Basic Applied Electronics by Balamurugan

Contents
Chapter 1 Resistor 1–7

Colour Coding, Different Types of Resistors, and Resistors in Series & Parallel
connection & Potential Difference
Chapter 2 Introduction of Capacitors 8 – 14

Introduction of Capacitor, Standard Units of Capacitance, Types of Capacitor,
Capacitor Characteristics, Capacitor Colour Codes, Capacitor in Series & Parallel
connection, Ultra capacitors.
Chapter 3 Semiconductor Basics 15 – 20

Introduction of Semiconductor, Atom Structure, P N Junction & Theory, PN Junction
Diode, and Zero biased, forward & reversed biased, Junction Diode Summary, Full
Wave Rectifier Circuit.
Chapter 4 Bipolar transistor 21 – 28

Introduction of Bipolar transistor, Bipolar Transistor Construction, Bipolar
Transistor Configurations, the Common Base, Emitter& Collector Transistor Circuits.
Relationship between DC Currents and Gains, Transistor as a Switch, Transistor as
a Switch Summary, Junction Field Effect Transistor, Common Source, Gate & Drain
Configuration, The MOSFET, MOSFET as a switch.
Chapter 5 Digital Gates 29 – 34

Introduction of IC, Integrated Circuits, Classification of Integrated Circuits, Logic
AND Gate, Logic OR Gate, Logic NOT Gate, Logic NAND Gate, Logic NOR Gate
Chapter 6 Combinational Logic Circuits 35 -

Combinational Logic Circuits, Classification of Combinational Logic, Solid State
Switches, Solid State Switch Applications, Solid State Analogue Switch, Analogue
Switch Types, Combinational Logic Summary.
Chapter 7 Transformer Basic 40 – 46
Single Phase Voltage Transformer, Transformer Construction (single-phase), A
Transformers Turns Ratio, Multiple Winding Transformers, Dual Primary & Dual
Secondary Transformer, Series Connected Secondary Transformer, Parallel
Connected Secondary Transformer, and the Centre-tap Transformer.
Chapter 8 Theory of AC Waveform and Circuit 47- 54

AC Waveform Characteristics, Types of Periodic Waveform, Definition of Frequency
Prefixes, Amplitude of an AC Waveform, The Average Value of an AC Waveform,
Average Value of a Non-sinusoidal Waveform, RMS Value of an AC Waveform.
Chapter 9 Sinusoidal Waves 55 – 61

Introduction of Sinusoidal waves, Sinusoidal Waveform, Basic Single Coil AC
Generator, Phase Difference and Phase Shift, Phase Relationship of a Sinusoidal
Waveform, Phase Difference of a Sinusoidal Waveform, The Cosine Waveform, Sine
and Cosine Wave Relationships
Chapter 10 Theory of DC Circuit 62- 69

Electrical Current, Conventional Current Flow, Electron Flow, Resistance, Resistor
Symbols, A basic summary of the three units is given below.
Basic Applied Electronics
Chapter 1: Resistor
The resistor is a passive electrical component to create resistance in the flow of
electric current. In almost all electrical networks and electronic circuits they can be
found. The resistance is measured in ohms. An ohm is the resistance that occurs
when a current of one ampere passes through a resistor with a one volt drop
across its terminals. The current is proportional to the voltage across the terminal
ends. This ratio is represented by Ohm’s law:
Formula with ohm's law: R=V/I
Resistors are used for many purposes. A few examples include delimit electric
current, voltage division, heat generation, matching and loading circuits, control
gain, and fix time constants. They are commercially available with resistance
values over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. They can be used to
as electric brakes to dissipate kinetic energy from trains, or be smaller than a square millimetre for electronics.
Fixed resistor symbol

ANSI standard
Fixed resistor symbol
Colour Coding
1| Prepared by BALAMURUGAN, NOVEL INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL- JEDDAH

Different Types of Resistors

There are some different types of resistors in the electronic circuits. Depending upon the manufacture and
contraction the resistance has different properties. It makes the difference in their applications. The resistors
are available in different sizes and shapes in the market. The different types of resistor are discussed in the
following section.
 Linear resistors.
 Non-linear resistors.
Linear Resistors
The resistor values are changed with the help of the temperature and applied voltages are called linear
resistors. If the resistance of the current value is directly proportional to the applied voltage is called the linear
resistance. The linear resistors are two different types of resistor which are the following.
 Fixed resistors
 Variable resistor
Fixed Resistor
The name itself says that fixed resistor. So the values of the specific resistor cannot change in the fixed resistor.
There are different types of the resistor which are in the following.
 Led arrangement
 Carbon composition
 Carbon Pile
 Carbon film
 Printed carbon resistor
 Thick and thin film
 Metal film
 Metal oxide film
 Wire wound
 Foil resistor
 Ammeter shunt
 Grid resistor
 Special verities

Carbon Composition Resistor
The carbon composition resistor is made from the mixer of granulated or graphite, insulation filter and a resin
binder. The actual resistance of the resistor is determined by the ratio of the insulation material. The shape
of the insulating binder is in the shape of roads and there are two metal caps at both the end of the roads. At
both ends of the resistor it has two wire conductors for easy to connectivity in the circuit design. There are
different colors which are printed on the resistor to find the value of it and the road is covered with the plastic
coat.
Applications of Carbon Composition Resistor
 The composition resistor is used in the high energy pulses.

 It has a relatively small size.
 High voltage power supplies
 Welding
 High power
Carbon Pile
This type of resistor is prepared with the stack of compressed disk between two metal plates which are in
contact. These resistors are integrated in automatic voltage regulators and it controls the field current to
maintain the constant voltage. The symbol of the carbon pile resistor is shown below.

Applications of Carbon Pile
 These are used in the speed control small controls small motor in home appliances.
 This type of resistors is available in carbon microphone.
 Carbon pile resistors are used in the adjustable load resistors if it requires like radio transmitter or
automatic batteries.
Carbon Film
The carbon film resistor is formed by cracking the hydrocarbon in a ceramic former and
the temperature coefficient is from the -100 to -900 ppm/°C. The carbon film resistors
are not using in the market because of the superior resistors are available in the market.
These resistors are obtainable in small wattage levels. The symbol of the carbon film
resistor is shown below.
Applications of Carbon film
The carbon film resistors are available in High plus stability.
Printed Carbon Resistor
The name itself says that the “printed” so this type of resistors are used on the printed
circuit boards. These types of resistors are mostly common in hybrid PCB modules. The
tolerance of these resistors is quite large and it is in the order of 30%. The symbol of this
resistor is shown below.
Applications of Printed Carbon Resistor
 This type of resistors is used in the standard fiberglass in PCB’s.

 It has non critical pull up resistor.
Thick and Thin Film
In 1970s the thick film resistors are more popular and nowadays this type of resistors is in surface mount
device. The thick film is 1000 times thicker than the thin films with resistive elements. The principal of both,
the difference is in film applied to cylinder surface mountain device resistor.

Thick and Thin Film
The thin film resistors are prepared by a method of vacuum deposition and
the resistive material are through the insulating substrate. The old process
of making the printed circuit board is in film etched. The surface is covered
with a photosensitive material and covered with a pattern film, irradiated
with ultraviolet light and exposed to the sensitive coating. The manufacture
of the thick film resistor is by using the screen and a stencil printing process.
Applications of Thick and Thin Film
 Thin film is usually used in precision applications.

 The thin film resistance features have a relatively high tolerance.
 The inductance and capacitors are generally low in thin film resistors.
 The thick film resistors are used in case of high tolerance.
 The thick film resistors are available in low price and it can handle low power.
 Thick film resistors have a wider range of resistors.
Metal Film Resistor
The construction of metal film resistors is similar like carbon film resistor. Instead of
carbon there are a metal and metal is a mixture of nickel, chromium, metal glaze and
metal oxides. The temperature coefficient of metal film resistor is very low and the
value is +-2ppm/C. The symbol of metal film resistor is shown below.
Applications of Metal Film Resistor
 The tolerance of metal film resistor has good characteristics.

 The low voltage coefficient of this resistor has high linearity and low noise.
 In bridge circuit and active filter this film resistors are used.
Metal Oxide Film Resistors
The preparation of metal oxide film resistor is with the help of metal oxides and
these resistors are fixed from the axial resistors. These resistors are confused
with the metal oxide Caristors which are made with the help of zinc oxide, silicon
carbide. The chemical deposition methods are produced with the help of metal
oxide resistor. The pure metal gases like high temperature and low pressure
involve in the deposition process.
Applications of Metal Oxide Film Resistors
 The application of metal oxide film resistors is mostly similar to the metal film resistor.
 The metal oxide film and metal film are the predominant resistors.

Wire Wound Resistors
This type of resistors is made up of the insulating the core to a resistive wire.
The resistive wire is tungsten, manganese, nickel is allowed. These resistors are
very costly and sensitive to test. This resistor is available in the range of 2 watt
to 100 watt resistors. The wire wound resistors of Ohmic values are from the
1 ohm to 200l ohm.
Applications of Wire Wound Resistors
Accurate measurement and balance current control is required. It has high security
Variable Resistors
There are different types of variable resistors are following
 Adjustable resistor
 Potentiometers
 Resistance and decade boxes
 Special devices.
Adjustable Resistor
The adjustable resistors are also known as a rheostat. These resistors are two or three terminal device and
used for the current limiting purpose through the manual operations. The accessible range of these resistors
is from 3 to 200 watts. The power rating is between the 5 to 50 watts.
Applications of Adjustable resistor
 It is a power control device.

 Speed of motors.
Potentiometer Resistor
The potentiometers resistor will have an additional screw and it has a better
efficiency of operation. The potentiometer resistors are also known as
trimmers. By changing the position of the screw by rotating through small
screw driver then the value of resistor can be changed. These resistors are
made of carbon composition, carbon film, and wire materials. The range of
this resistor is from 50 ohms to 5mega ohm.

Applications of Potentiometer Resistor
 These are used in wide range of industries.

 It can be used in control input and position measurement.
Resistors in Series
Resistors are said to be connected in series when they are daisy chained together in a single line resulting in a
common current flowing through them.
Resistors in Parallel
Resistors are said to be connected together in
“Parallel” when both of their terminals are
respectively connected to each terminal of the
other resistor or resistors.
Parallel Resistor Equation
Potential Difference
The voltage difference between any two points in a
circuit is known as Potential Difference and it is this
potential difference that makes current flow.

Chapter 2: Introduction to Capacitors
Just like the Resistor, the Capacitor, sometimes referred to as a condenser, is
a simple passive device that is used to “store electricity” on its plates
The capacitor is a component which has the ability or “capacity” to store

energy in the form of an electrical charge producing a potential difference
(Static Voltage) across its plates, much like a small rechargeable battery.
There are many different kinds of capacitors available from very small capacitor beads used in resonance circuits
to large power factor correction capacitors, but they all do the same thing, they store charge.
Standard Units of Capacitance
 Microfarad (μF) 1μF = 1/1,000,000 = 0.000001 = 10-6 F

 Nanofarad (nF) 1nF = 1/1,000,000,000 = 0.000000001 = 10-9 F
 Picofarad (pF) 1pF = 1/1,000,000,000,000 = 0.000000000001 = 10-12 F
Pico-Farad (pF) Nano-Farad (nF) Micro-Farad (μF) Farads (F)

1,000 1.0 0.001
10,000 10.0 0.01
1,000,000 1,000 1.0
10,000 10.0
100,000 100
1,000,000 1,000 0.001
10,000 0.01
100,000 0.1
1,000,000 1.0
Then using the information above we can construct a simple table to help us convert between pico-Farad (pF),
to nano-Farad (nF), to micro-Farad (μF) and to Farads (F) as shown.

Types of Capacitor
There are a very large variety of different types of capacitor available in the market
place and each one has its own set of characteristics and applications.
Variable Capacitor Symbols
As well as the continuously variable types,

present type variable capacitors are also
available called Trimmers. These are generally
small devices that can be adjusted or “pre-set”
to a particular capacitance value with the aid of
a small screwdriver and are available in very
small capacitance’s of 500pF or less and are
non-polarized.
Film Capacitors are the most commonly available of all types of capacitors, consisting of a relatively large family
of capacitors with the difference being in their dielectric properties. These include polyester (Mylar),
polystyrene, polypropylene, polycarbonate, metalized paper, Teflon etc. Film type capacitors are available in
capacitance ranges from as small as 5pF to as large as 100uF depending upon the actual type of capacitor and
its voltage rating. Film capacitors also come in an assortment of shapes and case styles which include:
 Wrap & Fill (Oval & Round) – where the capacitor is wrapped in a tight plastic tape and have the ends filled
with epoxy to seal them.
 Epoxy Case (Rectangular & Round) – where the capacitor is encased in a moulded plastic shell which is then
filled with epoxy.

 Metal Hermetically Sealed (Rectangular & Round) – where the capacitor is encased in
a metal tube or can and again sealed with epoxy.
Capacitor Characteristics
The characteristics of a capacitors define its temperature, voltage rating and
capacitance range as well as its type for use in a particular application
1. Nominal Capacitance, ( C )
2. Working Voltage, ( WV )
3. Tolerance, ( ±% )
4. Leakage Current
5. Working Temperature, ( T )
6. Temperature Coefficient, ( TC )
7. Polarization
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Capacitor Colour Codes

Generally, the actual values of Capacitance, Voltage or Tolerance are marked onto the body of the capacitors
in the form of alphanumeric characters.
Capacitor Colour Code Table
Band Tolerance Tolerance Temperature

Digit A Digit B Multiplier D
Colour (T) > 10pf (T) < 10pf Coefficient (TC)
Black 0 0 x1 ± 20% ± 2.0pF
Brown 1 1 x10 ± 1% ± 0.1pF -33×10-6
Red 2 2 x100 ± 2% ± 0.25pF -75×10-6
Orange 3 3 x1,000 ± 3% -150×10-6
Yellow 4 4 x10,000 ± 4% -220×10-6
Green 5 5 x100,000 ± 5% ± 0.5pF -330×10-6
Blue 6 6 x1,000,000 -470×10-6
Violet 7 7 -750×10-6
Grey 8 8 x0.01 +80%,-20%
White 9 9 x0.1 ± 10% ± 1.0pF
Gold x0.1 ± 5%
Silver x0.01 ± 10%

Capacitor Voltage Colour Code Table
Voltage Rating (V)

Band Colour
Type Type Type Type Type
J K L M N
Black 4 100 10 10
Brown 6 200 100 1.6
Red 10 300 250 4 35
Orange 15 400 40
Yellow 20 500 400 6.3 6
Green 25 600 16 15
Blue 35 700 630 20
Violet 50 800
Grey 900 25 25
White 3 1000 2.5 3
Gold 2000
Silver
Capacitor Voltage Reference
 Type J – Dipped Tantalum Capacitors.

 Type K – Mica Capacitors.
 Type L – Polyester/Polystyrene Capacitors.
 Type M – Electrolytic 4 Band Capacitors.
 Type N – Electrolytic 3 Band Capacitors.
Capacitors in Parallel
Capacitors are said to be connected together “in

parallel” when both of their terminals are
respectively connected to each terminal of the other
capacitor or capacitors.

Parallel Capacitors Equation
Capacitors in Series
Capacitors are said to be connected together “in series” when
they are effectively "daisy chained" together in a single line.
Series Capacitors Equation
Ultra capacitors
We have seen previously that capacitors are electrical energy storage devices that
have the ability to store an electrical charge, Q. Unlike the resistor, which dissipates
energy in the form of heat, the ideal capacitor does not loose its energy. We have
also seen that the simplest form of a capacitor is two parallel conducting metal
plates which are separated by an insulating material, such as air, mica, paper,
ceramic, etc, and called the dielectric through a distance, “d”.
Capacitors store energy as a result of their ability to store charge with the amount of charge stored on a
capacitor depending on the voltage, V applied across its plates, and the greater the voltage, the more charge
will be stored by the capacitor as: Q ∞ V.
Charge on a Capacitor

Ultra capacitor Construction

Chapter 3 : Semiconductor Basics

If resistors are the most basic passive component in electrical or electronic circuits, then we have to consider
the Signal Diode as being the most basic active component.
Diodes are made from a single piece of Semiconductor material which has a positive “P-region” at one end and
a negative “N-region” at the other, and which has a resistivity value somewhere between that of a conductor
and an insulator. But what is a “Semiconductor” material?, firstly let’s look at what makes something either a
Conductor or an Insulator.
A Silicon Atom Structure
Antimony Atom and Doping

P N Junction
PN Junction Theory
A PN-junction is formed when an N-type material is fused together with a P-type material creating a
semiconductor diode
PN Junction Diode
A PN-junction diode is formed when a p-type semiconductor is fused to an n-type semiconductor creating a
potential barrier voltage across the diode junction
There are two operating regions and three possible “biasing” conditions for the standard Junction Diode and
these are:
 Zero Biased PN Junction Diode

Increase in the Depletion Layer due to Reverse Bias
Reduction in the Depletion Layer due to Forward Bias
Junction Diode Summary
The PN junction region of a Junction Diode has the following important characteristics:
 Semiconductors contain two types of mobile charge carriers, “Holes” and “Electrons”.
 The holes are positively charged while the electrons negatively charged.
 A semiconductor may be doped with donor impurities such as Antimony (N-type doping), so that it contains
mobile charges which are primarily electrons.
 A semiconductor may be doped with acceptor impurities such as Boron (P-type doping), so that it contains
mobile charges which are mainly holes.
 The junction region itself has no charge carriers and is known as the depletion region.

 The junction (depletion) region has a physical thickness that varies with the applied voltage.
 When a diode is Zero Biased no external energy source is applied and a natural Potential Barrier is developed
across a depletion layer which is approximately 0.5 to 0.7v for silicon diodes and approximately 0.3 of a volt for
germanium diodes.
 When a junction diode is Forward Biased the thickness of the depletion region reduces and the diode acts like
a short circuit allowing full current to flow.
 When a junction diode is Reverse Biased the thickness of the depletion region increases and the diode acts like
an open circuit blocking any current flow, (only a very small leakage current).
Full Wave Rectifier Circuit

The Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the full wave rectifier circuit above, is that
of the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier. This type of single phase rectifier uses four individual rectifying diodes
connected in a closed loop “bridge” configuration to produce the desired output.
The main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does not require a special centre tapped transformer, thereby
reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode bridge network
and the load to the other side as shown below.
The Diode Bridge Rectifier
The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in “series pairs” with only two diodes conducting current during
each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while
diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown below.
The Positive Half-cycle

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but diodes D1 and D2 switch
“OFF” as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the load is the same direction as before.
The Negative Half-cycle
As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed across the load is also
unidirectional the same as for the previous two diode full-wave rectifier,

Chapter 4: Bipolar Transistor

The Bipolar Junction Transistor is a semiconductor device which can be used for switching or amplification
Bipolar Transistor Construction

Bipolar Transistor Configurations
As the Bipolar Transistor is a three terminal device, there are basically three possible ways to connect it within
an electronic circuit with one terminal being common to both the input and output. Each method of connection
responding differently to its input signal within a circuit as the static characteristics of the transistor vary with
each circuit arrangement.
 Common Base Configuration – has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.

 Common Emitter Configuration – has both Current and Voltage Gain.
 Common Collector Configuration – has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.
 The Common Base Transistor Circuit
 Common Base Voltage Gain
 The Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit
 Common Emitter Voltage Gain

The Common Collector Transistor Circuit
The Common Collector Current Gain
Relationship between DC Currents and Gains

Bipolar Transistor Configurations
Characteristic Common Common Common

Base Emitter Collector
Input Impedance Low Medium High
Output Impedance Very High High Low
Phase Angle 0o 180o 0o
Voltage Gain High Medium Low
Current Gain Low Medium High
Power Gain Low Very High Medium
Transistor as a Switch
Transistor switches can be used to switch a low voltage DC device (e.g. LED’s) ON or OFF by using a transistor
in its saturated or cut-off state
Basic NPN Transistor Switching Circuit

Transistor as a Switch Summary
Then to summarise when using a Transistor as a Switch the following conditions apply:
 Transistor switches can be used to switch and control lamps, relays or even motors.
 When using the bipolar transistor as a switch they must be either “fully-OFF” or “fully-ON”.
 Transistors that are fully “ON” are said to be in their Saturation region.
 Transistors that are fully “OFF” are said to be in their Cut-off region.
 When using the transistor as a switch, a small Base current controls a much larger Collector load current.
 When using transistors to switch inductive loads such as relays and solenoids, a “Flywheel Diode” is used.
 When large currents or voltages need to be controlled, Darlington Transistors can be used.
Junction Field Effect Transistor

The Junction Field Effect Transistor, or JFET, is a voltage controlled three terminal unipolar semiconductor
device available in N-channel and P-channel configurations.
The Field Effect Transistor is a three terminal

unipolar semiconductor device that has very similar
characteristics to those of their Bipolar Transistor
counterparts. For example, high efficiency, instant
operation, robust and cheap and can be used in most
electronic circuit applications to replace their
equivalent bipolar junction transistors (BJT) cousins.
The Field Effect Transistor has one major advantage over its standard bipolar transistor cousins, in that
their input impedance, ( Rin ) is very high, (thousands of Ohms), while the BJT is comparatively low.
This very high input impedance makes them very sensitive to input voltage signals, but the price of
this high sensitivity also means that they can be easily damaged by static electricity.
There are two main types of field effect transistor, the Junction Field Effect Transistor or JFET and the
Insulated-gate Field Effect Transistor or IGFET), which is more commonly known as the standard Metal
Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor or MOSFET for short.
Comparison of Connections between a JFET and a BJT

Bipolar Transistor (BJT)
Field Effect
Transistor (FET)
Emitter – (E) >> Source – (S)
Base – (B) >> Gate – (G)
Collector – (C) >> Drain – (D)
The symbols and basic construction for both configurations of JFETs are shown below.
Common Source (CS) Configuration
Common Gate (CG) Configuration

Common Drain (CD) Configuration
The MOSFET
MOSFET’s operate the same as JFET’s but have a gate terminal that is electrically
isolated from the conductive channel.

Enhancement-mode N-Channel MOSFET Amplifier
MOSFET as a Switch
MOSFET’s make very good electronic switches for controlling loads and in CMOS digital
circuits as they operate between their cut-off and saturation regions.

Chapter 5: Digital Logic Gates
A Digital Logic Gate is an electronic device that makes logical
decisions based on the different combinations of digital signals
present on its inputs.
Integrated Circuits or IC’s as they are more commonly called, can

be grouped together into families according to the number of
transistors or “gates” that they contain. For example, a simple AND gate my contain
only a few individual transistors, were as a more complex microprocessor may contain
many thousands of individual transistor gates. Integrated circuits are categorised
according to the number of logic gates or the complexity of the circuits within a single
chip with the general classification for the number of individual gates given as:
Classification of Integrated Circuits
 Small Scale Integration or (SSI) – Contain up to 10 transistors or a few gates within a

single package such as AND, OR, NOT gates.
 Medium Scale Integration or (MSI) – between 10 and 100 transistors or tens of gates
within a single package and perform digital operations such as adders, decoders,
counters, flip-flops and multiplexers.
 Large Scale Integration or (LSI) – between 100 and 1,000 transistors or hundreds of gates
and perform specific digital operations such as I/O chips, memory, arithmetic and logic
units.
 Very-Large Scale Integration or (VLSI) – between 1,000 and 10,000 transistors or
thousands of gates and perform computational operations such as processors, large
memory arrays and programmable logic devices.
 Super-Large Scale Integration or (SLSI) – between 10,000 and 100,000 transistors within
a single package and perform computational operations such as microprocessor chips,
micro-controllers, basic PICs and calculators.
 Ultra-Large Scale Integration or (ULSI) – more than 1 million transistors – the big boys
that are used in computers CPUs, GPUs, video processors, micro-controllers, FPGAs and
complex PICs.

Logic AND Gate
A Logic AND Gate is a type of digital logic gate whose output goes HIGH to a logic level
1 when all of its inputs are HIGH
A simple 2-input logic AND gate can be constructed using RTL Resistor-transistor
switches connected together as shown below with the inputs connected directly to the
transistor bases. Both transistors must be saturated “ON” for an output at Q.
Symbol Truth Table

B A Q
0 0 0
0 1 0
2-input AND Gate 1 0 0
1 1 1
Boolean Expression Q = A.B Read as A AND B gives Q
7408 Quad 2-
input AND Gate

Logic OR Gate
A Logic OR Gate is a type of digital logic gate whose output goes HIGH to a logic level 1
when one or more of its inputs are HIGH
Symbol Truth Table

B A Q
0 0 0
0 1 1
2-input OR Gate 1 0 1
1 1 1
Boolean Expression Q = A+B Read as A OR B gives Q
7432 Quad 2-input Logic OR Gate

Logic NOT Gate
The Logic NOT Gate is the most basic of all the logical gates and is often referred to as
an Inverting Buffer or simply an Inverter
Symbol Truth Table

A Q
0 1
1 0
Inverter or NOT Gate
Boolean Expression Q = not A or A Read as inverse of A gives Q
7404 NOT Gate or Inverter

Logic NAND Gate
The Logic NAND Gate is a combination of a digital logic AND gate and a NOT gate
connected together in series
Logic NAND Gate Equivalence
7400 Quad 2-input Logic NAND Gate
Symbol Truth Table

B A Q
0 0 1
0 1 1
2-input NAND Gate 1 0 1
1 1 0
Boolean Expression Q = A.B Read as A AND B gives NOT Q Logic
NOR Gate
The Logic NOR Gate gate is a combination of the digital logic OR gate and an inverter or
NOT gate connected together in series
Logic NOR Gate Equivalent

Transistor NOR Gate
A simple 2-input logic NOR gate can be constructed using RTL Resistor-transistor
switches connected together as shown below with the inputs connected directly to the
transistor bases. Both transistors must be cut-off “OFF” for an output at Q.
Symbol Truth Table

B A Q
0 0 1
0 1 0
2-input NOR Gate 1 0 0
1 1 0
Boolean Expression Q = A+B Read as A OR B gives NOT Q
7402 Quad 2-input NOR Gate

Chapter 6: Combinational Logic Circuits

The outputs of Combinational Logic Circuits are only determined by the logical function
of their current input state, logic “0” or logic “1”, at any given instant in time.
The result is that combinational logic circuits have no feedback, and any changes to the
signals being applied to their inputs will immediately have an effect at the output. In
other words, in a Combinational Logic Circuit, the output is dependant at all times on
the combination of its inputs. So if one of its inputs condition changes state, from 0-
1 or 1-0, so too will the resulting output as by default combinational logic circuits have
“no memory”, “timing” or “feedback loops” within their design.
Combinational Logic
Combinational Logic Circuits are made up from basic logic NAND, NOR or NOT gates
that are “combined” or connected together to produce more complicated switching
circuits. These logic gates are the building blocks of combinational logic circuits. An
example of a combinational circuit is a decoder, which converts the binary code data
present at its input into a number of different output lines, one at a time producing an
equivalent decimal code at its output.
Combinational logic circuits can be very simple or very complicated and any
combinational circuit can be implemented with only NAND and NOR gates as these are
classed as “universal” gates.
The three main ways of specifying the function of a combinational logic circuit are:
 1. Boolean Algebra – This forms the algebraic expression showing the operation of the
logic circuit for each input variable either True or False that results in a logic “1” output.
 2. Truth Table – A truth table defines the function of a logic gate by providing a concise
list that shows all the output states in tabular form for each possible combination of
input variable that the gate could encounter.
 3. Logic Diagram – This is a graphical representation of a logic circuit that shows the
wiring and connections of each individual logic gate, represented by a specific graphical
symbol that implements the logic circuit.

and all three of these logic circuit representations are shown below.
As combinational logic circuits are made up from individual logic gates only, they can
also be considered as “decision making circuits” and combinational logic is about
combining logic gates together to process two or more signals in order to produce at
least one output signal according to the logical function of each logic gate. Common
combinational circuits made up from individual logic gates that carry out a desired
application includeMultiplexers, De-multiplexers, Encoders, Decoders, Full and Half
Adders etc.
Classification of Combinational Logic

One of the most common uses of combinational logic is in Multiplexer and De-
multiplexer type circuits. Here, multiple inputs or outputs are connected to a common
signal line and logic gates are used to decode an address to select a single data input or
output switch.
A multiplexer consist of two separate components, a logic decoder and some solid state
switches, but before we can discuss multiplexers, decoders and de-multiplexers in more
detail we first need to understand how these devices use these “solid state switches”
in their design.
Solid State Switches
Standard TTL logic devices made up from Transistors can only pass signal currents in
one direction only making them “uni-directional” devices and poor imitations of
conventional electro-mechanical switches or relays. However, some CMOS switching
devices made up from FET’s act as near perfect “bi-directional” switches making them
ideal for use as solid state switches.
Solid state switches come in a variety of different types and ratings, and there are many
different applications for using solid state switches. They can basically be sub-divided
into 3 different main groups for switching applications and in this combinational logic
section we will only look at the Analogue type of switch but the principal is the same for
all types including digital.
Solid State Switch Applications
 Analogue Switches – Used in Data Switching and Communications, Video and Audio
Signal Switching, Instrumentation and Process Control Circuits …etc.
 Digital Switches – High Speed Data Transmission, Switching and Signal Routing,
Ethernet, LAN’s, USB and Serial Transmissions …etc.
 Power Switches – Power Supplies and General “Standby Power” Switching Applications,
Switching of Larger Voltages and Currents …etc.
Analogue Bilateral Switches
Analogue or “Analog” switches are those types that are used to switch data or signal
currents when they are in their “ON” state and block them when they are in their “OFF”
state. The rapid switching between the “ON” and the “OFF” state is usually controlled
by a digital signal applied to the control gate of the switch. An ideal analogue switch has
zero resistance when “ON” (or closed), and infinite resistance when “OFF” (or open)
and switches with RON values of less than 1Ω are commonly available.

Solid State Analogue Switch
By connecting an N-channel MOSFET in parallel with a P-channel MOSFET allows signals

to pass in either direction making it a Bi-directional switch and as to whether the N-
channel or the P-channel device carries more signal current will depend upon the ratio
between the input to the output voltage. The two MOSFET’s are switched “ON” or
“OFF” by two internal non-inverting and inverting amplifiers.
Contact Types
Just like mechanical switches, analogue switches come in a variety of forms or contact
types, depending on the number of “poles” and “throws” they offer. Thus, terms such
as “SPST” (single-pole single throw) and “SPDT” (single-pole double-throw) also apply
to solid state analogue switches with “make-before-break” and “break-before-make”
configurations available.
Analogue Switch Types

Individual analogue switches can be grouped together into standard IC packages to form
devices with multiple switching configurations of SPST (single-pole single-throw) and
SPDT (single-pole double-throw) as well as multi channel multiplexers.
The most common and simplest analogue switch in a single IC package is

the 74HC4066which has 4 independent bi-directional “ON/OFF” Switches within a
single package but the most widely used variants of the CMOS analogue switch are
those described as “Multi-way Bilateral Switches” otherwise known as the “Multiplexer”
and “De-multiplexer” IC´s and these are discussed in the next tutorial.
Combinational Logic Summary
Then to summarise, Combinational Logic Circuits consist of inputs, two or more basic
logic gates and outputs. The logic gates are combined in such a way that the output
state depends entirely on the input states. Combinational logic circuits have “no
memory”, “timing” or “feedback loops”, there operation is instantaneous. A
combinational logic circuit performs an operation assigned logically by a Boolean
expression or truth table.
Examples of common combinational logic circuits include: half adders, full adders,
multiplexers, demultiplexers, encoders and decoders all of which we will look at in the
next few tutorials.

Chapter 7 : Transformer Basics

Transformers are electrical devices consisting of two or more coils of wire used to
transfer electrical energy by means of a changing magnetic field
Single Phase Voltage Transformer
In other words, for a transformer there is no direct electrical connection between the
two coil windings, thereby giving it the name also of an Isolation Transformer. Generally,
the primary winding of a transformer is connected to the input voltage supply and
converts or transforms the electrical power into a magnetic field. While the job of the
secondary winding is to convert this alternating magnetic field into electrical power
producing the required output voltage as shown.
Transformer Construction (single-phase)
 Where:
 VP - is the Primary Voltage
 VS - is the Secondary Voltage
 NP - is the Number of Primary Windings
 NS - is the Number of Secondary Windings
 Φ (phi) - is the Flux Linkage
Notice that the two coil windings are not electrically connected but are only linked
magnetically. A single-phase transformer can operate to either increase or decrease the
voltage applied to the primary winding. When a transformer is used to “increase” the
voltage on its secondary winding with respect to the primary, it is called a Step-up
transformer. When it is used to “decrease” the voltage on the secondary winding with
respect to the primary it is called a Step-down transformer.
A Transformers Turns Ratio
Assuming an ideal transformer and the phase angles: ΦP ≡ ΦS
But the beauty of transformers is that they allow us to have more than just one winding
in either the primary or secondary side. Transformers which have more than one
winding are known commonly as Multiple Winding Transformers.
The principal of operation of a multiple winding transformer is no different from that of

an ordinary transformer. Primary and secondary voltages, currents and turns ratios are
all calculated the same, the difference this time is that we need to pay special attention
to the voltage polarities of each coil winding, the dot convention marking the positive
(or negative) polarity of the winding, when we connect them together.
Multiple winding transformers, also known as a multi-coil, or multi-winding

transformer, contain more than one primary or more than one secondary coil, hence
their name, on a common laminated core. They can be either a single-phase
transformer or a three-phase transformer, (multi-winding, multi-phase transformer)
the operation is the same.
Multiple Winding Transformers can also be used to provide either a step-up, a step-
down, or a combination of both between the various windings. In fact a multiple
winding transformers can have several secondary windings on the same core with each
one providing a different voltage or current level output.
As transformers operate on the principal of mutual induction, each individual winding

of a multiple winding transformer supports the same number of volts per turn,
therefore the volt-ampere product in each winding is the same, that

is NP/NS = VP/VS with any turns ratio between the individual coil windings being relative
to the primary supply.
In electronic circuits, one transformer is often used to supply a variety of lower voltage
levels for different components in the electronic circuitry. A typical application of
multiple winding transformers is in power supplies and triac switching converters. So a
transformer may have a number of different secondary windings, each of which is
electrically isolated from the others, just as it is electrically isolated from the primary.
Then each of the secondary coils will produce a voltage that is proportional to its
number of coil turns for example.
Multiple Winding Transformer
Above shows an example of a typical “multiple winding transformer” which has a

number of different secondary windings supplying various voltage levels. The primary
windings can be used individually or connected together to operate the transformer
from a higher supply voltages.
The secondary windings can be connected together in various configurations producing

a higher voltage or current supply. It must be noted that connecting together in parallel
transformer windings is only possible if the two windings are electrically identical. That
is their current and voltage ratings are the same.
Dual Voltage Transformers
There are a number or multiple winding transformers available which have two primary
windings of identical voltage and current ratings and two secondary windings also with
identical voltage and current ratings. These transformers are designed so that they can
be used in a variety of applications with the windings connected together in either a
series or parallel combinations for higher primary voltages or secondary currents. These

types of multiple winding transformers are more commonly called Dual Voltage
Transformers as shown.
Dual Primary & Dual Secondary Transformer.
Here the transformer has two primary windings and two secondary windings, four in
total. The connections to the primary or secondary windings must be made correctly
with dual voltage transformers. If connected improperly, it is possible to create a dead
short that will usually destroy the transformer when it is energized.
We said previously that dual voltage transformers can be connected to operate from
power supplies of different voltage levels, hence their name “dual voltage
transformers”. Then for example, lets say that the primary winding could have a voltage
rating of 240/120V on the primary and 12/24V on the secondary. To achieve this, each
of the two primary windings is, therefore, rated at 120V, and each secondary winding is
rated at 12V. The transformer must be connected so that each primary winding receives
the proper voltage. Consider the circuit below.
Series Connected Secondary Transformer.
Here in this example, the two 120V rated primary windings are connected together in
series across a 240V supply as the two windings are identical, half the supply voltage,
namely 120V, is dropped across each winding and the same primary current flows
through both. The two secondary windings rated at 12V, 2.5A each are connected in
series with the secondary terminal voltage being the sum of the two individual winding
voltages giving 24 Volts.
As the two windings are connected in series, the same amount of current flows through
each winding, then the secondary current is the same at 2.5 Amps. So for a series

connected secondary, the output in our example above is rated at 24 Volts, 2.5 Amps.
Consider the parallel connected transformer below.
Parallel Connected Secondary Transformer.
Here we have kept the two primary windings the same but the two secondary windings
are now connected in a parallel combination. As before, the two secondary windings
are rated at 12V, 2.5A each, therefore the secondary terminal voltage will be the same
at 12 Volts but the current adds. Then for a parallel connected secondary, the output in
our example above is rated at 12 Volts, 5.0 Amps.
Of course different dual voltage transformers will produce different amounts of

secondary voltage and current but the principal is the same. Secondary windings must
be correctly connected together to produce the required voltage or current output.
Dot orientation is used on the windings to indicate the terminals that have the same
phase relationship. For example connecting two secondary windings together in
opposite dot-orientation will cause the two magnetic flux’s to cancel each other out
resulting in zero output.
Another type of dual voltage transformer which has only one secondary winding that is
“tapped” at its electrical centre point is called the Centre-tap Transformer.
Centre Tapped Transformers
A centre-tap transformer is designed to provide two separate secondary

voltages, VA and VB with a common connection. This type of transformer configuration
produces a two-phase, 3-wire supply. The secondary voltages are the same and
proportional to the supply voltage, VP, therefore power in each winding is the same. The
voltages produced across each of the secondary winding is determined by the turns
ratio as shown.

The Centre-tap Transformer
Above shows a typical centre-tap transformer. The tapping point is in the exact centre
of the secondary winding providing a common connection for two equal but opposite
secondary voltages. With the centre-tap grounded, the output VA will be positive in
nature with respect to the ground, while the voltage at the other secondary, VB will be
negative and opposite in nature that is they are 180o electrical degrees out-of-phase
with each other.
However, there is one disadvantage of using an ungrounded centre tapped transformer

and that is it can produce unbalanced voltages in the two secondary windings due to
unsymmetrical currents flowing in the common third connection because of
unbalanced loads.
We can also produce a centre-tap transformer using the dual voltage transformer from
above. By connecting the secondary windings in series, we can use the centre link as
the tap as shown. If the output from each secondary is V, the total output voltage for
the secondary winding will be equal to 2V as shown.
Centre-tap Transformer using a Dual Voltage Transformer
Multiple Winding Transformers have many uses in electrical and electronic circuits. They
can be used to supply different secondary voltages to different loads. Have their
windings connected together in series or parallel combinations to provide higher

voltages or currents, or have their secondary windings connected together in series to
produce a centre tapped transformer.
In the next tutorial about Transformers we will look at how Autotransformers work and
see that they have only one main primary winding and no separate secondary winding.

Chapter 8: Theory of AC Waveform

and Circuit
DC currents and voltages are produced by power supplies, batteries, dynamos

and solar cells to name a few. A DC voltage or current has a fixed magnitude
(amplitude) and a definite direction associated with it. For example, +12V represents
12 volts in the positive direction, or -5V represents 5 volts in the negative direction.
We also know that DC power supplies do not change their value with regards to time,
they are a constant value flowing in a continuous steady state direction. In other
words, DC maintains the same value for all times and a constant uni-directional DC
supply never changes or becomes negative unless its connections are physically
reversed. An example of a simple DC or direct current circuit is shown below.
DC Circuit and Waveform
An alternating function or AC Waveform on the other hand is defined as one that

varies in both magnitude and direction in more or less an even manner with respect
to time making it a “Bi-directional” waveform. An AC function can represent either
a power source or a signal source with the shape of an AC waveform generally
following that of a mathematical sinusoid as defined as:
A(t) = Amax x sin(2πƒt).
The term AC or to give it its full description of Alternating Current, generally refers
to a time-varying waveform with the most common of all being called
a Sinusoid better known as a Sinusoidal Waveform. Sinusoidal waveforms are more
generally called by their short description as Sine Waves. Sine waves are by far one
of the most important types of AC waveform used in electrical engineering.
The shape obtained by plotting the instantaneous ordinate values of either voltage
or current against time is called an AC Waveform. An AC waveform is constantly
changing its polarity every half cycle alternating between a positive maximum value
and a negative maximum value respectively with regards to time with a common
example of this being the domestic mains voltage supply we use in our homes.
This means then that the AC Waveform is a “time-dependent signal” with the most
common type of time-dependant signal being that of the Periodic Waveform. The
periodic or AC waveform is the resulting product of a rotating electrical generator.
Generally, the shape of any periodic waveform can be generated using a
fundamental frequency and superimposing it with harmonic signals of varying
frequencies and amplitudes but that’s for another tutorial.
Alternating voltages and currents cannot be stored in batteries or cells like direct
current (DC) can, it is much easier and cheaper to generate these quantities using
alternators or waveform generators when they are needed. The type and shape of
an AC waveform depends upon the generator or device producing them, but all AC
waveforms consist of a zero voltage line that divides the waveform into two
symmetrical halves. The main characteristics of an AC Waveform are defined as:
AC Waveform Characteristics
 The Period, (T) is the length of time in seconds that the waveform takes to repeat
itself from start to finish. This can also be called the Periodic Time of the
waveform for sine waves, or the Pulse Width for square waves.
 The Frequency, (ƒ) is the number of times the waveform repeats itself within a
one second time period. Frequency is the reciprocal of the time period, ( ƒ = 1/T )
with the unit of frequency being the Hertz, (Hz).
 The Amplitude (A) is the magnitude or intensity of the signal waveform measured
in volts or amps.
In our tutorial about Waveforms , we looked at different types of waveforms and

said that “Waveforms are basically a visual representation of the variation of a
voltage or current plotted to a base of time”. Generally, for AC waveforms this
horizontal base line represents a zero condition of either voltage or current. Any part
of an AC type waveform which lies above the horizontal zero axis represents a
voltage or current flowing in one direction.
Likewise, any part of the waveform which lies below the horizontal zero axis
represents a voltage or current flowing in the opposite direction to the first.
Generally for sinusoidal AC waveforms the shape of the waveform above the zero
axis is the same as the shape below it.
However, for most non-power AC signals including audio waveforms this is not
always the case?

The most common periodic signal waveforms that are used in Electrical and
Electronic Engineering are the Sinusoidal Waveforms. However, an alternating AC
waveform may not always take the shape of a smooth shape based around the
trigonometric sine or cosine function. AC waveforms can also take the shape of
either Complex Waves, Square Waves or Triangular Waves and these are shown
below.
Types of Periodic Waveform
The time taken for an AC Waveform to complete one full pattern from its positive
half to its negative half and back to its zero baseline again is called a Cycle and one
complete cycle contains both a positive half-cycle and a negative half-cycle. The time
taken by the waveform to complete one full cycle is called the Periodic Time of the
waveform, and is given the symbol “T”.
The number of complete cycles that are produced within one second (cycles/second)
is called the Frequency, symbol ƒ of the alternating waveform. Frequency is
measured in Hertz, ( Hz ) named after the German physicist Heinrich Hertz.
Then we can see that a relationship exists between cycles (oscillations), periodic time
and frequency (cycles per second), so if there are ƒ number of cycles in one second,
each individual cycle must take 1/ƒ seconds to complete.
Relationship Between Frequency and Periodic Time

AC Waveform Example No1

1. What will be the periodic time of a 50Hz waveform?
2. what is the frequency of an AC waveform that has a periodic time of 10mS ?
1).
2).
Frequency used to be expressed in “cycles per second” abbreviated to “cps”, but

today it is more commonly specified in units called “Hertz”. For a domestic mains
supply the frequency will be either 50Hz or 60Hz depending upon the country and is
fixed by the speed of rotation of the generator. But one hertz is a very small unit so
prefixes are used that denote the order of magnitude of the waveform at higher
frequencies such as kHz, MHz and even GHz.
Definition of Frequency Prefixes
Prefix Definition Written as Periodic Time

Kilo Thousand kHz 1ms
Mega Million MHz 1us
Giga Billion GHz 1ns
Terra Trillion THz 1ps
Amplitude of an AC Waveform
As well as knowing either the periodic time or the frequency of the alternating
quantity, another important parameter of the AC waveform is Amplitude, better
known as its Maximum or Peak value represented by the terms, Vmax for voltage
or Imax for current.
The peak value is the greatest value of either voltage or current that the waveform
reaches during each half cycle measured from the zero baseline. Unlike a DC voltage
or current which has a steady state that can be measured or calculated using Ohm’s
Law, an alternating quantity is constantly changing its value over time.
For pure sinusoidal waveforms this peak value will always be the same for both half
cycles ( +Vm = -Vm ) but for non-sinusoidal or complex waveforms the maximum
peak value can be very different for each half cycle. Sometimes, alternating
waveforms are given a peak-to-peak, Vp-p value and this is simply the distance or
the sum in voltage between the maximum peak value, +Vmax and the minimum
peak value, -Vmax during one complete cycle.
The Average Value of an AC Waveform

The average or mean value of a continuous DC voltage will always be equal to its
maximum peak value as a DC voltage is constant. This average value will only change
if the duty cycle of the DC voltage changes. In a pure sine wave if the average value
is calculated over the full cycle, the average value would be equal to zero as the
positive and negative halves will cancel each other out. So the average or mean value
of an AC waveform is calculated or measured over a half cycle only and this is shown
below.
Average Value of a Non-sinusoidal Waveform
To find the average value of the waveform we need to calculate the area underneath
the waveform using the mid-ordinate rule, trapezoidal rule or the Simpson’s rule
found commonly in mathematics. The approximate area under any irregular
waveform can easily be found by simply using the mid-ordinate rule.
The zero axis base line is divided up into any number of equal parts and in our simple
example above this value was nine, (V1 to V9). The more ordinate lines that are
drawn the more accurate will be the final average or mean value. The average value
will be the addition of all the instantaneous values added together and then divided
by the total number. This is given as. Average Value of an AC Waveform
Where: n equals the actual number of mid-ordinates used.
For a pure sinusoidal waveform this average or mean value will always be equal
to 0.637 x Vmax and this relationship also holds true for average values of current.
The RMS Value of an AC Waveform
The average value of an AC waveform is NOT the same value as that for a DC
waveforms average value. This is because the AC waveform is constantly changing
with time and the heating effect given by the formula ( P = I 2*R ), will also be
changing producing a positive power consumption. The equivalent average value for
an alternating current system that provides the same power to the load as a DC
equivalent circuit is called the “effective value”.
This effective power in an alternating current system is therefore equal to:

( I 2*Raverage ). As electrical power is proportional to current squared, the effective
current, I will be equal to √ I*2(average). Therefore, the effective current in an AC
system is called the Root Mean Squared or R.M.S. value and RMS values are the DC
equivalent values that provide the same power to the load.
The effective or RMS value of an alternating current is measured in terms of the

direct current value that produces the same heating effect in the same value
resistance. The RMS value for any AC waveform can be found from the following
modified average value formula.
RMS Value of an AC Waveform
Where: n equals the number of mid-ordinates.

For a pure sinusoidal waveform this effective or R.M.S. value will always be equal
to 1/√2 x Vmax which is equal to 0.707 x Vmax and this relationship holds true for RMS
values of current. The RMS value for a sinusoidal waveform is always greater than
the average value except for a rectangular waveform. In this case the heating effect
remains constant so the average and the RMS values will be the same.
One final comment about R.M.S. values. Most multimeters, either digital or analogue
unless otherwise stated only measure the R.M.S. values of voltage and current and
not the average. Therefore when using a multimeter on a direct current system the

reading will be equal to I = V/R and for an alternating current system the reading will
be equal to Irms = Vrms/R.
Also, except for average power calculations, when calculating RMS or peak voltages,
only use VRMS to find IRMS values, or peak voltage, Vp to find peak current, Ip values.
Do not mix the two together average, RMS or peak values as they are completely
different and your results will be incorrect.
Form Factor and Crest Factor

Although little used these days, both Form Factor and Crest Factor can be used to
give information about the actual shape of the AC waveform. Form Factor is the ratio
between the average value and the RMS value and is given as.
For a pure sinusoidal waveform the Form Factor will always be equal to 1.11. Crest
Factor is the ratio between the R.M.S. value and the Peak value of the waveform and
is given as.
For a pure sinusoidal waveform the Crest Factor will always be equal to 1.414.
AC Waveform Example No2
A sinusoidal alternating current of 6 amps is flowing through a resistance of 40Ω.
Calculate the average voltage and the peak voltage of the supply.
The R.M.S. Voltage value is calculated as:

The Average Voltage value is calculated as:
The Peak Voltage value is calculated as:
The use and calculation of Average, R.M.S, Form factor and Crest Factor can also be
used with any type of periodic waveform including Triangular, Square, Saw toothed
or any other irregular or complex voltage/current waveform shape.

Chapter 9 : Sinusoidal Waveforms

When an electric current flows through a wire or conductor, a circular magnetic field is
created around the wire and whose strength is related to the current value.
If this single wire conductor is moved or rotated within a stationary magnetic field, an
“EMF”, (Electro-Motive Force) is induced within the conductor due to the movement of
the conductor through the magnetic flux.
From this we can see that a relationship exists between Electricity and Magnetism giving
us, as Michael Faraday discovered the effect of “Electromagnetic Induction” and it is
this basic principal that electrical machines and generators use to generate a Sinusoidal
Waveform for our mains supply.
In the Electromagnetic Induction, tutorial we said that when a single wire conductor
moves through a permanent magnetic field thereby cutting its lines of flux, an EMF is
induced in it.

However, if the conductor moves in parallel with the magnetic field in the case of
points A and B, no lines of flux are cut and no EMF is induced into the conductor, but if
the conductor moves at right angles to the magnetic field as in the case of
points C and D, the maximum amount of magnetic flux is cut producing the maximum
amount of induced EMF.
Also, as the conductor cuts the magnetic field at different angles between
points A and C, 0 and 90o the amount of induced EMF will lie somewhere between this
zero and maximum value. Then the amount of emf induced within a conductor depends
on the angle between the conductor and the magnetic flux as well as the strength of
the magnetic field.
An AC generator uses the principal of Faraday’s electromagnetic induction to convert a

mechanical energy such as rotation, into electrical energy, a Sinusoidal Waveform. A
simple generator consists of a pair of permanent magnets producing a fixed magnetic
field between a north and a south pole. Inside this magnetic field is a single rectangular
loop of wire that can be rotated around a fixed axis allowing it to cut the magnetic flux
at various angles as shown below.
Basic Single Coil AC Generator
As the coil rotates anticlockwise around the central axis which is perpendicular to the
magnetic field, the wire loop cuts the lines of magnetic force set up between the north

and south poles at different angles as the loop rotates. The amount of induced EMF in
the loop at any instant of time is proportional to the angle of rotation of the wire loop.
As this wire loop rotates, electrons in the wire flow in one direction around the loop.
Now when the wire loop has rotated past the 180o point and moves across the magnetic
lines of force in the opposite direction, the electrons in the wire loop change and flow
in the opposite direction. Then the direction of the electron movement determines the
polarity of the induced voltage.
So we can see that when the loop or coil physically rotates one complete revolution, or
360o, one full sinusoidal waveform is produced with one cycle of the waveform being
produced for each revolution of the coil. As the coil rotates within the magnetic field,
the electrical connections are made to the coil by means of carbon brushes and slip-
rings which are used to transfer the electrical current induced in the coil.
The amount of EMF induced into a coil cutting the magnetic lines of force is determined
by the following three factors.
 Speed – the speed at which the coil rotates inside the magnetic field.
 Strength – the strength of the magnetic field.
 Length – the length of the coil or conductor passing through the magnetic field.

Phase Difference and Phase Shift
In the previous tutorial, we saw that a Sinusoidal Waveform is an alternating quantity

that can be presented graphically in the time domain along an horizontal zero axis.
Phase Relationship of a Sinusoidal Waveform
Firstly, lets consider that two alternating quantities such as a voltage, v and a current, I
have the same frequency ƒ in Hertz. As the frequency of the two quantities is the same
the angular velocity, ω must also be the same. So at any instant in time we can say that
the phase of voltage, v will be the same as the phase of the current, i.
Then the angle of rotation within a particular time period will always be the same and
the phase difference between the two quantities of v and i will therefore be zero
and Φ = 0. As the frequency of the voltage, v and the current, i are the same they must
both reach their maximum positive, negative and zero values during one complete cycle
at the same time (although their amplitudes may be different). Then the two alternating
quantities, v and iare said to be “in-phase”.

Two Sinusoidal Waveforms – “in-phase”
Now lets consider that the voltage, v and the current, i have a phase difference between
themselves of 30o, so (Φ = 30o or π/6 radians). As both alternating quantities rotate at
the same speed, i.e. they have the same frequency, this phase difference will remain
constant for all instants in time, then the phase difference of 30o between the two
quantities is represented by phi, Φ as shown below.
Phase Difference of a Sinusoidal Waveform
The voltage waveform above starts at zero along the horizontal reference axis, but at
that same instant of time the current waveform is still negative in value and does not
cross this reference axis until 30o later. Then there exists a Phase difference between
the two waveforms as the current cross the horizontal reference axis reaching its
maximum peak and zero values after the voltage waveform.
As the two waveforms are no longer “in-phase”, they must therefore be “out-of-phase”
by an amount determined by phi, Φ and in our example this is 30o. So we can say that
the two waveforms are now 30o out-of phase. The current waveform can also be said
to be “lagging” behind the voltage waveform by the phase angle, Φ. Then in our
example above the two waveforms have a Lagging Phase Difference so the expression
for both the voltage and current above will be given as.
The Cosine Waveform
So we now know that if a waveform is “shifted” to the right or left of 0o when compared
to another sine wave the expression for this waveform becomes Am sin(ωt ± Φ). But if
the waveform crosses the horizontal zero axis with a positive going
slope 90o or π/2 radians before the reference waveform, the waveform is called a Cosine
Waveform and the expression becomes.
Cosine Expression
The Cosine Wave, simply called “cos”, is as important as the sine wave in electrical
engineering. The cosine wave has the same shape as its sine wave counterpart that is it
is a sinusoidal function, but is shifted by +90o or one full quarter of a period ahead of it.
Phase Difference between a Sine wave and a Cosine wave
Alternatively, we can also say that a sine wave is a cosine wave that has been shifted in
the other direction by -90o. Either way when dealing with sine waves or cosine waves
with an angle the following rules will always apply.

Sine and Cosine Wave Relationships
When comparing two sinusoidal waveforms it more common to express their

relationship as either a sine or cosine with positive going amplitudes and this is achieved
using the following mathematical identities.

Chapter 10: Theory of DC Circuit
All materials are made up from atoms, and all atoms consist of protons, neutrons
and electrons. Protons, have a positive electrical charge. Neutrons have no electrical
charge while Electrons, have a negative electrical charge. Atoms are bound together
by powerful forces of attraction existing between the atoms nucleus and the
electrons in its outer shell.
When these protons, neutrons and electrons are together within the atom they are
happy and stable. But if we separate them from each other they want to reform and
start to exert a potential of attraction called a potential difference.
Now if we create a closed circuit these loose electrons will start to move and drift
back to the protons due to their attraction creating a flow of electrons. This flow of
electrons is called an electrical current. The electrons do not flow freely through the
circuit as the material they move through creates a restriction to the electron flow.
This restriction is called resistance.
Then all basic electrical or electronic circuits consist of three separate but very much
related electrical quantities called: Voltage, ( v ), Current, ( i ) and Resistance, ( Ω ).
Electrical Voltage
Voltage, ( V ) is the potential energy of an electrical supply stored in the form of an

electrical charge. Voltage can be thought of as the force that pushes electrons
through a conductor and the greater the voltage the greater is its ability to “push”
the electrons through a given circuit. As energy has the ability to do work this
potential energy can be described as the work required in joules to move electrons
in the form of an electrical current around a circuit from one point or node to
another.
Then the difference in voltage between any two points, connections or junctions
(called nodes) in a circuit is known as the Potential Difference, ( p.d. ) commonly
called the Voltage Drop.
The Potential difference between two points is measured in Volts with the circuit
symbol V, or lowercase “v“, although Energy, E lowercase “e” is sometimes used to
indicate a generated emf (electromotive force). Then the greater the voltage, the
greater is the pressure (or pushing force) and the greater is the capacity to do work.

A constant voltage source is called a DC Voltage with a voltage that varies periodically
with time is called an AC voltage. Voltage is measured in volts, with one volt being
defined as the electrical pressure required to force an electrical current of one
ampere through a resistance of one Ohm. Voltages are generally expressed in Volts
with prefixes used to denote sub-multiples of the voltage such as microvolts ( μV =
10-6 V ), millivolts ( mV = 10-3 V ) or kilovolts ( kV = 103 V ). Voltage can be either
positive or negative.
Batteries or power supplies are mostly used to produce a steady D.C. (direct current)
voltage source such as 5v, 12v, 24v etc in electronic circuits and systems. While A.C.
(alternating current) voltage sources are available for domestic house and industrial
power and lighting as well as power transmission. The mains voltage supply in the
United Kingdom is currently 230 volts a.c. and 110 volts a.c. in the USA.
General electronic circuits operate on low voltage DC battery supplies of between

1.5V and 24V dc The circuit symbol for a constant voltage source usually given as a
battery symbol with a positive, + and negative, – sign indicating the direction of the
polarity. The circuit symbol for an alternating voltage source is a circle with a sine
wave inside.
Voltage Symbols
A simple relationship can be made between a tank of water and a voltage supply.
The higher the water tank above the outlet the greater the pressure of the water as
more energy is released, the higher the voltage the greater the potential energy as
more electrons are released.
Voltage is always measured as the difference between any two points in a circuit and
the voltage between these two points is generally referred to as the “Voltage drop“.
Note that voltage can exist across a circuit without current, but current cannot exist
without voltage and as such any voltage source whether DC or AC likes an open or
semi-open circuit condition but hates any short circuit condition as this can destroy
it.

Electrical Current
Electrical Current, ( I ) is the movement or flow of electrical charge and is measured
in Amperes, symbol i, for intensity). It is the continuous and uniform flow (called a
drift) of electrons (the negative particles of an atom) around a circuit that are being
“pushed” by the voltage source. In reality, electrons flow from the negative (–ve)
terminal to the positive (+ve) terminal of the supply and for ease of circuit
understanding conventional current flow assumes that the current flows from the
positive to the negative terminal.
Generally in circuit diagrams the flow of current through the circuit usually has an
arrow associated with the symbol, I, or lowercase i to indicate the actual direction of
the current flow. However, this arrow usually indicates the direction of conventional
current flow and not necessarily the direction of the actual flow.
Conventional Current Flow
Conventionally this is the flow of positive charge around a circuit, being positive to
negative. The diagram at the left shows the movement of the positive charge (holes)
around a closed circuit flowing from the positive terminal of the battery, through the
circuit and returns to the negative terminal of the battery. This flow of current from
positive to negative is generally known as conventional current flow.
This was the convention chosen during the discovery of electricity in which the
direction of electric current was thought to flow in a circuit. To continue with this
line of thought, in all circuit diagrams and schematics, the arrows shown on symbols
for components such as diodes and transistors point in the direction of conventional
current flow.
Then Conventional Current Flow gives the flow of electrical current from positive to
negative and which is the opposite in direction to the actual flow of electrons.
Electron Flow

The flow of electrons around the circuit is opposite to the direction of the
conventional current flow being negative to positive.The actual current flowing in an
electrical circuit is composed of electrons that flow from the negative pole of the
battery (the cathode) and return back to the positive pole (the anode) of the battery.
This is because the charge on an electron is negative by definition and so is attracted
to the positive terminal. This flow of electrons is called Electron Current Flow.
Therefore, electrons actually flow around a circuit from the negative terminal to the
positive.
Both conventional current flow and electron flow are used by many textbooks. In
fact, it makes no difference which way the current is flowing around the circuit as
long as the direction is used consistently. The direction of current flow does not
affect what the current does within the circuit. Generally it is much easier to
understand the conventional current flow – positive to negative.
In electronic circuits, a current source is a circuit element that provides a specified

amount of current for example, 1A, 5A 10 Amps etc, with the circuit symbol for a
constant current source given as a circle with an arrow inside indicating its direction.
Current is measured in Amps and an amp or ampere is defined as the number of
electrons or charge (Q in Coulombs) passing a certain point in the circuit in one
second, (t in Seconds).
Electrical current is generally expressed in Amps with prefixes used to denote micro
amps( μA = 10-6A ) or milliamps ( mA = 10-3A ). Note that electrical current can be
either positive in value or negative in value depending upon its direction of flow.
Current that flows in a single direction is called Direct Current, or D.C. and current
that alternates back and forth through the circuit is known as Alternating Current,
or A.C.. Whether AC or DC current only flows through a circuit when a voltage source
is connected to it with its “flow” being limited to both the resistance of the circuit
and the voltage source pushing it.
Also, as alternating currents (and voltages) are periodic and vary with time the
“effective” or “RMS”, (Root Mean Squared) value given as Irms produces the same
average power loss equivalent to a DC current Iaverage. Current sources are the
opposite to voltage sources in that they like short or closed circuit conditions but
hate open circuit conditions as no current will flow.
Using the tank of water relationship, current is the equivalent of the flow of water
through the pipe with the flow being the same throughout the pipe. The faster the

flow of water the greater the current. Note that current cannot exist without voltage
so any current source whether DC or AC likes a short or semi-short circuit condition
but hates any open circuit condition as this prevents it from flowing.
Resistance
Resistance, ( R ) is the capacity of a material to resist or prevent the flow of current
or, more specifically, the flow of electric charge within a circuit. The circuit element
which does this perfectly is called the “Resistor”.
Resistance is a circuit element measured in Ohms, Greek symbol ( Ω, Omega ) with

prefixes used to denote Kilo-ohms ( kΩ = 103Ω ) and Mega-ohms ( MΩ = 106Ω ). Note
that resistance cannot be negative in value only positive.
Resistor Symbols
The amount of resistance a resistor has is determined by the relationship of the

current through it to the voltage across it which determines whether the circuit
element is a “good conductor” – low resistance, or a “bad conductor” – high
resistance. Low resistance, for example 1Ω or less implies that the circuit is a good
conductor made from materials such as copper, aluminium or carbon while a high
resistance, 1MΩ or more implies the circuit is a bad conductor made from insulating
materials such as glass, porcelain or plastic.
A “semiconductor” on the other hand such as silicon or germanium, is a material

whose resistance is half way between that of a good conductor and a good insulator.
Hence the name “semi-conductor”. Semiconductors are used to make Diodes and
Transistors etc.
Resistance can be linear or non-linear in nature, but never negative. Linear

resistance obeys Ohm’s Law as the voltage across the resistor is linearly proportional
to the current through it. Non-linear resistance, does not obey Ohm’s Law but has a
voltage drop across it that is proportional to some power of the current.

Resistance is pure and is not affected by frequency with the AC impedance of a
resistance being equal to its DC resistance and as a result cannot be negative.
Remember that resistance is always positive, and never negative.
A resistor is classed as a passive circuit element and as such cannot deliver power or
store energy. Instead resistors absorbed power that appears as heat and light. Power
in a resistance is always positive regardless of voltage polarity and current direction.
For very low values of resistance, for example mille-ohms, ( mΩ ) it is sometimes
much easier to use the reciprocal of resistance ( 1/R ) rather than resistance ( R )
itself. The reciprocal of resistance is called Conductance, symbol ( G ) and represents
the ability of a conductor or device to conduct electricity.
In other words the ease by which current flows. High values of conductance implies
a good conductor such as copper while low values of conductance implies a bad
conductor such as wood. The standard unit of measurement given for conductance
is the Siemen, symbol (S).
The unit used for conductance is mho (ohm spelt backward), which is symbolized by
an inverted Ohm sign ℧. Power can also be expressed using conductance
as: p = i2/G = v2G.
The relationship between Voltage, ( v ) and Current, ( i ) in a circuit of

constant Resistance, ( R ) would produce a straight line i-v relationship with slope
equal to the value of the resistance as shown.
Voltage, Current and Resistance Summary

Hopefully by now you should have some idea of how
electrical Voltage, Current and Resistance are closely related together. The
relationship between Voltage, Current and Resistance forms the basis of Ohm’s law.
In a linear circuit of fixed resistance, if we increase the voltage, the current goes up,
and similarly, if we decrease the voltage, the current goes down. This means that if
the voltage is high the current is high, and if the voltage is low the current is low.
Likewise, if we increase the resistance, the current goes down for a given voltage
and if we decrease the resistance the current goes up. Which means that if
resistance is high current is low and if resistance is low current is high.
Then we can see that current flow around a circuit is directly proportional ( ∝ ) to
voltage, ( V↑ causes I↑ ) but inversely proportional ( 1/∝ ) to resistance as,
( R↑ causes I↓ ).
A basic summary of the three units is given below.

 Voltage or potential difference is the measure of potential energy between two points
in a circuit and is commonly referred to as its ” volt drop “.
 When a voltage source is connected to a closed loop circuit the voltage will produce a
current flowing around the circuit.
 In DC voltage sources the symbols +ve (positive) and −ve (negative) are used to denote
the polarity of the voltage supply.
 Voltage is measured in Volts and has the symbol V for voltage or E for electrical energy.
 Current flow is a combination of electron flow and hole flow through a circuit.
 Current is the continuous and uniform flow of charge around the circuit and is measured
in Amperes or Amps and has the symbol I.
 Current is Directly Proportional to Voltage ( I ∝ V )
 The effective (rms) value of an alternating current has the same average power loss
equivalent to a direct current flowing through a resistive element.
 Resistance is the opposition to current flowing around a circuit.

 Low values of resistance implies a conductor and high values of resistance implies an
insulator.
 Current is Inversely Proportional to Resistance ( I 1/∝ R )
 Resistance is measured in Ohms and has the Greek symbol Ω or the letter R.
Quantity Symbol Unit of Measure Abbreviation

Voltage V or E Volt V
Current I Ampere A
Resistance R Ohms Ω
In the next tutorial about DC Circuits we will look at Ohms Law which is a
mathematical equation explaining the relationship between Voltage, Current, and
Resistance within electrical circuits and is the foundation of electronics and electrical
engineering. Ohm’s Law is defined as: V = I*R.


Basic Applied Electronics by Balamurugan

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Basic Applied Electronics by Balamurugan

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Contents

Chapter 1 Resistor 1–7

Chapter 2 Introduction of Capacitors 8 – 14

Chapter 3 Semiconductor Basics 15 – 20

Chapter 4 Bipolar transistor 21 – 28

Chapter 5 Digital Gates 29 – 34

Chapter 6 Combinational Logic Circuits 35 -

Chapter 8 Theory of AC Waveform and Circuit 47- 54

Chapter 9 Sinusoidal Waves 55 – 61

Chapter 10 Theory of DC Circuit 62- 69

Formula with ohm's law: R=V/I

Fixed resistor symbol

Fixed resistor symbol

1| Prepared by BALAMURUGAN, NOVEL INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL- JEDDAH

Different Types of Resistors

2| Prepared by BALAMURUGAN, NOVEL INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL- JEDDAH

Applications of Carbon Composition Resistor

 The composition resistor is used in the high energy pulses.

3| Prepared by BALAMURUGAN, NOVEL INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL- JEDDAH

Applications of Carbon Pile

Applications of Carbon film

The carbon film resistors are available in High plus stability.

Printed Carbon Resistor

Applications of Printed Carbon Resistor

 This type of resistors is used in the standard fiberglass in PCB’s.

Thick and Thin Film

4| Prepared by BALAMURUGAN, NOVEL INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL- JEDDAH

Applications of Thick and Thin Film

 Thin film is usually used in precision applications.

Metal Film Resistor

Applications of Metal Film Resistor

 The tolerance of metal film resistor has good characteristics.

Metal Oxide Film Resistors

Applications of Metal Oxide Film Resistors

5| Prepared by BALAMURUGAN, NOVEL INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL- JEDDAH

Applications of Wire Wound Resistors

There are different types of variable resistors are following

Applications of Adjustable resistor

 It is a power control device.

6| Prepared by BALAMURUGAN, NOVEL INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL- JEDDAH

Applications of Potentiometer Resistor

 These are used in wide range of industries.

Parallel Resistor Equation

7| Prepared by BALAMURUGAN, NOVEL INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL- JEDDAH

The capacitor is a component which has the ability or “capacity” to store

Standard Units of Capacitance

 Microfarad (μF) 1μF = 1/1,000,000 = 0.000001 = 10-6 F

Pico-Farad (pF) Nano-Farad (nF) Micro-Farad (μF) Farads (F)

8| Prepared by BALAMURUGAN, NOVEL INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL- JEDDAH

Variable Capacitor Symbols

As well as the continuously variable types,

9| Prepared by BALAMURUGAN, NOVEL INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL- JEDDAH

10 | Prepared by BALAMURUGAN, NOVEL INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL- JEDDAH

Capacitor Colour Codes

Capacitor Colour Code Table

Band Tolerance Tolerance Temperature

Black 0 0 x1 ± 20% ± 2.0pF

Brown 1 1 x10 ± 1% ± 0.1pF -33×10-6

Red 2 2 x100 ± 2% ± 0.25pF -75×10-6

Orange 3 3 x1,000 ± 3% -150×10-6

Yellow 4 4 x10,000 ± 4% -220×10-6

Green 5 5 x100,000 ± 5% ± 0.5pF -330×10-6

Blue 6 6 x1,000,000 -470×10-6

Grey 8 8 x0.01 +80%,-20%