INTRODUCTION

Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general use

around the world as a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar, stucco, and non-

specialty grout. It was developed from other types of hydraulic

lime in England in the mid 19th century, and usually originates

from limestone. It is a fine powder, produced by heating limestone and clay

minerals in a kiln to form clinker, grinding the clinker, and adding small

amounts of other materials. Several types of Portland cement are available.

The most common, called ordinary Portland cement (OPC), is grey in colour,

but white Portland cement is also available. Its name is derived from its

similarity to Portland stone which was quarried on the Isle of

Portland in Dorset, England. It was named by Joseph Aspdin who obtained a

patent for it in 1824. However his son William Aspdin is regarded as the

inventor of "modern" Portland cement

due to his

developments in the

1840s.
HISTORY OF PORTLAND CEMENT

A long time back, people in the ancient history needed shelters and various
structures for protection. In order to have these things, they need to have
something that would help them to bind crushed stones and bricks so that
their structures would not fall, and at this moment, the people of ancient
Egypt have discovered using cementing materials by using calcined impure

gypsum.

IMAGE: Ancient Egypt and a Calcined Impure Gypsum

As time passes by, the Greeks and Romans have discovered the use of
calcined impure gypsum and use it to combine it with lime, water, sand and
crushed stone, brick or broken tiles and from then on, the first concrete in

history was made.

IMAGE: Components of the First Concrete in History

One time, the Romans did a construction under water in Pozuoli. They found
out that the lime mortar does not harden when used under water. So, to be
able to continue their construction, the Romans tried to find an alternative to
lime and fortunately, they found out that when the mix together lime and
volcanic ash (which contains active silica and alumina), they react together,
forming a cementitious material that is known as Pozzolanic cement, getting
its name from where they got the volcanic ash from.

Since the discovery of the

Pozzolanic cement, great
structures have been built and
they are actually still erected,
even to this day. Like for
example, the Colosseum in
Rome, the Pont du Gard in
Nîmes, and the Pantheon in
Rome.

IMAGE: Colosseum in Rome

IMAGE: Pont du Gard in Nîmes

 IMAGE: Pantheon in Rome

The Middle Ages came and structures are continuously improving but the
quality of cement still stays the same, and the decline in the quality of
cement started to decrease. John Smeaton, who was born in 1756, was asked
to rebuild the Eddystone Lighthouse and he found out that he could improve
the quality of cement by rising the Pozzolana with limestone with some
clayey matter and for this, John Smeaton came into understanding the
chemical properties of a hydraulic lime.

Various people started to develop the quality of cement, or even having a

different kind of cement, like for example, when James Parker created the
Roman cement and also, Joseph Aspdin, a bricklayer, stonemason and a
builder, got a patent of a cement which he called the Portland cement, which
he named it due to its resemblance of its color and quality to Portland stone
that is found in Dorset.

From then on, Portland cement was widely used in the construction industry,
even now, and because of this, Joseph Aspdin was named as the “Father of
Modern Cement”.
IMAGE: [FROM LEFT] John Smeaton, James Parker and Joseph Aspdin
MANUFACTURE OF PORTLAND CEMENT
There are four stages in the manufacture of Portland cement:

(1) crushing and grinding the raw materials,

(2) blending the materials in the correct proportions,

(3) burning the prepared mix in a kiln, and

(4) grinding the burned product, known as “clinker,” together with some 5
percent of gypsum (to control the time of set of the cement).

The three processes of manufacture are known as the wet, dry, and semidry
processes and are so termed when the raw materials are ground wet and fed
to the kiln as a slurry, ground dry and fed as a dry powder, or ground dry and
then moistened to form nodules that are fed to the kiln.
CRUSHING AND GRINDING

All except soft materials are first crushed, often in two stages, and then
ground, usually in a rotating, cylindrical ball, or tube mills containing a
charge of steel grinding balls. This grinding is done wet or dry, depending on
the process in use, but for dry grinding the raw materials first may need to
be dried in cylindrical, rotary dryers.

Soft materials are broken down by vigorous stirring with water in wash
mills, producing a fine slurry, which is passed through screens to remove
oversize particles.

BLENDING

A first approximation of the chemical composition required for a

particular cement is obtained by selective quarrying and control of the raw
material fed to the crushing and grinding plant. Finer control is obtained by
drawing material from two or more batches containing raw mixes of slightly
different composition. In the dry process these mixes are stored in silos;
slurry tanks are used in the wet process. Thorough mixing of the dry
materials in the silos is ensured by agitation and vigorous circulation induced
by compressed air. In the wet process the slurry tanks are stirred by
mechanical means or compressed air or both. The slurry, which contains 35
to 45 percent water, is sometimes filtered, reducing the water content to 20
to 30 percent, and the filter cake is then fed to the kiln. This reduces the fuel
consumption for burning.

BURNING

The earliest kilns in which cement was burned in batches were bottle
kilns, followed by chamber kilns and then by continuous shaft kilns. The shaft
kiln in a modernized form is still used in some countries, but the dominant
means of burning is the rotary kiln. These kilns—up to 200 metres (660 feet)
long and six metres in diameter in wet process plants but shorter for the dry
process—consist of a steel, cylindrical shell lined with refractory materials.
They rotate slowly on an axis that is inclined a few degrees to the horizontal.
The raw material feed, introduced at the upper end, moves slowly down the
kiln to the lower, or firing, end. The fuel for firing may be pulverized coal, oil,
or natural gas injected through a pipe.

GRINDING

The clinker and the required amount of gypsum are ground to a fine
powder in horizontal mills similar to those used for grinding the raw
materials. The material may pass straight through the mill (open-circuit
grinding), or coarser material may be separated from the ground product and
returned to the mill for further grinding (closed-circuit grinding). Sometimes
a small amount of a grinding aid is added to the feed material. For air-
entraining cements (discussed in the following section) the addition of an air-
entraining agent is similarly made.

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENT PORTLAND CEMENT

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

Portland cement is made up of four main compounds:

 Tricalcium Silicate (3cao · Sio2),

 Dicalcium Silicate (2cao · Sio2),
 Tricalcium Aluminate (3cao · Al2O3), And
 A Tetra-Calcium Aluminoferrite (4cao · Al2O3Fe2O3).

In an abbreviated notation differing from the normal atomic symbols,

these compounds are designated as C3S, C2S, C3A, and C4AF, where C
stands for calcium oxide (lime), S for silica, A for alumina, and F for iron
oxide. Small amounts of uncombined lime and magnesia also are present,
along with alkali’s and minor amounts of other elements.
COMPOSITION OF CEMENT CLINKER AND THEIR SETTING ACTION

THE PRINCIPAL
MINERAL
COMPOUNDS IN FORMULA NAME SYMBOL
PORTLAND
CEMENT
Tricalcium
(CaO)3 · SiO2 Alite C3S
Silicate
dicalcium (CaO)3 · SiO2
Belite C2S
Silicate C3S
Tricalcium
(CaO)3 · Al2O3 Celite C3A
Aluminate
Tetracalcium (CaO)4 · Al2O3 ·
Felite C4AF
Aluminoferrite Fe2O3

 Tricalcium silicate (C3S): Hydrates and hardens rapidly and is largely

responsible for initial set and early strength. Ordinary Portland cements
with higher percentages of C3S will exhibit higher early strength.
 Dicalcium silicate (C2S): Hydrates and hardens slowly and is largely
responsible for strength increases beyond one week.
 Tricalcium aluminate (C3A): Hydrates and hardens the quickest. It
liberates a large amount of heat almost immediately and contributes
somewhat to early strength. Gypsum is added to Ordinary Portland
cement to retard C3A hydration. Without gypsum, C3A hydration would
cause ordinary Portland cement to set almost immediately after adding
water.
 Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C4AF): Hydrates rapidly but contributes
very little to strength. Most ordinary Portland cement color effects are
due to C4AF
CEMENT HYDRATION
Hydration is the chemical reaction between cement and water. The reaction
takes place between the active components of cement and water. The
factors responsible for the physical properties of concrete are the extent of
hydration of cement and the resultant microstructure of hydrated cement.
About an average of 23% of water by weight of cement is required for
complete hydration of portland cement? As a matter of fact, water cement
ratio less than 0.38 is very common for high strength concrete. If excess
water is present, it will lead to capillary cavities.

FINENESS OF CEMENT

Portland Cement Fineness

Fineness, or particle size of Portland cement affects hydration rate and

thus the rate of strength gain. The smaller the particle size, the greater the
surface area-to-volume ratio, and thus, the more area available for water-
cement interaction per unit volume. The effects of greater fineness on
strength are generally seen during the first seven days (PCA, 1988).

Standard Test Methods

 AASHTO T 98 and ASTM C 115: Fineness of Portland cement by the
Turbidimeter.

 AASHTO T 128 and ASTM C 184: Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by the

150-mm (No. 100) and 75-mm (No. 200) Sieves
 AASHTO T 153 and ASTM C 204: Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by Air
Permeability Apparatus

 AASHTO T 192 and ASTM C 430: Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by the

45-mm (No. 325) Sieve
STRUCTURE OF HYDRATED CEMENT

The presence of water in cement will result in the hydration process

(Exothermic Reaction - Heat Evolution). This reaction will result in hydration
products of silicates and aluminates that will bring a hard mass over a period
of time. This hard mass can be called as Hydrated Cement Paste (HCP).

Voids in Hydrated Cement Paste

The voids present in HCP are:

1. Interlayer Space in HCP
2. Capillary Voids
3. Air Voids
Water in HCP

The water present in HCP are:

1. Capillary Water
2. Adsorbed Water
3. Interlayer Water
4. Chemically Combined Water
The INTERFACIAL TRANSITION ZONE is a plane of weakness and has a greater
influence on the mechanical properties and behavior of concrete. The zone is
composed of same bulk cement paste. The quality of the cement paste is very
poor in the transition zone.
 HEAT OF HYDRATION

The heat of hydration is the heat generated when water and Portland
cement react. Heat of hydration is most influenced by the proportion of C 3S
and C3A in the cement, but is also influenced by water-cement
ratio, fineness and curing temperature. As each one of these factors is
increased, heat of hydration increases. In large mass concrete structures
such as gravity dams, hydration heat is produced significantly faster than it
can be dissipated (especially in the center of large concrete masses), which
can create high temperatures in the center of these large concrete masses
that, in turn, may cause undesirable stresses as the concrete cools to
ambient temperature. Conversely, the heat of hydration can help maintain
favorable curing temperatures during winter (PCA, 1988).

Standard Test Methods

 ASTM C 186: Heat of Hydration of Hydraulic Cement

SIGNIFICANCE:

- Can result in thermal cracking which can reduce concrete durability

- Significantly influences lift thickness which impacts economic savings

and construction period.

INFLUENCE OF THE COMPOUND COMPOSITION ON PROPERTIES OF

CONCRETE
Main Compounds C3S and C2S - are the most important compounds -
responsible for strength.

- Compounds Tricalcium Silicate (C3S) hardens rapidly and is largely

responsible for initial set and early strength. In general, the early
strength of portland cement concrete is higher with increased
percentages of C3S.
- Dicalcium Silicate (C2S) hardens slowly and contributes largely to
strength increases at ages beyond 7 days.
- Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A) liberates a large amount of heat during the
first few days of hardening and, together with C3S and C2S may
somewhat increase the early strength of the hardening cement (this
effect being due to the considerable heat of hydration that this
compound evolves). It does affect set times.
- Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (C4AF) contributes very slightly to strength
gain. However, acts as a flux during manufacturing. Contributes to the
color effects that makes cement gray.

TEST ON PROPERTIES OF CEMENT

o SETTING - refers to a change from a fluid to a rigid stage

Cement + water → cement paste → lose its plasticity gradually →
when it lose its plasticity completely → setting occurs.
The stages of setting include:
1. Initial setting
2. Final setting: It is important to distinguish setting from
hardening-which refers to the gain of strength of a set cement
paste.
- Vicat apparatus - use to measure the setting time for cement paste.

o FINENESS OF CEMENT

- The last steps in the manufacture of cement is → the grinding of

clinker mixed with gypsum.
- Hydration → starts at the surface of the cement particle (it is
the total surface area of cement)→ Represent the material
available for hydration → The rate of hydration depends on
the fineness of the cement particles.
- Higher fineness is necessary → For a rapid development of the
strength
- It reduce the water layer separate one the mixture surface
due to bleeding.

Fineness of cement is tested in two ways:

 1- Sieve Method
2- By determination of specific surface (total surface area of all the
particles in one gram of cement by air-permeability
apparatus).cm2/gm or m2/kg.

CONSISTENCY OF STANDARD PASTE (NORMAL CONSISTENCY)

Its defined as the percentage by mass of water to

cement required to produce cement paste of desired
consistency. It is used in the determination of the initial and
final setting times and soundness of cement.

The consistency is measured by the Vicat apparatus, and it is

defined as that consistency which will permit a Vicat plunger having 10
mm diameter to penetrate the paste to a point (5±1 mm) from the
bottom of the mould.

SOUNDNESS TEST

The testing of soundness of cement to ensure that the cement does not
show any appreciable subsequent expansion is of prime importance
which could result in a disruption of the hardened cement paste
(namely the cement paste, once it has set, does not undergo a large
change in volume).

1- Le Chatelier Test
Le Chatelier apparatus consists of a small brass cylinder split
along its generatrix. Two indicators with pointed ends are attached to
the cylinder on either side of the split; in this manner, the widening of
the split, caused by the expansion of cement, is greatly magnified and
can easily be measured.

CEMENT STRENGTH
 The compressive strength of hardened cement is the most
important of all the properties for structural use. The strength of
mortar or concrete depends on the cohesion of the cement paste, and
its adhesion to the aggregate particles and to a certain extend on the
strength of the aggregate itself. The last factor is not considered at this
stage, and is eliminated in tests on the quality of cement by the use of
standard aggregates.

Strength tests are not made on a neat cement paste because of

difficulties of moulding and testing with a consequent large variability
of test results. Cement-sand mortar and, some cases, concrete of
prescribed proportions and made with specific materials under strictly
controlled conditions, are used for the purpose of determining the
strength of cement.

There are several forms of strength tests:

a- Direct compression

b- Direct tension

c- Flexure

FINENESS OF CEMENT

Portland Cement Fineness

Fineness, or particle size of Portland cement affects hydration rate and
thus the rate of strength gain. The smaller the particle size, the greater the
surface area-to-volume ratio, and thus, the more area available for water-
cement interaction per unit volume. The effects of greater fineness on
strength are generally seen during the first seven days (PCA, 1988).

Standard Test Methods

  AASHTO T 98 and ASTM C 115: Fineness of Portland cement by the
Turbidimeter.

 AASHTO T 128 and ASTM C 184: Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by the

150-mm (No. 100) and 75-mm (No. 200) Sieves
 AASHTO T 153 and ASTM C 204: Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by Air
Permeability Apparatus

 AASHTO T 192 and ASTM C 430: Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by the

45-mm (No. 325) Sieve

STRUCTURE OF HYDRATED CEMENT

The presence of water in cement will result in the hydration process

(Exothermic Reaction - Heat Evolution). This reaction will result in hydration
products of silicates and aluminates that will bring a hard mass over a period
of time. This hard mass can be called as Hydrated Cement Paste (HCP).

Voids in Hydrated Cement Paste 7. Interlayer Water

8. Chemically Combined Water
The voids present in HCP are:
4. Interlayer Space in HCP
5. Capillary Voids
6. Air Voids
Water in HCP

The water present in HCP are:

5. Capillary Water
6. Adsorbed Water
 The INTERFACIAL TRANSITION ZONE is a plane of weakness and has a
greater influence on the mechanical properties and behavior of concrete.
The zone is composed of same bulk cement paste. The quality of the
cement paste is very poor in the transition zone.
HEAT OF HYDRATION

The heat of hydration is the heat generated when water and Portland
cement react. Heat of hydration is most influenced by the proportion of C 3S
and C3A in the cement, but is also influenced by water-cement
ratio, fineness and curing temperature. As each one of these factors is
increased, heat of hydration increases. In large mass concrete structures
such as gravity dams, hydration heat is produced significantly faster than it
can be dissipated (especially in the center of large concrete masses), which
can create high temperatures in the center of these large concrete masses
that, in turn, may cause undesirable stresses as the concrete cools to
ambient temperature. Conversely, the heat of hydration can help maintain
favorable curing temperatures during winter (PCA, 1988).

Standard Test Methods

 ASTM C 186: Heat of Hydration of Hydraulic Cement

SIGNIFICANCE:

- Can result in thermal cracking which can reduce concrete durability

- Significantly influences lift thickness which impacts economic savings

and construction period.
INFLUENCE OF THE COMPOUND COMPOSITION ON PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

Main Compounds C3S and C2S - are the most important compounds -
responsible for strength.

- Compounds Tricalcium Silicate (C3S) hardens rapidly and is largely

responsible for initial set and early strength. In general, the early
strength of portland cement concrete is higher with increased
percentages of C3S.
- Dicalcium Silicate (C2S) hardens slowly and contributes largely to
strength increases at ages beyond 7 days.
- Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A) liberates a large amount of heat during the
first few days of hardening and, together with C3S and C2S may
somewhat increase the early strength of the hardening cement (this
effect being due to the considerable heat of hydration that this
compound evolves). It does affect set times.
- Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (C4AF) contributes very slightly to strength
gain. However, acts as a flux during manufacturing. Contributes to the
color effects that makes cement gray.

TEST ON PROPERTIES OF CEMENT

o SETTING - refers to a change from a fluid to a rigid stage

Cement + water → cement paste → lose its plasticity gradually →
when it lose its plasticity completely → setting occurs.
The stages of setting include:
1. Initial setting
2. Final setting: It is important to distinguish setting from
hardening-which refers to the gain of strength of a set cement
paste.
- Vicat apparatus - use to measure the setting time for cement paste.
o FINENESS OF CEMENT

- The last steps in the manufacture of cement is → the grinding of

clinker mixed with gypsum.
- Hydration → starts at the surface of the cement particle (it is
the total surface area of cement)→ Represent the material
available for hydration → The rate of hydration depends on
the fineness of the cement particles.
- Higher fineness is necessary → For a rapid development of the
strength
- It reduce the water layer separate one the mixture surface
due to bleeding.

Fineness of cement is tested in two ways:

1- Sieve Method
2- By determination of specific surface (total surface area of all the
particles in one gram of cement by air-permeability
apparatus).cm2/gm or m2/kg.

o CONSISTENCY OF STANDARD PASTE (NORMAL CONSISTENCY)

Its defined as the percentage by mass of water to
cement required to produce cement paste of desired
consistency. It is used in the determination of the initial and
final setting times and soundness of cement.

The consistency is measured by the Vicat apparatus, and it is

defined as that consistency which will permit a Vicat plunger having 10
mm diameter to penetrate the paste to a point (5±1 mm) from the
bottom of the mould.

o SOUNDNESS TEST
The testing of soundness of cement to ensure that the cement does not
show any appreciable subsequent expansion is of prime importance
 which could result in a disruption of the hardened cement paste
(namely the cement paste, once it has set, does not undergo a large
change in volume).

1- Le Chatelier Test
Le Chatelier apparatus consists of a small brass cylinder split
along its generatrix. Two indicators with pointed ends are attached to
the cylinder on either side of the split; in this manner, the widening of
the split, caused by the expansion of cement, is greatly magnified and
can easily be measured.

o CEMENT STRENGTH
The compressive strength of hardened cement is the most
important of all the properties for structural use. The strength of
mortar or concrete depends on the cohesion of the cement paste, and
its adhesion to the aggregate particles and to a certain extend on the
strength of the aggregate itself. The last factor is not considered at this
stage, and is eliminated in tests on the quality of cement by the use of
standard aggregates.

Strength tests are not made on a neat cement paste because of

difficulties of moulding and testing with a consequent large variability
of test results. Cement-sand mortar and, some cases, concrete of
prescribed proportions and made with specific materials under strictly
controlled conditions, are used for the purpose of determining the
strength of cement.

There are several forms of strength tests:

a- Direct compression

b- Direct tension

c- Flexure

CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS
OF DIFFERENT TYPES
 PART 1: CATEGORIZATION OF MATERIALS

Categorized based on their composition:

1. CEM I (Portland cement)

2. CEM II (Portland – composite cement)
3. CEM III (Blast furnace cement)
4. CEM IV (Pozzolanic cement)
5. CEM V (Composite cement)

1. CEM I (Portland Cement) - Portland cement and up to 5% of minor

additional constituents

Common type of powdery cementitious building material made from

finely pulverized alumina, iron oxide, lime, magnesia, and silica burnt
together in a kiln. When mixed with water and sand (or gravel) it turns into
masonry mortar (or concrete) and, after a series of complex internal
reactions, sets like a stone.

It is used for general construction purposes where special properties

are not required. It is normally used for the reinforced concrete buildings,
bridges, pavements, and where soil conditions are normal. It has great
resistance to cracking and shrinkage but has less resistance to chemical
attacks.

2. CEM II (Portland – composite cement) - Portland cement and up to 35% of

certain other single constituents

Portland composite cement is a hydraulic binder. It is produced by

grinding clinker and a certain amount of gypsum, fly ash, slag and limestone.

Contributes to workability, reduced bleeding and controls destructive

expansion from alkali-aggregate reaction. It reduces heat of hydration
thereby controlling temperature differentials, which causes thermal strain
and resultant cracking in mass concrete structures like dams.

Mineral Component

 Fly ash – pozzolan component.

  Blast furnace Slag – hydraulic component.

 Limestone – inert component.

 Gypsum – retarding agent to control setting time.

3. CEM III (Blast furnace cement) - Portland cement and higher proportions of
blast furnace slag than in a CEM II cement

In Blast furnace cement, the slag as obtained from blast furnace is

used. The slag is a waste product in the manufacturing process of pig-iron
and it contains the basic elements of cement, namely, alumina, lime and
silica.

Concrete made with BFC sets more slowly than concrete made with
ordinary Portland cement, but also continues to gain strength over a longer
period in production conditions. This results in lower heat of hydration and
lower temperature rises, and makes avoiding cold joints easier.

4. CEM IV (Pozzolanic cement) - Portland cement and higher proportions of

pozzolana than in a CEM II cement

Portland Pozzolana Cement also commonly known as PPC. These types

of cement are manufactured by using pozzolanic materials as one of the
main ingredient. The percentage of pozzolanic material used in the
preparation should be between 10 to 30.

Typical pozzolans include:

 Metakaolin

 Silica fume

 Fly ash

 Slag

 VCAS (vitrified calcium alumino-silicate)

5. CEM V (Composite cement) - Portland cement and combinations of blast

furnace slag and pozzolana or fly ash
PART II: DIFFERENT TYPES OF CEMENT

1.Ordinary Portland cement

2.Rapid-hardening Portland cement
3.Special very rapid-hardening Portland cements
4.Low heat Portland cement
5.Sulfate-resisting cement
6.White cement and pigments
7.Portland blastfurnace cement
8.Supersulfated cement
9.Pozzolanas
 Fly ash
 Pozzolanic cements
10. Silica fume
11. Fillers

1. Ordinary Portland cement

Ordinary Portland cement is admirably suitable for use in general

concrete construction when there is no exposure to sulfates in the soil or
groundwater. It is made from 95 to 100 per cent of Portland cement clinker
and 0 to 5 per cent of minor additional constituents.

2. Rapid-hardening Portland cement

Rapid-hardening Portland cement has a higher fineness than ordinary

Portland cement. The higher fineness significantly increases the strength at
10 to 20 hours, the increase persisting up to about 28 days. On the other
hand, for construction at low temperatures the use of cement with a high
rate of heat evolution may prove a satisfactory safeguard against early frost
damage.

3. Special very rapid-hardening Portland cements

Special very rapid-hardening Portland cement has its setting time of 30

minutes or more. It is claimed that the concrete can be placed at
temperatures slightly below freezing point, but insulation of concrete to
retain heat is necessary. The concrete is said to have a good resistance to
sulfate attack and to freezing and thawing, without air entrainment. The
latter is due to the very low water/cement ratio. Shrinkage is also said to be
low. Because of its high reactivity and fineness, storage of this cement under
very dry conditions is essential.

4. Low heat Portland cement

The rise in temperature in the interior of a large concrete mass due to
the heat development by the hydration of cement, coupled with a low
thermal conductivity of concrete, can lead to serious cracking. For this
reason, it is necessary to limit the rate of heat evolution of the cement used
in this type of structure: a greater proportion of the heat can then be
dissipated and a lower rise in temperature results.

5. Sulfate-resisting cement
It is more resistant than ordinary Portland cement to the action of
mineralized water containing sulfates. It also has lower heat of hydration and
slower hardening. Moderate and High sulfate resistant cements are used in
situations where concrete is exposed to soils high in sulfate content. For
example, slabs on the ground, pipe, and concrete posts.

6. White cement and pigments

To achieve architectural and aesthetic projects that make cities more
beautiful, white cements are a perfect solution. Based on advanced
technology, they cannot only produce white precast concrete for urban
furniture, flooring or structural elements but also white or colored. mortar
that gives character to the facades of houses and buildings

7. Portland blastfurnace cement

It is a special blended cement with low heat of hydration
characteristics for mass concreting. Concrete produced using Portland Blast
Furnace Cement have chloride and sulphate resisting properties with
improved durability. It is a cementitious construction material comprising of a
combination of selected high quality ground granulated blast furnace slag
and ordinary Portland cement conforming to BS 4246 (Low Heat of Hydration)
and BS 146.

8. Supersulfated cement
It is highly resistant to sea water and can withstand the highest
concentrations of sulfates normally found in soil or ground water, and is also
resistant to peaty acids and to oils. It has to be stored in a very dry condition
otherwise, it deteriorates rapidly.

9. Pozzolanas
One of the common materials classified as cementitious, It is a natural
or artificial material containing silica without any cementitious value but
when in powdered form it reacts with calcium hydroxide to form compounds
which possess cementitious properties.

 Fly ash

Or Pulverized-Fuel Ash, this ash is precipitated

electrostatically or mechanically from the exhaust gases of coal-
fired power, also it is the most common artificial pozzolana. Its
fibers are spherical which are advantageous with regards to
water requirement and most importantly it is very fine.

 Pozzolanic cements

Pozzolanic cements allows higher content of fly ash, like

high slag blast furnace cement. It has a low 7-day strength, also
a low 28-day strength. But its advantage is a low rate heat
development so that pozzolanic cement is a low heat cement.

10. Silica fume

Silica fume is added to Portland cement concrete to improve its
properties, in particular its compressive strength, bond strength, and
abrasion resistance. These improvements stem from both the mechanical
improvements resulting from addition of a very fine powder to the cement
paste mix as well as from the pozzolanic reactions between the silica fume
and free calcium hydroxide in the paste.

11. Fillers
A filler is a very finely-ground material, of about the same fineness as
Portland cement, which, owing to its physical properties, has a beneficial
effect on some properties of concrete, such as workability, density,
permeability, capillarity, bleeding, or cracking tendency. Fillers are usually
chemically inert but there is no disadvantage if they have some hydraulic
properties or if they enter into harmless reactions with the products of
reaction in the hydrated cement paste.

Other cements

 Anti-bacterial cement. It is a Portland cement interground with an

anti-bacterial agent which prevents microbiological fermentation

 Hydrophobic Cement. The cement which perfectly fits for

underwater construction

 Masonry cement. It is used in mortar in brickwork, is made by

integrinding Portland cement, limestone and an air-entraining
agent, or alternatively Portland cement and hydrated lime,
granulated slag or an inert filler, and an air-entraining agent

 Expansive cement. It has the property of expanding in its early

life so as to counteract contraction induced by drying shrinkage.

 Oil-well cement. This is a highly specialized product, based on

Portland cement, used for grout or slurry to be pumped to depths
of up to thousands of metres in the earth’s crust

 Natural cement. This is the name given to a cement obtained by

calcining and grinding a so-called cement rock, which is a clayey
limestone containing up to 25 per cent of argillaceous material.

AGGREGATES

Aggregates are the most mined materials in the world. Aggregates are
a component of composite materials such as concrete and asphalt concrete.
It serves as reinforcement to add strength to the overall composite material.
Aggregate, in building and construction is made up of different minerals.
The aggregate gives volume, stability to the finished product.

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATES:

1. According to Production Methods

2. According to Petrological Characteristics
3. According Particle Size
4. According to their Unit Weight
5. According to Shape

1. ACCORDING TO PRODUCTION METHODS

Natural Aggregates: – Taken from native deposits without any change in
their natural states during production except for crushing, grading or
washing.

– Example: sand, gravel, crushed stone, lime rock.

By-Product Aggregates: – Comprise blast-furnace slags and cinders, fly ash,

etc. Cinders are residue of coal or wood after burning.

- Processed Aggregates: – Heat treated, expanded materials with lightweight

characteristics.

– Example: Perlite, burnt clays, shales, processed fly ash.

2. ACCORDING TO PETROLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Igneous Rock
Rocks formed by the cooling and solidifying of molten materials. Igneous
rocks can form beneath the Earth's surface, or at its surface, as lava.

Sedimentary Rocks

Obtained by the deposition of weathered and transported pre-existing rocks.

Metamorphic Rocks

Under high heat and pressure by the alterations of either igneous rocks or
sedimentary rocks

3. ACCORDING PARTICLE SIZE

Fine Aggregates

Fine aggregates include the particles that all passes through 4.75mm sieve
and retain on 0.075mm sieve.

Fine aggregate Size variation

2.0mm –
Coarse Sand
0.5mm

0.5mm –
Medium sand
0.25mm

0.25mm –
Fine sand
0.06mm

0.06mm –
Silt
0.002mm
 Clay <0.002

Coarse Aggregate

Coarse aggregate includes the particles that retain on 4.75mm sieve.

Coarse aggregate Size

Fine gravel 4mm – 8mm

Medium gravel 8mm – 16mm

Coarse gravel 16mm – 64mm

Cobbles 64mm – 256mm

Boulders >256mm

4. ACCORDING TO THEIR UNIT WEIGHT

Normal Weight Aggregates

• Sand, gravel and crushed stone.

• Concrete produced by these aggregates:2160 to 2560 kg/m3 .

Light Weight Aggregates:

• Slag, slate and other light stones.

• Concrete produced by them: 240 to 1440 kg/m3 .

• This concrete is normally used for insulation purposes.

Heavy Weight Aggregates:

• Hemotite, barite magnetite, steel and iron punchings.

• Concrete produced by them: 2800 to 6400 kg/m3 .

5. ACCORDING TO SHAPE
Rounded Aggregate

The rounded aggregates are completely

shaped by attrition and available in the form
of seashore gravel.

Rounded aggregates result the minimum

percentage of voids (32 – 33%) hence gives
more workability. They require lesser
amount of water-cement ratio. They are not
considered for high strength concrete
because of poor interlocking behavior and
weak bond strength

Irregular Aggregate

The irregular or partly rounded aggregates

are partly shaped by attrition and these are
available in the form of pit sands and
gravel. Irregular aggregates may result 35-
37% of voids. These will give lesser
workability when compared to rounded
aggregates.
Angular Aggregate

The angular aggregates consist well defined

edges formed at the intersection of roughly
planar surfaces and these are obtained by
crushing the rocks. Angular aggregates
result maximum percentage of voids (38-
45%) hence gives less workability. They give
10-20% more compressive strength due to
development of stronger aggregate-mortar
bond. So, these are useful in high strength concrete manufacturing.

Flaky Aggregate

When the aggregate thickness is small when compared with width and
length of that aggregate it is said to be flaky aggregate. Or in the other,
when the least dimension of aggregate is less than the 60% of its mean
dimension then it is said to be flaky aggregate.

Elongated Aggregate

When the length of aggregate is larger than

the other two dimensions then it is called
elongated aggregate or the length of
aggregate is greater than 180% of its mean
dimension.

CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL AGGREGATES

Natural aggregates - Aggregates are abundantly available from the natural

sources

(a) Sand and Gravel: The source of sand and gravel are river beds, stream
deposits etc. The aggregates are the results of the weathering of bedrock
and subsequent transportation and deposition of the material by water or
ice.
Nowadays the availability of natural sand is becoming limited in a certain
region of the world. Somewhere due to soil erosion, the sand contains a
large amount of silt and clay, making it almost unusable.

(b)Crushed Aggregates: Crushed aggregates are the most basic mineral in

construction produced from the quarries. It is widely available and
inexpensive.
Crushed aggregates consist of rock fragments which have been subjected
to mechanical processing such as crushing, washing and sizing. They are
mainly derived from the parent bed rock material such as igneous rocks,
sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks.

CHARACTERISTICS OF AGGREGATES

SIZE & SHAPE

The size and shape of the aggregate particles greatly influence the
quantity of cement required in concrete mix and hence ultimately economy
of concrete.

SURFACE TEXTURE

The development of hard bond strength between aggregate particles

and cement paste depends upon the surface texture, surface roughness and
surface porosity of the aggregate particles.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY

It is formally defined as the ratio of the mass of a unit volume of the

impermeable portion of aggregate (does not include the permeable pores in
aggregate) to the mass of an equal volume of gas-free distilled water at the
stated temperature.

BULK DENSITY

It is defined as the weight of the aggregate required to fill a container of

unit volume. It is generally expressed in kg/litre.

Bulk density of aggregates depends upon the following 3 factors.

1. Degree of compaction

2. Grading of aggregates

3. Shape of aggregate particles

WATER ABSORPTION AND SURFACE MOISTURE

The moisture content and absorption of aggregates are important in

calculating the proportions of concrete mixes since any excess water in the
aggregates will be incorporated in the cement paste and give it a higher
water/cement ratio than expected.

All moisture conditions are expressed in terms of oven dry unit weight.
Moisture conditions of aggregates:

 Oven-dry Condition: All free moisture, whether external surface

moisture or internal moisture, driven off by heat.

 Air dry: No surface moisture, but some internal moisture remains.

 Saturated-surface dry condition (SSD): Aggregates are said to be SSD

when their moisture states are such that during mixing they will
neither absorb any of the mixing water added; nor will they contribute
any of their contained water to the mix. Note that aggregates in SSD
condition may possess “bound water” (water held by physicalchemical
bonds at the surface) on their surfaces since this water cannot be
easily removed from the aggregate.

 Damp or Wet condition: Aggregate containing moisture in excess of the

SSD condition. The Free Water, which will become part of the mixing
water, is in excess of the SSD condition of the aggregate. Absorption
 and surface moisture affects the following concrete behaviors: mix-
design, strength / abrasion resistance.

DELETERIOUS MATERIALS

Aggregates should not contain any harmful material in such a quantity so as

to affect the strength and durability of the concrete. Such harmful materials
are called deleterious materials. Deleterious materials may cause one of the
following effects

 To interfere hydration of cement

 To prevent development of proper bond

 To reduce strength and durability

 To modify setting times

Deleterious materials generally found in aggregates, may be grouped as

under

 Organic impurities

 Clay , silt & dust

 Salt contamination

BULKING OF SAND

The increase in moisture of sand increases the volume of sand

When the moisture content of sand is increased by adding more water,

the sand particles pack near each other and the amount of bulking of
sand is decreased.

SOUNDNESS

Aggregate is considered unsound when volume changes in the

aggregate induced by weather, such as alternate cycles of wetting and
drying or freezing and thawing, result in concrete deterioration.

Depends on: porosity, flaws and contaminants.

  Pumice- (10% absorption) - no problem with freezing and
thawing.

 Limestone - breaks: use smaller aggregates (critical size)

(critical aggregate size: size below which high internal stresses
capable of cracking the particle will not occur)

Admixtures

A material other than water, aggregates, or cement that is used as an

ingredient of concrete or mortar to control setting and early hardening,
workability, or to provide additional cementing properties.

Admixtures are generally used to alter the properties of concrete (such as

increased workability or reduced water content, acceleration or retardation of
setting time, acceleration of strength development, and improved resistance
to weather and chemical attacks) to make it more suitable for a particular
purpose. For example, calcium chloride can be used to accelerate strength
development in mass concrete during winter. Air-entraining admixtures
(inexpensive soaps, detergents, etc.) entrain air which greatly improves the
workability of concrete and thus permits the use of harsher and more poorly
graded aggregates and also those of undesirable shapes.

Why is admixture used?

Over decades, attempts have been made to obtain concrete with certain
desired characteristics such as high compressive strength, high workability,
and high performance and durability parameters to meet the requirement of
complexity of modern structures. The properties commonly modified are the
heat of hydration, accelerate or retard setting time, workability, water
reduction, dispersion and air-entrainment, impermeability and durability
factors.

Types of Admixtures

Chemical admixtures - Accelerators, Retarders, Water-reducing agents, Super

plasticizers, Air entraining agents etc.

Mineral admixtures - Fly-ash Blast-furnace slag, Silica fume and Rice husk
Ash etc

Chemical admixtures

1. Water-reducing admixture / Plasticizers:

These admixtures are used for following purposes:

1. To achieve a higher strength by decreasing the water cement ratio at

the same workability as an admixture free mix.

2. To achieve the same workability by decreasing the cement content so

as to reduce the heat of hydration in mass concrete.

3. To increase the workability so as to ease placing in accessible locations

4. Water reduction more than 5% but less than 12%

5. The commonly used admixtures are Ligno-sulphonates and

hydrocarbolic acid salts.

6. Plasticizers are usually based on lignosulphonate, which is a natural

polymer, derived from wood processing in the paper industry.

Actions involved:
 1. Dispersion:

Surface active agents alter the physic chemical forces at the interface. They
are adsorbed on the cement particles, giving them a negative charge which
leads to repulsion between the particles. Electrostatic forces are developed
causing disintegration and the free water become available for workability.

2. Lubrication:

As these agents are organic by nature, thus they lubricate the mix reducing
the friction and increasing the workability.

3. Retardation:

A thin layer is formed over the cement particles protecting them from
hydration and increasing the setting time. Most normal plasticizers give
some retardation, 30–90 minutes

2. Super Plasticizers:

These are more recent and more effective type of water reducing admixtures
also known as high range water reducer. The main benefits of super
plasticizers can be summarized as follows:

Increased fluidity:

 Flowing

 Self-leveling

 Self-compacting concrete

 Penetration and compaction round dense reinforcement

Reduced W/C ratio:

 Very high early strength, >200% at 24 hours or earlier

 Very high later age strengths, >100 MPa or 15000 psi.

 Reduced shrinkage, especially if combined with reduced cement

content.
  Improved durability by removing water to reduce permeability and
diffusion.

The commonly used Super Plasticizers are as follows:

 Sulphonated melamine formaldehyde condensates (SMF)

Give 16–25%+ water reduction. SMF gives little or no retardation, which

makes them very effective at low temperatures or where early strength is
most critical. However, at higher temperatures, they lose workability
relatively quickly. SMF generally give a good finish and are colorless, giving
no staining in white concrete. They are therefore often used where
appearance is important.

 Sulphonated naphthalene formaldehyde condensates (SNF)

Typically give 16–25%+ water reduction. They tend to increase the

entrapment of larger, unstable air bubbles. This can improve cohesion but
may lead to more surface defects. Retardation is more than with SMF but will
still not normally exceed 90 minutes. SNF is a very cost-effective.

 Polycarboxylate ether superplasticizers (PCE)

Typically give 20–35%+ water reduction. They are relatively expensive per
liter but are very powerful so a lower dose (or more dilute solution) is
normally used.

In general the dosage levels are usually higher than with conventional water
reducers, and the possible undesirable side effects are reduced because they
do not markedly lower the surface tension of the water.

3. Accelerators:

An admixture which, when added to concrete, mortar, or grout, increases the

rate of hydration of hydraulic cement, shortens the time of set in concrete, or
increases the rate of hardening or strength development. Accelerating
admixtures can be divided into groups based on their performance and
application:

1. Set Accelerating Admixtures,

Reduce the time for the mix to change from the plastic to the hardened
state. Set accelerators have relatively limited use, mainly to produce an
early set.
 2. Hardening Accelerators,

Which increase the strength at 24 hours by at least 120% at 20ºC and at 5ºC
by at least 130% at 48 hours. Hardening accelerators find use where early
stripping of shuttering or very early access to pavements is required. They
are often used in combination with a high range water reducer, especially in
cold conditions. Calcium chloride is the most effective accelerator and gives
both set and hardening characteristics. However, is limited due to
acceleration of corrosion of steel reinforcement and decrease resistance of
cement paste in a sulfate environment. For this reason, it should not be used
in concrete where any steel will be embedded but may be used in plain
unreinforced concrete. Chloride-free accelerators are typically based on salts
of nitrate, nitrite, formate and thiocyanate. Hardening accelerators are often
based on high range water reducers, sometimes blended with one of these
salts.

4. Set Retarders:

The function of retarder is to delay or extend the setting time of cement

paste in concrete. These are helpful for concrete that has to be transported
to long distance, and helpful in placing the concrete at high temperatures.

When water is first added to cement there is a rapid initial hydration

reaction, after which there is little formation of further hydrates for typically
2–3 hours. The exact time depends mainly on the cement type and the
temperature. This is called the dormant period when the concrete is plastic
and can be placed. At the end of the dormant period, the hydration rate
increases and a lot of calcium silicate hydrate and calcium hydroxide is
formed relatively quickly. This corresponds to the setting time of the
concrete. Retarding admixtures delay the end of the dormant period and the
start of setting and hardening. This is useful when used with plasticizers to
give workability retention. Used on their own, retarders allow later vibration
of the concrete to prevent the formation of cold joints between layers of
concrete placed with a significant delay between them.

The mechanism of set retards is based on absorption. The large admixture

anions and molecules are absorbed on the surface of cement particles, which
hinders further reactions between cement and water i.e. retards setting. The
commonly known retards are Calcium Ligno-sulphonates and Carbohydrates
derivatives used in fraction of percent by weight of cement.

5. Air Entrained Admixtures:

An addition for hydraulic cement or an admixture for concrete or mortar

which causes air, usually in small quantity, to be incorporated in the form of
minute bubbles in the concrete or mortar during mixing, usually to increase
its workability and frost resistance. Air-entraining admixtures
are surfactants that change the surface tension of the water. Traditionally,
they were based on fatty acid salts or vinsol resin but these have largely
been replaced by synthetic surfactants or blends of surfactants to give
improved stability and void characteristics to the entrained air. Air
entrainment is used to produce a number of effects in both the plastic and
the hardened concrete. These include:

• Resistance to freeze–thaw action in the hardened concrete.

• Increased cohesion, reducing the tendency to bleed and segregation in the

plastic concrete.

• Compaction of low workability mixes including semi-dry concrete.

• Stability of extruded concrete.

• Cohesion and handling properties in bedding mortars.

Mineral Admixtures

Types of Mineral Admixtures

1. Cementitious

These have cementing properties themselves. For example:

 Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS)

2. Pozzolanic
A pozzolan is a material which, when combined with calcium hydroxide
(lime), exhibits cementitious properties. Pozzolans are commonly used as an
addition (the technical term is "cement extender") to Portland cement
concrete mixtures to increase the long-term strength and other material
properties of Portland cement concrete and in some cases reduce the
material cost of concrete. Examples are

 Fly ash

 Silica Fume

 Rice Husk Ash

 Metakaolin

Pozzolanic Action:

The additive act in three ways

1. Filler
2. Nucleating
3. Pozzolanic

1. Filler:

These additives/admixtures are finer than cement, so when added to

concrete they occupy the small pores previously left vacant.

2. Nucleating:

These fine particles accelerate the rate of hydration and precipitation starts.

3. Pozzolanic:

When cementing material reacts with water the following reaction take
place:

C2S + H CSH + CH

C3S + H CSH + CH
CSH is responsible for strength while CH is a soluble material reacts and
dissolves in water leaving behind pores. So when admixture is added

SiO3 or Al2O3+CH CSH

Thus it reduces the amount of CH & increase CSH

Conditions to Declare a Material Pozzolan:

 Having silica + Alumina oxide+ ferrous oxide more than 70%.

 Surface area on normal admixture is more than 300m²/kg.

 Surface area should be more than cement used.

Pozzolans are used to improve the workability and quality of concrete, to

effect economy, and to protect against disruptive expansion caused by the
reaction between different constituents of mass concrete. A pozzolan is
defined as a siliceous or siliceous and aluminous material which, in itself,
possesses little or no cementitious value but will, in finely divided form and
in the presence of moisture, chemically react with calcium hydroxide at
ordinary temperatures to form compounds possessing cementitious
properties. Natural pozzolanic materials occur in the form of obsidian,
pumicite, volcanic ashes, tuffs, clays, shales, and diatomaceous earth.

3. Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS)

Ground granulated blast-furnace slag is the granular material formed when

molten iron blast furnace slag (a by-product of iron and steel making) is
rapidly chilled (quenched) by immersion in water. It is a granular
product, highly cementitious in nature and, ground to cement fineness,
hydrates like Portland cement. (Blast-Furnace Slag: A by-product of steel
manufacture which is sometimes used as a substitute for Portland cement. In
steel industry when iron ore is molted, then in the molted state all the
impurities come at its surface which are removed called slag.

Benefits:

1. Durability

2. GGBFS cement is routinely specified in concrete to provide protection

against both sulphate attack and chloride attack
 3. GGBFS is also routinely used to limit the temperature rise in large
concrete pours. The more gradual hydration of GGBFS cement
generates both lower peak and less total overall heat than Portland
cement.

4. Appearance

5. In contrast to the stony grey of concrete made with Portland cement,

the near-white color of GGBFS cement permits architects to achieve a
lighter colour for exposed fair-faced concrete finishes, at no extra cost.

6. Strength

7. Concrete containing GGBFS cement has a higher ultimate strength

than concrete made with Portland cement. It has a higher proportion of
the strength-enhancing calcium silicate hydrates (CSH) than concrete
made with Portland cement only, and a reduced content of free lime,
which does not contribute to concrete strength. Concrete made with
GGBFS continues to gain strength over time, and has been shown to
double its 28 day strength over periods of 10 to 12 years.

4. Fly Ash:

The finely divided residue resulting from the combustion of ground or

powdered coal. Fly ash is generally captured from the chimneys of coal-fired
power plants; it has POZZOLANIC properties, and is sometimes blended with
cement for this reason. Fly ash includes substantial amounts of silicon
dioxide (SiO2) (both amorphous and crystalline) and calcium oxide (CaO).
Toxic constituents include arsenic, beryllium, boron, cadmium, chromium,
cobalt, lead, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, selenium, strontium,
thallium, and vanadium.

Class F Fly Ash:

The burning of harder, older anthracite and bituminous coal typically

produces Class F fly ash. This fly ash is pozzolanic in nature, and contains
less than 10% lime (CaO). The glassy silica and alumina of Class F fly ash
requires a cementing agent, such as Portland cement, quicklime, or hydrated
lime, with the presence of water in order to react and produce cementitious
compounds.

Class C Fly Ash:

Fly ash produced from the burning of younger lignite or subbituminous coal,
in addition to having pozzolanic properties, also has some self-cementing
properties. In the presence of water, Class C fly ash will harden and gain
strength over time. Class C fly ash generally contains more than 20% lime
(CaO). Unlike Class F, self-cementing Class C fly ash does not require an
activator. Alkali and sulfate (SO4) contents are generally higher in Class C fly
ashes. In addition to economic and ecological benefits, the use of fly ash in
concrete improves its workability, reduces segregation, bleeding, heat
evolution and permeability, inhibits alkali-aggregate reaction, and enhances
sulfate resistance. Even though the use of fly ash in concrete has increased
in the last 20 years, less than 20% of the fly ash collected was used in the
cement and concrete industries. One of the most important fields of
application for fly ash is PCC pavement, where a large quantity of concrete is
used and economy is an important factor in concrete pavement construction.

5. Silica Fume

 By-product of semiconductor industry

The terms condensed silica fume, microsilica, silica fume and volatilized
silica are often used to describe the by-products extracted from the exhaust
gases of silicon, ferrosilicon and other metal alloy furnaces. However, the
terms microsilica and silica fume are used to describe those condensed silica
fumes that are of high quality, for use in the cement and concrete industry.
Silica fume was first ‘obtained’ in Norway, in 1947, when environmental
restraints made the filtering of the exhaust gases from the furnaces
compulsory. Silica Fume consists of very fine particles with a surface area
ranging from 60,000 to 150,000 ft²/lb or 13,000 to 30,000 m²/kg, with
particles approximately 100 times smaller than the average cement particle.
Because of its extreme fineness and high silica content, Silica Fume is a
highly effective pozzolanic material. Silica Fume is used in concrete to
improve its properties. It has been found that Silica Fume improves
compressive strength, bond strength, and abrasion resistance; reduces
permeability of concrete to chloride ions; and therefore helps in protecting
reinforcing steel from corrosion, especially in chloride-rich environments such
as coastal regions.

6. Rice Husk Ash:

This is a bio waste from the husk left from the grains of rice. It is used as a
pozzolanic material in cement to increase durability and strength. The silica
is absorbed from the ground and gathered in the husk where it makes a
structure and is filled with cellulose. When cellulose is burned, only silica is
left which is grinded to fine powder which is used as pozzolana.

I. INTRODUCTION

Fresh concrete is only a transient interest.

The strength of concrete of given mix
proportions is very seriously affected by the
degree of its compaction. It is vital, Therefore,
that the consistency of the mix be such that the
concrete can be transported, placed,
compacted, and finished sufficiently easily
without segregation.

THREE ESSENTIAL INGREDIENTS OF CONCRETE

CEMENT AGGREGATE
 WATER

II. QUALITY OF MIXING WATER

Water is the key ingredient, which when mixed with cement, forms a
paste that binds the aggregate together. The water causes the hardening
of concrete through a process called hydration. The water needs to be
pure in order to prevent side reactions from occurring which may weaken
the concrete or otherwise interfere with the hydration process. Too much
water reduces concrete strength, while too little will make the concrete
unworkable.
 IMPORTANT INFLUENCES OF WATER

Are those on:

• Workability and strength • Chemical attack on concrete
• Setting • Corrosion of reinforcement
• Hydration • Freezing and Thawing
• Bleeding • Carbonation
• Drying Shrinkage • Alkali-silica reaction
• Creep • Thermal properties
• Ingress of salts • Electrical resistivity
• Explosive failure of concrete • Cavitation and Erosion
with a low cement-ratio • Quality of water passed
• Autogenous healing through concrete pipes.
• Staining of the surface
 WATER: CINDERELLA INGREDIENT OF CONCRETE

Mixing water should not contain undesirable organic substances or

inorganic constituents in excessive proportion. Some waters not fit for
drinking may often be used satisfactorily in making concrete. As a rule,
water with pH of 6.0 to 8.0, or possibly even 9.0, which does not taste
brackish is suitable for use, but dark colour or bad smell do not
necessarily mean that deleterious substances are present.

The presence of algae in mixing water results in air entrainment

with a consequent loss of strength. Water containing large quantities of
chlorides (e.g. sea water) tends to cause persistent dampness and surface
efflorescence. Such water should, therefore, not be used where
appearance of unreinforced concrete is of importance, or where a plaster
finish is to be applied

The presence of chlorides in concrete containing embedded steel

can lead to its corrosion. Some tests suggest that sea water slightly
accelerates the setting time of cement. Generally, the effects on setting
are unimportant if water is acceptable from strength considerations.

It is important to remember that water discharged into the mixer is

not the only source of mix water: aggregate usually contains surface
moisture. It is, therefore, important that the water brought in by the
aggregate is also freefrom harmful material.

Biologically treated domestic waste water has also been

investigated for use as mixing water, but much more information about
the variability of such water, health hazards and long term behavior is
required.

III. DENSITY OF FRESH CONCRETE

 Density, also called unit mass or unit weight in air. Theoretically,
density is the sum of masses of all the ingredients of a batch of concrete
divided by the volume filled by the concrete.

Alternatively, knowing the density of fresh concrete, the yield per

batch can be determined as the mass of all the ingredients in a batch
divided by the density.

Workability of Concrete

What is Workability?

Workability is a property of raw or fresh concrete mixture. In simple words,

workability means the ease of placement and workable concrete means the
concrete which can be placed and can be compacted easily without any
segregation.
Compaction and workability are very close to each other. Workability can also
be defined as the amount of useful internal work necessary to produce full
compaction.- ASTM C 125-93
Workability is that property of freshly mixed concrete or mortar which
determines the ease and homogeneity with which it can be mixed, placed,
consolidated and finished. - American Concrete Institute (ACI) Standard
116R-90 (ACI 1990b)

Factors Affecting Workability of Concrete

Workability of concrete is measured in terms of the ease of mixing and

placing of concrete. Highly workable concrete can easily be mixed, placed
and transported. All the materials and processes involved in producing
concrete affect the workability of concrete.

Following factors affect the workability of concrete.

  Water Content

 Mix Proportions

 Size of Aggregates

 The Shape of Aggregates

 Grading of Aggregates

 The Surface Texture of Aggregates

 Use of Admixtures

 Use of Supplementary Cementitious Materials

 Time

 Temperature

Water Content
It is the most important factor of workability. Workability increases with the
increase of water content (measured in kg or liter per cubic meter
of concrete). We can express the relation in terms of water cement ratio. If
the water-cement ratio is small, it indicates high amount cement which is
helpful for good strength. But the small water-cement ratio is responsible for
lower workability. If proper compaction cannot be achieved, concrete will not
be enough strong as desired. On the other hand, if the water-cement ratio is
increased, workability and compaction problem will be solved but there may
occur some other problems like bleeding and losing compressive strength.
Hence an optimum water-cement ratio has to be maintained to balance
workability and strength of concrete.

Mix Proportions
Rich concrete mix (cement content is high) is more workable because due to
sufficient cement aggregates will have proper lubrications for easy
movement which means more workability.

Size of Aggregates
Finer particles require more water for a larger surface, hence aggregate with
finer particles need more water to make it workable. On the other hand,
bigger particles have less surface area, demand less water for wetting
surface and require less amount of paste for lubricating. So bigger particles
give higher workability for fixed water content. But maximum size of
aggregate depends on some practical considerations like handling-mixing
and placing equipment, concrete section, and spacing of reinforcement.

The Shape of Aggregates

Irregular shape and rougher texture of angular aggregate demand more
water than the round shaped aggregate. For fixed volume or weight, rounded
or sub rounded particles have less surface area and less void and they have
less friction resistance too. Hence round shaped aggregates show higher
workability than angular, flaky or elongated aggregates.

Grading of Aggregates
Well-graded aggregates tend to fill up voids and easily get workability. Less
amount of water can make it workable. If grading is better, there will be
fewer voids and excess paste will be available to give better lubricating
effect. Due to excess paste, the mixture gets cohesive and prevent
segregation. It also makes it get compacted easily i.e. increases the
workability.
The Surface Texture of Aggregates
Aggregates with smooth surfaces are more workable than roughly textured
aggregates. Roughly textured aggregates show high friction and segregation
tendency. Besides, nonabsorbent aggregates are more workable because
porous and non-saturated aggregates demand more water than aggregates
which are nonabsorbent.

Use of Admixtures
There are some admixtures which can improve workability. Some admixtures
are mixed intentionally to increase workability and some admixtures increase
workability as a side effect of its main purpose.

Use of Supplementary Cementitious Materials

There are many supplementary materials used for improving quality of fresh
concrete. Some of these, like fly ash, improve workability and some of these
like steel or synthetic fibers decrease workability.

Time
Fresh concrete stiffens with time and loss workability though it is not exactly
settling or getting strength at all. After mixing concrete, some water is
absorbed by aggregate, some may be lost by evaporation and some may be
spent for initial chemical reactions. The loss in workability by time depends
on various factors like:
Temperature
High temperature reduces workability and increases slump loss. Slump loss is
less influenced by temperature in stiff mixes because this type of mix is less
affected by a change in water content.

MEASUREMENT OF WORKABILITY

- To determine the consistency of the fresh concrete before it sets.

 SLUMP TEST

Apparatus:
-Slump cone : frustum of a cone, 300 mm (12 in) of height. The base is
200 mm (8in) in -diameter and it has a smaller opening at the top of
100 mm
-Scale for measurement,
-Tamping rod(steel) 15mm diameter, 60cm length.

Types Of Slump
The slumped concrete takes various shapes, and according to the
profile of slumped concrete, the slump is termed as;
 Collapse Slump

 Shear Slump

 True Slump

 COMPACTING FACTOR TEST

Apparatus:
-Trowels
-Hand Scoop (15.2 cm long)
-Rod of steel or other suitable material (1.6 cm diameter, 61 cm
long rounded at one end ).
-Balance.

CF = weight of partially compacted concrete

weight of fully compacted concrete

 ASTM FLOW TEST

 Apparatus:
-Flow table with a grip and a hinge, 70 cm x 70 cm.
-Abrams cone, open at the top and at the bottom - 30 cm high,
17 cm top diameter, 25 cm base diameter
-Water bucket and broom for wetting the flow table.
-Tamping rod, 60 cm height
-Scale for measurement

Flow % = Diameter of flow – 25 X 100

25

 VEBE TEST

Apparatus:
-Cylindrical container with diameter = 240 mm, and height =
200 mm
-Mold: the same mold used in the slump test.
-Disc : A transparent horizontal disc attached to a rod which
slides vertically
-Vibrating Table : 380*260 mm, supported by four rubber shock
absorbers
-Tamping Rod
-Stop watch

 The test FAILS if VEBE TIME is less than 5 seconds

 FLOW TABLE TEST

Apparatus:
-Base plate of size at least 900 × 900 mm
-Abrams cone with the internal upper/lower diameter equal to
100/200 mm and the height of 300 mm
-Weight ring (>9 kg) for keeping Abrams cone in place during
sample filling
-Stopwatch
-Ruler (graduated in mm)
-Bucket with a capacity of larger than 6 liters
Moist sponge or towel for wetting the inner surface of the cone

S = dmas + dperp
2

 BALL PENETRATION AND COMPACTABILITY TEST

 Apparatus:
-Kelly ball

 Also known as Kelly ball test

 NASSER’S K TESTER

- is a small device that can be inserted directly into a mass of fresh

concrete to determine slump quickly.

Segregation

-It is the Separation of constituent materials in concrete.

Primary cause of segregation

-Difference in specific gravity of constituents. Lighter particles tend to

move upward and heavier particles tend to move downward

Concrete Bleeding

It is a form of segregation in which some of the water in the mix tends

to rise to the surface of freshly placed concrete.

Bleeding is not harmful if the rate of evaporation is equal to the rate of

evaporation

MIXING OF CONCRETE

MIXING OF CONCRETE

 It is essential that the mix ingredients are properly mixed so as

to produce fresh concrete in which the surface of all aggregate
particles is coated with cement paste and which is homogeneous on
the macro-scale and therefore possessing uniform properties.

HAND MIXING

Conventional Procedure of Mixing Concrete Manually:

1. Spread a plastic sheet on the ground
2. Measure out the materials
3. Place the stone and sand into a pile on the sheet
4. Place the cement on top of the pile of sand and stone
5. Shovel the material in the pile to one side, creating a new pile
and repeat three times
6. Make a deep crater in the pile and add water
7. Fold the mix in from the sides
8. Continue to fold inwards and "chop" the pile to distribute water
through the mix

CONCRETE MIXERS

 A device that homogeneously combines cement, aggregate such

as sand or gravel, and water to form concrete.

1. BATCH MIXER

Batch Mixer produced concrete batch by batch with time interval.

They are used in normal concrete works.

a. Pan Mixer – It is primarily used for making mortar, but also

used for preparing stiff and cohesive concrete mixes.
Use: at a central mixing plant, at a precast concrete plant,
or in a small version in the concrete laborator
b.Drum Mixer

 Tilting Drum Mixer – usually have a conical or bowl-shaped

drum with vanes inside. The discharge action is always good as
all the concrete can be tipped out rapidly and in an unsegregated
mass as soon as the drum is tilted.
Use: preferable for mixes of low workability and for those
containing large-size aggregate
  Non-tilting Drum Mixer – the axis of the mixer is always
horizontal, and discharge is obtained either by inserting a chute
into the drum or by reversing the direction of rotation of the
drum or rarely by splitting of the drum.

 Reversed or Forced Action Mixer – Rotate in one direction

for mixing and in reverse direction for discharged.
Use: suitable with dry concrete mixes

2. CONTINUOUS MIXER

Continuous mixers produce concrete continuously without

stoppage till such time the plant is working. They are generally
used in large works such as dams.

READY-MIXED CONCRETE

1. Central-mixed – The mixing is done at a central plant

and the mixed concrete is then transported, usually in an
agitator truck which revolves slowly so as to prevent
segregation and undue stiffening of the mix.

2. Transit-mixed or Truck-mixed – The materials are

batched at a central plant but are mixed in a mixer trucked
either in transit to the site or immediately prior to the
concrete being discharged.

CONCRETE PUMPS

 Is a machine used for transferring liquid concrete by

pumping.
 The pumping system consists essentially of a hopper
into which concrete is discharged from the mixer
  Special pumps operating at high pressures can pump
concrete up to 1400 m horizontally or 430 m vertically.
 Pumps can be truck- or trailer-mounted and can
deliver concrete through a folding boom.

TYPES:

I. Boom concrete pump

 The first type of concrete pump is attached to a truck or

longer units are on semi-trailers. It is known as a boom
concrete pump because it uses a remote-controlled
articulating robotic arm (called a boom) to place concrete
accurately. Boom pumps are used on most of the larger
construction projects as they are capable of pumping at
very high volumes and because of the labour saving nature
of the placing boom. They are a revolutionary alternative to
line-concrete pumps.


II. Line Pump

 The second main type of concrete pump is either mounted
on a truck or placed on a trailer, and it is commonly
referred to as a line pump or trailer-mounted concrete
pump. This pump requires steel or flexible concrete placing
hoses to be manually attached to the outlet of the
machine. Those hoses are linked together and lead to
wherever the concrete needs to be placed. Line pumps
normally pump concrete at lower volumes than boom
pumps and are used for smaller volume concrete placing
applications such as swimming pools, sidewalks, and single
family home concrete slabs and most ground slabs.

III. Direct-acting concrete pump

 Horizontal piston type with semi-rotary valves set to permit

always the passage of the largest particles of aggregate
being used: there is thus no full closure. Concrete is fed
into the pump by gravity and is also partially sucked in
during the suction stroke. The valves open and close with
 definite pauses so that concrete moves in a series of
impulses but the pipe always remains full.

IV. Squeeze-type concrete pump

 Also, portable peristaltic pumps. Concrete placed in a

collecting hopper is fed by rotating blades into a pliable
pipe located in a pumping chamber under vacuum. This
ensures that, except when squeezed by a roller, the pipe
has a normal (cylindrical) shape so that a continuous flow
of concrete is ensured. Two rotating rollers progressively
squeeze the tube and thus pump the concrete in the
suction pipe towards the delivery pipe.

KEY POINTS:

 The ratio of equivalent horizontal and vertical

distances varies with the consistency of the mix and with the
velocity of the concrete in the pipe: the greater the velocity
the smaller the ratio.
 The pipe diameter must be at least three times the
maximum aggregate size. It is important to note that
oversize in coarse aggregate should not be permitted to
avoid blockage at bends.
 Broadly speaking, the mix must not be harsh or
sticky, too dry or too wet, i.e. its consistency is critical. A
slump of between 50- 150mm is recommended.
 When the water content is at the correct, or critical,
value, friction develops only at the surface of the pipe and in
a thin, 1 to 2.5 mm layer of the lubricating mortar.

USES/ADVANTAGES:

 It can be delivered to points over a wide area

otherwise not easily accessible, with the mixing plant clear
 of the site; this is especially valuable on congested sites or
in special applications such as tunnel linings, etc.

 Pumping delivers the concrete direct from the mixer

to the form and so avoids double handling.

 Placing can proceed at the rate of the output of the

mixer, or of several mixers, and is not held back by the
limitations of the transporting and placing equipment.
SHOTCRETE

 This is the name given to mortar or concrete

conveyed through a hose and pneumatically projected at
high velocity onto a backup surface.
 Shotcrete exhibits durability comparable with
ordinary concrete.

2 PROCESSES:

I. DRY MIX PROCESS (Gunite or Dry Gunning)

 The dry mix method involves placing the dry

ingredients into a hopper and then conveying them
pneumatically through a hose to the nozzle. The nozzleman
controls the addition of water at the nozzle. The water and
the dry mixture is not completely mixed but is completed as
the mixture hits the receiving surface. This requires a skilled
nozzleman, especially in the case of thick or heavily
reinforced sections. Advantages of the dry mix process are
that the water content can be adjusted instantaneously by
the nozzleman, allowing more effective placement in
overhead and vertical applications without using
accelerators. The dry mix process is useful in repair
applications when it is necessary to stop frequently, as the
dry material is easily discharged from the hose.

II. WET MIX PROCESS

  Wet-mix shotcrete involves pumping of a previously
prepared concrete, typically ready-mixed concrete, to the
nozzle. Compressed air is introduced at the nozzle to impel
the mixture onto the receiving surface. The wet-process
procedure generally produces less rebound, waste (when
material falls to the floor), and dust compared to the dry-mix
process. The greatest advantage of the wet-mix process is
all the ingredients are mixed with the water and additives
required, and larger volumes can be placed in less time than
the dry process.

USES/ADVANTAGES/ DISADVANTAGES:

 Only one side of formwork or a substrate is needed.

This represents economy.
 The cement content of shotcrete is high.
 Shotcrete is used primarily in certain types of
construction: thin, lightly reinforced sections, such as roofs,
especially shell or folded plate, tunnel linings, and
prestressed tanks.
 Shotcrete is also used in repair of deteriorated
concrete, in stabilizing rock slopes, in encasing steel for
fireproofing, and as a thin overlay on concrete, masonry or
steel.
 Dry mix process is capable of greater delivery
lengths.

 Wet mix process gives a better control of the

quantity of mixing water (which is metered, as opposed to
judgement by the nozzle operator) and of any admixture
used. Also, the wet mix process leads to less dust being
produced and possibly to lower rebound.
KEYPOINTS:

 Generally, shotcrete is applied in a thickness up to

100 mm (4 in.).
 Curing of shotcrete is particularly important because
the large surface/volume ratio can lead to rapid drying.
Recommended practice is given.

UNDERWATER CONCRETE

I. INTRODUCTION

There are often situations such as basements, sewerage,

ducts, harbors, bridges, and marine works, in which concrete is
to be placed underwater, this process is called underwater
concreting.

UNDERWATER CONCRETE

 is a process in which the prepared concrete is poured

below the water surface by using suitable methods.

II. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN UNDERWATER AND CONVENTIONAL

CONCRETE

1. Workability Requirements
 Under water concrete must flow laterally and
compact itself under its own buoyant weight, while
conventional concrete is compacted with mechanical
vibration.
 

2. Mix Proportion
 Due to its special site conditions and peculiar
placement methods, underwater concrete mixes must be
further refined to meet the special requirement

III. PLACEMENT METHOD

TREMIE

 At present, the tremie placement method is the

standard way of placing high-quality concrete water. The
other placement method are not able to reliably place high
quality underwater concrete for major structures, although
they may find application in special cases.

 The word “tremie” originates from the French

language and translates to “hopper” in English.

 Tremie method gained popularity at the beginning of

the 20 century–both the Detroit River Tunnel and Pearl
th

Harbor used tremie methods in their construction.

 The tremie concrete placement method uses a pipe,

through which concrete is placed below water level.

 Tremie placing of concrete is similar to pumping but

the flow of concrete takes place under the force gravity only.

COMPONENTS OF TREMIE

 a pipe usually 10 inch. to 12 inch. diameter

 a hopper or funnel at the upper end

 For the spacing of tremie 3-5 times Depth of Tremie

pours.
  Two scientists Gerwick and Holland who comes with a
solution of concrete cracking. Reduce the probability of
cracking in concrete on hardening.

 They suggest that the use of blended cement:

16% Portland cement

78% slag
6% silica fume
 Tremie concrete procedures were used to repair
damage to a reef in the Florida Keys caused by vessel
impact.

 The ship impact destroyed the living surface of the

reef over an area of approximately 50-ft by 70-ft, forming a
shallow crater in the reef.

PREPLACED AGGREGATE
 concrete is concrete that is made by forcing into the
voids of a mass of clean, graded coarse aggregate densely
pre-packed in formwork.

Used as:
 Massive reinforcement steel and embedded items
are present
 Underwater repairs
 Concrete and masonry repair

Composition of Preplaced Aggregate Concrete:

 Sand
 Cement
 Pozzolana
 Plasticizer
 Air entraining agent

STAGES OF PREPLACED AGGREGATE CONCRETE

Two Stages of Preplaced Aggregate Concrete

1. Uniformly graded coarse aggregate is placed in the forms
  The volume of coarse aggregate represents about 65
to 70 per cent of the overall volume to be concreted.
 Either rounded or crushed aggregate is suitable
 The coarse aggregate must be free from dirt and
dust because, since these are not removed in mixing, they
would impair bond.
 The aggregate must be saturated and preferably
gently inundated.

2. Pressure pumping of mortar through slotted pipes

 Typically 35 mm (or in.) in diameter and spaced at 2 m (7
ft) centres.

 An intrusion aid is added in order to improve the fluidity of

the mortar and to hold the solid constituents in suspension.

 Strengths of about 40 MPa (6000 psi) are usual but higher

strengths are also possible.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PREPLACED AGGREGATE CONCRETE AND

CONVENTIONAL CONCRETE

 PAC is different than conventional concrete methods

because its components are placed in separate steps. Like
the name implies, the aggregates are placed before the
grout mixture.

USES

1. Mass construction
 Cooling can be achieved by circulating refrigerated
water round the aggregate and thus chilling it.
 At the other extreme, in cold weather when frost
damage is feared, steam can be circulated in order to pre-
heat the aggregate.

2. To provide an exposed aggregate finish

  Special aggregates are placed against the surfaces
and become subsequently exposed by sandblasting or by
acid wash.

VIBRATION OF CONCRETE

 Vibration of concrete is carried out for the sake of

consolidation, wherein its purpose is to achieve the highest
possible density.
 Almost 5 to 8% by volume of freshly placed concrete
in the form is occupied by air bubbles. Vibration of concrete
is the only suitable method that helps without affecting
much the properties of fresh concrete. Vibration is only
affected in a fresh mix concrete or one can say up to that
time, when concrete has the ability to flow.

ADVANTAGES OF VIBRATION
1. Reduces the internal friction by randomizing concrete.
2. It is an economical way to compact the concrete with the
less water cement ratio.
3. Congestion of the reinforcement
4. Inaccessibility of concrete in formwork.
5. Poor shape and texture of aggregates
TYPES OF VIBRATORS

1.INTERNAL VIBRATOR

 This is the most common vibrators.

 They are also called IMMERSION, POKER or NEEDLE
VIBRATORS.
 It consists essentially of a poker, housing an
eccentric shaft driven through a flexible drive from a motor.
The poker is immersed in concrete and thus applies
approximately harmonic forces to it.
  Frequency of vibration: varies up to 12000 cycle’s
vibration/min. (more recently, vibration at 4000 to 7000
cycles has found favor.)
 Desirable Min. frequency: between 3500 and 5000
Acceleration: not less than 4g

2.EXTERNAL VIBRATORS

 They are also called form vibrators.

 This type of vibrator is rigidly clamped to the
formwork resting on an elastic support, so that both the form
and the concrete are vibrated.
 Frequency of vibration: between 3000 and 6000
cycles of vibration per minute. (some vibrators reached
9000 cycles per minute)
 Recommended: at least 8000 cycles

USE:
 for precast or thin in situ sections of such shape or
thickness that an internal vibrator cannot be conveniently
used. These vibrators are effective for concrete sections up
to 600 mm (24 in.) thick.

3.VIBRATING TABLES

 A rapidly rotating eccentric mass makes

the table vibrate with a circular motion. With two
shafts rotating in opposite directions, the
horizontal component of vibration can be
neutralized so that the table is subjected to a simple
harmonic motion in the vertical direction only.
 Frequency of vibration: varies between 50 and about
120 Hz
 Acceleration: 4gto7g is desirable

USE:
 Vibrating tables are used for compacting stiff and
harsh mixes used in precast structural members in factories
and laboratory specimens. It also provides a reliable means
 of compaction of precast concrete and has the advantage of
offering uniform treatment.

Other Vibrators

4.SURFACE VIBRATOR
 Also called SCREED or PAN VIBRATORS.
 Applies vibration through a flat plate direct to the top
surface of the concrete. They are effective only if depth of
concrete is up to 20 cm.

5.ELECTRIC HAMMER
 Can be used as a surface vibrator when fitted with a
bit having a large flat area.Application: in compacting test
cubes

6.VIBRATING ROLLER
 Is used for consolidating thin slabs.

Revibration
 Is delayed application of vibration to concrete which
has placed and compacted already.
This condition arises where concrete is placing in layers for a
relatively deep member. Where first layer is vibrated and
may have hardened partially and application of vibration is
transmitted to the underlying layer. In some cases this is
done intentionally. On the basis of experimental results, it
appears that concrete can be successfully revibrated up to
about 4hours from the time of mixing provided the vibrator
will sink under its own weight into the concrete.

VACUUM DEWATERED CONCRETE

VACUUM DEWATERED CONCRETE

PROCEDURE:
 1. Cover the fully compacted and accurately leveled
slab with fine filter pads which prevent the removal of
cement together with the water.
2. When filter sheets are moved to an adjoining area,
place them to abut but not overlap the area just dewatered.
3. If dewatering equipment with a flexible top suction
mat is being used, place the rolled-up mat centrally on the
area to be dewatered and then roll it out flat so that it
covers the filter sheets and projects an extra 150 millimeters
all around onto the fresh concrete.
4. Connect the hose from the mat to the vacuum pump
and start the suction.
5. Keep the suction at the amount of vacuum
recommended by the manufacturer of the equipment for
about one and one-half minutes for each 10 millimeter of
slab thickness.
6. Just before stopping the vacuum pump, break the
suction on the concrete by lifting the edge of the top suction
mat for a few seconds.
7. After the suction is shut off remove the mat and
filters. A man can stand on this surface immediately.
8. Continue with additional placing and leveling of
concrete while an area is being dewatered so that good
construction progress is maintained.

ADVANTAGES:
1. The amount of water removed would be equal to the
contraction in the total volume of concrete and no voids
would be produced.
2. A higher degree of consolidation is achieved.
3. Vacuum-dewatering can be used over a fairly wide
range of aggregate/cement ratios and aggregate grading.
4. Vacuum-dewatered concrete stiffens very rapidly so
that formwork can be removed within about 30 minutes of
casting.
5. It bonds well to old concrete and can be used for
resurfacing road slabs and in other repair work.

STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

I. Water - Cement Ratio

The Importance of Water/Cement Ratio

Three simple ingredients can be blended and proportioned numerous

ways to make concrete: aggregate, cement and water. In concrete, the single
most significant influence on most or all the properties is the amount of
water used in the mix.

Water - Cement Ratio - the ratio of the amount of water to the amount of
cement used (both by weight)

Relation Between Strength and Water – Cement Ratio of Concrete:

The more the w/c ratio is increased (that is, the more water that is
added for a fixed amount of cement), the more the strength of the resulting
concrete is reduced. This is mostly because adding more water creates a
diluted paste that is weaker and more susceptible to cracking and shrinkage.
Shrinkage leads to micro-cracks, which are zones of weakness. Once the
fresh concrete is placed, excess water is squeezed out of the paste by the
weight of the aggregate and the cement paste itself. When there is a large
excess of water, that water bleeds out onto the surface. The micro channels
and passages that were created inside the concrete to allow that water to
flow become weak zones and micro-cracks.

Functions of Water in Concrete

It hydrates the cement, which is an essential chemical reaction for

formation of complex silicate crystalline gels that are responsible for the
strength of the cement. It lubricates all the concrete ingredients, by passing
around them in the form of films. Hence it is responsible for the plasticity and
mobility of concrete which define its workability.
Effect of Excessive Water on Concrete-Mix

Both the above processes (of the escape of additional water) result in
voids in the concrete. And the development of voids always reduces its
strength. Hence an attempt is made to keep the “Water Cement Ratio” as
low as possible to obtain a strong, dense concrete-mix. Any extra amount of
water added to concrete ingredients at the time of mixing also cause
segregation of aggregates during transport and placement. This is another
defect of extra water added to concrete-mix.

II. Factors Affecting Strength Development

For a given cement and acceptable aggregates, the strength that may
be developed by a workable, properly placed mixture of cement, aggregates,
and water (under the same mixing, curing, and testing conditions) is
influenced by the:
a.) Ratio of Cement to Mixing Water
b.) Ratio of Cement to Aggregate
c.) Grading, Surface Texture, Shape, Strength, and Stiffness of
Aggregate Particles
d.) Maximum size of aggregates
e.) Weather Condition

III. Influence of Porosity

Porosity - can be defined as the total volume of the overall volume of the
pores larger than the gel pores, expressed as a percentage of the overall
volume of the cement paste.

Porosity Factors Affecting Concrete Strength

- The strength of concrete is fundamentally a function of the volume of
voids in it. The strength of concrete is influenced by:

 The volume of all the voids in the concrete

 Entrapped Air
 Capillary Pores
 Gel Pores
 Entrained Air

Porosity of Aggregates on Concrete Strength

- The porosity of the aggregate influences the

 Bond between the cement paste and the aggregate

  Workability of the Fresh Concrete
 Strength of the Concrete

Strength of Plaster as a Function of its Void Content

IV. Influence of Properties of Coarse Aggregates on Strength

Vertical cracking in a specimen subjected to uniaxial compression

starts under a load equal to 50 to 75 percent of the ultimate load. This has
been determined from measurements of the velocity of sound transmitted
through the concrete and using ultrasonic pulse velocity techniques. The
stress at which the cracks develop depends largely on the properties of the
coarse aggregate: smooth gravel leads to cracking at lower stresses than
rough and angular crushed rock, probably because mechanical bond is
influenced by the surface properties and, to a certain degree, by the shape
of the coarse aggregate.

Relation Between Flexural Strength And Relation Between Compressive Strength

Compressive Stress At And Indirect Tensile Strength For
Cracking For Concretes Made With Concretes Of Constant Workability Made
Different Coarse Aggregates: With Various Aggregates:
 The influence of the type of coarse aggregate on the strength of
concrete varies in magnitude and depends on the water/cement ratio of the
mix. For water/cement ratios below 0.4, the use of crushed aggregate has
resulted in strengths up to 38 per cent higher than when gravel is used. With
an increase in the water/cement ratio, the influence of aggregate falls off,
presumably because the strength of the hydrated cement paste itself
becomes paramount and, at a water/cement ratio of 0.65, no difference in
the strengths of concretes made with crushed rock and gravel has been
observed.

V. Influence of Aggregate/Cement ratio on Strength

There is no doubt that the aggregate/cement ratio, is only a secondary

factor in the strength of concrete but it has been found that, for a constant
water/cement ratio, a leaner mix leads to a higher strength.

Influence of the aggregate/cement ratio on strength of concrete

The reasons for this behaviour are not clear. In certain cases, some
water may be absorbed by the aggregate: a larger amount of aggregate
absorbs a greater quantity of water, the effective water/cement ratio being
thus reduced. In other cases, a higher aggregate content would lead to lower
shrinkage and lower bleeding, and therefore to less damage to the bond
between the aggregate and the cement paste; likewise, the thermal changes
caused by the heat of hydration of cement would be smaller.

VI. Effect of Age on Strength of strength

 In concrete practice, the strength of concrete is traditionally
characterized by the 28-day value, and some other properties of concrete
are often referred to the 28-day strength. There is no scientific significance in
the choice of the age of 28 days; it is simply that early cements gained
strength slowly and it was necessary to base the strength description on
concrete in which a significant hydration of cement had already taken place.
The specific choice of a multiple of weeks was, in all likelihood, made so that
testing, like placing, would fall on a working day. In modern Portland
cements, the rate of hydration is much greater than in the past, both
because they have a much higher fineness and because they have a higher
C3S content. This is, however, not necessarily the case with all blended
cements.

It is arguable that a shorter period than 28 days could be used for the
characterization of strength, but the age of 28 days seems to have acquired
an immutable position. Thus, compliance with the specification is almost
invariably laid down in terms of the 28-day strength. If, for some reason, the
28-day strength is to be estimated from the strength determined at an
earlier age, say 7 days, then the relation between the 28-day and the 7-day
strengths has to be established experimentally for the given mix.

HARDENED CONCRETE

CURING OF CONCRETE
 Curing is the name given to procedures used for promoting the
hydration of cement, and consists of a control of temperature and of the
moisture movement from and into the concrete.

The object of curing is to keep concrete saturated, or as nearly

saturated as possible, until the originally water-filled space in the fresh
cement paste has been filled to the desired extent by the products of
hydration of cement.

In the case of site concrete, active curing stops nearly always before
the maximum possible hydration has taken place.

 Importance of Curing

Preventing loss of water from the concrete adversely affects the

development of strength, and also prevents plastic shrinkage,
increased permeability, and reduced resistance to abrasion.

 Methods of curing

1. Wet curing - providing water which can be imbibed by the concrete.

2. Membrane curing - relies on the prevention of loss of water from the

surface of the concrete, without the possibility of external water
that ingress into it

- This could be called a water-barrier method.

- spray-applied curing compounds which form a

membrane.

AUTOGENOUS HEALING
 Fine cracks in fractured concrete, if allowed to close without tangential
displacement, will heal completely under moist conditions-- this is known as
autogenous healing,

 Cause: hydration of the un-hydrated cement which becomes exposed

to water upon the opening of the cracks.

 The maximum width of cracks which can undergo autogenous healing

is estimated to be between 0.1 and 0.2mm.

Necessary moist conditions:

 Frequent periodic wetting

 Immersion, but not fast-flowing water or high-water pressure, which is

not conducive to reducing the movement of water through the crack.

The application of pressure across the crack assists in healing.

STRENGTHS OF HARDENED CONCRETE

Variability of strength of cement

 The variation in strength of cement is due largely to the lack of

uniformity in the raw materials used in its manufacture, not only
between different sources of supply, but also within a pit or quarry.

 The loss of strength due to inadequate curing is more pronounced in

smaller specimens, but the loss is smaller in lightweight aggregate
concrete.

 Tensile and compressive strengths are affected in a similar manner; in

both cases, richer mixes are slightly more susceptible.

FATIGUE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

  When a material fails under a number of repeated loads, each smaller
than the static compressive strength, failure in fatigue is said to take
place.

 Failure will, however, take place only above a certain limiting value of
σh, known as fatigue limit or endurance limit.

 If σh is below the fatigue limit, the stress–strain curve will indefinitely

remain straight, and failure in fatigue will not take place.

IMPACT STRENGTH

 Impact strength is of importance when concrete is subjected to a

repeated falling object, as in pile driving, or a single impact of a large
mass at a high velocity.

 The principal criteria are the ability of a specimen to withstand

repeated blows and to absorb energy.

 The impact strength of concrete increases with an increase in

compressive strength, but the higher the static compressive strength
of the concrete the lower the energy absorbed per blow before
cracking.

Dahms’

 For the same compressive strength, the impact strength is greater for
coarse aggregate of greater angularity and surface roughness.

 Impact strength is more closely related to the tensile strength of

concrete than to its compressive strength.

 Concrete made with a gravel coarse aggregate has a low impact

strength, failure taking place due to insufficient bond between mortar
and coarse aggregate. On the other hand, when the surface of the
 aggregate is rough, the concrete is able to develop the full strength of
much of the aggregate in the region of failure.

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

Electrical properties are of concern in some specific applications such as

railway ties (sleepers)

(where inadequate resistivity affects some signaling systems) or in structures

in which concrete is used for protection from stray currents.

 Electrical resistance of concrete also influences progress of corrosion of

embedded steel.

 Electrical properties are also of interest in studies of the properties of

both fresh and hardened concrete.

ACOUSTIC PROPERTIES

In many buildings, acoustic characteristics are of importance and these

may be greatly influenced by the material used and by structural details.
Here, only the properties of the material will be considered, the influence of
the structural form and construction details being a specialized topic.

Two acoustic properties of a building material:

1. Sound absorption

- we can define a sound absorption coefficient as a measure

of the proportion of the sound energy striking a surface
which is absorbed by that surface.
2. Sound transmission

- sound transmission loss (or airborne-sound insulation) as

the difference, measured in decibels (dB), between the
incident sound energy and the transmitted sound energy
(which radiates into an adjoining room).

- The primary factor in transmission loss is the unit mass of

the partition per square meter of area.

ELASTICITY, SHRINKAGE AND CREEP

ELASTICITY AND SHRINKAGE

 1. STRESS-STRAIN RELATION AND MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

Figure 1 Diagrammatic
representation of the stress–
strain relation for
In compression tests, a small concave- up
part of the curve at the beginning of loading is sometimes encountered; this
is due to the closing of pre-existing fine shrinkage cracks. From the figure, it
can be seen that the term Young’s modulus of elasticity can, strictly
speaking, be applied only to the straight part of the stress–strain curve, or,
when no straight portion is present, to the tangent to the curve at the origin.
This is the initial tangent modulus, but it is of limited practical importance.

The magnitude of the observed strains and the curvature of the stress–
strain relation depend, at least in part, on the rate of application of stress.

The secant modulus, also known as the chord modulus, is a static

modulus because it is determined from an experimental stress–strain relation
on a test cylinder, in contradistinction to the dynamic modulus.

Expressions for stress–strain curve

Because the precise shape of the entire stress–strain curve for concrete is
not a property of the material per se but depends on the test arrangements,
there is little of fundamental importance in formulating an equation for the
stress–strain relation.

Where ε = strain

σ = stress

ε0 = strain at maximum stress, and

E = initial tangent modulus, assumed to be

twice the secant modulus at maximum stress
 σmax, i.e.

2. Dynamic modulus of elasticity

The preceding section dealt exclusively with the static modulus of
elasticity, which gives the strain response to an applied stress of known
intensity. There exists another type of modulus, known as the dynamic
modulus, which is determined by means of vibration of a concrete specimen,
only a negligible stress being applied.

3. Poisson’s Ratio
When a uniaxial load is applied to a concrete specimen it produces a
longitudinal strain in the direction of the applied load and, at the same time,
a lateral strain of opposite sign. The ratio of the lateral strain to the
longitudinal strain is called Poisson’s ratio; the sign of the ratio is ignored.

4. Early Volume Changes

When discussing the progress of hydration of cement, the resulting
changes in volume were mentioned. The chief of these is the reduction in the
volume of the system cement-plus-water: while the cement paste is plastic,
it undergoes a volumetric contraction whose magnitude is of the order of one
per cent of the absolute volume of dry cement. However, the extent of
hydration prior to setting is small and, once a certain rigidity of the system of
hydrating cement paste has developed, the contraction induced by the loss
of water by hydration is greatly restrained.

Water can also be lost by evaporation from the surface of the concrete while
it is still in the plastic state. A similar loss can occur by suction by the
underlying dry concrete or soil. This contraction is known as plastic shrinkage
because the concrete is still in the plastic state. The magnitude of plastic
shrinkage is affected by the amount of water lost from the surface of the
concrete, which is influenced by temperature, ambient relative humidity, and
wind velocity. However, the rate of loss of water per se does not predict
plastic shrinkage; much depends on the rigidity of the mix. If the amount of
water lost per unit area exceeds the amount of water brought to the surface
by bleeding and is large, surface cracking can occur. This is known as plastic
shrinkage cracking. Complete prevention of evaporation immediately after
casting eliminates cracking.

Figure 4 Plastic Shrinkage of Neat Cement Paste Stored in Air at a Relative Humidity of 50 per cent
and Temperature of 20 °C (68 °F)

5. Autogenous shrinkage

Volume changes occur also after setting has taken place, and may be in the
form of shrinkage or swelling. Continued hydration, when a supply of water is
present, leads to expansion but, when no moisture movement to or from the
cement paste is permitted, shrinkage occurs. This shrinkage is the
consequence of withdraw- al of water from the capillary pores by the
hydration of the hitherto unhydrated cement, a process known as self-
desiccation.

Shrinkage of such a conservative system is known as autogenous shrinkage

or autogenous volume change, and it occurs in practice in the interior of a
concrete mass. The contraction of the cement paste is restrained by the rigid
skeleton of the already hydrated cement paste and also by the aggregate
particles. In consequence, autogenous shrinkage of concrete is an order of
magnitude smaller than in neat cement paste.

6. Swelling

Cement paste or concrete cured continuously in water from the time of

placing exhibits a net in- crease in volume and an increase in mass. This
swelling is due to the absorption of water by the cement gel: the water
molecules act against the cohesive forces and tend to force the gel particles
further apart, with a resultant swelling pressure. In addition, the ingress of
water decreases the surface tension of the gel, and a further small expansion
takes place.

Swelling is accompanied by an increase in mass of the order of 1 per cent.

The increase in mass is thus considerably greater than the increase in
volume because water enters to occupy the space created by the decrease
in volume on hydration of the system cement-plus-water.

Swelling is larger in sea water and also under high pressure; such conditions
exist in deep sea- water structures. At a pressure of 10 MPa (which
corresponds to a depth of 100 m), the magnitude of swelling after 3 years
can be about eight times higher than at atmospheric pressure. Swelling
which entails movement of sea water into concrete has implications for the
ingress of chlorides into concrete

7. Drying Shrinkage

Withdrawal of water from concrete stored in un- saturated air causes

drying shrinkage. A part of this movement is irreversible and should be
distinguished from the reversible moisture movement caused by alternating
storage under wet and dry conditions.

Mechanism of Shrinkage

The change in the volume of drying concrete is not equal to the volume of
water removed. The loss of free water, which takes place first, causes little or
no shrinkage. As drying continues, adsorbed water is removed and the
change in the volume of unrestrained hydrated cement paste at that stage is
equal approximately to the loss of a water layer one molecule thick from the
surface of all gel particles. Since the ‘thickness’ of a water molecule is about
1 per cent of the gel particle size, a linear change in dimensions of cement
paste on complete drying would be expected to be of the order of 10 000 ×
10–6; values up to 4000 × 10–6 have actually been observed.

In concrete specimens, the loss of water with time depends on the size of
specimen. A generalized pattern of loss of water with distance from the
drying surfaces was developed by Mensi et al. on the assumption that the
rate of diffusion of vapor is proportional to the square root of time elapsed.
 8. Factors influencing shrinkage

As far as shrinkage of the hydrated cement paste itself is concerned,

shrinkage is larger the higher the water/cement ratio because the latter
determines the amount of evaporable water in the cement paste and the
rate at which water can move towards the surface of the specimen. Brooks
demonstrated that shrinkage of hydrated cement paste is directly
proportional to the water/cement ratio between the values of about 0.2 and
0.6. At higher water/cement ratios, the additional water is removed upon
drying without resulting in shrinkage.

Influence of Curing and Storage Conditions

Shrinkage takes place over long periods: some movement has been
observed even after 28 years, but a part of the long-term shrinkage is likely
to be due to carbonation. The rate of shrinkage decreases rapidly with time.

9. Prediction of shrinkage

According to ACI 209R-92,the development of shrinkage with time follows the

equation

where
st = shrinkage after t days since the end of 7-day moist
curing
sult = ultimate shrinkage, and
t = time in days since the end of moist curing

Prediction of the development of shrinkage by the above equation is

subject to considerable variability, but the equation can be used to estimate
ultimate shrinkage of a wide range of moist- cured concretes. It can be seen
that one-half of the ultimate shrinkage is expected to occur after 35 days’
drying. For steam-cured concrete, the value of 35 in the denominator is
replaced by 55, and time t is reckoned from the end of steam curing at 1 to 3
days.

A method for determination of short-term shrinkage is prescribed in BS

1881-5 : 1984: the specimens are dried for a specified period under
prescribed conditions of temperature and humidity. The shrinkage occurring
under these conditions is about the same as that after a long exposure to air
with a relative humidity of approximately 65 per cent, and is therefore in
excess of the shrinkage encountered outdoors in the British Isles.

The magnitude of shrinkage can be determined using a measuring frame

fitted with a micrometer gauge or a dial gauge reading to 10–5 strain, or by
means of an extensometer or strain gauges. The American test method is
prescribed by ASTM C 157-93; the air movement past the test specimens is
carefully controlled and the relative humidity is maintained at 50 per cent.
The ISO method is described in BS ISO 1920 : 2009.

10. Differential shrinkage

Moisture loss takes place only at the surface so that a moisture gradient is
established in the concrete specimen, which is thus subjected to differential
shrinkage. The potential shrinkage is compensated by the strains due to
internal stresses, tensile near the surface and compressive in the core.

It may be useful to point out that the values of shrinkage generally quoted
are those of free shrinkage, or potential shrinkage, that is, contraction
unrestrained either internally or by external constraints on a structural member.

The progress of shrinkage extends gradually from the drying surface into the
interior of the concrete but does so only extremely slowly.
Fig. 9.19. Progress of shrinkage with time as a function of distance from
drying surface (no drying possible in other directions). (Shrinkage values
corrected for temperature differences)

Because drying takes place at the surface of concrete, the magnitude of

shrinkage varies considerably with the size and shape of the specimen, being a
function of the surface/volume ratio. For practical purposes, shrinkage cannot be
considered as purely an inherent property of concrete without reference to the
size of the concrete member.

The observed shrinkage decreases with an increase in the size of the specimen
but, above some value, the size effect is small initially, although pronounced later.
The shape of the specimen also appears to enter the picture but, as a first
approximation, shrinkage can be expressed as a function of the volume/surface
ratio of the specimen. Furthermore, the ratio is linearly related to the logarithm of
time required for half the shrinkage to be achieved.
Fig. 9.20. Relation between axial shrinkage and width of concrete prisms of
square cross-section and length/width ratio of 4 (drying allowed at all
surfaces)

11. Shrinkage-induced cracking

As mentioned in connection with differential shrinkage, the importance of

shrinkage in structures is largely related to cracking. Strictly speaking, we are
concerned with the cracking tendency because the advent or absence of cracking
depends not only on the potential contraction but also on the extensibility of
concrete, its strength, and its degree of restraint to the deformation that may lead
to cracking. A high extensibility of concrete is generally desirable because it
permits concrete to withstand greater volume changes.

Cracking can be avoided only if the stress induced by the free shrinkage strain,
reduced by creep, is at all times smaller than the tensile strength of the concrete.

Two fold effects:

 1. Strength increases reducing the danger of
cracking.
2. The modulus of elasticity also increases so that
the stress induced by a given shrinkage becomes
larger.

Furthermore, the creep relief decreases with age so that the cracking
tendency becomes greater. A minor practical point is that, if the cracks due
to restrained shrinkage form at an early stage, and moisture subsequently
has access to the crack, many of the cracks will become closed by
autogenous healing.

Fig. 9.22. Schematic pattern of crack development when tensile stress due to
restrained shrinkage is relieved by creep

One of the most important factors in cracking is the water/cement ratio of the
mix because its increase tends to increase shrinkage and, at the same time, to
reduce the strength of the concrete. An increase in the cement content also
increases shrinkage and, therefore, the cracking tendency, but the effect on
strength is positive. This applies to drying shrinkage.

The use of admixtures may influence the cracking tendency through an

interplay of effects on hardening, shrinkage, and creep. Specifically, retarders may
allow more shrinkage to be accommodated in the form of plastic shrinkage and
also probably increase the extensibility of concrete, and therefore reduce cracking.
On the other hand, if concrete has attained rigidity too rapidly, it cannot
accommodate the would-be plastic shrinkage and, having a low strength, cracks.

12. Moisture movement

 If concrete which has been allowed to dry in air of a given relative humidity is
subsequently placed in water (or at a higher humidity) it will swell. Not all initial
drying shrinkage is, however, recovered, even after prolonged storage in water. For
the usual range of concretes, the irreversible part of shrinkage represents between
0.3 and 0.6 of the drying shrinkage, he lower value being more common. he
absence of fully reversible behaviour is probably due to the introduction of
additional bonds within the gel during the period of drying, when closer contact
between the gel particles is established.

The influence on moisture movement of curing before drying and of

carbonation during drying may explain why there is no simple relation between the
magnitude of moisture movement and shrinkage.

Typical Values of Moisture Movement of Mortar and Concrete Dried at 50

°C(122 °F) and Immersed in Water

For a given concrete, there is a gradual reduction in the moisture movement

during succeeding cycles, probably due to the creation of additional bonds within
the gel. f the water storage periods are of sufficient duration, the continued
hydration of cement results in some additional swelling so that there is a net
increase in dimensions superimposed on the reversible movement due to drying
and wetting.

13. Carbonation shrinkage

In addition to shrinkage upon drying, the surface zone of concrete undergoes

shrinkage due to carbonation, and some of the experimental data on drying
shrinkage include the effects of carbonation. Drying shrinkage and carbonation
shrinkage are, however, quite distinct in nature.
 Loss of mass of concrete due to drying and carbonation

Carbonation shrinkage is probably caused by the dissolving of crystals of

Ca(OH)2 while under a compressive stress (imposed by the drying shrinkage) and
depositing of CaCO3 in spaces free from stress; the compressibility of the hydrated
cement paste is thus temporarily increased. If carbonation proceeds to the stage of
dehydration of C-S-H, this also produces carbonation shrinkage.

Influence of the sequence of drying and carbonation of mortar on shrinkage

When concrete is subjected to alternating wetting and drying in air containing

CO2, shrinkage due to carbonation (during the drying cycle) becomes
progressively more apparent. The total shrinkage at any stage is greater than if
drying took place in CO2-free air, o that carbonation increases the magnitude of
irreversible shrinkage and may contribute to crazing of exposed concrete. Crazing
is a form of shallow cracking induced by the restrained shrinkage of the surface
zone against the non-shrinking interior of the concrete.

14. Shrinkage compensation by the use of expansive cements

 The discussion of drying shrinkage earlier in this chapter should have made it
clear that shrinkage is probably one of the least desirable properties of concrete.
When shrinkage is restrained, it may lead to shrinkage cracking, which mars the
appearance of concrete and makes it more vulnerable to attack by external
agents, thus adversely affecting durability. It is not surprising, therefore, that many
attempts have been made to develop a cement which, on hydration, would
counteract the deformation induced by shrinkage.

In special cases, even a net expansion of concrete on hardening may be

advantageous. Concrete containing such an expansive cement expands in the first
few days of its life, and a form of prestress is obtained by restraining this expansion
with steel reinforcement: steel is put in tension and concrete in compression.
Restraint by external means is also possible. Such concrete is known as shrinkage-
compensating concrete.

It is also possible to use expansive cement in order to produce self-stressing

concrete, in which the restrained expansion, remaining after most of the shrinkage
has occurred, is high enough to induce a significant compressive stress in concrete
(up to about 7 MPa (1000 psi)).

Diagrammatic representation of length changes of shrinkage-compensating

and Portland cement concretes

15. Types of expansive cements

Early development of expansive cements took place in Russia and in France,

where Lossier used a mixture of Portland cement, an expanding agent, and a
stabilizer. The expanding agent was obtained by burning a mixture of gypsum,
bauxe and chalk, which form calcium sulfate and calcium aluminate (mainly C5A3).
In the presence of water, these compounds react to form calcium sulfoaluminate
hydrate (ettringite), with an accompanying expansion of the cement paste. The
stabilizer, which is blast furnace slag, slowly takes up the excess calcium sulfate
and brings expansion to an end.

The three types of expansive cement recognized by ACI 223R-939.91 and by ASTM
C 845-04, are:

O Type K which contains 4CaO . 3A12O3. SO3 and uncombined CaO

O Type M which contains calcium alumin-ates CA and C12A7, and

O Type S which contains C3A in excess of the amount normally present in

Portland cement.

In addition, in Japan, there is produced an expansive cement which uses specially

processed calcium oxide9.8 to produce free-lime expansion.This cement is called
Type O.

Special expansive cements, containing high-alumina cement, for particular

purposes where an extremely high expansion is required, can also be produced.

CREEP

- Can be defined as the increase in strain under a sustained stress and,

because this increase can be several times as large as the strain on
loading, creep is of considerable importance in structures.

- Creep may also be viewed from another standpoint: if the restraint is

such that a stressed concrete specimen is subjected to a constant
strain, creep will manifest itself as a progressive decrease in stress
with time.

- Creep is calculated as the difference between the total time-

deformation of the loaded specimen and the shrinkage of a similar
unloaded specimen stored under the same condition through the same
period.

- Creep recovery – if a sustained load is removed, the strain decreases

immediately by an amount equal to the elastic strain at the given age
generally lower than the elastic strain on loading. This instantaneous
recovery is called creep recovery. Creep recovery is of importance in
 predicting deformation of concrete under a stress which varies with
time.

FACTORS INFLUENCING CREEP

1. Influence of Stress and Strength

There is a great proportionality between creep and the applied

stress, with a possible exception of specimens loaded at a very
early age. There is no lower limit of proportionality because
concrete undergoes creep even at a very low stress.

The strength of concrete has a considerable influence on creep:

within a wide range, creep is inversely proportional to the
strength of concrete at the time of application of load. It is thus
possible to express creep as a linear function of the
stress/strength ratio.

2. Influence of properties of cement

The type of cement affects creep in so far as it influences the

strength of the concrete at the time of application of load. For
this reason, any comparison of creep of concrete made with
different cements should take into account the influence of the
type of application of load.

Fineness of cement affects the strength development at early

ages and thus influences creep. It does not seem, however, the
fineness per se is a factor in creep: contradictory results may be
due to the indirect influence of gypsum. The finer the cement the
higher its gypsum requirement, so that re-grinding a cement in
the laboratory without the addition of gypsum produces an
improperly retarded cement, which exhibits high shrinkage and
high creep.

There may, however, be some influences on creep of the

structure of the hydrated cement arising from inclusion of the
various cementitious materials. It should be remembered that
the various cementitious materials have different rates of
hydration and therefore of gain of strength while the concrete is
under load. The rate of gain of strength affects creep.

3. Influence of ambient relative humidity

One of the most important factors influencing creep is the

relative humidity of the air surrounding the concrete. Taking a
 broad view, we can say that, for a given concrete, creep is higher
the lower the relative humidity.

4. Other influences

-temperature

-deformation

-torsion

RELATION BETWEEN CREEP AND TIME

Creep is usually determined by measuring the

change with time in the strain of a specimen
subjected to a constant stress and stored under
appropriate conditions. ASTM C 512-02 describes a
spring-loaded frame which maintains a constant
load on a concrete test cylinder despite any
change in its length. However, for comparative
tests on concrete with untried aggregates or
admixtures, an even simpler test apparatus can be
used (Fig. 1). Here, the load has to be adjusted
from time to time, its value being determined by a dynamometer in series
with the concrete specimens.

The apparatus of Fig. 1 can be used for accelerated creep tests by immersion
in water at a temperature of between 45 and 65 °C. As mentioned earlier, a
higher temperature leads to a higher creep so that, after 7 days, any
difference between an unknown concrete and a reference concrete can be
easily detected. This accelerated creep appears to Fig. 1 A simple test rig for the
be linearly related to the 100-day creep at normal determination of creep of concrete
under an approximately constant stress.
temperature for a wide range of mixes and
aggregates, as shown in Fig. 2.
Creep continues for a very long time, if not
indefinitely, the longest determination to
date indicating that a small increase in
creep takes place after as long as 30 years
(Fig. 2); the tests were then discontinued
because of interference by carbonation of
the specimens. The rate of creep decreases,
however, at a continuous rate, and it is
generally assumed that creep tends to a
limiting value after an infinite time under
load; this has not, however, been proved.

Figure 3 gives long-term measurements of

Troxell et al., and it can be seen that, if
creep after 1 year under load is taken as unity, then the average values of
creep at later ages are:

1.14 after 2 years

Fig. 2 Relation between creep in the accelerated 7-
1.20 after 5 years day test at a higher temperature and 100-day creep
1.26 after 10 years at normal temperature for various concrete mixes.

1.33 after 20 years, and

1.36 after 30 years.

These values show that ultimate creep may

be in excess of 1.36 times the one-year creep,
although for calculation purposes it is often assumed that the 30-year creep
represents the ultimate creep.

Numerous mathematical expressions relating

creep and time have been suggested. One of the most convenient is the
hyperbolic expression, introduced by Ross9.122 and by Lorman. Ross
expresses creep c after time t under Fig. 3 Range of creep–time curves for different concretes stored
load as at various relative humidities.

t
c=
a+bt

When t = ∞, then c = 1/b, i.e. 1/b is the limiting value of creep. The symbols
a and b represent
constants determined from
experimental results: by plotting t/c
against t, a straight line of slope
b is obtained, and the intercept of the t/c axis is equal to a. The straight line
should be drawn so
as to pass through the points at later ages, there being generally some
deviation from the straight
line during the early period after the application of the load.

ACI 209R-92 uses a modified Ross expression, the main difference being the
application of a power exponent of 0.6 to time t. ACI 209R-92 also offers
values of coefficients to allow for various factors influencing creep.

The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, which has made an extensive study of creep
of concrete in dams, where only basic creep occurs, has found that creep can
be represented by an expression of the type

c = F(K) loge (t+ 1)

where: K = age at which the load is applied,

F(K) = a function representing the rate of
creep deformation with time, and
t = time under load, in days.

F(K) is obtained from a plot on semi-logarithmic paper.

Sometimes, values of creep per unit stress are given, usually in units of 10–6
per MPa; this is
known as specific creep or unit creep. Creep can also be expressed as a ratio
of creep to the initial
elastic deformation; this ratio is known as creep coefficient or characteristic
creep. The merit of
this approach is that it takes into account the elastic properties of aggregate,
which influence
creep and the elastic deformation of concrete in a similar manner.

All embracing, but complex, expressions for creep have been developed by
Bažant and coworkers, who published also a somewhat simplified, but not
simple, version of creep prediction expressions.

The variety of creep expressions may seem bewildering but a reliable

prediction of creep of any concrete under any conditions is not possible.
Short-term tests, say of a 28-day duration under Load, are necessary.
Extrapolation is then possible. It has been found9.142 that for periods under
load up to five years, the power expression seems best to fit experimental
data for basic creep and, for basic-plus-drying creep, a logarithmic-power
function appears most appropriate. For the majority of concretes, regardless
of the water/cement ratio or the type of aggregate, specific creep at the age
of t days (t > 28), ct, can be related to specific creep after 28 days under
load, c28, by the expressions:

basic creep: ct = c28 × 0.50t0.21

total creep: ct = c28 × (–6.19 + 2.15 loge t)0.38
where ct = long-term specific creep in 10–6 per
MPa.

NATURE OF CREEP

From Fig. 9.30, it is apparent that creep and creep recovery are related
phenomena, but their nature is far from clear. The fact that creep is partly
reversible suggests that it may consist of a partly reversible visco-elastic
movement (consisting of a purely viscous phase and a purely elastic phase)
and possibly also a non-reversible plastic deformation.

An elastic deformation is always recoverable on unloading. A plastic

deformation is never recoverable, can be time-dependent, and there is no
proportionality between plastic strain and the applied stress, or between
stress and rate of strain. A viscous deformation is never recoverable on
unloading, is always time-dependent, and there is always proportionality
between the rate of viscous strain and the applied stress, and hence
between stress and strain at a given time. These various types of
deformation can be summarized as shown in Table 9.6

Table 9.6. Types of Deformation

Type of
Instantaneo Time-
deformatio
us dependent
n
Delayed-
Reversible Elastic
elastic
Irreversibl
Plastic set Viscous
e

A possible treatment of the observed partial recovery of creep is by the

principle of superposition of strains, developed by McHenry. This states that
the strains produced in concrete at any
time t by a stress increment applied at any time t0 are independent of the
effects of any stress applied either
earlier or later than t0. The stress
increment is understood to mean either
a compressive or a tensile stress, i.e.
also a relief of load. It follows then that,
if the compressive stress on a
specimen is removed at age t1, the resulting creep recovery will be the same
as the creep of a similar specimen subjected to the same compressive stress
at the age t1. Figure 4 illustrates this statement, and it can be seen that the
creep recovery is represented by the difference between the actual strain at
any time and the strain that would exist at the same time, had the specimen
continued to be subjected to the original compressive stress.

Figure 5 shows a comparison of actual and computed strains (the computed

values being in
reality the difference between two experimental curves) for sealed concrete,
i.e. subject to basic creep only. It appears that, in all cases, the actual strain
after the removal of load is higher than the residual strain predicted by the
principle of superposition. Thus, actual creep is less than expected. Similar
error is found when the principle is applied to specimens under a variable
stress. It seems then that the principle of superposition does not fully satisfy
the phenomena of creep and creep recovery.

The principle of superposition

of strains is, nevertheless, a
convenient working
assumption. It implies that
creep is a delayed elastic
phenomenon in which full

Fig. 5. Comparison of measured and computed strains on the basis of McHenry’s principle of superposition
recovery is generally impeded by the progressive hydration of the cement.
Because the properties of old concrete change only very little with age, creep
of concrete subjected to sustained loading at the age of several years would
be expected to be fully reversible, but this has not been verified
experimentally. It should be noted that the principle of superposition leads to
a tolerable error under mass-curing conditions, i.e. when only basic creep
occurs. When drying creep is present, the error is large in that the creep
recovery is grossly overestimated.

The problem of the nature of creep is still controversial and cannot be

discussed here in full. The locus of creep is the hydrated cement paste, and
creep is related to internal movement of adsorbed or intracrystalline water,
i.e. to internal seepage. Glucklich’s tests have shown that concrete from
which all evaporable water has been removed exhibits practically no creep.
However, the changes in the creep behaviour of concrete at high
temperatures suggest that, at that stage, the water ceases to play a role and
the gel itself becomes subjected to creep deformation.

Because creep can take place in mass concrete, it follows that seepage of
water to the outside of concrete is not essential to the progress of basic
creep, although such a process may well take place in drying creep.
However, internal seepage of water from the adsorbed layers to voids such
as capillary voids is possible. An indirect evidence of the role of such voids is
given by the relation between creep and the strength of the hydrated
cement paste: it would appear that creep is a function of the relative amount
of the unfilled space, and it can be speculated that it is the voids in the gel
that govern both strength and creep; in the latter case, the voids may be
related to seepage. The volume of voids is, of course, a function of the
water/cement ratio and is affected by the degree of hydration.

We should remember that capillary voids do not remain full even against full
hydrostatic pressure of a water bath. Thus, internal seepage is possible
under any storage conditions. The fact that creep of non-shrinking specimens
is independent of the ambient relative humidity would indicate that the
fundamental cause of creep ‘in air’ and ‘in water’ is the same.

The creep–time curve shows a definite decrease in its slope, and the
question arises whether this signifies a change, possibly a gradual one, in the
mechanism of creep. It is conceivable that the slope decreases with the
same mechanism continuing throughout, but it is reasonable to imagine that,
after many years under load, the thickness of the adsorbed water layers
could be reduced so far that no further reduction can take place under the
same stress, and yet creep after as many as 30 years has been recorded. It
is, therefore, probable that the slow, long-term part of creep is due to causes
other than seepage but the deformation can develop only in the presence of
some evaporable water. This would suggest viscous flow or sliding between
the gel particles. Such mechanisms are compatible with the influence of
temperature on creep, and can explain also the largely irreversible character
of long term creep.

Observations on creep under cyclic loading, and especially on the

temperature rise within con
crete under such loading, have led to a modified hypothesis of creep. As
already mentioned, creep
under a cyclic stress is increased compared with creep under a static stress
equal to the mean cyclic stress. This increased creep is largely irrecoverable
and consists of accelerated creep due to increased viscous sliding of the gel
particles, and of increased creep due to a limited amount of microcracking at
very early stages of the creep process. Other experimental data on creep in
tension and in compression suggest that the behaviour is best explained by a
combination of the seepage and viscous shear theories of creep.

Generally, the role of microcracking is small and, excepting cyclic creep, is

probably limited to concrete loaded at very early ages, and loaded to high
stress/strength ratios in excess of 0.6.

Having said all this, we have to admit that the exact mechanism of creep
remains uncertain.

EFFECTS OF CREEP

Creep affects strains and deflections and often also stress distribution, but
the effects vary with
the type of structure.
Creep of plain concrete does not per se affect the strength, although under
very high stresses creep hastens the approach of the limiting strain at which
failure takes place; this applies only when the sustained load is above 85 or
90 per cent of the rapidly applied static ultimate load. Under a low sustained
stress, the volume of concrete decreases (as the creep Poisson’s ratio is less
than 0.5) and this would be expected to increase the strength of the
concrete. However, this effect is probably small.

The influence of creep on the behaviour and strength of reinforced and

prestressed concrete structures is fully discussed in ref. Here, it may be
useful to mention that, in reinforced concrete columns, creep results in a
gradual transfer of load from the concrete to the reinforcement. Once the
steel yields, any increase in load is taken by the concrete, so that the full
strength of both the steel and the concrete is developed before failure takes
place – a fact recognized by the design formulae. However, in eccentrically
loaded columns, creep increases the deflection and can lead to buckling. In
statically indeterminate structures, creep may relieve stress concentrations
induced by shrinkage, temperature changes, or movement of supports. In all
concrete structures, creep reduces internal stresses due to non-uniform
shrinkage, so that there is a reduction in cracking. In calculating creep
effects in structures, it is important to realize that the actual time-dependent
deformation is not the ‘free’ creep of concrete but a value modified by the
quantity and position of reinforcement.

On the other hand, in mass concrete, creep in

itself may be a cause of cracking when a
restrained concrete mass undergoes a cycle of
temperature change due to the development of
the heat of hydration and subsequent cooling.
A compressive stress is induced by the rapid
rise in temperature in the interior of the
concrete mass. This stress is low because the
modulus of elasticity of very young concrete is low. The strength of very
young concrete is also low so that its creep is high; this relieves the
compressive stress, and the remaining compression disappears as soon as
some cooling has taken place. On further cooling of concrete, tensile stresses
develop and, because the rate of creep is reduced with age, cracking may
occur even before the temperature has dropped to the initial (placing) value
(see Fig. 6). For this reason, the rise in temperature in the interior of a large
concrete mass must be controlled.
Creep can also lead to an excessive deflection of structural members and
cause other serviceability problems, especially in high-rise buildings and long
bridges.

The loss of prestress due to creep is well known and, indeed, accounts for
the failure of the original attempts at prestressing.

The effects of creep may thus be harmful but, on the whole, creep, unlike
shrinkage, is beneficial in relieving stress concentrations and has contributed
very considerably to the success of concrete as a structural material.
Rational design methods allowing for creep in various types of structures
have been developed.

Chapter 10: DURABILITY OF CONCRETE

Introduction

It is essential that every concrete structure should continue to perform

its intended functions that is maintained its required strength and
serviceability, during the specified or traditionally expected service life. It
follows that concrete must be able to withstand the processes of
deterioration to which it can be expected to be exposed. Such concrete is
said to be durable.
 It is worth adding that durability does not mean an indefinite life, nor
does it mean withstanding any action on concrete. Moreover, it is nowadays
realized, although it was not so in the past, that, in many situations, routine
maintenance of concrete is required

Causes of Inadequate Durability

Inadequate durability manifests itself by deterioration which can be

due either to external factors or to internal causes within the concrete itself.
The damaging action can be of various kinds and can be direct or indirect.

Causes of deterioration:

 Physical – include the effects of high temperature or of the differences

in thermal expansion of aggregate and of the hardened cement paste

 Chemical – chemical causes of deterioration include the alkali-silica

and alkali-carbonate reactions

 Mechanical – mechanical damage is caused by impact, abrasion,

erosion or cavitations

Transport of Fluid in Concrete

There are three fluids principally relevant to durability which can enter
concrete: water, pure or carrying aggressive ions, carbon dioxide and
oxygen. They can move through the concrete in different ways, but all
transport depends primarily on the structure of the hydrated cement paste.
The movement of the various fluids through concrete takes place not only by
flow through the porous system but also by diffusion and sorption, so that
our concern is really with penetrability of concrete.

Influence of the Pore System

The aspect of the structure of hardened cement paste relevant to

permeability is the nature of the pore system within the bulk of the hardened
cement paste and also in the zone near the interface between the cement
paste and the aggregate. The interface zone occupies as much as one-third
to one-half of the total volume of hardened cement paste in concrete and is
known to have a different microstructure from the bulk of the hardened
cement paste. The interface is also the locus of early micro cracking. For
these reasons, the interface zone can be expected significantly to contribute
to the permeability of concrete.

Flow, Diffusion, and Sorption

Because of the existence of pores of different kinds, some of which

contribute to permeability and some of which do not do so, it is important to
distinguish between porosity and permeability. Porosity is a measure of the
proportion of the total volume of concrete occupied by pores, and is usually
expressed in per cent. If the porosity is high and the pores are
interconnected, they contribute to the transport of fluids through concrete so
that its permeability is also high. On the other hand, if the pores are
discontinuous or otherwise ineffective with respect to transport, then the
permeability of the concrete is low, even if its porosity is high.

As far as the ease of movement of fluids through concrete is

concerned, thus far loosely referred to as permeability, three mechanisms
should be distinguished. Permeability refers to flow under a pressure
differential.

Diffusion is the process in which a fluid moves under a differential in

concentration; the relevant property of concrete is diffusivity. Gases can
diffuse through water-filled space or through air-filled space but, slower than
in the latter. As far as the diffusion of gases is concerned, carbon dioxide and
oxygen are of primary interest: the former leads to carbonation of hydrated
cement paste, and the latter makes possible the progress of corrosion of
embedded steel.

Movement of water vapor through concrete can occur as a result of a

humidity differential on its two opposed sides. The relative humidity on the
two sides of the concrete has to be known because an increase in relative
humidity decreases the air-filled pore space available for diffusion.

Sorption is the result of capillary movement in the pores in concrete

which are open to the ambient medium. It follows that capillary suction can
take place only in partially dry concrete; there is no sorption of water in
completely dry concrete or in saturated concrete.

Absorption

The volume of pore space in concrete, as distinct from the ease with
which a fluid can penetrate it, is measured by absorption; the two quantities
are not necessarily related. Absorption is usually measured by drying a
specimen to a constant mass, immersing it in water, and measuring the
increase in mass as a percentage of dry mass.

One reason for this variation in the values of absorption is that, at one
extreme, drying at ordinary temperature may be ineffective in removing all
the water; on the other hand, drying at high temperatures may remove some
of the combined water. Absorption cannot, therefore, be used as a measure
of quality of concrete, but most good concretes have absorption well below
10 per cent by mass.

Sorptivity

Because of the difficulties associated with the absorption tests, on the

one hand, and, on the other, because permeability tests measure the
response of concrete to pressure, which is rarely the driving force of fluids
entering concrete, there is a need for another type of test. Such a test
measures the rate of absorption of water by capillary suction of unsaturated
concrete placed in contact with water; no head of water exists.

Water permeability of concrete

Permeability is the capacity of a porous material for transmitting a

fluid; it is expressed
as the velocity with which a fluid passes through a sample and is largely
dependent
on the size and shape of the pores in the substance. (2008, Encyclopædia
Britannica)

In a concrete, a hardened cement paste is composed of particles

connected over only a small fraction of their total surface. For this reason, a
part of the water is within the field of force of the solid phase, i.e. it is
adsorbed. This water has a high viscosity but is, nevertheless, mobile and
takes part in the flow. As already stated, the permeability of concrete is not a
simple function of its porosity, but depends also on the size, distribution,
shape, tortuosity, and continuity of the pores.

Cement gel has a porosity of 28%

but contribute only small amount
to concrete’s permeability because
of its extremely fine texture. It’s
the water cement-ratio which
mostly affects the cement’s
permeability.
 Testing concrete for permeability has not been generally standardized
so that the values of the coefficient of permeability quoted in different
publications may not be comparable. In such tests as are used, the steady-
state flow of water through concrete due to a pressure differential is
measured, and Darcy’s equation is used to calculate the coefficient of
permeability.

Air and vapor permeability of concrete

Air, some gases, and water vapor can penetrate into concrete and can
greatly affect its durability. In this case the process is called diffusion, where
gas molecules moves into pervious part of the concrete. Theoretically, the
intrinsic permeability coefficient of a given concrete should be the same
regardless of whether a gas or a liquid is used in the tests. However, gases
yield a higher value of the coefficient because of the phenomenon of gas
slippage; this means that, at the flow boundary, the gas has a finite velocity.
Curing and moisture content are the main factors which affect the concrete’s
air permeability.

Carbonation
Carbonation is the result of the dissolution of carbon dioxide
.with the presence of moisture to hydrated cement. This action of
carbon dioxide can takes place even at small concentrations.

Ca(OH)2 + CO2 -> CaCO3 + H2O

Carbonation per se does not cause deterioration of

concrete but it has important effects. One of these is
carbonation shrinkage and with respect to durability it reduces the pH of the
pore water.

Rate of carbonation

Carbonation occurs progressively from the outside of concrete exposed

to CO2, but does so at a decreasing rate because CO2 has to diffuse through
the pore system, including the already carbonated surface zone of concrete.
Such diffusion is a slow process if the pores in hydrated cement paste are
filled with water because the diffusion of CO2 in water is 4 orders of
magnitude slower than in air. On the other hand, if there is insufficient water
in the pores.

Factors influencing carbonation

The fundamental factor controlling carbonation is the diffusivity of the

hardened cement paste. The diffusivity is a function of the pore system of
the hardened cement paste during the period when the diffusion of CO2
takes place. It follows that the type of cement, the water/cement ratio, and
the degree of hydration are relevant. All these influence also the strength of
the concrete containing any given hardened cement paste. For this reason, it
is often said that the rate of carbonation is simply a function of the strength
of concrete.

Measurement of Carbonation

Laboratory techniques which can be used to determine the depth of

carbonation include chemical analysis, X-ray diffraction, infra-red
spectroscopy and thermogravimetric analysis. A common and simple method
to establish the extent of carbonation is by treating a freshly broken surface
of concrete with a solution of phenolphthalein in diluted alcohol.

Further aspects of carbonation

-Reduces the porosity of concrete

-Encourage hydration of previous unhydrated cement
- Accelerates chloride-induced corrosion of reinforcement

ACID ATTACK ON CONCRETE

 Concrete containing Portland cement, being highly alkaline is not
resistant to attack by strong acids or compounds which may convert to acids.
Consequently, unless protected, concrete should not be used when this form
attack may occur.

Concrete can be attacked by liquids with a pH value below 6.5 but the
attack is severe only at a pH below 5.5; below 4.5, the attack is very severe.
A concentration of CO2 of 30 to 60 ppm results in a severe attack, and above
60 ppm results in a very severe attack.

Concrete is also attacked by water containing free CO2, such as

moorland water or mineral waters, which may also contain hydrogen sulfide.
Not all CO2 is aggressive because some of it is required to form and stabilize
calcium bicarbonate in the solution. Flowing pure water, formed by melting
ice or by condensation (for instance, in a desalination plant) and containing
little CO2, also Peaty water with CO2 is particularly aggressive; it can have a
pH value as low as 4.4.

Acid rain, which consists mainly of sulfuric acid and nitric acid and has a pH
value between 4.0 and 4.5, may cause surface weathering of exposed
concrete.
Sulfuric acid is particularly aggressive because, in addition to the sulfate
attack of the aluminate phase, acid attack on Ca(OH)2 and C-S-H takes
place.

Lubricating oils and hydraulic fluid, sometimes spilt on concrete aprons at

airports, breakdown when heated by exhaust gases and react with Ca(OH)2,
thus causing leaching.

Use of blended cements which include ground granulated blastfurnace slag,

pozzolanas, and especially silica fume, is beneficial in reducing the ingress of
aggressive substances. Pozzolanic action also fixes Ca(OH)2, which is usually
the most vulnerable product of hydration of cement in so far as acid attack is
concerned.

SULFUR ATTACK ON CONCRETE

Solid salts do not attack concrete but, when present in solution, they
can react with hydrated cement paste. Particularly common are sulfates of
sodium, potassium, magnesium, and calcium which occur in soil or in
groundwater.

Sodium sulfate attacks Ca(OH)2:

Ca(OH)2 + Na2SO4.10H2O →CaSO4.2H2O + 2NaOH + 8H2O.

This is an acid-type attack. In flowing water, Ca(OH)2 can be

completely leached out but if NaOH accumulates, equilibrium is reached,
only a part of the SO3 being deposited as gypsum.

The reaction with calcium aluminate hydrate can be formulated as

follows: 2(3CaO.Al2O3.12H2O) +3(Na2SO4.10H2O)
→3CaO.Al2O3.3CaSO4.32H2O + 2Al(OH)3+ 6NaOH + 17H2O.

Calcium sulfate attacks only calcium aluminate hydrate, forming

calcium sulfo aluminate (3CaO.Al2O3.3CaSO4.32H2O), known as ettringite.
The number of molecules of water may be 32 or 31, depending upon the
ambient vapour pressure.

On the other hand, magnesium sulfate attacks calcium silicate

hydrates as well as Ca(OH)2 and calcium aluminate hydrate. The pattern of
reaction is:

3CaO.2SiO2.aq + 3MgSO4.7H2O →3CaSO4.2H2O + 3Mg(OH)2 +

2SiO2.aq.+ xH2O.
Because of the very low solubility of Mg(OH)2, this reaction proceeds to
completion so that, under certain conditions, the attack by magnesium
sulfate is more severe than by other sulfates.

THAUMASITE FORM OF SULFATE ATTACK

This type of attack occurs in concrete buried in the ground. Thaumasite

problems have been encountered in a number of bridge supports in the UK
but they are not very common. At temperatures below about 15 °C (59 °F) in
the presence of sulfate, carbonate and water, C-S-H can convert to
thaumasite, which is a non-binder, with a composition of
CaSiO3.CaCO3.CaSO4.15H2O. The carbonate may be present in the
aggregate (limestone or dolomite) or as bicarbonate in the groundwater.
Mixes containing gabs offer resistance to thaumasite attack.

Delayed Ettringite formation

The formation of ettringite in mature concrete tends to be disruptive

and harmful, and is a form of sulfate attack, resulting in the compound

3CaO.Al2O3.3CaSO4.32H2O.

High temperature during hydration can be the result of applied heat or

be due to heat generation in a large pour when natural loss of heat is
inadequate. If the temperature in the interior of concrete reaches 70° to 80
°C, a slow formation of ettringite can lead to expansion and cracking. For the
harmful effects to take place after return to room temperature, the concrete
has to be wet or moist either permanently or intermittently.10.143 These
harmful effects are a loss of strength, a decrease in the modulus of elasticity,
and sometimes cracking.

Mechanisms of Attack

The attack occurs only when the concentration of the sulfates exceeds
a certain threshold. Above that, the rate of sulfate attack increases with an
increase in the strength of the solution, but beyond a concentration of about
0.5 per cent of MgSO4 or 1 per cent of Na2SO4 the rate of increase in the
intensity of the attack becomes smaller.10.7 A saturated solution of MgSO4
leads to serious deterioration of concrete, although with a low water/cement
ratio this takes place only after 2 to 3 years

Factors mitigating the attack

The reason why sulfate-resisting cement alone is inadequate under

severe conditions is that not only calcium sulfate but also other sulfates are
present. Therefore, although sulfate-resisting cement does not contain
enough C3A for the formation of expansive ettringite, the Ca(OH)2 present
and possibly also C-S-H are vulnerable to the acid-type attack of the sulfates.
Supersulfated cement offers very high resistance to sulfates, especially if its
Portland cement component is of the sulfate-resisting variety.

Low permeability of concrete is the consequence of an appropriate

microstructure of the hardened cement paste. In order to achieve this, the
mix proportions need to be specified.

Test on sulfate resistance

Alternate wetting and drying accelerates the damage due to the

crystallization of salts in the pores of the concrete.

The effects of exposure can be estimated by the loss in strength of the

specimen, by changes in its dynamic modulus of elasticity, by its expansion,
by its loss of mass, or can even be assessed visually.

As an alternative to immersion in a sulfate solution, ASTM C 452-06

prescribes a method in which a certain amount of gypsum is included in the
original mortar mix. This speeds up the reaction with C3A but the method is
not appropriate for use with blended cements, in which some cementitious
material is still unhydrated at the stage of coming into contact with the
sulfates. This is so because, in the test of ASTM C 452-06, the criterion of
sulfate resistance is the expansion at the age of 14 days.

It may be relevant to mention one more test, namely, ASTM C 1038-04,

which determines the expansion of mortar made from Portland cement of
which sulfate is an integral part. Thus, the test identifies excessive sulfate
content of a Portland cement rather than attack by external sulfates.

EFFLORESCENCE

Leaching of lime compounds, mentioned earlier, may under some

circumstances lead to the formation of salt deposits on the surface of the
concrete, known as efflorescence. This is found, for instance, when water
percolates through poorly compacted concrete or through cracks or along
badly made joints, and when evaporation can take place at the surface of the
concrete.

Efflorescence is more likely to occur in concrete which is porous near

the surface.

Efflorescence can also be caused by the use of unwashed seashore

aggregate.

EFFECTS OF SEA WATER ON CONCRETE

 - Chemical Attack

- Chloride-induced corrosion of steel reinforcement

- Freeze-thaw attack

- Salt weathering

- Abrasion by sand in suspension

- By ice

- SALT WEATHERING

When concrete is repeatedly wetted by sea water, with alternating

periods of drying during which pure water evaporates, some of the salts
dissolved in sea water are left behind in the form of crystals, mainly sulfates.
These crystals re-hydrate and grow upon subsequent wetting, and thereby
exert an expansive force on the surrounding hardened cement paste. Such
progressive surface weathering, known as salt weathering, occurs in
particular when the temperature is high and insolation is strong so that
drying occurs rapidly in the pores over some depth from the surface

Selection of concrete for exposure to sea water

The preceding discussion of the various modes of attack by sea water

has emphasized the importance of the low permeability of the exposed
concrete. This can be achieved using a low water/cement ratio, an
appropriate choice of cementitious materials, good compaction, and absence
of cracking due to shrinkage, thermal effects, or stresses in service. It is
important for the concrete to be well cured prior to exposure to the sea
water. The assumption that sea water also provides curing is erroneous
unless the concrete, once immersed in sea water, remains permanently
submerged. Tests on mortar have led to a recommendation of a minimum
period of seven days of curing in fresh water, regardless of the type of
cement used.

Disruption by alkali–silica reaction

The reaction can be disruptive and manifest itself as cracking. The

crack width can range from 0.1 mm to as much as 10 mm in extreme cases.
The cracks are rarely more than 25 mm, or at most 50 mm, deep. Hence, in
most cases, the alkali–silica reaction adversely affects the appearance and
serviceability of a structure, rather than its integrity; the compressive
strength of concrete in the direction the applied stress is not greatly affected.
Nevertheless, cracking can facilitate the ingress of harmful agents.

Preventive measures

The discussion of the alkali–silica reaction, presented in Chapter 3,

makes it clear that the progress and consequences of the reaction are
influenced by the proportions of various ions in the pore water and by the
availability of the alkalis and of silica. The expansion caused by the alkali–
silica reaction is greater the greater the content of reactive silica, but only up
to a certain content of silica; at higher contents, the expansion is smaller.

Abrasion of concrete

Under many circumstances, concrete surfaces are subjected to wear.

This may be due to attrition by sliding, scraping or percussion. In the case of
hydraulic structures, the action of the abrasive materials carried by water
leads to erosion. Another cause of damage to concrete in flowing water is
cavitation.

Tests for abrasion resistance

Resistance of concrete to abrasion is difficult to assess because the

damaging action varies depending on the exact cause of wear, and no one
test procedure is satisfactory in evaluating all the conditions: rubbing test,
including rolling balls, dressing wheel, or sandblasting may each be
appropriate in different cases.

ASTM C 418-05 prescribes the procedure for determining wear by

sandblasting; the loss of volume of concrete serves as a basis for judgement,
but not as a criterion of wear resistance under different conditions. ASTM C
779-05 prescribes three test procedures for laboratory or field use. In the
revolving disc test, there is applied a revolving motion of three flat surfaces
driven along a circular path at 0.2 Hz and individually turning on their axes at
4.6 Hz. Silicon carbide is fed as an abrasive material. In the steel ball
abrasion test, a load is applied to a rotating head which is separated from
the specimen by steel balls. The test is performed in circulating water in
order to remove the eroded material. The dressing wheel test uses a drill
press modified to apply a load to three sets of seven rotating dressing wheels
which are in contact with the specimen. The driving head is rotated for 30
minutes at 0.92 Hz. In all cases, the depth of wear of the specimen is used as
a measure of abrasion.
Factors influencing abrasion resistance

Abrasion seems to involve high-intensity stress applied locally so that

the strength and hardness of the surface zone of concrete strongly influence
the resistance to abrasion. In consequence, the compressive strength of
concrete is the principal factor controlling the resistance to abrasion. The
minimum strength required depends on the severity of abrasion expected.
Very high strength concretes exhibit a high resistance to abrasion: for
example, increasing the compressive strength from 50 MPa (7000 psi) to 100
MPa (14 000 psi) increases the abrasion resistance by 50 per cent, and 150
MPa (21 000 psi) concrete is as resistant as high-quality granite.

The properties of the concrete in the surface zone are strongly affected
by the finishing operations, which may reduce the water/cement ratio and
improve compaction. The presence of laitance must be avoided. Particularly
good curing is of importance; it is desirable to have a period of curing twice if
normal to achieve good resistance to abrasion.

Erosion resistance

Erosion of concrete is an important type of wear which may occur in

concrete in contact with flowing water. It is convenient to distinguish
between erosion due to solid particles carried by the water and damage due
to pitting resulting from cavities forming and collapsing in water flowing at
high velocities. The rate of erosion depends on the quantity, shape, size, and
hardness of the particles being transported, on the velocity of their
movement, on the presence of eddies, and on the quality of concrete.
Concrete with large aggregate erodes less than mortar of equal strength, and
hard aggregate improves the erosion resistance. However, under some
conditions of wear, smaller-size aggregate leads to a more uniform erosion of
the surface. In general, at a constant slump, the erosion resistance increases
with a decrease in the cement content; this has the advantage of reducing
laitance. At a constant cement content, the resistance improves with a
decrease in slump: this is probably in agreement with the general influence
of compressive strength.

Cavitation resistance

While good quality concrete can withstand steady, tangential, high-

velocity flow of water, severe damage rapidly occurs in the presence of
cavitation. By this is meant the formation of vapour bubbles when the local
absolute pressure drops to the value of the ambient vapour pressure of water
at the ambient temperature. The bubbles or cavities can be large, single
voids, which later break up, or clouds of small bubbles. They flow
downstream and, on entering an area of higher pressure, collapse with great
impact. Because the collapse of the cavities means entry of high-velocity
water into the previously vapor occupied space, extremely high pressure on
a small area is generated during very short time intervals, and it is the
repeated collapse over a given part of the concrete surface that causes
pitting. Greatest damage is caused by clouds of minute cavities found in
eddies

Types of cracking

Because cracking may impair the durability of concrete by allowing

ingress of aggressive agents, it is relevant to review briefly the types and
causes of cracking. In addition, cracking may adversely affect the water
tightness or sound transmission of structures or mar their appearance.

Classification of Intrinsic Cracks

Schematic representation of the various types of cracking which can occur

in concrete
  INFLUENCE OF EARLY TEMPERATURE ON STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

We have seen that a rise in the curing temperature speeds up the

chemical reactions of hydration and thus affects beneficially the early
strength of concrete without any ill-effects on the later strength.

Higher temperature during and following the initial contact between

cement and water reduces the length of the dormant period so that the
overall structure of the hydrated cement paste becomes established very
early. Although a higher temperature during placing and setting increases
the very early strength, it may
adversely affect the strength from
about 7 days onwards. The
explanation is that a rapid initial
hydration appears to form products of
a poorer physical structure, probably
more porous, so that a proportion of
the pores will always remain unfilled.
It follows from the gel/space ratio rule,
that this will lead to a lower strength
compared with a less porous, though
slowly hydrating, cement paste in
which a high gel/space ratio will
eventually be reached.

Effect of temperature during the

first 28 days on the strength of concrete (water/cement ratio = 0.41; air
content = 4.5 per cent; ordinary Portland cement)

In concrete members with a high cement content, as is the case with

high performance concrete, there is a considerable temperature rise even in
ordinary structural elements such as beams and columns.The7-day strength
is higher the greater the temperature rise; for example, when the
temperature was 20 °C (68 °F) the strength was 96 MPa, but when the
maximum temperature was 75 °C (167 °F) the strength was 115 MPa.
However, at 28 days, there was a reversal in the strength values with the low
temperature leading to a strength of 122 MPa while the high temperature led
to a reduced strength of 112 MPa. Maximum temperatures between 45
and65°Cledtoaveryslightincreaseinstrength between the ages of 7 and 28
days.8.57 With respect to the strength of concrete cured at very low
temperatures, found that provided concrete with a water/cement ratio
between 0.45 and 0.55 was cast and maintained for 9 hours at a
temperature not lower than 4 °C (39 °F), subsequent storage in sea water at
0 °C (32 °F) led to an increase in strength. The increase was at first very slow
but at the age of 4 days the specimens immersed in sea water reached
about one-half of the strength of standard-cured specimens.
The difference between the strengths for the two storage conditions
gradually decrease, after 2 months becoming about 10MPa(1500psi);this
value persisted for at least a year. Concrete with a lower water/ cement ratio
performed better than concretes with higher water/cement ratios. There is an
optimum temperature during the early life of concrete that will lead to the
highest strength at a desired age. For laboratory-made concrete, using
ordinary or modified Portland cement, the optimum temperature is
approximately 13 °C (55 °F); for rapid-hardening Portland cement it is about
4 °C(40°F).It must not be forgotten , however, that beyond the initial period
of setting and hardening the influence of temperature (within limits) accords
with the maturity rule: a higher temperature accelerates the development of
strength. The tests described so far were all made in the laboratory or under
known conditions ,but the be Havier on site in a hot climate may not be the
same. Here, there are some additional factors acting: ambient humidity,
direct radiation of the sun, wind velocity, and method of curing. It should be
remembered also that the quality of concrete depends on its temperature
and not on that of the surrounding atmosphere, so that the size of the
member also enters the picture because it affects the rise in temperature
caused by the hydration of cement. Like wise, curing by flooding in windy
weather results in a loss of heat due to evaporation so that the temperature
of concrete is lower than when a sealing compound is used.

 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

The thermal properties of concrete are of interest for a variety of

reasons, examples of which are given below. Thermal conductivity and
diffusivity are relevant to the development of temperature gradients, thermal
strains, warping, and cracking in the very early life of concrete, and are also
relevant to thermal insulation provided by concrete in service. Knowledge of
thermal expansion of concrete is required in the design of expansion and
contraction joints, in the provision of bridge support movement, both
horizontally and vertically ,and in the design of statically indeterminate
structures subject to temperature variation. This knowledge is also required
in the assessment of thermal gradients in concrete, and in the design of pre-
stressed concrete members. Behavior at high temperatures needs to be
known in special applications and also in consideration of the effects of fire.

 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

This measures the ability of the material to conduct heat and is defined
as the ratio of the flux of heat to temperature gradient. Thermal conductivity
is measured in joules per second per square metre of area of body when the
temperature difference is 1°C per metre of thickness of the body (Btu per
hour per sq. ft when temperature difference is 1 °F per ft of thickness). The
conductivity of ordinary concrete depends on its composition and, when the
concrete is saturated, the conductivity ranges generally. Density does not
appreciably affect the conductivity of ordinary concrete but, due to the low
conductivity of air, the thermal conductivity of lightweight concrete varies
with its density. Typical values of conductivity are listed in Table 8.1.

The degree of saturation of concrete is a major factor because the

conductivity of air is lower than that of water. For instance, in the case of
light weight concrete, an increase in moisture content of 10 percent
increases conductivity by about one-half. On the other hand ,the conductivity
of water is less than half that of
the hydrated cement paste, so
that the lower the water
content of the mix the higher
the conductivity of the
hardened concrete.

Conductivity is little
affected by temperature in the
region of room temperature. At
higher temperatures, the
variation in conductivity is
complex. Thermal conductivity is usually calculated from the diffusivity, the
latter being easier to measure, but a direct determination of conductivity is
of course possible. However, the method of test may affect the value
obtained. For instance, the steady-state methods (hot plate and hot box)
yield the same thermal conductivity for dry concrete, but give too low a
value for moist concrete because the temperature gradient causes migration
of moisture. For this reason, it is preferable to determine the conductivity of
moist concrete by transient methods; the hot wire test has been found
successful.

 THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY

Diffusivity represents the rate at which

temperature changes within a mass can take place, and
is thus an index of the facility with which concrete can
undergo temperature changes. Diffusivity, δ, is simply
related to the conductivity K by the equation:
where c is the specific heat,
and ρ is the density of concrete.

From this expression, it can be seen that conductivity and diffusivity vary in
step. Because of this direct relation, diffusivity is affected by the moisture
content of the concrete, which depends on the original water content of the
mix, degree of hydration of cement, and exposure to drying.

 SPECIFIC HEAT

Specific heat, which represents the heat capacity of concrete, is little

affected by the mineralogical character of the aggregate, but is considerably
increased by an increase in the moisture content of the concrete. Specific
heat increases with an increase in temperature and with a decrease in the
density of the concrete.

 COEEFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION (CTE)

All materials expand and contract to some extent as their

temperatures rise or fall. The coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) is a
measure of a material's expansion or contraction with temperature. Because
the length changes associated with thermal expansion are very small, the
CTE is usually expressed in micro strains per unit temperature change. The
CTE is an important factor in optimizing concrete joint design, calculating
stresses, joint sealant design, and selecting sealant materials.

CONCRETING
ON HOT AND COLD WEATHER

HOT WEATHER CONCRETING:

WHY Consider Hot Weather?

Hot weather should be taken into consideration

when planning concrete projects because of the
potential effects on fresh and newly placed concrete.

- High concrete temperature causes increased

water demand, which, in turn, will increase the
water-cementatious materials ratio and result in
lower strength and reduced durability.
- Higher temperatures tend to accelerate the rate
of slump loss and can cause loss of entrained air.
 - High temperatures, high wind velocity, and low relative humidity can
affect fresh concrete in two important ways: the high rate of
evaporation can result in plastic shrinkage before concrete sets or
early-age drying shrinkage cracking. The evaporation rate removes
surface water necessary for hydration unless proper curing methods
are employed.
- High temperature also accelerates cement hydration and contributes
to the potential for thermal cracking in thicker concrete sections.
-
HOW to Concrete in Hot Weather?

The key to successful hot weather concreting is:

- Recognizing the factors that affect concrete; and

- Planning to minimize their effects.

COLD WEATHER CONCRETING:

HOW to place concrete in cold weather?

Recommended concrete temperatures at the time of placement are

shown below. The ready mixed concrete producer can control concrete
temperature by heating the mixing water and/or the aggregates and furnish
concrete in accordance with the guidelines in ASTM C 94.

Section Size, minimum dimension,

Concrete temperature as placed
inch [mm]
less than 12 [300] 55°F [13°C]
12 - 36 [300 - 900] 50°F [10°C]
36 - 72 [900 - 1800] 45°F [7°C]

Cold weather concrete temperature should not exceed these

recommended temperatures by more than 20°F [10°C]. Concrete at a higher
temperature requires more mixing water, has a higher rate of slump loss,
and is more susceptible to cracking.
FROST ACTION:

Frost Action - the weathering process caused by cycles of freezing and

thawing of water in surface pores, cracks, and other openings. Alternate or
repeated cycles of freezing and thawing of water contained in materials; the
term is especially applied to disruptive effects of this action.

Two types of Frost Action:

Frost action can be quite detrimental to pavements and refers to two

separate but related processes like..

1. Frost Heaving
- An upward movement of the subgrade resulting from the expansion of
accumulated soil moisture as it freezes.

2. Thaw Weakening
- A weakened subgrade condition resulting from soil saturation as ice
within the soil melts.

Frost Heave

Figure 1. Frost heave examples

Frost heaving of soil is caused by crystallization of ice within the larger soil
voids and usually a subsequent extension to form continuous ice lenses,
layers, veins, or other ice masses. An ice lens grows through capillary rise
and thickens in the direction of heat transfer until the water supply is
depleted or until freezing conditions at the freezing interface no longer
support further crystallization

Figure 2. Formation of ice lenses in a pavement structure.

Additional factors which will affect the degree of frost susceptibility (or ability
of a soil to heave):

1. Rate of heat removal.

2. Temperature gradient

3. Mobility of water (e.g., permeability of soil)

4. Depth of water table

5. Soil type and condition (e.g., density, texture, structure, etc.

Thaw Weakening
Thawing is essentially the melting of ice contained within the subgrade. As
the ice melts and turns to liquid it cannot drain out of the soil fast enough
and thus the subgrade becomes substantially weaker (less stiff) and tends to
lose bearing capacity. Therefore, loading that would not normally damage a
given pavement may be quite detrimental during thaw periods (e.g., spring
thaw

Figure 3. Typical pavement deflections illustrating seasonal pavement

strength changes (on a portion of State Route 172 in Washington State)

Figure 4. Freeze-thaw damage.

Sources of Water
The two basic forms of frost action (frost heave and thawing) both require
water. Water sources can be separated into two broad categories:

1. Surface water. Enters the pavement primarily by infiltration through

surface cracks and joints, and through adjacent unpaved surfaces, during
periods of rain and melting snow and ice. Many crack-free pavements are
not entirely impermeable to moisture.
2. Subsurface water. Can come from three primary sources:
 Groundwater table (or perched water table).

 Moisture held in soil voids or drawn upward from a water table by

capillary forces.

 Moisture that moves laterally beneath a pavement from an

external source (e.g., pervious water bearing strata, etc.).

AIR ENTRAINED:

Air entrainment Entrained air in concrete is defined as air intentionally

incorporated by means of a suitable agent. This air should be clearly
distinguished from accidentally entrapped air: the two kinds differ in the
magnitude of the air bubbles, those of entrained air having typically a
diameter of about 50 μm (0.002 in.), whereas accidental air usually forms
very much larger bubbles, some as large as the familiar, albeit undesirable,
pockmarks on the formed surface of concrete.

Why is air content important in concrete?

The air voids provide empty spaces within the concrete that act as reservoirs
for the freezing water, relieving pressure and preventing damage to
the concrete. Entrained air is produced during mechanical mixing
of concrete that contains an air-entraining admixture.

The improved resistance of air-entrained concrete to frost attack was

discovered accidentally when cement ground with beef tallow, added as a
grinding aid, was observed to make more durable concrete than when no
grinding aid was used. The main types of air-entraining agents are:

(a) salts of fatty acids derived from animal and vegetable fats and oils (beef
tallow being an example of this group)

(b) alkali salts of wood resins, and

(c) alkali salts of sulfated and sulfonated organic compounds.

Entrained-air requirements
From the requirement of a maximum spacing of air voids, it is possible to
calculate the minimum volume of entrained air in the hardened cement
paste. For each mix, there is a minimum volume of voids required. Klieger
found this volume to correspond to 9 percent of the volume of mortar. As the
volume of hardened cement paste, in which alone the air is entrained, varies
with the richness of the mix, the air content of concrete which is required
depends on the mix

proportions; in practice, the maximum size of aggregate is used as a

parameter. For a given air content, the spacing of air voids depends on the
water/cement ratio of the mix as shown in
Fig. 1.

Fig.1: Influence of the water/cement ratio on the void spacing in concrete

with an average air content of 5 percent

Table 11.1. Air Content Required for a Void Spacing of 250μm (0.01 in.)
Typical values of the amount of air required for 250 μm (0.01 in.) spacing for
different mixes are given in Table 11.1, based on Powers’ results. A higher
specific surface, which corresponds to smaller bubbles, is desirable so as to
minimize the adverse effect of the air in concrete on its strength. Table 11.1
indicates that, for a particular value of the specific surface of the air voids,
richer mixes require a greater volume of entrained air than lean ones.
However, the richer the mix, the greater the specific surface of the voids for
a given air content.

 TESTS OF RESISTANCE OF CONCRETE TO FREEZING AND THAWING

The cycle of freezing and thawing in concrete induce deterioration and

strength degradation of concrete structures. It occurs when the concrete is
critically saturated that is when approximately 91% of its pores are filled with
water. So when water freezes to ice it occupies 9% more volume than that of
water. We know that concrete should have a space for volume expansion
because it is a porous water containing material otherwise if there is no
allotted space for expansion it may cause distress. The pressure that causes
distress will begin during the first freeze-thaw cycle and will continue
throughout winter seasons that may cause expansion and cracking, scaling,
and crumbling of concrete.

The two procedures in determining the resistance of concrete in

freezing and thawing are as follows: (ASTM C 666-03 2008)

Procedure A
-requires both thawing and freezing to take place in water
Procedure B
-freezing takes place in air, while thawing takes place in water.

Freezing saturated concrete in water is more severe than in air. Also

the rate of deterioration depends on the degree of saturation of the
specimen at the beginning of the test.

The deterioration of concrete can be assessed in several ways:

Measuring the change in the dynamic modulus of elasticity of the

specimen
-It is the most common method which indicates the damage before it has
become apparent either visually or by other methods. It is usual to continue
freezing and thawing for 300 cycles or when the elasticity is reduced to 60%
of its original value. The durability factor of concrete can be obtained using
this formula:

The value is primarily in a comparison of different concretes. However,

some guidance to interpret the value can be obtained with the following:

Durability Factor Interpretation w/ respect to

freezing and thawing
Less than 40 Probably unsatisfactory
40 to 60 Doubtful performance
Greater than 60 Probably satisfactory
Around 100 Expected to be satisfactory

Measurements of the loss of compressive or flexural strength

It can also be the change in length based on observations. A value of 200 x
10-6 for test in water indicates a serious damage.

Measurement of a decrease in a mass of the specimen

It’s not reliable in causes of internal failure because the result depends on
the size and when the damage takes place at the surface of the specimen.
Some cases, failure is due to unsound aggregate.
Dilation of concrete
When concrete is subjected to slow freezing, the testing method prescribe by
ASTM should be conducted, which is ASTM C 671-94.

It is not known at what stage acceleration affects the significance of

the test results. The degree of saturation is the most influential factor that
affects the resistance of concrete to cycles of freezing and thawing. It may
increase by prolonged accretion of ice during freezing period.

An important feature of the tests of ASTM C 666-03 (2008) is that

cooling takes place at a rate of up to 11 °C/h (20 °F/h) whereas, in practice, 3
°C/h (5 °F/h) is more usual. The maximum rate of cooling of outdoor air in
Europe was 6 °C/h (11 °F/h). However, when radiation towards a clear sky
will occur, the surface temperature of concrete can cool at the rate of 12
°C/h (22 °F/h) even though the ambient air-cools at 6 °C/h (11 °F/h).
Pigeon demonstrated the influence of the rate of freezing in resistance of
concrete, which is the higher the rate of freezing the smaller the spacing
factor required for the protection of concrete.

 EFFECTS OF DE-ICING AGENTS

De-icing is the removal of snow, ice or frost from a surface. So these

agents treat surfaces that are subjected to freezing and thawing. They also
have adverse effect on concrete, which causes surface scaling and
sometimes corrosion of reinforcement.
Here are some of the de-icing agents that can be used:

This shows that the commonly used agents and NaCl and Cacl 2. It
produces osmotic pressure and cause movement of water toward the top
layer where freezing takes place and where hydraulic pressure is developed.
The damage cause by de-icing agents is primarily physical and not chemical,
it depends whether the de-icer used is organic or not, or salt or not. There’s
also a possible filtration of Ca(OH)2 that has greater solubility in a chloride
solution compared to water. Chloroluminates are also possible to form under
wetting and drying. Mather suggested a sequence where as more ice melts,
the melt water becomes diluted until it’s freezing point rises to near the
freezing point of water so freezing occurs again. Therefore, freezing and
thawing occurs as often as without the use of de-icing agent because
potentially insulating layer of ice has been destroyed. As being said, de-icing
agents increases the saturation which may also increase the number of the
cycle. Thus, when concrete is exposed to relatively low concentrations of
salts the greatest damage can possibly occur.

 CHLORIDES ATTACK

In many parts of the world, reinforced concrete structures deteriorate,

sometimes seriously, due to chloride attack. Chloride attack is one of the
most important aspects while dealing with durability of concrete. It primarily
causes corrosion of reinforcement. Statistics have indicated that over 40% of
failure of structures is due to corrosion of steel.

Chloride attack poses a significant threat to reinforced concrete

especially for structures in marine environments or those that are likely to be
exposed to high concentrations of salts. The net result of chloride attack is
the corrosion of steel reinforcement, leading to cracking and spalling of
concrete and in some cases catastrophic structural failure as the load
bearing capacity of the concrete is compromised.

CHLORIDES IN THE MIX.

Chlorides can be presented in concrete because they have been

incorporated in the mix through the use of contaminated aggregate or of sea
water or brackish water, or through admixtures contaminating chlorides.
None of these materials should be permitted, and standards generally
prescribe strict limits on chloride content of the concrete from all sources. For
example:

 British Standard BS 8110: Part 1: 1985, and European Standard ENV

206: 1992, it limits the total chloride-ion content in reinforced concrete
to 0.40% by the mass of cement.
 American Concrete Institute Building Code ACI 318-89, it limits the
total chloride-ion content in reinforced concrete to 0.15% by the mass
of cement.

INGRESS OF CHLORIDE.

The problem of chloride attack arises usually when chloride ions

ingress from outside. This can be caused by:

 De-icing salts
 Sea water in contact with concrete
  Fine droplets of sea water or airborne dust

It can enter the concrete by diffusion from environment. Chloride

enters the concrete from cement, water, and aggregate and sometimes from
admixtures.

DIFFUSION is the net movement of molecules or atoms from a region of

high concentration with high chemical potential to a region of low
concentration with low chemical potential.

CHLORIDE INDUCED CORROSION.

The corrosion of steel reinforcement in concrete structures induced by

chloride ion contamination is a major problem. Deterioration starts with the
loss of protection provided by the concrete cover as the result of chloride
ingress.

Corrosion is a natural process, which converts a refined metal to a more

chemically-stable form, such as its oxide, hydroxide, or sulfide. It is the
gradual destruction of materials (usually metals) by chemical and/or
electrochemical reaction with their environment.

FACTORS INFLUENCING CORROSION ON CONCRETE.

1. Quality of Concrete
Concrete consists of coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, cement and
water. The right quality of materials with proper w/c ratio, correct mixing,
adequate compaction by tamping or vibration and proper curing results in
good quality concrete. if any of the above mentioned steps are not done in a
specified manner, then that will result in a not so good concrete and there is
a chance of corrosion of reinforcement.

High strength concrete, i.e. dense concrete is impervious to a large

degree and generally resists the carrion of embedded steel.

2. Cover Thickness of Concrete Reinforcement

The reinforcement is protected by suitable concrete covering over it.
The greater the cover thickness more is the degree of protection against the
various climatic and other environmental conditions. For various structural
members, the cover thickness should be different depending upon their
importance and degree of exposure. Evenness of concrete cover over the
reinforcement is also very important for its corrosion protection.

3. Condition of Reinforcement
 The surface condition of the steel reinforcement, at the time of its
placing in concrete, affects its corrosion rate. If the reinforcement is
contaminated with salt or badly corroded, the corrosive action on
reinforcement after placement in concrete is promoted rapidly.

4. Effect of Environmental and Other Chemicals

Chemical either from environmental or from within the concrete
making materials are the main source of deterioration process. Due to attack
of chemicals, the concrete develops cracks, which is the first sign of
deterioration. The effect of chemicals is mainly due to presence of salt,
carbonation, chloride attack and reaction of sulphates with tricalcium
aluminate (C3A) present in cement.

Concrete is an intimate mixture of cement, aggregate and water which

in the green state is highly alkaline. The hydration of cement develops
calcium hydroxide which increases the pH value up to 12.5. In such alkaline
conditions, the reinforcing steel is covered with a film of oxide which protects
the steel.

5. Porosity of Concrete
The penetration of aggressive chemicals is possible due to
permeability or porosity of concrete. the porosity of concrete depends on
size, distribution and continuity of capillary pores. This depends upon the w/c
ratio for given degree of hydration. The porosity also depends upon other
factors, such as:

 Age of concrete
 Degree of compactness
 The size and grading of aggregate
 Type of cement

6. Effect of High Thermal Stress

Normal concrete can withstand temperature upto 1000C. Beyond this
temperature the deterioration of concrete starts. The concrete in industrial
plants and power stations required special protective measures otherwise
the concrete may develop thermal cracks. Cracked concrete structures are
consequently affected by the environmental chemical and the process of
corrosion starts.

7. Freezing and Thawing Condition

In cold regions, the moisture in the pores of concrete freezes. The ice
formation gives rise to volumetric expansion which may excess bursting
pressure of surrounding concrete mass. This results in development of cracks
in concrete and can lead to corrosion of reinforcement.

HOW TO PREVENT CORROSION.

The first defense against rebar corrosion should be a thick covering of dense,
highly impermeable concrete. To produce this, minimize the water-cement
ratio and consolidate and cure the concrete well.

1. NONCHLORIDE ACCELERATORS
The American Concrete Institute (ACI) claims that calcium chloride
can contribute to corrosion. Because of this, ACI 318 now recommends
limits on chloride ion content.

2. CATHODIC PROTECTION
Cathodic protection stops corrosion by reversing the
electrochemical process that causes corrosion.

3. SEALERS
There are several products available: epoxy coatings; acrylic
sealers; silane sprays; and linseed oil emulsions.

4. SPECIALTY CONCRETE OVERLAYS

Polymer concrete overlays are very impermeable to water and
chlorides. Latex modified concrete (LMC) has higher bond, tensile, and
flexural strengths than conventional concrete. LMC creates a barrier to
water, oxygen, and corrosive chemicals. Adding silica fume to concrete
slows carbonation and helps keep chlorides out, both of which reduce
rebar corrosion. Iowa low-slump concrete--a

CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

• The process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and

determining their relative quantities with the objective of producing a
concrete of the required strength, durability, and workability as
economically as possible, is termed the concrete mix design

TYPES OF MIXES

1. Nominal Mixes
 In the past the specifications for concrete prescribed the proportions of
cement, fine and coarse aggregates. These mixes of fixed cement-aggregate
ratio which ensures adequate strength are termed nominal mixes. These
offer simplicity and under normal circumstances, have a margin of strength
above that specified. However, due to the variability of mix ingredients the
nominal concrete for a given workability varies widely in strength

 Traditional way of mix proportion specified in terms of fixed ratios of

Cement : Sand : coarse aggregate (In general by volume)
• Useful for small works
• Useful for routine concrete construction
• Limited up to M20 grade
• Requires high cement content

 The nominal mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio (by volume) vary

widely in strength and may result in under- or over-rich mixes. For this
reason, the minimum compressive strength has been included in many
specifications. These mixes are termed standard mixes.

 IS 456-2000 has designated the concrete mixes into a number of

grades as M10, M15, M20, M25, M30, M35 and M40. In this designation
the letter M refers to the mix and the number to the specified 28 day
cube strength of mix in N/mm2. The mixes of grades M10, M15, M20
and M25 correspond approximately to the mix proportions (1:3:6),
(1:2:4), (1:1.5:3) and (1:1:2) respectively.

THE PROPORTIONS GENERALLY ADOPTED ARE AS GIVEN BELO

2. Designed Mixes

• In these mixes the performance of the concrete is specified by the

designer but the mix proportions are determined by the producer of
concrete, except that the minimum cement content can be laid down.
This is most rational approach to the selection of mix proportions with
 specific materials in mind possessing more or less unique
characteristics.
• Several methods of mix design evolved over the years in different
countries
Ex: ACI practice, British practice, Indian Standard
recommendations

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CONCRETE MIX DESIGN ARE GIVEN IN

• I.S.10262-1982 & I.S.10262-2009

• S.P.-23-1982
• Designed mix should meet the design requirements in the fresh and
hardened states

FACTORS AFFECTING THE CHOICE OF MIX PROPORTIONS

1. Compressive strength

• It is one of the most important properties of concrete and

influences many other describable properties of the hardened
concrete. The mean compressive strength required at a specific
age, usually 28 days, determines the nominal water-cement ratio
of the mix.

2. Workability

• The degree of workability required depends on three factors.

These are the size of the section to be concreted, the amount of
reinforcement, and the method of compaction to be used. For the
narrow and complicated section with numerous corners or
inaccessible parts, the concrete must have a high workability so
that full compaction can be achieved with a reasonable amount
of effort. This also applies to the embedded steel sections. The
desired workability depends on the compacting equipment
available at the site.
3. Durability

• The durability of concrete is its resistance to the aggressive

environmental conditions. High strength concrete is generally
 more durable than low strength concrete. In the situations when
the high strength is not necessary but the conditions of exposure
are such that high durability is vital, the durability requirement
will determine the water-cement ratio to be used.
4. Maximum nominal size of aggregate

• In general, larger the maximum size of aggregate, smaller is the

cement requirement for a particular water-cement ratio, because
the workability of concrete increases with increase in maximum
size of the aggregate. However, the compressive strength tends
to increase with the decrease in size of aggregate.
• IS 456:2000 and IS 1343:1980 recommend that the nominal size
of the aggregate should be as large as possible.
5. Grading and type of aggregate

• The grading of aggregate influences the mix proportions for a

specified workability and water-cement ratio. Coarser the grading
leaner will be mix which can be used. Very lean mix is not
desirable since it does not contain enough finer material to make
the concrete cohesive.
• The type of aggregate influences strongly the aggregate-cement
ratio for the desired workability and stipulated water cement ratio.

6. Quality Control

• The degree of control can be estimated statistically by the

variations in test results. The variation in strength results from
the variations in the properties of the mix ingredients and lack of
control of accuracy in batching, mixing, placing, curing and
testing.

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED FOR MIX DESIGN

• The grade designation giving the characteristic strength requirement

of concrete.
• The type of cement influences the rate of development of compressive
strength of concrete.
 • Maximum nominal size of aggregates to be used in concrete may be as
large as possible within the limits prescribed by IS 456:2000.
• The cement content is to be limited from shrinkage, cracking and
creep.

ECONOMICS OF MIX DESIGN

GOALS:

• Maximize strength
• = minimize water
• = control bleeding & segregation
• Reduce Cost
• = use largest gravel possible for the job
• = minimize paste requirement
• Provide good durability
• = use well graded aggregates
• = maximize void packing
• = reduced segregation

DESIGN METHOD WE WILL USE: ABSOLUTE VOLUME METHOD

 Assumes no air voids in concrete

 Amount of concrete is sum of solid volumes:

1 CUBIC YARD

• Cement
• Sand
• Coarse aggregate
• Water
• Air
MATERIAL VALUES & CONSTANTS NEEDED FOR DESIGN:

 SSD (Absorption) of Sand

 Unit Weight & SG of Sand

 SSD (Absorption) of Stone

 Unit Weight & SG of Stone

 Density of Cement = 195 pcf

 SG Cement = 3.15

 Density of Water = 62.4 pcf

 1 Cubic Foot Water = 7.48 gal

 1 Gal. Water = 8.34 lbs

ACI STANDARD MIX DESIGN METHOD

 The standard ACI mix design procedure can be divided up into 8 basic
steps:
1. Choice of slump
2. Maximum aggregate size selection
3. Mixing water and air content selection
4. Water-cement ratio
5. Cement content
6. Coarse aggregate content
7. Fine aggregate content
8. Adjustments for aggregate moisture

Step #1: Select Slump

The Slump Cone

Step #2: Determine Mixing Water and Air Content

Step #3: Max. Aggregate Size Check

 DEFINITION: Nominal maximum aggregate size is the largest sieve

that retains some of the aggregate particles.

 ACI Limits:

 1/3 of the slab depth

 3/4 of the minimum clear space between bars/form

 1/5 minimum dimension of non-reinforced member

 Aggregate larger than these dimensions may be difficult to consolidate

and compact resulting in a honeycombed structure or large air pockets.

Step #4: Select W/C Ratio

Step #5: Cement Content

 The calculated cement amount is based on the selected mixing water

content and water-cement ratio.

 W/C= Wt. of Water

Wt. of Cement

Step #6: Coarse Aggregate Content

Step #7: Fine Aggregate Content
Step #8: Batch Weight & Water Adjustment

 Aggregate weights.

 Aggregate volumes are calculated based on oven dry unit

weights, but aggregate is batched in the field by actual weight.

 Any moisture in the stockpiled aggregate will increase its weight.

 Without correcting for this, the batched aggregate volumes will

be incorrect.

 Amount of mixing water.

 If the batched aggregate is anything but saturated surface dry it

will absorb water (if dry) or give up water (if wet) to the cement
paste.

 This causes a net change in the amount of water available in the

mix and must be compensated for by adjusting the amount of
mixing water added.

PORTLAND CEMENT

This chapter will give an overview of the process of manufacturing Portland

cement and will then devote somewhat more attention to the final properties of the
cement, including the composition and structure of the four main cement minerals,
the oxide and mineral composition of various types of Portland cement, and the
particle size distribution (fineness) of cement. Finally, as this monograph will focus
on the basic science of cement, the process of synthesizing pure minerals for
research purposes is also covered. Unfortunately the confusion does not end there,
as we also have to deal with chemical and mineral names for solid phases. The
chemical name of a solid compound is simply the word version of the chemical
formula. The first step in the manufacture of portland cement is to combine a
variety of raw ingredients so that the resulting cement will have the desired
chemical composition. These ingredients are ground into small particles to make
them more reactive, blended together, and then the resulting raw mix is fed into a
cement kiln which heats them to extremely high temperatures. Grinding and
blending prior to entering the kiln can be performed with the raw ingredients in the
form the wet process or the dry process. The addition of water facilitates grinding.
However, the water must then be removed by evaporation as the first step in the
burning process, which requires additional energy.

PORTLAND CEMENT (PART 2)

Temperature rise in concrete elements is primarily driven by the

heat generated by the hydration of Portland cement. Heat of hydration
of cement is affected by several parameters; namely, cement
composition, fineness, temperature, and w/c ratio. All cement phases
generate heat on reacting with water; that is, the hydration process is
exothermic in nature. The heat of hydration of Portland cement is
mainly attributed to the contributions of the tricalcium silicate and
aluminate phases. In spite of that, current standard Portland cement
specifications for Type II or Type II (MH) do not directly limit C3S
content for moderate heat cements. However, a heat index expression
has been employed to aid in quantifying the total heat of hydration.
The most prominent trend is that an increase in cement fineness
increases the rate of hydration as more surface area becomes
available for the reaction, which consequently results in a higher rate
of strength gain. It is further indicated that fineness affects heat of
hydration.

An increase in the fineness of cement, both consistency of

cement and workability of concrete increase. Increase in consistency
means increase in water demand to get cement paste of standard
consistency while increase in workability means increase in flow ability
at the same water/cement ratio. In other words decrease in water
demand to get the same workable concrete. Different cements are
ground to different fineness. The disadvantages of fine grinding is that
it is susceptible to air and early hydration. Increase in fineness of
cement is also found to increase the drying shrinkage of concrete.

CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS

Commonly used for general construction work. It is frequently

combined with ground granulated blast furnace slag or fly ash. Portland
Cement is normally made by grinding to a greater fineness. In order to
prevent a more rapid set occurring, extra gypsum is usually added at
the grinding stage and used where there is a requirement for early
strength, for example precast concrete applications. Ggbs is a by-
product of the iron and steel manufacturing industry. Molten slag from
iron production is rapidly cooled by high pressure water jets which
results in instantaneous granular solidification. These granules are
dried and ground to a similar fineness to CEM I Class (42.5N) in a tube
mill. Ggbs is off-white in colour and is a latent hydraulic material,
meaning it will gain strength on its own, but very slowly.

Cement contains the element tri-valent chromium. This form of

chromium is relatively insoluble in water and oxidizes when in contact
with air to form chromium VI. The latter form is very water soluble
especially in alkaline conditions cement preparations, hence as
described previously in the Portland cement manufacturing section; a
reducing agent is introduced to the production process to meet
European health and safety requirements. Pozzolanic materials may be
divided into two categories, natural and artificial. Natural pozzolanas
include volcanic ashes such as those found around in Italy, while
artificial pozzolanas include fly ash, crushed burnt bricks and tiles.

PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

The intensive use of aggregates in constructions is a very

important environmental concern. The availability of aggregates
becomes a serious problem. In order to reduce the use of natural
aggregates for natural resources and energy preservation, the use of
recycled aggregates in concretes is an interesting solution. Every day,
a concrete batching plant receives from several construction sites a
huge amount of over ordered fresh concrete. This is caused mainly by
the uncertainty in the exact quantity of the required concrete for
construction projects. The average world production of concrete in our
rapid developing industrialized world which has an adverse impact on
the environment.

Since earth is the source of the aggregates, then obtaining these

amounts would have an adverse effect on the environment.
Furthermore, demolishing concrete structures and dumping the
concrete rubbles would aggravate the problem. Therefore, recycling
construction material plays an important role to preserve the natural
resources and helps to promote sustainable development in the
protection of natural resources. Utilization of concrete that uses
 recycled aggregates as a construction material is expected to
contribute to solving the issue of lack of raw materials, and thus would
allow the construction of infrastructures using a circulatory system for
resources.

ADMIXTURES

Effect of admixtures such as black gram pulse (BGP) and sulfonated

naphthalene based superplasticizer (SP) on the hydration of Portland cement has
been studied. The hydration characteristics of OPC in the presence of BGP and SP
were studied with the help of non-evaporable water content determinations,
calorimetric method, and atomic force microscopic techniques. Results have shown
that both BGP and SP get adsorbed at the surface of cement and its hydration
products. The hydration of Portland cement is retarded in the presence of both the
admixtures and Nano size hydration products are formed. Concrete is one of the
most widely used building material in the world, but the fundamental mechanisms
underlying its behavior are very poorly understood, due to its physical and chemical
complexity.

Admixtures when added in small quantities make the hydration process much
more complex. Organic admixtures are widely used in concrete and mortar for
several decades to modify the properties of cement products. Cement is the main
binding component of the concrete and the process of hydration proceeds in a very
complex manner. Inspite of a large number of research work the mechanism of
cement hydration is still not fully understood. The hydration of cement involves
series of reactions, which mainly depend on the cement composition, the water /
cement ratio, surface area, particle size distribution, temperature and admixtures.
 FRESH CONCRETE

Concrete being a composite material each of the ingredients contributes to the

temperature of concrete at the time of mixing.

During analysis of strength results for concrete from some new constructions, it was
noticed that strength in structural members was much lower than that specified
even when the cube results were mostly satisfactory, Possible factors namely
compaction and curing affecting results of strength were discussed in an earlier
paper. The effect of aggregates, wet or dry. was also discussed in an earlier paper
,In view of some resent observations it Is thought appropriate to 'discuss the
problems connected with the temperature of concrete in some details in present
Paper

As soon as water conies in contact with cement. hydration reaction starts at the
surface of cement particles and lot of heat is librated being an exothermic reaction
(heat of hydration of cement). Initially the rate of reaction and corresponding rate of
heat liberation is very high for few minutes, and then reduces considerably. The
amount of heat generated in the short period. depends on the chemical composition
and the fineness of cement, Cement with higher proportions of tricalcium aluminate
and tricalcium silicate would have higher heat of hydration and also higher rate of
reaction and as such higher rate of heat liberation
 FRESH CONCRETE (PART II)

The mixing procedure includes the type of mixer, the order of

introduction of the materials into the mixer, and the energy of mixing
duration and power. To control the workability or rheology of the fresh
concrete, for example, it is important to control how the concrete is
processed during manufacture. . There should be a methodology to
determine the quality of the concrete produced, but only few methods
and only one attempt of standardization. The methodology to
determine the quality of the concrete mixed is often referred to as the
measurement of the efficiency of the mixer.
Mixing is a complicated process that is affected by the type of
mixer, the mixing cycle as defined by the duration, the loading
method, and the energy of mixing. There are two main types of mixers:
batch and continuous. In each type there are several configurations.
The efficiency of a mixer is determined by the homogeneity of the
concrete produced. It could also be considered as being determined by
the energy used in producing a given quantity of concrete of the
required homogeneity. This homogeneity is either measured by the
composition of the concrete or by the variation of the macroscopic
properties, such as compressive strength and workability.
It is not clear that the variation of macroscopic properties is very
sensitive to variation of composition or to inhomogeneity in the
concrete produced. Therefore, a direct measure of the homogeneity of
the concrete produced should be the most reliable method for
characterizing a mixer. A direct measurement of homogeneity relies on
the determination of the concrete composition, such as distribution of
the various constituents, including air content, present in various
samples taken during the concrete discharge.

STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
In terms of both manpower and material resources, are commonly implemented to
design new concrete mixtures and assure their consistent performance in meeting a
specified target strength value. The observation that “the strength of the concrete
increases in direct proportion to the increase in number of cement particles in a unit
of water” could be easily extended to hypothesize that strength development over
time would be directly proportional to the volume of hydration products produced
per unit volume of mixing water. Because porosity is the key parameter regulating
strength in cement-based materials, the generally linear relationship between heat
release and porosity filled during hydration allows for the development of a linear
relationship between strength and cumulative heat release, when the latter is
properly normalized per unit volume of water initially present in the mixture.

While conventional strength testing had indicated that this relationship holds
for testing, continuous ultrasonic measurements have indicated that the
relationship is valid from about 8 hour onward for the pastes examined in the
present study. These results imply that either ultrasonic measurements or
calorimetry could be employed to monitor strength development for quality
control/assurance purposes. Each brand of cement had its own straight-line relation
between the strength and the cement-water ratio of the concrete.

HARDENED CONCRETE

Testing of Concrete both in the plastic and hardened states need to be

carefully understood in order that adequate responses or proper corrective
measures can be made to developing problems even before these develop.
Oftentimes, the test results and what they tell the end user remain as merely test
results because of a lack of understanding on what these test results are really
indicating to us and how they could best be used or interpreted to result in
adequate and timely corrective measures to address the problem. If strength
requirements as well as workability demands need to be met concurrently, addition
of water while increasing workability can cause a retrogressive effect on the
strength and increases shrinkage potential and should thus be avoided. Reduction
of water in the mix would increase strength but may make the Concrete
unworkable.

` Concrete failure in the compression test or in service is a result of the

development of micro cracking through the specimen to the point where it can no
longer resist any further load. The crack propagates through the weakest link
whether it is through the aggregates or the cement matrix or both. For ultra-high
strength concrete aggregate strength becomes critical and it would be better to
have smaller sized aggregates so that internal weaknesses in the aggregates would
not be significant as a crack initiator. Also, the use of small sized aggregates
increases the aggregate interlock and increases the chances for Crack Arrest. For
normal strength concrete, failure normally propagates through the cement matrix
unless internal planes of weakness in the aggregates give in more readily but the
random distribution of these would arrest such crack propagation in the normally
stronger aggregates.

ELASTICITY, SHRIKAGE AND CREEP

Concrete shrinkage is primarily due to rapid and uneven loss of water.

Therefore, improper curing of Freshly poured concrete and control of environmental
factors plays a key role in shrinkage control. Drying Shrinkage increases with
increasing water content. Therefore control of mixing water to that required only for
complete hydration and desired adequate flow ability is important. In case such
conditions cannot be met, it would be better to achieve these requirements by using
water reducing plasticizers rather than by addition of more water. Although control
of total water in the mix is the primary objective to control shrinkage cracking, other
factors contribute to the overall shrinkage cracking as the following Equation would
suggest.

The designation creep recovery is given by analogy to creep; however, the

two phenomena are different. The mechanisms proposed for creep recovery are as
contradictory as the ones proposed for creep; nevertheless, they agree on the fact
that it is caused by the reentry of the water to the concrete matrix and the slipping
back of the broken bonds to the original position. In this study creep recovery refers
to the partial recovery of the total deformation created by a constant sustained
load. Interest in creep and shrinkage has been rising as concrete structures more
susceptible to its effects have been appearing, and structural damages or failures
were being experienced.

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE

We have made enormous advances in the understanding and practice of

concrete durability. Spurred by the often experienced early deterioration of
reinforced concrete structures, with high capital investment for repair and
rehabilitation, conceptions of design for durability have gained an increasingly
higher level of importance in recent years. Durability design is beginning to be
considered of equal importance as design for safety and serviceability.
Nevertheless, durability concerns remain and early deterioration still attracts much
expenditure. This paper is aimed at identifying important developments made in the
field of concrete durability during the past two decades.

Based on current design practice and current knowledge, future research and
development needs are discussed, focusing on the influences of constituent
materials, deterioration prevention methods, service life modelling of reinforced
concrete. It is not difficult to recognize or to acknowledge the significant changes
that have taken place in the field of concrete durability. This period has seen an
enormous growth in our understanding of the mechanisms and processes of
deterioration, the ways in which to protect concrete against early deterioration and
the effective utilization of concrete-making materials that will enhance durability.

EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE, FREEZING AND THAWING,

AND OF CHLORIDES IN CONCRETE

One of the most damaging actions affecting concrete is the abrupt

temperature change freeze-thaw cycles. The types of deterioration of concrete
structures by cyclic freeze-thaw can be largely classified into surface scaling
characterized by the weight loss and internal crack growth characterized by the loss
of dynamic modulus of elasticity. The present study explored the durability of
concrete made with air-entraining agent. The mixing started after putting all the
coarse aggregate and fine aggregate into the mixer. These ingredients were mixed
for about 1 min, and then the water with air-entraining agent was added in 1
minute. Finally the mixing continued for about 2 min after all water was added.
Concrete is considered as one of the most nonhomogeneous and demanding
engineering materials used by mankind.

The durability of concrete is defined as the ability to withstand damaging

effects of environment without deterioration for a certain period of time. The
durability of concrete involves resistance to frost, corrosion, permeation,
carbonation, stress corrosion, chemical attack. The micro cracks were caused after
the action of freezing and thawing cycles, and then the coarse aggregates and
cement part were separated because of the action of freeze-thaw cycles. So the
surface separation or scale off was caused by freeze-thaw cycles.

CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

The primary aim of a mix design method is to obtain proportions of concrete

ingredients that can be used for a first trial batch to produce a certain concrete for a
particular strength, long term qualities and performance. A mix design provides a
starting mix proportions that will have to be more or less modified to meet the
desired concrete characteristics. High-performance concrete does not necessarily
require high strength but the mix proportioning should be such that permeability is
as low as possible for the particular use. Mix design of high performance concrete is
different from that of usual concrete because water-binder ratio is very low and it
may contain mineral admixtures which change the properties of fresh and hardened
concrete. Moreover, slump or compaction factor can be adjusted using high range
water reducing admixture without altering water content.

The single-point workability tests nowadays are considered as incapable of

providing an adequate characterization of workability of today’s much more
advanced concrete mixtures. Researchers treat fresh concrete as fluid and use fluid
rheology methods to describe concrete behavior. Concrete as a fluid is most often
assumed to behave. In a mix design procedure, trial batches are prepared in the
laboratory and workability is measured after arriving at all the ingredients of
concrete. If the workability criterion is satisfied, cubes or cylinders are cast for
compressive strength test. If desired level of workability is not obtained,
adjustments of the constituents of concrete are again made and trial batch is
prepared.