Running head: PERKINS ANALYSIS 1

Perkins Analysis-Making Sense of the Game

Olga M. Herget

EDU510 The Cognitive Science of Teaching & Learning

Dr. Mary Mills

 PERKINS ANALYSIS

Perkins Analysis-Making Sense of the Game

In the textbook Making Learning Whole: How Seven Principles of Teaching Can

Transform Education, David Perkins proposes educators approach teaching and learning from a

new perspective. He believes deep learning requires learners to make sense of information in the

classroom, stay motivated to learn, and connect new knowledge to real life (2009). Perkins

compares learning in the classroom to how children learn to play a sport. They play for

enjoyment without necessarily knowing all the rules from the onset and practice their skills

because they enjoy the game. Perkins’ ongoing baseball analogy throughout his textbook helps

make sense of complex learning theories, promotes equitable learning, and inspires educators to

teach smarter.

Analysis and Application

Perkins Principles of Teaching- Play the Whole Game

Definition of the Non-example Learning Modifications

Principle
Perkins’ first Many social According to Perkins, teachers
principle focuses on studies classes focus on should not focus on elementitis and
helping students see the having students learn aboutitis but rather find solutions to
big picture, not just and recall facts and approaching complex lessons (2009, p. 37)
pieces of a concept, dates based on isolated Complex lessons are a good way to
even at the introductory world events. engage learners because they embrace
level (Perkins, 2009. Educators often students that asks, “why?” in class
p.38). This type of emphasize rote (Perkins, 2009. p. 30).
learning is not content memorization to Project Based Learning is an
based, but rather pushes develop foundational excellent tool to use in a social studies
learners to think and re- knowledge, yet it is not classroom. Teachers can focus on two to
think a topic and is conducive to deeper three key points of a topic and later
generally based on learning (The introduce other aspects of the topic. By
inquiry or performance Difference, 2017). getting students started at the “junior
in a broad sense Even more alarming, level”, teachers can spark curiosity,
(Perkins, 2009, p. 30). many history lessons provide time to explore a topic, and
 PERKINS ANALYSIS

Students are encouraged offer students only one motivate students (Aungst, 2016).
to immerse themselves perspective and come Middle school teachers Jody
in the learning process from one textbook. Passanisi and Shara Peters share excellent
and develop a deep Michael Conway ideas for Project Based Learning on the
understanding of a states, “Currently, most blog MiddleWeb (2013)
concept or skill. students learn history https://www.middleweb.com/8862/project-
as a set narrative—a learning-in-history-class/
process that reinforces Students should always start a
the mistaken idea that topic accessing prior knowledge and then
the past can be linking new knowledge to the previous
synthesized into a experience.
single, standardized
chronicle of several
hundred pages” (2015,
para. 4).
A non-example
of this principle occurs
when social studies
teachers present a
historical event as
isolated and only assess
student learning using
multiple-choice or fill-
in questions based on
rudimentary facts.
An additional
violation of Perkins
first principle is that
many high school
social study courses are
labeled World History
when in actuality the
majority focus solely
on Western civilization
(Stearns, 2009).
 PERKINS ANALYSIS
Perkins Principles of Teaching-Make the Game Worth Playing
Definition of the Principle
In schools, many
students go through the
motions of learning for purely
extrinsic reasons. Extrinsic
motivators in the educational
field include grades and
praise received for good work
(Smith, 2014). Extrinsic
motivation works only as a
short-term motivator. The
second principle focuses on
the intrinsic motivation of
students. Intrinsic motivation
will drive students to want to
learn because it creates an
atmosphere of self-regulation
and personal satisfaction
through a challenge-seeking
environment (Kazakoff,
2017). Simply stated, a
learner will seek out
knowledge and learn about a
topic because it interests
them. To help students grow
as learners, teachers must use
ongoing assessment and
feedback to encourage
understanding, not an
academic grade (Perkins,
2009).
Non-example
The public school
educational system uses a
variety of grading systems to
provide a concrete
representation of completion
of a task and to reflect quality
of performance within an
academic environment
(Shindler, 2008). In school,
students receive multiple
grades throughout the course
of a unit of study because
students (and parents) often
feel effort and completed
work requires a grade to have
meaning. However, the act of
grading can be detrimental to
students.
A 2002 study at the
University of Michigan found
that 80 percent of students
surveyed based their self-
worth on academic
performance (Thomsen,
2013). Low grades can lead to
low self-esteem, impede the
desire to learn, and stop risk-
taking in the classroom
(Shore, n.d.).
Punishing students for
doing poorly in school is a
violation of the second
principle because students
must have the mindset that
they can learn to believe the
“game is worth playing”
Learning Modifications
According to Perkins,
commitment to learning is
shown through practice time,
persistence, and a general
love of the activity (Perkins,
2009, p. 55)
Educators need to find
ways to emphasize the act of
learning over achieving a
certain grade in the class.
There are different methods to
promote a positive attitude
toward learning including
 Focus on proficiency
 Meaningful feedback
 Goal Setting
 Choice in activity
(De-emphasize, 2015).
Choice in the
classroom can be reflected
through different practices
such as allowing students to
work in a group or alone,
having students pick which
assignments to complete for a
grade, and offering flexibility
with assignment turn in dates
(Turner, 2010). By giving
students a voice, teachers can
engage all types of learners in
a classroom and instill
intrinsic motivation in
students.
 PERKINS ANALYSIS
Perkins Principles of Teaching-Work on the Hard Parts
Definition of the Principle
The third principle has
two important components:
teachers must anticipate the
“hard parts” and students
must practice the “hard parts”
of learning. The goal is
improvement of skill set, not
mindless practice without
meaning. Perkins warns
educators not to follow the
heart-and-minds theory
because it does not often
work. A student’s intent to
improve is often hindered by
lack of understanding of
feedback and time constraints
in the classroom (2009, p.81).
(Perkins, 2009, p.70).
Non-example
A non-example of
Perkins’s third principle can
occur during the first years of
teaching a World Language.
Unexperienced educators
might not allow students to
submit quiz corrections on
assessments. In addition, a
lack of experience hinders the
ability to anticipate which
concepts will prove most
difficult for students and how
to work with grammar in
creative ways.
Many first-year world
language teachers rely on
“drill and kill” grammar
practice and numerous pre-
designed worksheets, which
do not reflect much meaning
to students’ lives. This is a
violation of the third principle
because all students need
authentic opportunity to
practice skills in a meaningful
way to correctly “play the
game” (Perkins, 2009).
Learning Modifications
To be able to work on
the “hard parts” students need
to put in conscious effort to
practice and understand the
current task and think about it
in new ways (Perkins, 2009).
Learning a foreign language
requires consistent practice
and opportunity for
independent practice, and
self-reflection (Broad
Instructional, n.d.).
Veteran teachers
recognize the value in test
corrections. This practice is
an excellent strategy to stress
student accountability,
reinforce the importance of
material, and practice the
“hard parts”. Students may
correct assessments in class
with a peer, explain in their
own words why the answer is
incorrect, and submit a
corrected answer.
Kelly Jackson, a
mathematics professor,
believes test corrections
support students by helping
with the “hard parts” such as
 PERKINS ANALYSIS
Perkins Principles of Teaching-Play Out of Town
Definition of the Principle
According to Perkins,
many students have trouble
transferring learning from one
situation to another (Perkins,
2009). Educators must help
students use “high road
transfer” to ensure
understanding and
connections. The easiest way
to understand this principle is
Non-example
A non-example of
“play out of town” is a world
language lesson that does not
require active thinking nor
incorporate culture as part of
the objective. Spanish II
students study a unit based on
getting around town, driving
directions, and formal
commands. All activities and
computational errors and
learning gaps (Jackson,
2013).
Veteran teachers are
also able to incorporate more
learning strategies due to
experience and confidence in
the classroom. An excellent
method to work with
grammar is guiding students
through activities in sentence
combining, sentence
expanding, and sentence
manipulating (Simpson,
2018). These activities allow
student to practice using
knowledge while analyzing
how and when to use it. A
teacher can then create
sentences based off students’
interests, hobbies, and
knowledge.
Learning Modifications
Teachers need to be
aware of learning situations
that offer transfer
opportunities for students.
Furthermore, teachers must
design learning activities,
which empower students to
learn on a whole level
(Perkins, 2009, p. 131).
Effective world
 PERKINS ANALYSIS
to think of the connections we
make every day. Tennis
players who want to win the
Grand Slam must be able to
transfer athletic skill to clay,
grass, and hard courts. All
three locations require the
ability to run, hit, and serve,
while adjusting for the
different speed conditions of
the court.
This principle is very
important because the entire
goal of education is to prepare
students to take acquired
knowledge and understanding
of the world and apply them
to real-life situation (Perkins,
2009, p. 114).
Perkins Principles of Teaching-Uncover the Hidden Game
Definition of the Principle
In Perkins’ textbook,
he describes the “hidden
games” as the parts of
learning which are not
information reflect the town
where students live, without
mentioning a Spanish-
speaking location nor the
customs of the location. The
teacher provides a vocabulary
list, grammar points, and
requires students to complete
a final project at the end of
the unit. This is a violation of
the fourth principle because
the teacher has done all the
work and the students have
not made a connection
between local and foreign
town life (Perkins, 2009,
p.124).
Non-example
A non-example of this
principle occurs when a
teacher does not take the time
to grasp teaching
language teachers include
culture in the classroom to
promote the access of prior
knowledge, encourage
discussion, and help students
make connections to the real
world.
An excellent method
to use for transfer of learning
is inquiry-based learning. The
teacher could approach the
unit by giving students time
to research what a typical
town in Spain looks like,
modes of transportation used,
and how a Spaniard would
give driving directions
(formal versus informal
commands). The students’
reference points are the town
they live in and the modes of
transportation they use. As the
unit progresses, students will
be able to identify similarities
and differences between the
two parts of the world. This
promotes understanding of
other people and cultures.
Learning Modifications
The practice of
teaching is full of “teachable
moments”. Many educators
can anticipate what the
 PERKINS ANALYSIS
apparent at the surface level
(Perkins, 2009). Perkins
believes the “hidden games”
are the key to igniting
curiosity in our students about
learning and helping them to
raise their own educational
bar (Perkins, 2009, p. 136).
Hidden games can be difficult
to access due to a variety of
factors from student
complacency to
misunderstood human cues.
Perkins Principles of Teaching-Learn from the Team
opportunities to help students
find the “hidden game” Many
students accept facts at face
value and do not question
concepts or ideas on a deeper
level.
World Language
students are often required to
read authentic reading
materials related to course
content. It can be very
frustrating to sit down, see a
two-page article on the
importance of friendship in
the target language, and only
recognize a few words.
Teachers who do not provide
reading strategies for students
are in violation of the sixth
principle because they are
causing students to feel
overwhelmed and burdened
(Perkins, 2009).
“hidden games” in learning
look like for students. Perkins
uses multiple examples in his
text of how to help students
solve problems on their own.
A World Language
teacher can modify the
reading activity through
providing multiple reading
strategies. Strategies may
include
 Students read sections
aloud to one another.
 Students identify cognates
and infer meaning of
words.
 Students write main idea
of each paragraph and
share ideas with each
other.
 Provide students with
graphic organizers to
identify main idea(s).
The “hidden game” is
allowing students to be
responsible for their own
learning while working on
comprehension skills.
Teachers should start out with
shorter readings, or “junior
versions”, to show students
the value of the activity,
ensure transfer, and practice
the “hard parts” (Perkins,
2009, p.140).
 PERKINS ANALYSIS
Definition of the Principle
In his sixth principle,
Perkins stresses the
importance of learning from
others because “thinking and
learning always develop in a
sociocultural context (2009,
p. 172). Perkins proposes
teachers should not
emphasize solo work but
rather encourage
collaboration and sharing of
experiences.
One of the greatest
teachers the world has ever
know is Socrates. Socratic
teaching emphasizes higher-
order thinking and requires
students to work together to
analyze concepts and ideas
(Paul & Elder, 1997).
Educators of today
must remember students are
not a homogeneous group.
According to
Bronfenbrenner’s model,
students bring their family’s
traditions, expectations, and
beliefs into the daily
classroom (Bronfenbrenner,
(1994).
Non-example
A non-example of this
principle is teacher-centered
learning. Many high school
and higher-level education
classes still operate in this
manner. Teachers who rely on
this method of instruction
benefit from conveying
information quickly and
controlling the content.
An example of teacher-
based learning is requiring
students to use a pre-made
vocabulary list for a World
Language unit on sports and
after school activities instead
of having students discuss and
share which sports and
activities they participate in on
a daily basis. A set list of
words may include activities
such as boating, golf, and
hang-gliding. If the student
population is mostly lower-
income city students, this list
may not activate thinking
throughout classroom
activities.
This is a violation of
the sixth principle because it
does not allow for student
interaction and only engages
student at the lower-levels of
Bloom’s Taxonomy
(Conventional, Teacher-
Centered, 2007).
Learning Modifications
To modify this lesson
an instructor can provide
students with activity and
sport categories and use
Think, Pair, Share to have
students generate a
vocabulary list. This learning
strategy is an excellent
method to increase student
engagement and participation
by raising student comfort
level (Sampsel, 2013). Ideas
can thrive because different
students bring their own life
experience into the mix of
learning thus generating new
learning. Students who live in
a lower-income city can tailor
the list to activities and sports
they are interested in and
have experienced.
Another important
reason to encourage
interaction and learning with
peers is working with others
can help clarify both the
“hard parts” and the “hidden
game” (Perkins, 2009).
 PERKINS ANALYSIS

Connections & Reflections

The goal of education is to provide students with the skills and knowledge they need to

succeed beyond their school years. In today’s classroom, student learning often happens in a

bubble. Educators need to find ways to provide authentic learning opportunities to all students.

As I read the chapters in Perkins’ textbook, I kept coming back to one main concept; for deeper

understanding to occur, educators must help students to make connections to previous and new

knowledge.

To encourage and facilitate active learning, educators must understand the important roles

of memory, transfer, and social context. All three components play a vital role in the learning

process. The human brain accesses information using three different methods short-term

memory, long-term memory, and working memory. Perkins principles help break down learning

theories into manageable pieces. Principle Two Make the Game Worth Playing and Principle Six

Learn from the Team are key players in activating prior knowledge. Both principles require

teachers to create an environment of inquiry, discovery, and facilitate sharing among peers.

Transfer of information requires students to make connections at the personal level,

identify knowledge gaps, and make real-life connections (Stenger, 2017). According to Perkins,

many students have trouble transferring learning from one context to another. (Perkins, 2009).

Principle Three Work on the Hard Parts and Principle Four Play Out of Town require teachers to

recognize where students are experiencing difficulty, create opportunities to work with

knowledge, and practice skill sets in different contexts.

The final puzzle piece to learning is social context. Urie Brofenbrenner, a developmental

psychologist, introduced the education field to an ecological systems theory of child

development. The five-system model of social contexts demonstrates how experiences shape the
 PERKINS ANALYSIS

development of human beings throughout their lives. The five models are Microsystems,

Mesosystems, Exosystems, Macrosystems, and Chronosystems (Bronfenbrenner, 1994). When

children are young, learning primarily occurs at the Microsystem level. As children mature and

social circles expand, social interactions increase within other systems. Perkins’ principles of

learning relate directly to Brofenbrenner’s systems because they emphasize the importance of

learning with and through others. In a school environment (Mesosystem), peers are an invaluable

resource and often help the learning process by sharing tips, information, and life-experiences

(Perkins, 2009).

As an educator, I am committed to being a life-long learner and hope to instill a love of

knowledge in my students. Incorporating Perkins principles into my teaching will benefit my

students threefold. Firstly, I had never really thought about approaching my teaching as a whole.

Second language acquisition is often broken down into pieces and not presented as a whole

concept. Secondly, I was pleased to discover I was already incorporating some of Perkins’

principles into the culture of my classroom. I believe strongly in students working together,

helping each other, and constructing new learning from previous knowledge. Thirdly, I will

continue to find ways to make “the game worth playing”. Intrinsic motivation is difficult to elicit

from adolescents. By continuing to create an active and challenging learning environment, I hope

to inspire curiosity and create life-long learners.

 PERKINS ANALYSIS

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