employers drug test?

Alcohol and drug abuse creates significant safety and health hazards and can result in decreased
productivity and poor employee morale. It also can lead to additional costs in the form of health care
claims, especially short-term disability claims.

Common reasons employers implement drug testing are to:

- Deter employees from abusing alcohol and drugs

- Prevent hiring individuals who use illegal drugs
- Be able to identify early and appropriately refer employees who have drug and/or alcohol
problems
- Provide a safe workplace for employees
- Protect the general public and instill consumer confidence that employees are working safely
- Comply with State laws or Federal regulations
- Benefit from Workers’ Compensation Premium Discount programs

What are the different methods of drug testing?

Types of Workplace Drug and Alcohol Testing

As an employer, you have the right to drug test your employees at various times throughout the job.
Whether you choose to administer one type of drug test or a combination, making sure that your
employees remain drug-free can be one of the biggest intangible assets a company can have.

Here are some examples of when employers choose to drug test:

Pre-Employment: Most common method of employee drug testing. Employers often drug test
potential job candidates before officially hiring them. The employer can refuse to hire anyone who
fails a drug test.

Pre-Duty: Employers can opt for this type of test when an employee moves internally within the
company and their new job duty is a safety-sensitive one. For example, if you have a warehouse
employee who in the past has only kept inventory and will now be operating a forklift.

Random: Another common type is random drug testing in the workplace. With this type of screening,
employers can test any employee unannounced to ensure he/she has not been using certain illicit
drugs while employed. Often, each employee’s name goes into an electronic pool and is randomly
selected by the computer for a random drug test.

Periodic: Some employers have testing done on an annual basis. Often, these dates are made public
and are uniformly distributed. However when employees know the date of a drug test, they can stop
using drugs days before the test and pass.

Post-Accident: This is a critical time to perform a drug test as it ensures that the injured employee was
not on drugs or alcohol while he or she was injured on the job.

Types of Test:
Intelligence Tests:
Intelligence tests measure general ability for intellectual performance. The core concept

underlying in intelligence test is mental age. It is presumed that with physical age, intelligence

also grows. Exceptions to this may be there. So, to say, if a five-year-old child does the test,

for six years or above his/her mental age would be determined accordingly. Mental age is

generally indexed in terms of Intelligence Quotient (IQ) and calculated by using the following

formula:

IQ = Mental Age/Actual Age × 100

It means that the intelligence quotient is a ratio of mental age to actual age multiplying by

100(to remove decimal).

IQ levels may vary because of culture and exposure.

Intelligence testing in industry is based on the assumption that if the organization can get bright,

alert employees quick at learning, it can train them faster than those who are fewer well-

endowed.

Aptitude test, examination that attempts to determine and measure a person’s ability to acquire,
through future training, some specific set of skills (intellectual, motor, and so on). The tests assume
that people differ in their special abilities and that these differences can be useful in predicting future
achievements.
Intelligence Test Aptitude Test

Intelligence Test Aptitude Test

IQ denotes intelligence as a single,
measurable trait
It refers more to a broad range of mental
abilities
It is not a precise tool for career
guidance
A high IQ score, by itself, would not
indicate whether a person is strong
or weak
Aptitude breaks that intelligence down into
several different characteristics
Aptitude score reflects specialized abilities
Aptitude tests is a precise tool for career
guidance
Provide strengths and weakness of person

Test of Motor Skills & Abilities

Motor Skills and Abilities

Body Composition Skinfold Measures Body Mass Index Aerobic Functioning Pacer Test (15m or 20m)
Target Aerobic Movement Test One-Mile run/walk Flexibility Back saver sit and reach Shoulder stretch
Apley Test (modified) Thomas Test (modified) Target stretch Test Musculoskeletal Functioning
Muscular Strength/Endurance Trunk lift Dominant grip strength Bench Press Isometric Push-up Push-
Up Seated Push-up Dumbbell Press Reverse Curl Push/Walk (40m) Wheelchair Ramp Test Curl-up Curl-
up modified Extended arm hang Pull Up Pull Up (modified

Physical Ability Tests

Physical ability tests typically ask individuals to perform job-related tasks requiring manual
labor or physical skill. These tasks measure physical abilities such as strength, muscular
flexibility, and stamina. Examples of physical ability tests include:

• Muscular Tension Tests - Tasks requiring pushing, pulling, lifting

• Muscular Power Tests - Tasks requiring the individual to overcome some initial resistance
(e.g., loosening a nut on a bolt)
• Muscular Endurance Tests - Tasks involving repetitions of tool use (e.g., removing objects from
belts)
• Cardiovascular Endurance Tests - Tasks assessing aerobic capacity (e.g., climbing stairs)
• Flexibility Tests - Tasks where bending, twisting, stretching or reaching of a body segment
occurs (e.g., installing lighting fixtures)
• Balance Tests - Tasks in which stability of body position is difficult to maintain (e.g., standing
on rungs of a ladder)

While some physical ability tests may require electronically monitored machines, equipment
needs can often be kept simple. For example, stamina can be measured with a treadmill and an
electrocardiograph, or with a simple set of steps. However, a possible drawback of using
simpler methods is less precise measurement.

Many factors must be taken into consideration when using physical ability tests. First,
employment selection based on physical abilities can be litigious. Legal challenges have arisen
over the years because physical ability tests, especially those involving strength and endurance,
tend to screen out a disproportionate number of women and some ethnic minorities. Therefore,
it is crucial to have validity evidence justifying the job-relatedness of physical ability measures.
Second, physical ability tests involving the monitoring of heart rate, blood pressure, or other
physiological factors are considered medical exams under the Americans with Disabilities Act.
Administering medical exams to job applicants prior to making a job offer is expressly
prohibited. Finally, there is the concern of candidates injuring themselves while performing a
physical ability test (e.g., a test involving heavy lifting may result in a back injury or aggravate
an existing medical condition).

Measuring Personality & Interest:

1. I need someone to tell me that I have done a good job in order for me to feel good about
my job.

o A. Strongly agrees
o B. Agree
o C. Somewhat agree/disagree
o D. Disagree

2. I like to attend gatherings where I can meet new people

o A. I am trying to be social
o B. I'm afraid I would commit a mistake while talking
o C. I'd like to try how to party all night
o D. It's a stepping stone to my political ambition

Polygraph Tests:

This test is designed to confirm the accuracy of information given on the application blank. Hence, it
is considered as a form of employment test. Polygraph is a lie detector. Polygraph tests are found
useful for the organizations that are highly vulnerable to theft or swindling. Examples of such
organizations are departmental stores, banks, jewelry shops, etc.

Graphology:

The origin of graphology is traced back to the eleventh century when the Chinese drew

attention to the relationship between handwriting and personality. It has been said that an

individual’s handwriting can suggest the degree of energy, inhibitions, and spontaneity to be

found in the writer, disclosing idiosyncrasies and elements of balance and control from which

many personality characteristics can be inferred.

For example, big letters and emphasis on capital letters indicate a tendency towards domination

and competitiveness. A slant to the right, moderate pressure and good legibility show

leadership potential. Although the validity of handwriting analysis is not fool-proof, some

companies use graphology tests to supplement their usual selection procedure.

Achievement Tests:

Achievement tests measure a person’s potential in a given area/job. In other words, these tests

measure what a person can do based on skill or knowledge already acquired by him/her.

Achievement tests are usually used for admission to specific courses in the academic

institutions.

In these tests, grades in previous examinations are often used as indicators of achievement and

potential for learning. Indian industries have now started conducting these tests to judge for

themselves the level of proficiency attained rather than believing their scores in academic

examinations. Achievement tests are also known by the names, proficiency tests, performance,

occupational or trade tests.

Achievement tests resemble those of aptitude tests. However, the difference lies in the usage

of results. The line of difference between achievement and aptitude is very thin in the sense of

past achievement and performance. This difference between the two can be exemplified with

an example.

When we ask a person, or say, a student to study the paper human resource management, then

what he learns is ‘achievement’. But if we test the student to see if he would profit from certain

training to the subject, it is ‘aptitude’.

Definition: Performance Simulation Test

A performance simulation test is used by organizations as a way of evaluating candidates for

a job position. The basic premise of performance simulation test is to observe the candidate
perform the actual job in a controlled environment. There are two types of simulation tests
known as work sample test and assessment centers.

Work samples are used where the job is monotonous and routine. These jobs are well defined
and can be matched with the performance output of the candidate. Work sample technique is
used to hire skilled labor such as electricians, welders, machine workers and so on.

Assessment centers however are used to evaluate candidates for a managerial position.
Potential candidates are put through a series of jobs and challenges that they could face while
being observed a trained psychologist and/or line managers. Candidates are put through
various exercises such as interviews, group discussions or business games each involving
decision making situations.

An advantage of using simulation testing is that candidates are more engaged in the task and
enjoy challenging themselves to solve the challenges put forth. Candidates are put through
the actual work and hence if they themselves feel they are not suitable for the position they
can back out saving time and money. Furthermore research has also proven that assessment
centers have been able to quite accurately predict the managerial potential of the candidate.

One of the drawbacks however is that it is more difficult to administer than a written exam or
other objective testing methods. There can be no right or wrong in decision making and hence
the judgment is left to the observers’ discretion.

What is a Job Simulation?

Job simulations are employment tests that ask candidates to perform tasks that they would
perform on the job.

Applicants complete tasks that are similar to tasks they would complete when actually
working in the position on a day to day basis. For example, for a secretary position, a job
simulation might involve typing a passage and completing forms accurately. For a waitress
position, a simulation may involve taking a fake customer’s order correctly, or processing a
check. Job simulations can also evaluate interpersonal skills, such as resolving an agitated
customer’s complaint.

By using job simulations, employers can evaluate whether a job candidate can do the job,
rather than guess based on interview answers and personality questionnaires.

As noted on the SIOP website:

What better way to assess an applicant’s job potential than to actually have them complete a
portion of the work they will be doing?

Job simulations can be completed in-person, with a trained evaluator, or online, via an online
pre-employment test. They can be used to evaluate an applicant’s skills. For example, in the
case of an essay test, a simulation can evaluate a candidate’s ability to articulate ideas in
writing and mastery of grammar. Or the tests can be used to evaluate a candidate’s
knowledge. For example, asking a candidate to fix a broken valve allows the candidate to
demonstrate they understand the mechanics of a valve and the tools required to fix it. (Pardon
my lack of the correct terminology for the mechanic example. I would clearly not score well
in such a simulation.)

The tests are engaging, and often provide a refreshing change of pace over the text-based
assessments that do not demonstrate a connection to the job role.

There are many advantages to job simulations, including:

• Higher predictive validity: If a candidate scores well on a job simulation, they are more likely
to perform the job well.
• Better applicant insight into the job role: Job applicants are exposed to the tasks they will
perform and can determine whether they would enjoy the work.
• Fairness: Because simulations are job-related, job applicants can immediately understand
the relationship of the test to the job and perceive the evaluation process as more fair than
other employment tests.

There are also disadvantages to job simulations, including:

• Costs: An in-person job simulation requires raters, a space to conduct the simulation and a
scheduling program to give everyone time to complete the simulations.
• Time: Job simulations can be time-consuming to develop and administer. Custom online job
simulations can take a year to develop, because the process involves software developers,
media specialists, testers, and psychologists to create a good product.