PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS.

FOR PROFESSOR JACKSON OF PSYC-2301

BY JORDAN ADKINS.
 ACCORDING TO THE VAST MAJORITY
OF PSYCHOLOGISTS AND
PSYCHIATRISTS, PSYCHOLOGICAL
DISORDERS ARE MARKED AND
RECOGNIZED BY A “CLINICALLY
SIGNIFICANT DISTURBANCE IN AN
INDIVIDUAL’S COGNITION, EMOTION
REGULATION, OR BEHAVIOR”
(AMERICAN PSYCHIATRIC
ASSOCIATION, 2013).

THESE SAME THOUGHTS, EMOTIONS,

AND BEHAVIORS ARE CONSIDERED
DYSFUNCTIONAL OR MALADAPTIVE.

THESE SEVERELY INTERFERE WITH

NORMAL DAY-TO-DAY LIFE.

THE DYSFUNCTIONAL PERSON IN

QUESTION IS OFTEN DISTRESSED,
THOUGH THIS NATURE FLUCTUATES
BETWEEN DIFFERENT DISORDERS.

WHAT EXACTLY IS A
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDER?
IN EARLIER TIMES, ABNORMAL BEHAVIORS THROUGH THE AGES, VICTIMS OF
WERE ATTRIBUTED TO SUPERNATURAL PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS HAVE
FORCES, SUCH AS THE MOVEMENT OF THE RECEIVED BRUTAL ‘TREATMENTS’,
STARS, GODLIKE POWERS, OR EVIL SPIRITS. INCLUDING THE TREPANATION EVIDENT IN
STONE AGE SKULLS.
DURING THE MIDDLE AGES, IT WAS
COMMONLY BELIEVED THAT PEOPLE DRILLING SKULL HOLES LIKE THESE MAY
SUFFERING FROM PSYCHOLOGICAL HAVE BEEN AN ATTEMPT TO RELEASE EVIL
DISORDERS WERE IN FACT POSSESSED BY SPIRITS AND CURE THOSE WITH MENTAL
DEMONS OR DEVILS. DISORDERS.

‘THERAPY’ OFTEN INVOLVED THE PHYSICAL AS LATE AS THE MIDDLE AGES, DOCTORS
AND MENTAL TORTURE OF THE MENTALLY CONTINUED TO DRILL HOLES IN THE
ILL IN ORDER TO EXORCISE THESE ‘EVIL SKULLS OF PATIENTS IN AN ATTEMPT TO
SPIRITS’. ‘RELEASE PRESSURED BLOOD BUILDUP’.
THEY BELIEVED THAT THIS CURED
PHILIPPE PINEL (1745-1826) WAS ONE OF MADNESS AND EPILEPSY.
THE FIRST PHYSICIANS TO ATTRIBUTE
THESE ABNORMAL BEHAVIORS TO IT’S VERY UNLIKELY ANYONE SURVIVED
SICKNESSES OF THE MIND RATHER THAN THIS TREATMENT.
SUPERNATURAL POSSESSIONS. HE
OPPOSED THE ABUSE OF MENTALLY ILL
PATIENTS AND ENFORCED REFORMS AND
MORE HUMANE TREATMENTS OF
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS.

“ — EVERY ILLNESS
HAS ITS NATURAL COURSE, WITH WHICH
IT BEHOOVES THE DOCTOR TO
BECOME ACQUAINTED. ” YESTERYEAR’S UNDERSTANDING
(OR LACK THEREOF) OF
— PHILIPPE PINEL
(NOSOGRAPHIC PHILOSPHIQUE, 1798) PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS.
 WITH THE MEDICAL MODEL FOR MENTAL DISORDERS, MENTAL
ILLNESS IS TO BE DIAGNOSED ON THE BASIS OF SYMPTOMS AND
TREATED THROUGH THERAPY, OFTEN IN A PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITAL.

REINVIGORATION OF THE MEDICAL MODEL HAS COME FROM

RECENT RESEARCH IN GENETICALLY INFLUENCED BRAIN
ABNORMALITIES IN BRAIN STRUCTURE AND BIOCHEMISTRY.

THE MEDICAL MODEL.

 THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL APPROACH
POSTULATES THAT BIOLOGICAL,
PSYCHOLOGICAL, AND SOCIAL-CULTURAL
FACTORS EACH PLAY A SIGNIFICANT ROLE
IN HUMAN FUNCTIONING IN THE CONTEXT
OF DISEASES AND ILLNESSES.

SOME SYMPTOMS OF DISORDERS ARE

CULTURE-RELATED, WHICH POINTS TO
ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES. FOR
THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL APPROACH. INSTANCE, THE EATING DISORDERS
MIND AND BODY ARE INSEPARABLE. ANOREXIA NERVOSA AND BULIMIA
EPIGENETICS: STUDY OF ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON GENES. NERVOSA OCCUR MOSTLY IN CULTURES
WITH FOOD-ABUNDANCE. DEPRESSION
AND SCHIZOPHRENIA, HOWEVER, OCCUR
WORLDWIDE.

DISORDERS REFLECT:

➔ GENETIC PREDISPOSITIONS
AND PHYSIOLOGICAL STATES
➔ PSYCHOLOGICAL DYNAMICS
➔ SOCIAL AND CULTURAL
CIRCUMSTANCES

EPIGENETICS IS THE STUDY OF

ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON THE
EXPRESSIONS OF GENES THAT OCCUR
WITHOUT A DNA CHANGE. THE STUDY HAS
BEEN EXCEEDINGLY USEFUL IN PROVING
BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL THEORIES. IT SHOWS
THAT OUR ENVIRONMENT CAN (OR CAN
NOT) AFFECT THE EXPRESSION OF A GENE,
AND THUS AFFECTS THE DEVELOPMENT OF
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS.
CLASSIFICATION AND LABELS
CLASSIFICATION ORDERS AND DESCRIBES SYMPTOMS.

DIAGNOSTIC CLASSIFICATION IN PSYCHIATRY AND PSYCHOLOGY ATTEMPTS TO:

➔ PREDICT THE FUTURE COURSE OF THE DISORDER IN QUESTION.

➔ SUGGEST APPROPRIATE TREATMENT.
➔ PROMPT RESEARCH INTO ITS CAUSES
 THE DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS (DSM) IS THE
MOST COMMON TOOL FOR CLASSIFYING PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS. THE
MANUAL WAS PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN PSYCHIATRIC ASSOCIATION AND
DESCRIBES PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS (AS WELL AS ESTIMATES THEIR
OCCURRENCES).

IN ITS FIFTH EDITION (DSM-5), SOME CHANGES INCLUDE:

➔ SOME LABEL CHANGES, SUCH AS AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER AND

INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY.
➔ NEW CATEGORIES, SUCH AS HOARDING DISORDER AND BINGE-EATING
DISORDER.
➔ NEW OR ALTERED DIAGNOSES — SOME CONTROVERSIAL! (AN EXAMPLE
OF THIS WOULD BE THE CONCERN THAT SIMPLE BEREAVEMENT MAY BE
TOO QUICKLY DIAGNOSED AS DEPRESSIVE DISORDER)

SOME CRITICISMS INCLUDE:

➔ THE DSM-5 CASTS TOO WIDE A NET.

➔ ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY DISORDER AND GENERALIZED ANXIETY
DISORDER DID POORLY ON FIELD TRIALS FOR THE DSM-5.
➔ DSM-5 CONTINUES THE PATH OF POTENTIALLY PATHOLOGIZING
EVERYDAY LIFE.
➔ LABELS ARE OR MAY ACT AS SOCIETY'S SUBJECTIVE VALUE
JUDGEMENTS.

SOME BENEFITS INCLUDE:

➔ THE DSM-5 AIDS MENTAL HEALTH PROFESSIONALS IN COMMUNICATION.

➔ THE DSM-5 REMAINS USEFUL IN RESEARCH.
➔ PATIENTS ARE OFTEN RELIEVED AFTER HAVING THE DSM-5 IDENTIFY
SUFFERING.
IT IS NOW IN ITS FIFTH EDITION (DSM-5), 2013
THE DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL
DISORDERS.
THE PERCENTAGE OF
AMERICANS REPORTING PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS IN THE PAST YEAR.

PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDER PERCENTAGE

GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER 3.1

SOCIAL ANXIETY DISORDER 6.8

PHOBIA OF SPECIFIC OBJECT OR SITUATION 8.7

DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS OR BIPOLAR DISORDER 9.5

OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE DISORDER (OCD) 1.0

SCHIZOPHRENIA 1.1

POST TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER (PTSD) 3.5

ATTENTION-DEFICIT/HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER 4.1

(ADHD)

DATA FROM: NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH, 2008.

THE MEDIAN AGES OF SYMPTOMS’ ARRIVALS ;
THE RATES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS.

PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS USUALLY STRIKE BY EARLY ADULTHOOD.

THE FIRST SYMPTOMS SHOW BY AGE 24 IN THE MAJORITY OF CASES .

PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDER MEDIAN AGE

ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY DISORDER 8

PHOBIAS 10

SUBSTANCE USE DISORDER ≈ 20

OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE DISORDER (OCD) ≈ 20

SCHIZOPHRENIA ≈ 20

MAJOR DEPRESSIVE DISORDER 25

 RISK FACTOR PROTECTIVE FACTORS
ACADEMIC FAILURE. AEROBIC EXERCISE.
RISK AND PROTECTIVE FACTORS FOR

CARING FOR THOSE WHO ARE CHRONICALLY ILL OR WHO HAVE A NEUROCOGNITIVE DISORDER. COMMUNITY OFFERING EMPOWERMENT, OPPORTUNITY, AND SECURITY.

CHILD ABUSE OR NEGLECT. ECONOMIC INDEPENDENCE

MENTAL DISORDERS.

CHRONIC INSOMNIA OR PAIN. EFFECTIVE PARENTING

FAMILY DISORGANIZATION OR CONFLICT. FEELINGS OF MASTERY AND CONTROL

BIRTH COMPLICATIONS OR LOW BIRTH WEIGHT FEELINGS OF SECURITY

LOW SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS LITERACY

MEDICAL ILLNESS OR NEUROCHEMICAL IMBALANCE POSITIVE ATTACHMENT AND EARLY BONDING

PARENTAL MENTAL ILLNESS OR SUBSTANCE ABUSE POSITIVE PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS

PERSONAL LOSS AND BEREAVEMENT PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS

POOR WORK SKILLS AND HABITS OR SOCIAL INCOMPETENCE RESILIENT COPING WITH STRESS AND ADVERSITY

READING OR SENSORY DISABILITIES SELF-ESTEEM

STRESSFUL LIFE EVENTS OR TRAUMA EXPERIENCES SOCIAL AND WORK SKILLS

SUBSTANCE ABUSE SOCIAL SUPPORT FROM FAMILY AND FRIENDS.

RESEARCH FROM: WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (WHO, 2004B.C).

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PSYCHOLOGICAL
CONTRARY TO POPULAR SPECULATION, MENTAL DISORDERS
SELDOM LEAD TO VIOLENCE AND CLINICAL PREDICTIONS OF
VIOLENCE ARE OFTEN TIMES UNRELIABLE. IN FACT, THE MAJORITY

DISORDERS, POVERTY, AND VIOLENCE.

OF PEOPLE WITH PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS ARE MORE LIKELY TO
BE VICTIMS OF VIOLENCE RATHER THAN PERPETRATORS.

HOWEVER, WHEN MENTALLY ILL PEOPLE ARE VIOLENT, QUESTIONS

ABOUT WHETHER SOCIETY SHOULD HOLD THOSE WITH MENTAL
DISORDERS RESPONSIBLE FOR THEIR ACTIONS ARE RAISED.

TRIGGERS FOR VIOLENT ACTS BY PEOPLE WITH MENTAL DISORDERS,

IN ADDICTION TO DISORDERED THINKING, OFTEN INCLUDE
SUBSTANCE ABUSE.

THE U.S. NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH ESTIMATES JUST

OVER 1 IN 4 ADULT AMERICANS “SUFFER FROM A DIAGNOSABLE
MENTAL DISORDER IN A GIVEN YEAR” (KESSLER ET AL., 2008).

PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDER RATES VARY BY TIME AND PLACE.

POVERTY ALSO AIDS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF A PSYCHOLOGICAL

DISORDER.

➔ INCIDENCE OF SERIOUS PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS IS

DOUBLED
➔ CONDITIONS AND EXPERIENCES ASSOCIATED WITH
POVERTY CONTRIBUTE TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS.
➔ BUT SOME DISORDERS, SUCH AS SCHIZOPHRENIA, CAN
DRIVE PEOPLE INTO POVERTY; CORRELATION GOES BOTH
WAYS.
ANXIETY DISORDERS, OCD, AND PTSD
ANXIETY DISORDERS, OCD, AND PTSD.
ANXIETY DISORDERS: MARKED BY PERSISTENT ANXIETY.
OCD: MARKED BY REPETITIVE THOUGHTS AND/OR ACTIONS.
PTSD: MARKED BY MEMORIES, NIGHTMARES, ETC. AFTER A TRAUMATIC EVENT.

ANXIETY IS A PART OF LIFE FOR EVERYONE, THOUGH SOME

ARE MORE PRONE TO NOTICE AND REMEMBER INFORMATION
PERCEIVED AS THREATENING. IN THIS SITUATION, THE BRAIN’S
DANGER-DETECTION SYSTEM BECOMES HYPERACTIVE.

WHEN THIS OCCURS, WE ARE AT GREATER RISK FOR AN

ANXIETY DISORDER, OR FOR TWO DIFFERENT DISORDERS
THAT INVOLVE ANXIETY: OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDER
(OCD), OR POST TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER (PTSD).

ANXIETY DISORDERS ARE MARKED BY DISTRESSING,

PERSISTENT ANXIETY OR MALADAPTIVE BEHAVIORS THAT
REDUCE ANXIETY. THE MAIN ANXIETY DISORDERS ARE:

➔ GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER, IN WHICH THE

PERSON IS UNEXPLAINABLY AND CONTINUALLY
UNEASY.
➔ PANIC DISORDER, IN WHICH THE PERSON
EXPERIENCES PANIC ATTACKS, SUDDEN EPISODES
OF INTENSE DREAD, AND FEARS THE NEXT
EPISODE’S UNPREDICTABLE ONSET.
➔ PHOBIA, IN WHICH THE PERSON IS INTENSELY AND
IRRATIONALLY AFRAID OF A SPECIFIC OBJECT,
ACTIVITY, OR SITUATION.
 SOMEONE WHO SUFFERS FROM GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER (GAD) IS
CONTINUALLY TENSE, APPREHENSIVE, AND IN A STATE OF AUTONOMIC NERVOUS
SYSTEM AROUSAL. A PERSON DIAGNOSED WITH GAD WILL:

➔ WORRY CONTINUALLY. THEY’LL OFTEN BE JITTERY, ON EDGE, AND SLEEP

DEPRIVED.
➔ SUFFER FROM AN EXTREME LACK OF CONCENTRATION.
➔ NOT NEED ANY SPECIFIC STRESSOR OR THREAT IN ORDER TO FEEL
UNEASY.

GAD, WHILE OFTEN SEEN WITH DEPRESSION, IS PLENTY HINDERING ON IT’S OWN
AND MAY LEAD TO PHYSICAL PROBLEMS (EXAMPLE: HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE).

GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER.

PANIC DISORDER.
PANIC DISORDER IS AN ANXIETY DISORDER MARKED BY
UNPREDICTABLE, MINUTES-LONG EPISODES OF INTENSE
DREAD IN WHICH ITS SUFFERER EXPERIENCES TERROR AND
ACCOMPANYING CHEST PAIN, CHOKING, OR OTHER
FRIGHTENING SENSATIONS. SUCH EPISODES ARE OFTEN
FOLLOWED BY THE WORRY OF A POSSIBLE NEXT EPISODE.

➔ THESE EPISODES ARE REFERRED TO AS PANIC

ATTACKS.
➔ PHYSICAL SYMPTOMS OF PANIC ATTACKS
INCLUDE IRREGULAR HEARTBEAT, CHEST PAINS,
SHORTNESS OF BREATH, CHOKING, TREMBLING,
AND DIZZINESS.
➔ AGORAPHOBIA, THE FEAR OF PUBLIC SITUATIONS
FROM WHICH ESCAPE MAY BE DIFFICULT, OFTEN
ACCOMPANIES PANIC DISORDER (ESPECIALLY
WHILE IN THE MIDST OF WORRYING ABOUT A
POSSIBLE NEXT ATTACK).
 PHOBIAS.
PHOBIA IS AN ANXIETY DISORDER MARKED BY A
PERSISTENT AND IRRATIONAL FEAR OF A SPECIFIC
OBJECT, ACTIVITY, OR SITUATION.

SPECIFIC PHOBIAS INCLUDE FEARS OF PARTICULAR

ANIMALS, INSECTS, HEIGHTS, BLOOD, OR CLOSED
SPACES.

SOCIAL ANXIETY DISORDER (FORMERLY KNOWN AS

“SOCIAL PHOBIA”) IS AN INTENSE FEAR OF OTHER
PEOPLE’S NEGATIVE JUDGEMENT.

PEOPLE WITH THIS DISORDER AVOID SOCIAL

SITUATIONS (SPEAKING UP IN A GROUP, EATING OUT,
GOING TO PARTIES), AND, IF UNABLE TO AVOID
THEM, MAY EXPERIENCE STRONG SYMPTOMS OF
ANXIETY.
OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE DISORDER.
OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE DISORDER (OCD) IS
CHARACTERIZED BY PERSISTENT AND REPETITIVE
THOUGHTS (OBSESSIONS), ACTIONS (COMPULSIONS), OR
BOTH.

OCD OCCURS WHEN OBSESSIVE THOUGHTS AND

COMPULSIVE BEHAVIORS PERSISTENTLY INTERFERE WITH
EVERYDAY LIFE AND CAUSE DISTRESS.

OCD IS MORE COMMON AMONG TEENS AND YOUNG

ADULTS THAN OLDER PEOPLE.

TWIN STUDIES REVEAL THAT OCD HAS A STRONG GENETIC

BASIS.
COMMON OBSESSIONS AND COMPULSIONS
AMONG CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS WITH OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDER.

THOUGHTS OR BEHAVIOR PERCENTAGE

OBSESSIONS (REPETITIVE THOUGHTS):

➔ CONCERN WITH DIRT, GERMS, OR TOXINS. 40

➔ SOMETHING TERRIBLE HAPPENING (FIRE, 24
DEATH, ILLNESS.
➔ SYMMETRY, ORDER, OR EXACTNESS. 17

COMPULSIONS (REPETITIVE BEHAVIORS):

➔ EXCESSIVE HAND WASHING, BATHING, 85

TOOTHBRUSHING OR GROOMING.
➔ REPEATING RITUALS (IN/OUT OF A DOOR, 51
UP/DOWN FROM A CHAIR)
46
➔ CHECKING DOORS, LOCKS, APPLIANCES,
CAR BRAKES, HOMEWORK.

DATA FROM: RAPOPORT, 1989.

POST TRAUMATIC
STRESS DISORDER.

POST TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER (PTSD) IS CHARACTERIZED BY HAUNTING

MEMORIES, NIGHTMARES, SOCIAL WITHDRAWAL, JUMPY ANXIETY, NUMBNESS OF
FEELING, OR INSOMNIA THAT LINGERS FOR FOUR WEEKS OR MORE AFTER A
TRAUMATIC EXPERIENCE

PTSD OFTEN INVOLVES MILITARY VETERANS (7.6 PERCENT OF COMATENTS; 1.4 OF

NONCOMBATANTS AMONG AMERICAN MILITARY PERSONNEL IN AFGHANISTAN)
AND SURVIVORS OF ACCIDENTS, DISASTERS, AND VIOLENT OR SEXUAL ASSAULTS
(INCLUDING AN ESTIMATED TWO-THIRDS OF PROSTITUTES).

WOMEN ARE AT HIGHER RISK (1 IN 10) THAN MEN (1 IN 20) OF DEVELOPING THIS
PTSD FOLLOWING A TRAUMATIC EVENT.

MOST MEN AND WOMEN DISPLAY IMPRESSIVE SURVIVOR RESILIENCY.

 ANXIETY DISORDERS AND CONDITIONING.
CONDITIONING RESEARCH HELPS EXPLAIN HOW PEOPLE PRONE

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

TO PANIC ASSOCIATE ANXIETY WITH CERTAIN CUES. LEARNING
THESE CUES MAY MAGNIFY A SINGLE PAINFUL AND
FRIGHTENING EVENT INTO A FULL-BLOWN PHOBIA THROUGH
TWO CONDITIONING PROCESSES:

➔ STIMULUS GENERALIZATION, WHICH IS

DEMONSTRATED BY RESEARCH OF HOW A FEARFUL
EVENT CAN LATER BECOME A FEAR OF SIMILAR
EVENTS.
➔ REINFORCEMENT, WHICH CAN HELP MAINTAIN A
DEVELOPED AND GENERALIZED PHOBIA.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
ANXIETY DISORDERS
AND COGNITION.
CONDITIONING INFLUENCES OUR
FEELINGS OF ANXIETY, BUT SO DOES
COGNITION — OUR THOUGHTS,
MEMORIES, INTERPRETATIONS, AND
EXPECTATIONS.

OBSERVING OTHERS CAN

CONTRIBUTE TO DEVELOPMENT OF
SOME FEARS.

➔ OLSSON AND COLLEAGUES:

WILD MONKEY RESEARCH
FINDINGS

OUR INTERPRETATIONS AND

EXPECTATIONS ALSO SHAPE OUR
REACTIONS. THIS PHENOMENON IS
KNOWN AS HYPERVIGILANCE.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
ANXIETY DISORDERS AND GENETICS.
THOSE WITH PARENTS WHO POSSESS ANXIETY,
OCD, OR PTSD WILL DEVELOP A GENETIC
PREDISPOSITION FOR ANXIETY, OCD, OR PTSD.
RESEARCHERS HAVE IDENTIFIED SEVENTEEN
GENETIC VARIATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH TYPICAL
ANXIETY DISORDER SYMPTOMS.
GENETICS INFLUENCE LEVELS OF
NEUROTRANSMITTERS. THESE
NEUROTRANSMITTERS INCLUDE:

- SEROTONIN: INFLUENCES SLEEP MOON,

ATTENDING TO THREATS
- GLUTAMATE: HEIGHTENS ACTIVITY IN THE
BRAIN’S ALARM CENTERS.

EXPERIENCES ALSO AFFECT GENE EXPRESSION (AS

PREVIOUSLY MENTIONED WHEN SPEAKING ABOUT
THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL APPROACH). EPIGENETIC
MARKS ARE OFTEN ORGANIC MOLECULES THAT
ATTACH TO CHROMOSOMES AND TURN CERTAIN
GENES ON OR OFF.
PSYCHOLOGISTS HAVE FOUND THAT TRAUMATIC THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
FEAR-LEARNING EXPERIENCES CAN LEAVE
TRACKS IN THE BRAIN. ANXIETY DISORDERS AND THE
FEAR CIRCUITS CREATED WITHIN THE AMYGDALA
RESULT IN EASY INROADS FOR MORE FEAR
BRAIN.
EXPERIENCES.

BRAIN SCANS SHOW HIGHER-THAN-NORMAL

ACTIVITY IN THE AMYGDALA OF BRAIN SCANS OF
PEOPLE WITH PTSD WHEN THEY VIEW
TRAUMATIC IMAGES.

ANTERIOR CINGULATE CORTEX, A BRAIN REGION

THAT MONITORS OUR ACTIONS AND CHECKS FOR
ERRORS, IS ESPECIALLY LIKELY TO BE
HYPERACTIVE IN PEOPLE WITH OCD.
 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

ANXIETY DISORDERS AND NATURAL SELECTION.

HUMAN BEINGS ARE BIOLOGICALLY PREPARED TO FEAR CERTAIN THREATS — THESE
ARE EASILY CONDITIONED AND ARE DIFFICULT TO EXTINGUISH.

SOME MODERN FEARS MAY HAVE AN EVOLUTIONARY EXPLANATION (FOR EXAMPLE,

THE FEAR OF FLYING MIGHT BE ROOTED IN OUR BIOLOGICAL PREDISPOSITION TO
FEAR HEIGHTS AND CONFINEMENT).

OUR PHOBIAS FOCUS ON DANGERS OUR ANCESTORS FACED. OUR COMPULSIVE

ACTS TYPICALLY EXAGGERATE BEHAVIOR THAT HELPED THEM SURVIVE.
DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS.
 THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN

BIPOLAR DISORDER
AND
MAJOR DEPRESSIVE
DISORDER.
MAJOR DEPRESSIVE DISORDER IS A PROLONGED
STATE OF HOPELESS DEPRESSION.

BIPOLAR DISORDER (FORMERLY KNOWN AS

“MANIC-DEPRESSIVE DISORDER”) ALTERNATES
BETWEEN DEPRESSION AND OVEREXCITED
HYPERACTIVITY.

SYMPTOMS OF THESE DISORDERS MAY HAVE A

SEASONAL PATTERN.

DEPRESSION PROTECTS US FROM DANGEROUS

THOUGHTS AND FEELINGS, LETTING US SLOW
DOWN.

REASSESSING LIFE MAY REDIRECT OUR ENERGY IN

PROMISING WAYS, AND EVEN MILD SADNESS CAN
BE HELPFUL SOMETIMES.
 MAJOR
DEPRESSIVE
DISORDER.
MAJOR DEPRESSIVE DISORDER IS A DISORDER IN
WHICH A PERSON EXPERIENCES TWO OR MORE
WEEKS WITH FIVE OR MORE OF THE FOLLOWING
SYMPTOMS:

➔ DEPRESSED MOOD MOST OF THE TIME

➔ DRAMATICALLY REDUCED INTEREST OR
ENJOYMENT IN MOST ACTIVITIES MOST OF
THE TIME
➔ SIGNIFICANT CHALLENGES REGULATING
APPETITE AND WEIGHT
➔ SIGNIFICANT CHALLENGES REGULATING
SLEEP
➔ PHYSICAL AGITATION OR LETHARGY
➔ FEELING LISTLESS OR WITH LESS ENERGY
➔ FEELING WORTHLESS AND FEELING
UNWARRANTED GUILT
➔ PROBLEMS IN THINKING,
CONCENTRATING, OR MAKING DECISIONS
➔ THINKING REPETITIVELY OF DEATH AND
SUICIDE
 IN ORDER TO OBTAIN A DIAGNOSES,
THE PATIENT IN QUESTION NEEDS TO
EXPERIENCE DEPRESSED MOOD OR
LOSS OF INTEREST/PLEASURE.

THESE SYMPTOMS PRESENT

THEMSELVES IN THE ABSENCE OF
DRUGS OR ANOTHER MEDICAL
CONDITION.

PHOBIAS ARE MORE COMMON, BUT

DEPRESSION IS THE NUMBER ONE
REASON PEOPLE SEEK MENTAL
HEALTH SERVICES.

➔ UNITED STATES: 7.6%

EXPERIENCE MODERATE
OR SEVERE DEPRESSION
(CDC, 2014).
➔ WORLDWIDE: 3.95% MEN
AND 7.2% WOMEN HAVE A
DEPRESSIVE EPISODE
(GLOBAL, 2015).

MAJOR
DEPRESSIVE DISORDER.

(CONTINUED)
 BIPOLAR DISORDER, FORMERLY KNOWN AS “MANIC-DEPRESSIVE DISORDER” IS
A DISORDER IN WHICH A PERSON ALTERNATES BETWEEN THE HOPELESSNESS
AND LETHARGY OF DEPRESSION AND THE OVEREXCITED STATE OF MANIA.
MANIA IS A HYPERACTIVE, WILDLY OPTIMISTIC STATE IN WHICH DANGEROUSLY
POOR JUDGMENT IS COMMON. MILD MANIA FUELS CREATIVITY AND STRIKES
MORE OFTEN AMONG THOSE WHO RELY ON EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION AND
VIVID IMAGERY.

BIPOLAR DISORDER IS MUST LESS COMMON THAN MAJOR DEPRESSIVE

DISORDER, BUT OFTEN MORE DYSFUNCTIONAL. AMERICANS ARE TWICE AS
LIKELY AS PEOPLE ELSEWHERE TO BE DIAGNOSED WITH BIPOLAR DISORDER.

NEW TO DSM-5: DISRUPTIVE MOOD DYSREGULATION DISORDER.

BIPOLAR DISORDER.
HERITABILITY OF
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS

90%
BIPOLAR DISORDER

HERITABILITY ESTIMATES (PERCENT OF VARIATION

80%
SCHIZOPHRENIA
70%

DUE TO GENETIC INFLUENCE)

ANOREXIA NERVOSA
60%

MAJOR DEPRESSIVE DISORDER

50%

40% GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER

30%

20%

10%

0%

PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDER
MYERS, EXPLORING PSYCHOLOGY, 10E, © 2016 WORTH PUBLISHERS
 UNDERSTANDING
DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS.
BEHAVIORS AND THOUGHTS CHANGE WITH
DEPRESSION:

- NEGATIVE ASPECTS ON
ENVIRONMENT CONSUME THE
DEPRESSED
- NEARLY HALF OF PEOPLE
DIAGNOSED WITH DEPRESSION
ALSO DISPLAY SYMPTOMS OF
ANOTHER DISORDER (ANXIETY OR
SUBSTANCE ABUSE)

DEPRESSION IS WIDESPREAD

- FOUND WORLDWIDE; CAUSES MUST

ALSO BE COMMON.

WOMEN’S RISK OF MAJOR DEPRESSIVE

DISORDER IS NEARLY DOUBLE MEN’S:

- WOMEN EXPERIENCE DEPRESSION

1.7 TIMES MORE OFTEN THAN MEN
(CDC, 2014).
- WOMEN’S DISORDERS ARE
GENERALLY MORE INTERNAL
(DEPRESSION, ANXIETY, INHIBITED
SEXUAL DESIRE).
- MEN’S DISORDERS ARE MORE
EXTERNAL (ALCOHOL USE
DISORDER, ANTISOCIAL CONDUCT,
LACK OF IMPULSE CONTROL).
MOST MAJOR DEPRESSIVE EPISODES WITH EACH NEW GENERATION,
END ON THEIR OWN. DEPRESSION STRIKES EARLIER
(NOW OFTEN IN THE LATE TEENS)
➔ THERAPY OFTEN HELPS AND AFFECTS MORE PEOPLE. THE
AND TENDS TO SPEED HIGHEST RATES ARE AMONG
RECOVERY, BUT, EVEN YOUNG ADULTS IN DEVELOPED
WITHOUT THERAPY, MOST COUNTRIES.
(CONTINUED)
PEOPLE RECOVER. UNDERSTANDING
➔ RECOVERY MORE LIKELY IF ➔ IN NORTH AMERICA,
THE FIRST EPISODE STRIKES YOUNG ADULTS ARE DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS.
LATER IN LIFE, THERE WERE THREE TIMES MORE
FEW PREVIOUS EPISODES, LIKELY THAN THEIR
AND IF THERE IS MINIMAL GRANDPARENTS TO
STRESS AND A STRONG SUFFER — RECENTLY OR
SOCIAL SUPPORT SYSTEM. EVER — FROM
DEPRESSION.
➔ THERE IS SOME
STRESSFUL EVENTS OFTEN PRECEDE
GENERATIONAL AFFECT;
DEPRESSION.
YOUNG PEOPLE ARE
NOW MORE WILLING TO
➔ ABOUT ONE IN FOUR
TALK OPENLY ABOUT
DIAGNOSED WITH
THEIR DEPRESSION.
DEPRESSION HAVE
EXPERIENCED AN
EMOTIONAL, FINANCIAL, OR
PROFESSIONAL TRAUMA
WITHIN THE PAST MONTH.
➔ MOVING TO A NEW
CULTURE MAY ALSO LEAD
TO DEPRESSION.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

GENETICS AND
DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS .

THE RISK FOR MAJOR DEPRESSIVE DISORDER AND

BIPOLAR DISORDER INCREASES IF A FAMILY
MEMBER ALSO HAS EITHER DISORDER.

THE DATA FROM TWIN STUDIES ESTIMATED

HERITABILITY (THE EXTENT TO WHICH INDIVIDUAL
DIFFERENCES ARE ATTRIBUTABLE TO GENES) OF
MAJOR DEPRESSION DISORDER IS AT 37 PERCENT.

LINKAGE ANALYSIS POINTS TO “CHROMOSOME

NEIGHBORHOOD” TO HELP RESEARCHERS TEASE
OUT THE GENES THAT PUT PEOPLE AT RISK OF
DEPRESSION.

MANY GENES WORK TOGETHER AND PRODUCE

INTERACTING SMALL EFFECTS THAT INCREASE RISK
FOR DEPRESSION.
 “I BELIEVE THAT CURIOSITY, WONDER, AND PASSION ARE
DEFINING QUALITIES OF IMAGINATIVE MIND… AND THAT INTENSE
EXPERIENCE AND SUFFER INSTRUCTS US IN WAYS THE LESS
INTENSE EMOTIONS CAN NEVER DO.” — KAY REDFIELD JAMISON
(THE BENEFITS OF RESTLESSNESS AND JAGGED EDGES, 2005)

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS AND
THE BRAIN.
THE BRAIN’S ACTIVITY SLOWS DURING DEPRESSION AND INCREASES
DURING MANIA. THE BRAIN’S LEFT FRONTAL LOBE AND ADJACENT
REWARD CENTER BECOME MORE ACTIVE DURING POSITIVE EMOTIONS.
NEUROTRANSMITTER NOREPINEPHRINE RUNS SCARCE DURING
DEPRESSION WHILE BECOMING OVERABUNDANT DURING MANIA.
NEUROTRANSMITTER SEROTONIN BECOMES SCARCE (OR INACTIVE)
DURING DEPRESSION. DEPRESSION-RELIEVING DRUGS INCREASE THE
BRAIN’S SUPPLY OF SEROTONIN. REPETITIVE PHYSICAL EXERCISE
DECREASES DEPRESSION BY INCREASING SEROTONIN.

KAY REDFIELD JAMISON IS ONE OF THE

FOREMOST AUTHORITIES ON BIPOLAR DISORDER
— A DISORDER THAT SHE ALSO HAPPENS TO
HAVE HAD HER ENTIRE ADULT LIFE.
 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

NUTRITION AND
DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS.

STUDIES SHOW THAT WHAT’S GOOD FOR THE HEART IS ALSO GOOD
FOR THE BRAIN AND MIND. PEOPLE WHO EAT A HEART-HEALTHY
“MEDITERRANEAN DIET” (A DIET HEAVY ON VEGETABLES, FISH, AND
OLIVE OIL) HAVE A COMPARATIVELY LOW RISK OF DEPRESSION AS
WELL AS LOWER RISK FOR MANY OTHER AILMENTS. EXCESSIVE
ALCOHOL USE CORRELATES WITH DEPRESSION. ALCOHOL MISUSE IN
FACT LEADS TO DEPRESSION.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS AND SOCIAL-COGNITION.

BIOLOGICAL INFLUENCES CONTRIBUTE TO DEPRESSION, BUT LIFE EXPERIENCES ALSO PLAY A PART. THINKING
, FOR INSTANCE, MATTERS — PEOPLE’S ASSUMPTIONS AND EXPECTATIONS INFLUENCE WHAT THEY PERCEIVE.
MANY DEPRESSED PEOPLE HAVE LOW SELF-ESTEEM, HOLDING NEGATIVE VIEWS OF THEMSELVES, THEIR
SITUATION, AND THEIR FUTURE. THEIR SELF-DEFEATING BELIEFS AND NEGATIVE EXPLANATORY STYLE OFTEN
FEED DEPRESSION’S VICIOUS CYCLE. THIS IS A DEMONSTRATION OF NEGATIVE THOUGHTS AND NEGATIVE
MOODS INTERACTING. LEARNED HELPLESSNESS MAY EXIST WITH SELF-DEFEATING BELIEFS, SELF-FOCUSED
RUMINATION, AND SELF-BLAMING AND PESSIMISTIC EXPLANATORY STYLE.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS AND
SOCIAL-COGNITION.
(CONTINUED)
DEPRESSION IS FOUND MORE OFTEN IN WOMEN THAN MEN. THIS MEANS WOMEN MAY RESPOND
MORE STRONGLY TO STRESS.

RUMINATION IS THE ACT OF COMPULSIVELY FRETTING — OVERTHINKING ABOUT OUR PROBLEMS

AND THEIR CAUSES:

➔ CAN DIVERT US FROM THINKING ABOUT OTHER LIFE TASKS

➔ CAN INCREASE NEGATIVE MOODS

CRITICS NOT A CHICKEN-AND-EGG PROBLEM IN THE SOCIAL-COGNITIVE EXPLANATION OF

DEPRESSION: WHICH COMES FIRST, THE PESSIMISTIC EXPLANATORY STYLE OR THE DEPRESSED
MOOD?

DEPRESSION’S VICIOUS CYCLE — PIECES OF THE DEPRESSION PUZZLE:

➔ STRESSFUL EVENTS ARE INTERPRETED THROUGH

➔ A BROODING, NEGATIVE EXPLANATORY STYLE, THAT
➔ CREATES A HOPELESS, DEPRESSED STATE, THAT
➔ HAMPERS THE WAY THE PERSON THINKS AND ACTS

THESE THOUGHTS AND ACTIONS, IN TURN, FUEL NUMBER ONE, AND THE CYCLE CONTINUES
 WORLDWIDE, 800,000 PEOPLE ANNUALLY TAKE THEIR OWN LIVES.

PEOPLE ARE AT LEAST FIVE TIMES HIGHER AT RISK FOR SUICIDE

WITH DIAGNOSES OF DEPRESSION, AND, IRONICALLY, IT MAY
ESPECIALLY OCCUR WHEN PEOPLE ARE BEGINNING TO REBOUND
FROM DEPRESSION (WHEN THEY BECOME CAPABLE OF
FOLLOWING THROUGH).

SUICIDE IS MORE LIKELY TO OCCUR WHEN PEOPLE FEEL

DISCONNECTED FROM OR BURDENING TO OTHERS, OR WHEN THEY
FEEL DEFEATED AND TRAPPED BY AN INESCAPABLE SITUATION.

“THE FIRST TIME IT HAPPENED I WAS TEN.. WHILE COMPARING THE SUICIDE RATES OF DIFFERENT GROUPS,
IT WAS AN ACCIDENT... RESEARCHERS HAVE FOUND:

➔ NATIONAL DIFFERENCES.
AWFUL
SUICIDE.

➔ RACIAL DIFFERENCES.
➔ GENDER DIFFERENCES.
➔ AGE DIFFERENCES AND TRENDS.
➔ OTHER GROUP DIFFERENCES.
➔ EVEN DAY OF THE WEEK DIFFERENCES.

THE SECOND TIME, I MEANT TO LAST IT OUT AND NOT COME BACK AT ALL.” — SYLVIA PLATH, LADY LAZARUS
PLEASE HELP THOSE WHO ARE
THREATENING TO TAKE THEIR
OWN LIVES!

(CONTINUED)

AWFUL SUICIDE.
WONDERING HOW TO HELP A FAMILY MEMBER OR
FRIEND WHO IS TALKING ABOUT SUICIDE? THERE ARE
THREE TIPS:

➔ LISTEN! OFFER SINCERE EMPATHY (RATHER

THAN ARGUMENTS FOR WAY SUICIDE IS NOT
THE ANSWER).
➔ CONNECT! DO YOUR BEST TO LINK THOSE AT
RISK WITH A HELPLINE OR WITH CAMPUS
HELP SERVICES.
➔ PROTECT! SEEK HELP RIGHT AWAY (DOCTOR,
EMERGENCY ROOM, 911) AND REMOVING
POTENTIAL TOOLS FOR SUICIDE (WEAPONS,
MEDICATIONS) FOR ANYONE APPEARING IN
IMMEDIATE RISK.
NONSUICIDAL SELF-INJURY (NSSI) INCLUDES CUTTING, BURNING,
HITTING ONESELF, INSERTING OBJECTS UNDER NAILS OR SKIN, AND
SELF-ADMINISTERED TATTOOING. THESE SELF-INJURIES ARE PAINFUL
BUT NOT FATAL.
NONSUICIDAL SELF-INJURY
PEOPLE ENGAGE IN NSSI IN ORDER TO:

➔ GAIN RELIEF FROM INTENSE NEGATIVE THOUGHTS THROUGH

THE DISTRACTION OF PAIN
➔ ASK FOR HELP AND GAIN ATTENTION
➔ RELIEVE GUILT BY SELF-PUNISHMENT
➔ GET OTHERS TO CHANGE THEIR NEGATIVE BEHAVIOR
(BULLYING, CRITICISM)
➔ FIT IN WITH A PEER GROUP

SELF-INJURY IS TYPICALLY A SUICIDE GESTURE, THOUGH IT’S NOT

CONSIDERED A SUICIDE ATTEMPT.
SCHIZOPHRENIA
 SCHIZOPHRENIA IS A PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDER CHARACTERIZED BY DELUSIONS,
HALLUCINATIONS, DISORGANIZED SPEECH, AND/OR INAPPROPRIATE EMOTIONAL
EXPRESSION.

➔ THE WORD ITSELF MEANS “SPLIT” (SCHIZO) “MIND” (PHRENIA).

➔ SCHIZOPHRENIA IS THE CHIEF EXAMPLE OF A PSYCHOTIC DISORDER, WHICH IS
MARKED BY IRRATIONALITY, DISTORTED PERCEPTIONS, AND LOST CONTACT WITH
REALITY.
➔ WITH TREATMENT AND A SUPPORTIVE ENVIRONMENT, OVER 40 PERCENT OF PEOPLE
WITH SCHIZOPHRENIA WILL HAVE PERIODS OF A YEAR OR MORE WITH NORMAL LIFE
EXPERIENCE. THOUGH, JUST 1 IN 7 OF THOSE DIAGNOSED WILL MAKE A COMPLETE
AND ENDURING RECOVERY.

SOME POSITIVE SYMPTOMS INCLUDE THE PRESENCE OF INAPPROPRIATE BEHAVIOR.

SOME NEGATIVE SYMPTOMS INCLUDE THE ABSENCE OF APPROPRIATE BEHAVIOR.

WHAT IS SCHIZOPHRENIA?
 DISTURBED PERCEPTIONS:

➔ HALLUCINATIONS: SEEING, FEELING, TASTING, SMELLING

THINGS THAT EXIST ONLY IN THE MIND.

DISORGANIZED THINKING AND SPEECH:

➔ DELUSIONS: FALSE BELIEFS.

➔ MAY HAVE PARANOID TENDENCIES.
➔ WORD SALAD (SENSELESS SPEECH) AND A BREAKDOWN IN
SELECTIVE ATTENTION.

DIMINISHED AND INAPPROPRIATE EMOTIONS:

➔ FLAT AFFECT: EMOTIONLESS, A STATE OF NO APPARENT

FEELING.
➔ IMPAIRED THEORY OF MIND: DIFFICULTY READING OTHER
PEOPLE'S’ FACIAL EMOTIONS AND STATES OF MIND
➔ EMOTIONAL DEFICIENCIES OCCUR EARLY IN ILLNESS AND
HAVE A GENETIC BASIS.
➔ INAPPROPRIATE MOTOR BEHAVIOR, WITH MOTIONLESS
CATATONIA OR SENSELESS, COMPULSIVE ACTIONS.

SCHIZOPHRENIA SYMPTOMS.
THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ACUTE AND CHRONIC SCHIZOPHRENIA.
CHRONIC SCHIZOPHRENIA (ALSO CALLED PROCESS SCHIZOPHRENIA):

➔ FORM OF SCHIZOPHRENIA IN WHICH SYMPTOMS USUALLY APPEAR BY LATE

ADOLESCENCE OR EARLY ADULTHOOD
➔ AS PEOPLE AGE, PSYCHOTIC EPISODES LAST LONGER AND RECOVERY PERIODS
SHORTEN

ACUTE SCHIZOPHRENIA (ALSO CALLED REACTIVE SCHIZOPHRENIA):

➔ FORM OF SCHIZOPHRENIA THAT CAN BEGIN AT ANY AGE, FREQUENTLY OCCURS IN

RESPONSE TO AN EMOTIONALLY TRAUMATIC EVENT, AND HAS EXTENDED
RECOVERY PERIODS
➔ OFTEN POSITIVE SYMPTOMS THAT RESPOND TO DRUG THERAPY
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

BRAIN ABNORMALITIES AND SCHIZOPHRENIA.

DOPAMINE OVERACTIVITY:

➔ RESULTING HYPER-RESPONSIVE DOPAMINE

SYSTEM COULD INTENSIFY BRAIN SIGNALS,
CREATING POSITIVE SYMPTOMS.

ABNORMAL BRAIN ACTIVITY AND ANATOMY:

➔ OFTEN LOW ACTIVITY IN FRONTAL LOBES.

➔ VIGOROUS ACTIVITY IN THALAMUS AND
AMYGDALA WHEN EXPERIENCING
HALLUCINATIONS.
➔ ENLARGED, FLUID-FILLED AREAS AND
CORRESPONDING SHRINKAGE AND THINNING
OF CEREBRAL TISSUE.
➔ SMALLER-THAN-NORMAL CORTEX AND
CORPUS CALLOSUM.
 PRENATAL EVENTS THAT ARE ASSOCIATED WITH INCREASED RISK FOR
SCHIZOPHRENIA INCLUDE:

➔ LOW BIRTH WEIGHT.

➔ MATERNAL DIABETES.
➔ OLDER PARENTAL AGE.
➔ LACK OF OXYGEN DURING DELIVERY.
➔ MATERNAL PRENATAL NUTRITION.
➔ MID-PREGNANCY VIRAL INFECTION (FACTORS EXAMINED INCLUDE
FLU INCIDENCE, POPULATION DENSITY, SEASON OF BIRTH).

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

SCHIZOPHRENIA AND SPECIFIC PRENATAL EVENTS.

ODDS OF BEING DIAGNOSED WITH SCHIZOPHRENIA ARE NEARLY 1 IN 100; 1 IN 10
FOR THOSE WITH DIAGNOSED FAMILY MEMBER.

THE RISK FOR ADOPTED CHILDREN IS RELATED TO BIOLOGICAL PARENT.

SCHIZOPHRENIA INFLUENCED BY MANY GENES:

➔ SOME INFLUENCE THE ACTIVITY OF DOPAMINE AND OTHER BRAIN

NEUROTRANSMITTERS
➔ OTHERS AFFECT THE PRODUCTION OF MYELIN

EPIGENETIC FACTORS ALSO INFLUENCE GENE EXPRESSION.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

SCHIZOPHRENIA AND GENETICS.
DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS.
 DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS ARE CONTROVERSIAL, RARE
DISORDERS IN WHICH CONSCIOUS AWARENESS BECOMES
SEPARATED (DISSOCIATED) FROM PREVIOUS MEMORIES,
THOUGHTS, AND FEELINGS.

DISSOCIATIVE IDENTITY DISORDER (DID), WHICH WAS

FORMERLY CALLED MULTIPLE PERSONALITY DISORDER IS AN
EVEN-MORE RARE DISSOCIATIVE DISORDER IN WHICH A
PERSON EXHIBITS TWO OR MORE DISTINCT AND
ALTERNATING PERSONALITIES.

WHAT ARE DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS?

 DISSOCIATIVE
IDENTITY
DISORDER.
INCREASED DRAMATICALLY IN THE LATE TWENTIETH
CENTURY.

IS RARELY FOUND OUTSIDE NORTH AMERICA.

DID MAY REFLECT ROLE-PLAYING BY PEOPLE WHO

ARE VULNERABLE TO THERAPISTS’ SUGGESTIONS.

SOME PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORISTS VIEW THIS

DISORDER AS A MANIFESTATION OF FEELINGS OF
ANXIETY.

SOME LEARNING THEORISTS VIEW THIS DISORDER

AS A RESPONSE LEARNED WHEN BEHAVIORS ARE
REINFORCED BY ANXIETY-REDUCTION.

SOME CLINICIANS INCLUDE DISSOCIATIVE

DISORDERS UNDER THE UMBRELLA OF
POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER.
PERSONALITY DISORDERS
WHAT ARE THE THREE CLUSTERS THEY INHABIT?
WHAT IS A PERSONALITY DISORDER AND
PERSONALITY DISORDERS: INFLEXIBLE AND ENDURING
BEHAVIOR PATTERNS THAT IMPAIR SOCIAL FUNCTIONING.

THESE DISORDERS FORMS THREE CLUSTERS, CHARACTERIZED

BY:

- ANXIETY, THAT PREDISPOSES THE WITHDRAWN

AVOIDANT PERSONALITY DISORDER.
- ECCENTRIC OR ODD BEHAVIORS, SUCH AS THE
EMOTIONLESS DISENGAGEMENT OF SCHIZOTYPAL
PERSONALITY DISORDER.
- DRAMATIC OR IMPULSIVE BEHAVIORS AS SEEN IN
BORDERLINE PERSONALITY DISORDER,
NARCISSISTIC PERSONALITY DISORDER, AND
ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY DISORDER.
 A PERSON WITH ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY DISORDER DISPLAYS:

➔ LACK OF CONSCIENCE FOR WRONGDOING, EVEN TOWARD FRIENDS AND

FAMILY MEMBERS
➔ OFTEN IMPULSIVENESS, FEARLESSNESS, IRRESPONSIBILITY

CRIMINALITY IS NOT AN ESSENTIAL COMPONENT OF ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR—AND

MANY CRIMINALS DO NOT FIT THE DESCRIPTION OF ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY
DISORDER (SINCE THEY SHOW RESPONSIBLE CONCERN FOR THEIR FRIENDS AND
FAMILY MEMBERS).

BIOLOGICAL RELATIVES OF PEOPLE WITH ANTISOCIAL AND UNEMOTIONAL

TENDENCIES ARE AT INCREASED RISK FOR ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR.

ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY DISORDER.

 ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY DISORDER.

(CONTINUED)
SOME SPECIFIC GENES ARE IDENTIFIED AS MORE COMMON
IN THOSE WITH ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY DISORDER.
THESE GENES ALSO INCREASE THE RISK FOR SUBSTANCE
USE DISORDER, AND THESE DISORDERS OFTEN APPEAR IN
COMBINATION.

LOW AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM AROUSAL IN

SITUATIONS OTHERS WOULD FIND UNNERVING.

GENETIC PREDISPOSITIONS MAY INTERACT WITH THE

ENVIRONMENT TO PRODUCE THE ALTERED BRAIN ACTIVITY
ASSOCIATED WITH ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY DISORDER.
EATING DISORDERS.
THE KEY THREE
EATING DISORDERS.
ANOREXIA NERVOSA:

- PERSON (USUALLY AN ADOLESCENT FEMALE) MAINTAINS A STARVATION

DIET DESPITE BEING SIGNIFICANTLY UNDERWEIGHT
- PEOPLE WITH ANOREXIA NERVOSA CONTINUE TO DIET AND SOMETIMES
EXERCISE EXCESSIVELY BECAUSE THEY VIEW THEMSELVES AS FAT.

BULIMIA NERVOSA:

- PERSON ALTERNATES BINGE EATING (USUALLY OF HIGH-CALORIE

FOODS) WITH PURGING (BY VOMITING OR LAXATIVE USE),
- SOMETIMES FOLLOWED BY FASTING OR EXCESSIVE EXERCISE

BINGE-EATING DISORDER:

- SIGNIFICANT BINGE EATING, FOLLOWED BY DISTRESS, DISGUST, OR

GUILT, BUT WITHOUT THE COMPENSATORY PURGING OR FASTING THAT
MARKS BULIMIA NERVOSA

AMERICAN RATES: 0.6% ANOREXIA, 1% BULIMIA, AND 2.8% BINGE-EATING

 CAUSES OF
EATING DISORDERS.

FAMILY ENVIRONMENT FOR THOSE DIAGNOSED WITH

ANOREXIA IS OFTEN COMPETITIVE, HIGH-ACHIEVING,
PROTECTIVE

THOSE WITH EATING DISORDERS OFTEN HAVE LOW

SELF-EVALUATIONS, SET PERFECTIONISTIC
STANDARDS, AND ARE INTENSELY CONCERNED WITH
HOW OTHERS PERCEIVE THEM.

EATING DISORDERS ARE SEEN MORE IN IDENTICAL

TWINS THAN IN FRATERNAL TWINS, MEANING A
CAUSE OF THE DISORDER CAN BE HEREDITARY.

IDEAL BODY SHAPES VARY ACROSS CULTURES AND

TIME, THOUGH THEY ALWAYS FORCE PRESSURE
ONTO THEIR YOUTH. .

LOW SELF-ESTEEM AND NEGATIVE EMOTIONS

INTERACT WITH STRESSFUL LIFE EXPERIENCES,
SOMETIMES CAUSING EATING DISORDERS.

PREVENTION PROGRAMS HAVE HAD SUCCESS AND

ARE ESPECIALLY EFFECTIVE WHEN INTERACTIVE AND
FOCUSED ON GIRLS OVER THE AGE OF 15.
ATTENTION-DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER.
ATTENTION-DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD) IS MARKED BY EXTREME
INATTENTION AND/OR HYPERACTIVITY AND IMPULSIVITY.

11 PERCENT OF AMERICANS 4-TO-7 YEARS OLD RECEIVE THIS DIAGNOSES AFTER

DISPLAYING IT’S KEY SYMPTOMS WHILE ONLY 2.5 PERCENT OF ADULTS EXHIBIT ADHD
SYMPTOMS.

CRITICS FEAR THIS DISORDER IS OVERDIAGNOSED, LEADING TO THE OVERUSE OF

PRESCRIPTION DRUGS.

ATTENTION-DEFICIT
HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER.
 THOSE WHO SAY ADHD IS OVERDIAGNOSED
ARGUE:

- SYMPTOMS DISPLAYS SOUND LIKE THE

“DISORDER” OF HAVING A Y
CHROMOSOME; ADHD IS THREE TIMES
MORE PREVALENT IN BOYS THAN GIRLS
- ADHD MAY IN EFFECT BE MARKETED BY
COMPANIES THAT OFFER DRUGS FOR
IT’S TREATMENT (THOMAS, 2015).
- ENERGETIC CHILD + BORING SCHOOL =
ADHD DIAGNOSES

ALTERNATE VIEW OF THOSE ARGUING THAT ADHD

IS NOT OVER-DIAGNOSED:

- MORE FREQUENT DIAGNOSES DUE TO

INCREASED AWARENESS OF DISORDER
- SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY AGREES THAT
ADHD IS A REAL NEUROBIOLOGICAL
DISORDER
- COEXISTS WITH LEARNING DISORDERS
IS HERITABLE
- IT’S TREATABLE WITH MEDICATIONS

THERE IS DEBATE OVER THE SAFETY OF

LONG-TERM USES OF THESE STIMULANT
MEDICATIONS IN TREATING ADHD.

THE CONTROVERSY

OF ADHD.
 “THERE IS SOMETHING YOU MUST ALWAYS REMEMBER.
YOU ARE BRAVER THAN YOU BELIEVE, STRONGER THAN
YOU SEEM , AND SMARTER THAN YOU THINK . ”

AND LASTLY, AN EXCELLENT (IF NOT

ENTIRELY NEEDLESS) QUOTE ALL THOSE
WHO SUFFER FROM PSYCHOLOGICAL
DISORDERS MUST HEAR AND TAKE WITH
THEM ALWAYS.

AS SAID BY CHRISTOPHER ROBIN FROM THE MANY ADVENTURES OF WINNIE THE POOH (1977)