E Science Manual

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Anatomy and Physiology Lab Manual
© 2013 eScience Labs, LLC. All rights reserved. This material may not be repro-
duced, displayed, modified, or distributed, in whole or in part, without the express prior
written permission of eScience Labs. Appropriate citation(s) must accompany all ex-
cerpts and/or quotations.
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Note, educational institutions and customers who have purchased a complete lab kit
may reproduce the manual as a print copy for academic use provided that all copies
include the following statement: “© 2013 eScience Labs, LLC. All rights reserved.”.
This manual was typeset in 11 Arial and 12 Chalet-London 1960. Arial font provided by
Microsoft Office Suite, 2010. Chalet-London 1960 font licensed from House Industries,
2011.
The experiments included within this lab manual are suitable for supervised or unsu-
pervised learning environments. eScience Labs assumes full liability for the safety and
techniques employed within this manual provided that all users adhere to the safety
guidelines outlined in the mandatory eScience Labs Safety Video, Preface, and Ap-
pendix. All users must understand and agree to the eScience Labs safety guidelines
prior to beginning their lab experiments. eScience Labs does not condone use of the
lab materials provided in its lab kits for any use outside of the curriculum expressly
outlined within the lab manual.
3
Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements
eScience Labs extends deepest gratitude to Johnson and Wales University for their
exceptional assistance in developing the histology slide images. Particular thanks
goes out to William R. Altieri, Victor Battin, and Sebastian Uhde for their outstanding
contributions to the manual. Their intellectual efforts and precise microscopy
technique resulted in beautiful assets which enhanced the Anatomy and Physiology
Lab Manual as a unit, as well as the individual lab topics. We are very proud to have
worked with such a special team of individuals, and are pleased to offer their contribu-
tions to students and faculty around the world.
We also give thanks to all of the amazing faculty and subject matter experts which
teamed up with us to navigate the complex world of anatomy and physiology. We are
indebted to all of you, and praise your efforts to help us improve upon our best.
5
Table of Contents
Preface: Introduction to the Fetal Pig
Lab 1 Introduction to Science

Lab 2 Cell Structure and Function
Lab 3 Mitosis and Meiosis
Lab 4 Diffusion and Osmosis
Lab 5 Tissues and Skin
Lab 6 The Skeletal System
Lab 7 The Muscular System
Lab 8 The Nervous System
Lab 9 The Endocrine System
Lab 10 Blood and the Heart
Lab 11 The Circulatory System
Lab 12 The Lymphatic System and Immunity
Lab 13 The Respiratory System
Lab 14 The Urinary System
Lab 15 Electrolytes, Water, Acids, and Bases
Lab 16 The Digestive System
Lab 17 Nutrition
Lab 18 The Reproductive System
Appendix: Good Lab Techniques
7
Time and Materials
If you are allergic to nitrile, please contact us and we will send you an alternative.
Please note that the times listed are approximations and may differ. Please read
through the procedure and plan accordingly.
Lab 1 Introduction to Science

Time Required: 60 minutes, plus 7 - 10 days for observation
Additional Materials: Water
Lab 2 Cell Structure and Function

Time Required: 90 minutes (plus 24 hours in advance for preparation)
Additional Materials: Kitchen knife, microwave, and a hot pad or towel.
Lab 3 Mitosis and Meiosis

Time Required: 90 minutes
Additional Materials: Blue and red markers, internet access, and computer access.
Lab 4 Diffusion and Osmosis

Additional Materials: Scissors, water, paper towel, two different potato types, knife,
and a cutting board.
Lab 5 Tissues and Skin

Additional Materials: Scissors and a partner.
Lab 6 The Skeletal System

Time Required: 90 minutes plus 3 – 5 days for observation
Additional Materials: Water and paper towels.
9
Time and Materials
Lab 7 The Muscular System
Time Required: 60 - 90 minutes
Additional Materials: Participant, heavy object (approximately five pounds), and a stur-
dy wall.
Lab 8 The Nervous System

Additional Materials: Participant.
Lab 9 The Endocrine System

Additional Materials: Ice, water, bucket or deep bowl, paper towel, and two partici-
pants.
Lab 10 Blood and the Heart

Time Required: 90 minutes plus 7 – 14 days for observation
Additional Materials: Scissors, water, tape, and two uncooked eggs.
Lab 11 The Circulatory System

Additional Materials: None.
Lab 12 The Lymphatic System

Additional Materials: None.
Lab 13 The Respiratory System

Additional Materials: Participant.
10
Time and Materials
Lab 14 The Urinary System
Additional Materials: Water, hot water bath, and a hot pad or towel.
Lab 15 Electrolytes, Water, Acids, and Bases

Additional Materials: Distilled water, participant, and paper towels.
Lab 16 The Digestive System

Additional Materials: Drinking glass, water, and saliva.
Lab 17 Nutrition
Time Required: 120 minutes, plus 3 days for data collection
Additional Materials: Computer access, internet access, a pen or pencil, distilled wa-
ter, hot water, fork, knife, a potato, an onion, and an egg white.
Lab 18 The Reproductive System

Additional Materials: None
11
Safety Information
Lab Safety
eScience Labs, LLC designs every kit with safety as our top priority. Nonetheless, these are science
kits and contain items which must be handled with care.
Safety in the laboratory always comes first!
Always follow the instructions in your laboratory manual and these general rules:
Lab Preparation
• Please thoroughly read the lab exercise before starting!
• If you have any doubt as to what you are supposed to be doing and how to do it safe-
ly, please STOP and then:
Double-check the manual instructions.

Check www.esciencelabs.com for updates and tips.
Contact us for technical support by phone at 1-888-ESL-Kits (1-888-375-5487) or
by email at Help@esciencelabs.com.
• Read and understand all labels on chemicals.
If you have any questions or concerns, refer to the Material Safely Data Sheets
(MSDS) available at www.esciencelabs.com. The MSDS lists the dangers, storage
requirements, exposure treatment and disposal instructions for each chemical.
• Consult your physician if you are pregnant, allergic to chemicals, or have other medi-
cal conditions that may require additional protective measures.
Proper Lab Attire
• Remove all loose clothing (jackets, sweatshirts, etc.) and always wear closed-toe
shoes.
• Long hair should be pulled back and secured and all jewelry (rings, watches, necklac-
es, earrings, bracelets, etc.) should be removed.
• Safety glasses or goggles should be worn at all times. In addition, wearing soft contact
lenses while conducting experiments is discouraged, as they can absorb potentially
harmful chemicals.
• When handling chemicals, always wear the protective goggles, gloves, and apron pro-
vided.
13
Safety Information
Performing the Experiment
• Do not eat, drink, chew gum, apply cosmetics or smoke while conducting an experi-
ment.
• Work in a well ventilated area and monitor experiments at all times, unless instructed
otherwise.
• When working with chemicals:
Never return unused chemicals to their original container to avoid contamination.
Never place chemicals in an unmarked container to avoid identification or proper

disposal problems.
Always put lids back onto chemicals immediately after use to avoid contamination
or potential hydration problems.
Never ingest chemicals. If this occurs, seek immediate help.
Call 911 or “Poison Control” 1-800-222-1222
• Never pipette anything by mouth.
• Never leave a heat source unattended.
If there is a fire, evacuate the room immediately and dial 911.
Lab Clean-up and Disposal
• If a spill occurs, consult the MSDS to determine how to clean it up.
• Never pick up broken glassware with your hands. Use a broom and a dustpan and
discard in a safe area.
• Do not use any part of the lab kit as a container for food.
• Safely dispose of chemicals. If there are any special requirements for disposal, it will
be noted in the lab manual.
• When finished, wash hands and lab equipment thoroughly with soap and water.
Above all, use common sense! Read the manual carefully. Pay close attention
to the safety concerns prior to starting an experiment.
14
Student Portal
Introduction
Safety Video
Log on to the Student Portal
Introduction to Science Concepts
using these easy steps:
Anatomical Terminology: Body Position
Visit our website,
Anatomical Terminology: Relative Position
www.eScienceLabs.com, and
How to Measure Fluid click on the button which says
Body Sections and Divisions of the Abdominal Cavity “Register or Login” on the top
right side of the homepage. From
Regional Body Parts
here, you will be taken to a login
The Organization of the Human Body page. If you are registering your
Introduction to Science Lab Drills kit code for the first time, click
the “Create an Account” hyper-
link. Locate the kit-code, located
Cell Structure and Function on a label on the inside of the kit
box lid. Enter this, along with oth-
Cell Structure and Function Concepts
er requested information into the
A Typical Animal Cell online form to create your user
Construction of the Cell Membrane account. Be sure to keep track of
your username and password as
Cell Structure and Function Lab Drills
this is how you will enter the Stu-
dent Portal for future visits. This
Mitosis and Meiosis establishes your account with the
eScience Labs’ Student Portal.
Mitosis and Meiosis Concepts
Have fun!
The Cell Cycle
Cell Division
Mitosis and Meiosis Lab Drills
Diffusion and Osmosis

Diffusion and Osmosis Concepts
Passive Transport: Diffusion
The Cell: Passive Transport Diffusion
The Cell: Passive Transport Osmosis
15
Student Portal
Diffusion and Osmosis Lab Drills
Tissues and Skin

Tissues and Skin Concepts
Muscle and Connective Tissue
Nervous and Epithelial Tissue
Skin and the Integumentary System
Tissue Identification
Tissues and Skin Lab Drills
The Skeletal System

Skeletal System Concepts
The Skeleton: Bones and Joints
Classification of Joints
The Appendicular Skeleton
The Axial Skeleton
Movement Terminology
Skeletal System Lab Drills
The Muscular System

Muscular System Concepts
Movement Terminology
Major Muscles of the Human Body
Superficial Skeletal Muscles
The Structure of the Muscle Organ
Muscle Cell Contraction
The Neuromuscular Junction
The Upper and Lower Motor Neurons
Muscular System Lab Drills
16
Student Portal
The Nervous System
Nervous System Concepts
Anatomy of the Ear
How the Brain Develops
Physiological Events at the Neural Synapse
The 12 Cranial Nerves
The Sense of Hearing
The Sense of Sight
The Sense of Smell
The Sense of Taste
Unipolar and Multipolar Neurons
The Vertebral Column
Sympathetic Nervous System
The Corticospinal Tracts
Nervous System Lab Drills
The Endocrine System

Glands of the Endocrine System
Glucose Metabolism for the Endocrine System
The Actions of Hormones
Blood and the Heart

Blood Groups
Abnormal Blood Smear Review and Cell Identification
The Development of the H, A, and B Antigens
The Anatomy of the Heart
White Blood Cells
Red Blood Cells
The Electrocardiogram
17
Student Portal
The Circulatory System
Osmotic Pressure
Capillary Dynamics
The Lymphatic System and Immunity

The Lymphatic System
Phagocyte Chemotaxis
Antigen Presentation
The Respiratory System

Respiratory Basics
An Overview of Pulmonary and Systemic Circulation
Respiratory System Gas Exchange
The Urinary System

The Structure of the Kidney
Electrolytes, Water, Acids, and Bases

Regulation of Blood Osmolality and Blood Volume
Fluid and Electrolytes
Acid/Base Imbalance
Electrolyte Game
The Digestive System

Gastrointestinal System Anatomy
Carbohydrate Digestion
Nutrition
Understanding the Nutrition Facts Labels
Biomolecules - Lipids
18
Student Portal
Biomolecules - Proteins
Biomolecules - Carbohydrates
The Reproductive System

Reproductive System Concepts
Reproductive System Lab Drills
Microscope Tutorials
Microscope Concepts
How to Use a Microscope
How Big is It
Virtual Microscope
Microscope Drills
19
Sample Labware
21
Preface
Introduction to the Fetal Pig
Preface
Introduction to the Fetal Pig
Form and function go hand-in-hand when studying anatomy and physiology. Dissection will aid in your under-
standing of how the structure of organs and tissues can influence their function. You will also see how the
systems work together and how they are arranged spatially. Throughout this lab manual, you will be exploring
gross anatomy of the fetal pig (Sus scrofa). Like humans, pigs are mammals. They have similar organs and
metabolism, making them useful comparisons for human anatomy classes. Because these are unborn ani-
mals, some of the structures are not fully developed. Many bones are incompletely formed, and are still com-
posed largely of cartilage (which is another benefit of using fetal pigs, as these undeveloped bones will be
easier for you to cut through). The fetal pigs included in this kit have been obtained in accordance with USDA
and the US Fish and Wildlife Service regulations.
The fetal pig you will work with throughout this kit has been injected with a colored latex compound. The ar-
teries have been filled with red latex and the veins with blue to help you differentiate the blood vessels. The
age of the fetus can be determined by measuring the body length, from the tip of the snout to the attachment
of the tail. Use Table 1 (following page) to estimate the age of your pig.
Dissecting is an important hands-on activity as it allows you to experience firsthand the validity of what you
have learned. Please note, your fetal pig was NOT bred for dissection, instead, it is a result of the food pro-
duction process of a pregnant sow.
25
Preface
Table 1: Pig Length per Age
Length Approximate Age (days)
11.0 mm 21
17.0 mm 35
2.8 cm 49
4.0 cm 56
22.0 cm 100
30.0 cm 114 (birth)
Safety
Dissecting a biological specimen requires special attention in regards to safety. When dissecting, always fol-
low these safety precautions:
• Always wear gloves, apron, mask and safety glasses when dissecting.
• Never touch your mouth, eyes or skin after touching the fetal pig.
• If there are children in the home, be sure the pig and all dissecting equipment are out of their reach.
• Do not throw away biological materials from the pig. At the end of the course, fetal pigs can be re-
turned to a biological company for proper disposal.
• Items such as paper towels and gloves can be thrown into the regular trash.
• Use all dissecting tools with extreme caution. The razor blade, scalpel and scissors are sharp. Always
cut away from your body.
• Do not rinse your pig off, this will remove the preserving solution.
• Follow all other safety precautions listed at the beginning of this manual.
Anatomical Position Vocabulary

Throughout this manual, basic anatomical positional terms are used. These will help you navigate the dissec-
tion specimens, work through the Virtual Model, and enhance your understanding of gross human anatomy in
general. The terms and definitions provided in Table 2, as well as the resources on the eScience Labs’ Stu-
dent Portal, will acquaint you with these terms and should be reviewed prior to any experiments.
26
Preface
Table 2: Anatomical Directionality - Terms, Definitions, and Examples
Term Definition Example
Superior Higher The knee is superior to the foot
Inferior Lower The foot is inferior to the knee
Cephalic Head The neck is cephalic to the breastbone
Caudal Tail The breastbone is caudal to the neck
Medial Towards the midline of the body The nose is medial to the ears
Away from the midline of the
Lateral The ears are lateral to the nose
body
Anterior Front The navel is anterior to the spine
Posterior Back The spine is posterior to the navel
Ventral Belly The navel is ventral to the spine
Dorsal Back The spine is dorsal to the navel
Closer to the point of attachment

Proximal The shoulder is proximal to the elbow
to the body
Farther from the point of
Distal The elbow is distal to the shoulder
attachment to the body
Superficial Closer to the surface The skin is superficial to the bone
Deep Deeper within the body The bone is deep to the skin
Sexing the Fetal Pig

It is important to sex your pig before commencing dissections. Knowing whether your specimen is male or
female will dictate the incisions made in the lower abdomen of the pig. The sex of the pig can be determined
by the placement of the urogenital opening. The male urogenital opening is located immediately inferior to
the umbilical cord. Males also have a scrotum (appearing as a raised sac) anterior to the anus between the
hindlimbs. The female urogenital opening is located beneath the anus, surrounded by folds of skin (labia).
The females also exhibit urogenital papilla near the urogenital opening.
Clean-Up
You are instructed to wash all dissection tools, trays, work surfaces, and your hands with soap and warm
water after completing a dissection. If aseptic technique is employed, this will sufficiently disinfect the items.
However, you may wish to use bleach in addition to standard soap and water. Bleach is available at grocery
or drug stores, and typically costs approximately $2 - 4 per bottle. If you wish to purchase bleach, you will
need at least a 10% concentrated solution (the standard concentration available for consumer purchase);
higher concentrations are also appropriate.
27
Preface
Make sure to wash tools with soap and water before using the bleach. After washing, submerge the utility end
of the tools in bleach for at least two minutes, and remove the tools. Wipe away or allow the liquid on the tools
to air dry, and replace the tools in a safe place. It is important to thoroughly dry the dissection tools before
storage to prevent rusting.
Disposal Considerations
The dissection specimens included in this kit were fixed using a formalin-based fixative (3.5% formaldehyde).
Fixing the specimens with this solution prevents decomposition. The excess liquid you may notice in the bag
with the specimen is a formaldehyde-free preservation fluid that will keep the specimens properly hydrated
during shipment and storage. In between dissections, it is important to store the specimen(s), along with any
fluid that came in the vacuum-sealed bag with the specimen, in an airtight bag (such as the one provided in
the dissection box or any zip-seal bag). To keep the tissue moist, place a damp paper towel around the fetal
pig or specimen before placing it in a storage bag. It is not necessary to refrigerate the specimens, but a cool,
dark place (e.g., a closet) is advised. DO NOT STORE SPECIMENS WITH FOOD.
After you have completed dissection of the preserved specimens in this kit, you must dispose of them, and
any biological scraps acquired in throughout the dissection process, properly. Call your local waste manage-
ment company to ascertain the proper technique for your region. You may also contact Carolina Biological or
refer to the following website for additional information:
http://www.carolina.com/teacher-resources/Interactive/safety-storage-disposal-of-preserved-specimens/tr11090.tr
Please be responsible about the proper disposal of specimens. eScience Labs is not responsible for the dis-
posal of the specimens or biological scraps used throughout this manual – IT IS YOUR RESPONSIBILITY!
Material Safety Data Sheets

MSDS forms are available on the eScience Labs’ website (http://www.eScienceLabs.com/educators/msds) for
the fixing and preservation chemicals, as well as any other chemical included in your kit. Please print all of the
relevant MSDS forms and review them prior to beginning the experiments to ensure that you are prepared for
any chemical spills or accidents.
Safety Kits
Your lab kit is furnished with a safety kit. This contains safety glasses, nitrile gloves, an apron, and several
underpads (bench coats) to help you perform your experiments safely. These safety resources should be
used for every experiment!! Please note that fetal pig and organ dissections require dissection tools which
can easily cut or cause pain to the user if not used appropriately. As instructed in your procedures, always cut
28
Preface
away from the body and apply only as much force as is needed to cut through the tissue or organ you are
working on. Please review the eScience Labs virtual asset covering proper dissection techniques, located on
the Student Portal, for further information.
29
Table of Contents
Lab 1
Introduction to Science
31
Concepts to Explore
• The Scientific Method • Calculations
• Observations • Data Collection
• Variables • Percent Error
• Controls • Scientific Reasoning
• Data Analysis • Writing a Lab Report
Introduction
What is science? You have likely taken several classes throughout your career as a student, and know that it
is more than just chapters in a book. Science is a process. It uses evidence to understand the history of the
natural world and how it works. Scientific knowledge is constantly evolving as we understand more about the
natural world. Furthermore, the constant development of equipment and techniques allows us to gain an in-
creasingly deeper insight into the natural world. Science begins with observations that can be measured in
some way, and often concludes with observations from analyzed data.
Following the scientific method helps to minimize bias when testing a theory. It helps scientists collect and
organize information in a useful way so that patterns and data can be analyzed in a meaningful way. As a sci-
entist, you should use the scientific method as you conduct the experiments throughout this manual.
Figure 1: The scientific method process.
33
The process of the scientific method begins with an observation. For example, suppose you observe a plant
growing towards a window. This observation could be the first step in designing an experiment. Remember
that observations are used to begin the scientific method, but they may also be used to help analyze data.
Observations can be quantitative (measurable), or qualitative (immeasurable; observational). Quantitative

observations allow us to record findings as data, and leave little room for subjective error. Qualitative obser-
vations cannot be measured. Instead, they rely on human sensory perceptions. The nature of these observa-
tions makes them more subjective and susceptible to human error. However, qualitative observations are still
able to provide useful information, as discussed below.
Suppose you have a handful of pennies. You can make quantitative observations that there are 15 pennies,
and each is 1.9 cm in diameter. Both the quantity, and the diameter, can be precisely measured. You can
also make qualitative observations that they are brown, shiny, or smooth. The color and texture are not nu-
merically measured, and may vary based on the individual’s perception or background.
Quantitative observations are generally preferred in science because they involve "hard" data. Because of
this, many scientific instruments, such as microscopes and scales, have been developed to alleviate the
need for qualitative observations. Rather than observing that an object is large, we can now identify specific
mass, shapes, structures, etc.
There are still many situations, as you will encounter throughout this lab
manual, in which qualitative observations are useful. Noticing the color
change of a leaf or the change in smell of a compound, for example, are
important observations and can provide a great deal of practical infor-
mation.
Once an observation has been made, the next step is to develop a hy-
pothesis. A hypothesis is a statement describing what the scientist
thinks will happen in the experiment. A hypothesis is a proposed expla-
nation for an event based on observation(s). A null hypothesis is a test-
able statement that if proven true, means the hypothesis was incorrect.
Both a hypothesis and a null hypothesis statement must be testable, but Figure 2: What affects plant growth?
only one can be true. Hypotheses are typically written in an if/then for-
mat. For example:
Hypothesis:
If plants are grown in soil with added nutrients, then they will grow faster than plants grown without
added nutrients.
34
Null hypothesis:
If plants are grown in soil with added nutrients, then If plants grow quicker when nutrients are
they will grow at the same rate as plants grown in soil added, then the hypothesis is accepted
without nutrients. and the null hypothesis is rejected.
There are often many ways to test a hypothesis. However, three rules must always be followed for results to
be valid.
• The experiment must be replicable.
• Only test one variable at a time.
• Always include a control.
Experiments must be replicable to create valid theories. In other words, an experi-

ment must provide precise results over multiple trials Precise results are those
which have very similar values (e.g., 85, 86, and 86.5) over multiple trials. By con-
trast, accurate results are those which demonstrate what you expected to happen
(e.g., you expect the test results of three students tests to be 80%, 67%, and
100%). The following example demonstrates the significance of experimental re-
peatability. Suppose you conduct an experiment and con-
clude that ice melts in 30 seconds when placed on a burn-
er, but you do not record your procedure or define the ex- Precise results may not
act variables included. The conclusion that you draw will hit the bulls-eye, but they
all hit the same region.
not be recognized in the scientific community because
other scientists cannot repeat your experiment and find the same results. What if an-
other scientist tries to repeat your ice experiment, but does not turn on the burner; or,
uses a larger ice chunk. The results will not be the same, because the experiment
Accurate results all hit was not repeated using the same exact procedure. In order for results to be valid,
the bulls-eye on a target. repeated experiments must follow the original experiment exactly. Using this tech-
nique, multiple trials performed in this manner should yield comparable results.
Variables are defined, measurable components of an experiment. Controlling variables in an experiment al-
lows the scientist to quantify changes that occur. This allows for focused results to be measured; and, for re-
fined conclusions to be drawn. There are two types of variables, independent variables and dependent varia-
bles.
Independent variables are variables that scientists select to change within the experiment. For example, the
time of day, amount of substrate, etc. can all be independent variables. Independent variables are also used
by scientists to test hypotheses. Experiments can only have one independent variable. In this way, scientists
can determine if altering the independent variable is the reason for obtaining a different result. Scientists
would not be able to conclusively determine which change effected the data if more than one independent
35
variable is changed in an experiment. Independent variables are always placed on the x-axis of a chart or
graph.
Dependent variables are variables that scientists observe in relationship to the independent variable. Com-
mon examples of this are rate of reaction, color change, etc. Any changes observed in the dependent variable
are caused by the changes in the independent variable. In other words, they depend on the independent vari-
able. There can be more than one dependent variable in an experiment. Dependent variables are placed on
the y-axis of a chart or graph.
A control is a sample of data collected in an experiment that is not exposed to the independent variable. The
control sample reflects the factors that could influence the results of the experiment, but do not reflect the
planned changes that might result from manipulating the independent variable. Controls must be identified to
eliminate compounding changes that could influence results. Often, the hardest part of designing an experi-
ment is determining how to isolate the independent variable and control all other possible variables. Scientists
must be careful not to eliminate or create a factor that could skew the results. For this reason, taking notes to
account for unidentified variables is important. This might include factors such as temperature, humidity, time
of day, or other environmental conditions that may impact results.
There are two types of controls, positive and negative. Negative controls are data samples in which you ex-
pect no change to occur. They help scientists determine that the experimental results are due to the inde-
pendent variable, rather than an unidentified or unaccounted variable. For example, suppose you need to cul-
ture (grow) bacteria and want to include a negative control. You could create this by streaking a sterile loop
across an agar plate. Sterile loops should not create any microbial growth; therefore, you expect no change to
occur on the agar plate. If no growth occurs, you can assume the equipment used was sterile. However, if
microbial growth does occur, you must assume that the equipment was contaminated prior to the experiment
and must redo the experiment with new materials.
Alternatively, positive controls are data samples in which you do expect a change. Let’s return to the growth
example, but now you need to create a positive control. To do this, you now use a sterile loop to streak a
plate with a bacterial sample that you know grows well on agar (such as E. coli). If bacteria grows, you can
assume that the bacteria sample and agar are both suitable for the experiment. However, if bacteria does not
grow, you must assume that the agar or bacteria has been compromised; the agar is inhibiting growth, or the
bacteria in the sample are not viable.
The scientific method also requires data collection. This may reflect what occurred before, during, or after an
experiment. Collected data help reveal experimental results. Data should include all relevant observations,
both quantitative and qualitative.
36
After results are collected, they can be analyzed. Data analysis often involves a variety of calculations, con-
versions, graphs, tables, etc. The most common task a scientist faces is unit conversion. Units of time are a
common increment that must be converted. For example, suppose half of your data is measured in seconds,
but the other half is measured in minutes. It will be difficult to understand the relationship between the data if
the units are not equivalent. (Sample calculation below).
When calculating a unit conversion, significant digits must be accounted for. Significant digits are the digits
in a number or answer that describe how precise the value actually is. Consider the following rules:
Table 1: Significant Digits Rules
Rule Example
45 has two significant digits
Any non-zero number (1 - 9) is always significant 3.99 has three significant digits
248678 has six significant digits
4005 has four significant digits
Any time a zero appears between significant num-
0.34000000009 has eleven significant dig-
bers, the zero is significant
its
Zeros that are ending numbers after a decimal
45.00 has four significant digits
point or zeros that are after significant numbers
15000.00 has seven significant digits
before a decimal point are significant
Zeros that are used as placeholders are NOT sig- 62000000 has two significant digits
nificant digits .0000000897 has three significant digits
A zero at the end of a number with no decimal can 50 cm exactly has two significant digits
be a significant digit (not rounded)
Addition and subtraction problems should result in an answer that has the same number of significant decimal
places as the least precise number in the calculation. Multiplication and division problems should keep the
same total number of significant digits as the least precise number in the calculation. For example:
Addition Problem: 12.689 + 5.2 = 17.889 round to 18

Multiplication Problem: 28.8 x 54.76 = 1577.088 round to 1580 (3 significant digits)
37
Scientific notation is another common method used to report a number. Scientific data is often very large
(e.g., the speed of light) or very small (e.g., the diameter of a cell). Scientific notation provides an abbreviated
expression of a number, so that scientists don’t get caught up counting a long series of zeroes.
There are three parts to scientific notation: the base, the coefficient and the exponent. Base 10 is almost al-
ways used and makes the notation easy to translate. The coefficient is always a number between 1 and 10,
and uses the significant digits of the original number. The exponent tells us whether the number is greater or
less than 1, and can be used to “count” the number of digits the decimal must be moved to translate the num-
ber to regular notation. A negative exponent tells you to move the decimal to the left, while a positive one tells
you to move it to the right.
For example, the number 5,600,000 can be written in scientific notation as 5.6 x 106. The coefficient is 5.6,
the base is 10, and the exponent is 6. If you multiply 5.6 by 10 six times, you will arrive at 5,600,000. Note the
exponent, 6, is positive because the number is larger than one. Alternative, the number 0.00045 must be writ-
ten using a negative exponent. To write this number in scientific notation, determine the coefficient. Remem-
ber that the coefficient must be between 1 and 10. The significant digits are 4 and 5. Therefore, 4.5 is the co-
efficient. To determine the exponent, count how many places you must move the decimal over to create the
original number. Moving to the left, we have 0.45, 0.045, 0.0045, and finally 0.00045. Since we move the dec-
imal 4 places to the left, the exponent is -4. Written in scientific notation, we have 4.5 x 10-4
Although these calculations may feel laborious, a well-calculated presentation can transform data into a for-
mat that scientists can more easily understand and learn from. Some of the most common methods of data
presentation are tables and graphs.
Table: A well-organized summary of data collected. Tables should display any information relevant to
the hypothesis. Always include a clearly stated title, labeled columns and rows, and measurement
units.
Table 2: Plant Growth With and Without Added Nutrients
Variable Height Wk. 1 (mm) Height Wk. 2 (mm) Height Wk. 3 (mm) Height Wk. 4 (mm)
Control
3.4 3.6 3.7 4.0
(without nutrients)
Independent
3.5 3.7 4.1 4.6
(with nutrients)
38
Graph: A visual representation of the relationship between the independent and dependent variable.
They are typically created by using data from a table. Graphs are useful in identifying trends and illus-
trating findings. When constructing a graph, it is important to use appropriate, consistent numerical
intervals. Titles and axes labels should also reflect the data table information. There are several differ-
ent types of graphs, and each type serves a different purpose. Examples include line graphs (Figure
1) and bar graphs (Figure 2). Line graphs show the relationship between variables using plotted points
that are connected with a line. There must be a direct relationship and dependence between each
point connected. More than one set of data can be presented on a line graph. By comparison, bar
graphs compare results that are independent from each other, as opposed to a continuous series.
Height (mm)
Figure 3: Sample line graph. Plant growth, with and without nutrients, over time.
Speed (kph)
Figure 4: Sample bar graph. Top speed for Cars A, B, C, and D. Note, since there is no relationship
between each car, each result is independent and a bar graph is appropriate.
39
After compiling the data, scientists analyze the data to determine if the experiment supports or refutes the
hypothesis. If the hypothesis is supported, you may want to consider additional variables that should be ex-
amined. If your data does not provide clear results, you may want to consider running additional trials or re-
vising the procedure to create a more precise outcome.
One way to analyze data is to calculate percent error. Many experiments perform trials which calculate
known values. When this happens, you can compare experimental results to known values and calculate per-
cent error. Low percent error (<5%) indicates that results are probably accurate, and high percent error
(>20%) indicates that results may be inaccurate. The formula for percent error is:
Percent Error = |(Experimental - Actual)| x 100%
Actual
Note that the brackets flanking the numerator indicate “absolute value”. This means that the number in the
equation is always positive.
Suppose your experiment involves gravity. Your experimental results indicate that the speed of gravity is 10.1
m/s2, but the known value for gravity is 9.8 m/s2. We can calculate the percent error through the following
steps:
Percent Error = |(10.1 m/s2 - 9.8 m/s2)| x 100%
(9.8 m/s2)
Percent Error = |0.3| x 100% (Note the units cancel each other out)
(9.8)
Percent Error = 0.0306 x 100% = 3.1% (Remember the significant digits)
The scientific method gives us a great foundation to conduct scientific reason-

ing. The more data and observations we are able to make, the more we are able
to accurately reason through the natural phenomena which occur in our daily
lives. Scientific reasoning does not always include a structured lab report, but it
always helps society to think through difficult concepts and determine solutions.
For example, scientific reasoning can be used to create a response to the chang-
ing global climate, develop medical solutions to health concerns, or even learn
about subatomic particles and tendencies.
Figure 5: Lab reports are an

Although the scientific method and scientific reasoning can guide society through important part of science,
critical or abstract thinking, the scientific industry typically promotes lab reports providing a way to report
as a universal method of data analysis and presentation. In general terms, a lab conclusions and ideas.
report is a scientific paper describing the premise of an experiment, the
40
procedures taken, and the results of the study. They provide a written record of what took place to help others
learn and expedite future experimental processes. Though most lab reports go unpublished, it is important to
write a report that accurately characterizes the experiment performed. Table 3 summarizes the components
of a typical lab report.
Table 3: Lab Report Components

Lab Report
Purpose
Section
Title A short statement summarizing the topic
A brief summary of the methods, results and conclusions. It should not exceed
Abstract
200 words and should be the last part written.
An overview of why the experiment was conducted. It should include:

• Background - Provide an overview of what is already known and what ques-
tions remain unresolved. Be sure the reader is given enough information to
know why and how the experiment was performed.
Introduction
• Objective - Explain the purpose of the experiment (i.e. "I want to determine if
taking baby aspirin every day prevents second heart attacks.")
• Hypothesis - This is your "guess" as to what will happen when you do the
experiment.
A detailed description of what was used to conduct the experiment, what was
Materials and
actually done (step by step) and how it was done. The description should be ex-
Methods
act enough that someone reading the report can replicate the experiment.
Data and observations obtained during the experiment. This section should be
Results clear and concise. Tables and graphs are often appropriate in this section. Inter-
pretations should not be included here.
Data interpretations and experimental conclusions.

• Discuss the meaning of your findings. Look for common themes, relation-
ships and points that perhaps generate more questions.
Discussion • When appropriate, discuss outside factors (i.e. temperature, time of day,
etc.) that may have played a role in the experiment.
• Identify what could be done to control for these factors in future experi-
ments.
Conclusion A short, concise summary that states what has been learned.
Any articles, books, magazines, interviews, newspapers, etc. that were used to
References
support your background, experimental protocols, discussions and conclusions.
41
Exercise 1: Data Interpretation
Dissolved oxygen is oxygen that is trapped in a fluid, such as water. Since many living organism requires oxy-
gen to survive, it is a necessary component of water systems such as streams, lakes and rivers in order to
support aquatic life. The dissolved oxygen is measured in units of ppm (parts per million). Examine the data in
Table 4 showing the amount of dissolved oxygen present and the number of fish observed in the body of wa-
ter the sample was taken from; finally, answer the questions below.
Table 4: Water Quality vs. Fish Population
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Number of Fish Observed 0 1 3 10 12 13 15 10 12 13
Questions
1. What patterns do you observe based on the information in Table 4?
2. Develop a hypothesis relating to the amount of dissolved oxygen measured in the water sample and the
number of fish observed in the body of water.
3. What would your experimental approach be to test this hypothesis?
4. What would be the independent and dependent variables?
5. What would be your control?
42
6. What type of graph would be appropriate for this data set? Why?
7. Graph the data from Table 4: Water Quality vs. Fish Population (found at the beginning of this exercise).
8. Interpret the data from the graph made in Question 7.
Exercise 2: Testable Observations

Determine which of the following observations are testable. For those that are testable:
Determine if the observation is qualitative or quantitative
Write a hypothesis and null hypothesis
What would be your experimental approach?
What are the dependent and independent variables?
What are your controls - both positive and negative?
How will you collect your data?
How will you present your data (charts, graphs, types)?
How will you analyze your data?
Observations
1. A plant grows three inches faster per day when placed on a window sill than it does when placed on a on
a coffee table in the middle of the living room.
43
2. The teller at the bank with brown hair and brown eyes is taller than the other tellers.
3. When Sally eats healthy foods and exercises regularly, her blood pressure is 10 points lower than when
she does not exercise and eats fatty foods.
4. The Italian restaurant across the street closes at 9 pm but the one two blocks away closes at 10 pm.
5. For the past two days, the clouds have come out at 3 pm and it has started raining at 3:15 pm.
6. George did not sleep at all the night following the start of daylight savings.
Exercise 3: Conversion
For each of the following, convert each value into the designated
units.
1. 46,756,790 mg = _______ kg
2. 5.6 hours = ________ seconds
3. 13.5 cm = ________ inches
4. 47 °C = _______ °F
44
Exercise 4: Accuracy and Precision
For the following, determine whether the information is accurate, precise, both or neither.
1. During gym class, four students decided to see if they could beat the norm of 45 sit-ups in a minute. The
first student did 64 sit-ups, the second did 69, the third did 65, and the fourth did 67.
2. The average score for the 5th grade math test is 89.5. The top 5th graders took the test and scored 89,
93, 91 and 87.
3. Yesterday the temperature was 89 °F, tomorrow it’s supposed to be 88 °F and the next day it’s supposed
to be 90 °F, even though the average for September is only 75 °F degrees!
4. Four friends decided to go out and play horseshoes. They took a picture of
their results shown to the right:
5. A local grocery store was holding a contest to see who could most closely guess the number of pennies
that they had inside a large jar. The first six people guessed the numbers 735, 209, 390, 300, 1005 and
689. The grocery clerk said the jar actually contains 568 pennies.
45
Exercise 5: Significant Digits and Scientific Notation
Part 1: Determine the number of significant digits in each number and write out the specific significant digits.
1. 405000
2. 0.0098
3. 39.999999
4. 13.00
5. 80,000,089
6. 55,430.00
7. 0.000033
8. 620.03080
Part 2: Write the numbers below in scientific notation, incorporating what you know about significant digits.
1. 70,000,000,000
2. 0.000000048
3. 67,890,000
4. 70,500
5. 450,900,800
6. 0.009045
7. 0.023
Exercise 6: Percentage Error

In the questions below, determine the percentage error. Show your work on all problems.
1. A dad holds five coins in his hand. He tells his son that if he can guess the amount of money he is
holding within 5% error he can have the money. The son guesses that he is holding 81 cents. The dad
opens his hand and displays 90 cents. Did the son guess close enough to receive the money from his
father?
46
2. A science teacher tells her class that their final project requires the students to measure a specific
variable and determine the velocity of a car with no more than 2.5% error. Jennifer and Johnny work hard
and decide the velocity of the car is 34.87 m/s. The teacher informs them that the actual velocity is 34.15
m/s. Will Jennifer and Johnny pass their final project?
3. A locomotive train is on its way from Chicago, IL to Madison, WI. The trip is said to last 3.15 hours. When
the train arrives in Madison the conductor notices it actually took them 3.26 hours. The train company
prides itself on always having its trains to the station within a 3% error of the expected time. Will the train
company live up to its reputation on this trip?
4. A coach tells his little league players that hitting a .275 batting average, within 7% percentage error,
means that they had a really great season. Seven year old Tommy ended the season hitting a .258
batting average. According to his coach, did he have a great season?
47
Experiment 1: Design an Experiment
The following experiment is meant to be designed by you with the beans provided in the kit! You will design
and execute an experiment to test several factors that influence seed germination. Whatever your experi-
mental design, be sure to include controls, both positive and negative, and make sure it is reproducible!
Materials
100 Beans *Paper Towels
(10) 5 x 8 in. Bags *Water
Permanent marker
Ruler *You must provide
Tape
Procedure
1. Think of 10 - 20 variables that may affect seed germination. Record them in Table 5.
2. From your list of variables in Table 5, select three to test. Form a hypothesis for why each affects seed
germination.
3. To germinate the beans, place one folded paper towel, moistened but not soaking wet, into the 5 by 8 in.
bag. Place 10 beans in a horizontal line on the paper towel.
4. Use a different prepared bag for each variable tested. Label each bag with the variable being tested.
5. Hang each bag using masking tape in the environment you select.
6. Create a table for your data, including title, units, and any other useful information.
7. Select the appropriate type of graph, and report the data you collected.
8. Write a lab report for this experiment.
48
Table 5: Experiment 1 Variables
Variable:
49
Include Your Lab Report Here:
50
Lab 2
Cell Structure and Function
Concepts to Explore
• Cell Theory • Eukaryotic Intracellular Functions

• Types of Cells • Prokaryotes
• Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Similarities • Prokaryotic Intracellular Functions
• Eukaryotes
Introduction
A cell is the fundamental unit of life. All living organisms originate from a single cell. Some remain as a single
cell, while others grow and divide to form a multi-cellular organism (like you). Though most cells are difficult to
see with the naked eye, cytologists have successfully identified many of their features using the microscope.
These features range from the fundamental characteristics of the outer membranes, to the internal structures
such as the nucleus and mitochondria. This information provided the foundation for much of modern biology,
and formed the basis of Cell Theory.
Cell Theory states:
• All living things are made of cell(s). ? Did You Know...

• All cells are generated from previous cells. Cytologists are scientists
who study cells. The study
• All cells pass on genetic information. of the cell is known as cy-
• Energy metabolism occurs inside cells. tology.
• The chemical make-up of all cells is similar.
Functional Requirements of Life

The functional requirements of life are similar to the content presented in Cell Theory. In essence, these re-
quirements state that all living organisms (unicellular or multicellular) must perform the following functions:
1. Movement: Can change position or shape.
2. Responsiveness: Can sense internal or external changes; and, react to these changes.
3. Respiration/Metabolism: Produces energy through cellular chemical reactions
4. Reproduction: Able to produce offspring.
5. Excretion: Can remove waste produced by metabolic activities.
53
Types of Cells: Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
Although all organisms are made up of one or more cells, not all cells are identical. Prokaryotes and eukary-
otes are two structurally different types of cells. Prokaryotes are the most ancient and basic organisms, and
span the taxonomic classes of bacteria and archaea. They lack a membrane-bound nucleus and membrane
bound organelles (specialized structures). The term prokaryote comes from the Latin words “pro” (before)
and “karyote” (nucleus).
Eukaryotes are much more complex organisms with two characteristics that set them apart from prokary-
otes: a defined nucleus, and membrane-bound organelles. The term “eukaryote” comes from the Latin words
“eu” (true) and “karyote” (nucleus). Fungi, plant and animal cells are all examples of eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Similarities

While the overall structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differs,
G C
there are several structures which are commonly found in all cells. For
example, all cells have deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), cytoplasm, a cell
membrane, and ribosomes.
A T
DNA contains all the genetic information for the cell. It is made up of
two long chains of nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of a base, a G C
five carbon sugar molecule, and at least one phosphate group. Ade-
nine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine are the four different types of nu-
A
cleotides. These nucleotides bind together and ultimately form a dou- T
ble helix structure. The double helix is often compared to a long, twist- Figure 1: The hydrogen bonds formed
ed ladder due to the hydrogen bonds which extend across the two between adenine and thymine and
stands of DNA. DNA is often found as a DNA-protein complex known cytosine and guanine contribute to
as chromatin. Chromatin condenses during the cell division cycle to the double-helix structure of DNA
form chromosomes.
Although prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus, they do have DNA. Circular, prokaryotic DNA exists freely
within the cytoplasm, in an area known as the nucleoid region.
Cytoplasm is a fluid-like substance which exists in all cells. The cytoplasm is made up cytosol, a water
based solution containing small molecules, such as proteins and sugars. Because of the abundance of small
molecules and particles, the cytoplasm is not as much a liquid as it is a gel. It is in the cytoplasm that all of
the everyday cellular functions are carried out including cellular replication and growth. Within the cytoplasm
of eukaryotic cells, a number of membrane-bound organelles exist to provide specific functions within the cell.
Prokaryotes do not have these specialized bodies to compartmentalize the intracellular functions.
54
There are also many biomolecules, such as ribosomes, that are suspended within the cytoplasm. Ribo-
somes are particles made up of RNA and proteins and are roughly 20 nm (typical prokaryotic length) to 30 nm
(typical eukaryotic length) in diameter. These particles are the site for the complex process of protein synthe-
sis in all cells.
The cytoplasm is surrounded by a cell membrane. The cell

membrane provides structural support and strength. It also pro-
tects the cell and the cellular content from the external environ-
ment. It acts as a selective gateway which regulates the flow of
atoms and molecules in and out of the cell. Cell membranes are
often referred to as a phospholipid bilayer, as it is composed of
two layers of phosphate-containing lipids with proteins floating
between these layers. This forms through the process of “self
assembly” by which the hydrophobic tails of phospholipid mole-
cules secure an inward position within the membrane. This pre-
vents it from contacting water on a normal basis. Conversely,
the hydrophilic heads of the phospholipids are positioned out-
ward and are in contact with water. The proteins in the structure
are responsible for carrying out the majority of the functions spe- Figure 2: Diffusion through a phospholipid
bilayer (cell membrane).
cific to the membrane and imparts the selectivity to certain ma-
terials that can pass through the membrane.
Many cells within the prokaryotic and eukaryotic families also have cell walls outside the cell membrane that
help to protect them and provide strength and support; although, animal cells and protozoa do not have cell
walls. Unlike the cell membrane, the cell wall is not selective and does not allow materials to pass through
easily. Prokaryotic cells have a thick, rigid cell wall composed of amino acids and sugars (peptidoglycan), but
the cell wall composition within eukaryotes varies. For example, fungi cell walls include a polysaccharide
called chitin while plants exhibit cell walls with the polysaccharide cellulose.
Prokaryotes and eukaryotes must also regulate nutrients and wastes, and require a supply of energy to exist.
Metabolic activities such as photosynthesis and respiration can be carried out by both cell types. However,
photosynthetic activity initiates in the chloroplasts in eukaryotes, while it occurs in the thylakoid in prokary-
otes. The thylakoid is an extension of the plasma membrane that contains photosynthetic pigments.
55
Eukaryotic Characteristics
Eukaryotic cells are more complex than prokaryotic cells and typically contain more structural components.
Within each eukaryotic cell, there is a network of membrane-bound organelles. Essentially, these organelles
function as “mini” organs within the cell. Each organelle fulfills a unique function, but they must all work to-
gether to maintain homeostasis within the cell.
The nucleus is often referred to as the control center of the cell. The nucleus is surrounded by a double
membrane system, called the nuclear envelope. This structure contains many nuclear pores that facilitate
communication between the nucleus and other cellular structures. Also within the nucleus is a smaller, dense
structure called the nucleolus, made up of RNA and proteins. This structure functions to create the riboso-
mal RNA (rRNA) and assemble the ribosomes needed within the cell. The exact size of this structure is de-
pendent upon the necessary amount of ribosomes. If there is a greater need for ribosomes within the cell,
the nucleolus is typically larger, and if a small number is needed, the nucleolus stays much smaller.
Nucleus
Golgi Apparatus
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Lysosomes Mitochondria
Figure 3: Major structures within the eukaryotic cell.
While most eukaryotic DNA is housed within the nucleus, mitochondrial DNA is located in a cell organelle
called the mitochondria. Mitochondria are located in the cytoplasm, and are often considered the power-
house of the cell. This small, elongated structure is the site for cellular respiration in which nearly all of the
energy of the cell is produced when oxygen is present. Mitochondrial DNA contains genes which aid in ener-
gy production. Mitochondria are housed within a double membrane structure. The outer membrane serves to
hold and protect the cell while the inner membrane, called the cristae, contains multiple folds that allow for a
56
greater surface area. The increased surface area allows for more efficient production of energy. There is al-
ways at least one mitochondrion in eukaryotic cells. However, some cells that need a great amount of ener-
gy, such as muscle cells, may contain thousands.
Within the entire network of the cell lies the cytomembrane system composed of the endoplasmic reticulum,
golgi body and many vesicles. This system is responsible for the production of lipids and proteins.
The cytomembrane system begins in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) which, in animal cells, is connected
directly to the outer layer of the nuclear envelope. The ER is divided into two components, the rough ER and
the smooth ER. The rough ER is composed of flattened sac-like structures with attached ribosomes and
functions in protein synthesis and protein transportation to the golgi body. The term “rough ER” is derived
from this rough appearance. The surface appears bumpy or rough due to the ribosomes which are attached
to it. The smooth ER is also composed of flattened sac-like structures, and is devoid of ribosomes. Thus, the
smooth ER appears smooth under a microscope. The smooth ER functions to create many of the lipids of the
cell and also functions in detoxification of destructive chemicals that may pass throughout the cell.
Figure 4: Eukaryotic cell diagram. 57

The next step in the cytomembrane system is the golgi body, also called the golgi apparatus. This structure
is composed of flattened sac-like structures stacked on top of each other. The proteins and lipids created in
the ER are transferred to the golgi body where they are modified, packed and then shipped out to specified
locations both within and outside of the cell.
After the proteins and lipids are modified and packed in the golgi
body, they are then transported in vesicles. One type of vesicle,
called the secretory vesicle, is composed of a sac freed or
pinched off of the golgi body. Secretory vesicles transport pro-
teins and lipids to the plasma membrane so they can be re-
leased or secreted from the cell.
Another type of vesicle, the lysosome, is also released off the

golgi body. These vesicles contains enzymes that are used in
the digestion of cellular components. They can digest proteins,
lipids, carbohydrates, cell parts and even an entire cell.
Another membrane bound vesicle is the peroxisome. This vesi-

cle is responsible for lipid and amino acid break down, as well as
the break down of hydrogen peroxide, a byproduct of certain cel-
lular reactions, which is highly toxic to the cell. When drinking
alcohol, peroxisomes also function to break down almost half of
Figure 5: Eukaryotic cell diagram.
all that was consumed.
The cytoskeleton is a network of interconnected fibers within the cell that provides shape, internal organiza-
tion, and the ability for a cell to move. Microtubules are a part of the cytoskeleton of a cell. These hollow
cylinders are composed of tubulin protein and have a diameter of about 25 nm. Microtubules are key in cellu-
lar structure, providing support in the cytoplasm. They are also very important in cellular division as they
form the centrioles and spindle fibers necessary for the cells to divide. Microtubules can also function in
the movement of the cell by combining to form flagella and cilia. Flagella are long, cylindrical protrusions on
the outside of a cell. They provide mobility through a whip-like rotation. Cilia are much smaller, hair-like and
typically more abundant than flagella. The cilia beat together to either allow the cell to move or to cause
movement of extracellular fluid.
The side kick to the microtubules are the microfilaments, also known as actin filaments. Microfilaments are
much smaller and thinner than their microtubule counterpart, but are widely abundant throughout the cell.
They are made of the protein actin and are typically no larger than 8 nm (Remember: 1 nanometer (nm) = 1
58
x 10-9 meter) in diameter. These cellular components are also responsible for cellular structure within the cy-
toplasm along with cellular movement. Another support component within the cytoplasm is the intermediate
filaments. These filaments are about 10 nm in diameter and provide additional strength to the cytoplasm of
the cell. There are many cellular components that work together to facilitate all the responsibilities of a cell.
Each individual component works to perform its specific function so that the cell, as a whole, can perform the
major functions required of it.
Quick Reference: Eukaryotic Organelles

• Nucleus: Houses the genetic content (DNA) of the cell.
• Nuclear Envelope: An outer membrane that surrounds the nucleus.
• Nuclear Pores: Holes in the nuclear envelope that permit communication between the internal nucle-
ar environment and the cytoplasm.
• Nucleolus (plural: nucleoli): A part of the nucleus that is made of RNA, protein and chromatin; and,
manufactures rRNA and ribosomes.
• Ribosomes: Ribosomes are large molecules found in all living cells. Ribosomes the site of protein
synthesis. A strand of mRNA docks onto a ribosome. The correct amino acids are then recruited to
the ribosome to create a protein.
• Mitochondrion (plural: mitochondria): The “power plant” of the cell. They are a membrane bound
organelle (inner and outer membrane) with their own circular DNA, and make ATP (energy) for the
rest of the cell.
• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): A series of membranes extending throughout the cytoplasm that can
be peppered with ribosomes (rough ER) or not (smooth ER). The rough ER functions in protein syn-
thesis while the smooth ER functions in lipid synthesis.
• Golgi Apparatus (also called the Golgi Body): A series of flattened sac-like bodies that processes
the cell’s proteins and lipids before they are released to their final destination.
• Peroxisomes: Contain enzymes that help the cell destroy toxins.
• Lysosomes: Enzyme-filled vesicles found within the cell that aid in intracellular digestion.
• Cytoskeleton: The cell “skeleton” found in all eukaryotic cells that provides shape to the cell while
also enabling it to move.
• Vacuole: A fluid-filled organelle that helps isolate its contents from the cytoplasm.
59
Prokaryotic Characteristics
Prokaryotic cells often possess flagella. As mentioned earlier,
flagella are long, cylindrical protrusions on the outside of a cell
that provide mobility through a whip-like rotation. For example,
E. coli bacteria rotate their flagellum in a clockwise direction to
swim through their environment.
Some prokaryotic cells will also have a glycocalyx which is a

slime-coating used to protect the cell and enable it to attach to
surfaces (such as teeth, lungs, or even artificial joints).
Many prokaryotic bacteria cells also posses pili, small hair-like

structures on the outer surface of many types of bacteria that
provide the ability to adhere to hosts and other bacteria as well
as the ability to transmit genetic information. Bacterial cells that
posses sex pili have the ability to transmit genetic information
with other cells. This may result in the transmission of genes
that provide antibacterial (antibiotic) resistance.
Figure 6: Prokaryotic cell diagram showing
some of the major structures. Can you identi-
fy any of the structures?
1
6
1 - Mesosome. Folds in the plasma membrane

which increase the surface area and aid in res-
piration. Only present in some prokaryotes.
2 - Nucleoid. Contains a circular loop of DNA
with a small amount of RNA and proteins.
5 3 - Ribosomes. Small, dense structure involved

in protein formation.
4 - Plasma Membrane. Semi-permeable layer
2 which provides structural support and regulates
what enters and exits the cell.
5 - Cytoplasm. Fluid bound by the plasma mem-
brane. Environment for most cellular activity.
6 - Cell Wall. Tough outer layer which provides
strength, support, protection, and filtration.
4
3
60 Figure 7: Prokaryotic cell diagram.
Table 1: Structural Variations Between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Structure Present in Prokaryotic Cell? Present in Eukaryotic Cell?
Nucleus No Yes
Plasma Membrane Yes Yes
Cell Wall Yes Yes (in most cells)
Cytoplasm Yes Yes
Flagella Occasionally Occasionally
Pili Occasionally No
Cilia No Occasionally
Glycocalyx Occasionally Occasionally
Cytoskeleton No Yes
Endoplasmic Reticulum No Yes
Mitochondria No Yes
Golgi Apparatus No Yes
Chloroplast No In plants and other photosynthetic

organisms
Ribosome Yes Yes
Lysosome No Yes
Peroxisome No Yes
Vacuole and Vesicle Occasionally Yes (in most cells)
Pre-Lab Questions
1. Identify the major similarities and differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
2. Where is the DNA housed in a prokaryotic cell? Where is it housed in a eukaryotic cell?
3. Identify three structures which provide support and protection in a eukaryotic cell.
61
Experiment 1: Cell Structure and Function
The structure of a cell dictates the majority of its function. You will view a selection of slides that exhibit
unique structures that contribute to tissues function.
Materials
Onion (allium) Root Digital Slide Images
Procedure
1. Examine the onion root tip digital slide images on the following pages. Then, respond to the Post-Lab
Questions.
Onion Root Tip: 100X
62
Onion Root Tip: 100X. Each dark circle indicates a different nucleus.
Cell wall
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Chromosomes
Onion Root Tip: 1000X 63

Cytoplasm
Chromosomes
Chromosomes
Cell wall
Nucleus
Cell wall Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Chromosomes
64 Onion Root Tip: 1000X

Post-Lab Questions
1. Label each of the arrows in the following slide images:
A
2. What is the difference between the rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
3. Would an animal cell be able to survive without a mitochondria? Why or why not?
4. What is the function of a lysosome?
65
Experiment 2: Exploring Cell Size
Have you ever wondered why cells don’t grow past a certain size? There is a size limit for cells that they can
not surpass. Once they reach this value, cells divide and form two smaller, daughter cells. Why do they do
that? You will look at the importance of cell size in this experiment to help you understand.
Materials
(1) 125 mL Nutrient Agar Bottle Rectangular Mold

10 mL Bromothymol Blue Ruler
2 mL Saturated (15%) Sodium Bicarbonate Solu- *Kitchen Knife
tion, NaHCO3
*Microwave
Plastic Wrap
*Hot Pad or Towel
3 Pipettes
Acetic Acid (Vinegar), CH3COOH
*You must provide
(1) 250 mL Beaker
Note: This experiment requires preparation 24 hours in advance.
Procedure
Part 1: Agar Preparation
1. Remove or loosen the cap on the agar bottle and place it in the microwave.
2. Heat the bottle in 10 second increments for approximately one to two minutes. While in the microwave,
watch the solution for boil-over. Agar solutions can get very hot very quickly, so be certain to watch the
bottle at all times. If it begins to boil-over, immediately stop the microwave, and allow the agar to cool
down before proceeding.
3. After heating for approximately one minute, check on your agar bottle. To do this, remove the bottle with
a hot pad, screw the lid back onto the bottle, and swirl the solution. If the solution is not completely lique-
fied, remove the lid and place the agar bottle back into the microwave for 10 second intervals, swirling in
between, until it is completely liquefied.
4. After the agar is liquefied, let the solution sit for one minute to cool down.
5. Once the agar solution has cooled slightly, measure 40 mL into the 250 mL beaker.
6. Add 10 mL of the bromothymol blue solution to the liquefied agar in the beaker.
66
7. Add two mL sodium bicarbonate solution to the beaker solution. Pipette the solution up and down to mix.
This will tint the mixture and create a pH change.
8. Once the solution is mixed, pour the solution into the rectangular mold. Cover the mold with plastic wrap.
9. Let the mold sit at room temperature for 24 hours to give the agar time to set.
Note: After the 24 hours, the liquid agar should have firmed up to a Jello®-like consistency.
Part 2: Assessing Cell Size
1. Put on safety gloves, safety glasses, and an apron. Check to be sure the agar has solidified. If it has not,
let it sit for another 12 hours.
2. Invert the rectangular mold, and gently allow the agar block fall onto the underpad.
3. From this block, safely cut out a 1.0 cm x 1.0 cm x 6.0 cm block.
Note: It is helpful to measure the 6.0 cm side of the block first.
4. From the remaining agar, safely cut out a 1.0 cm x 1.0 cm x 1.0 cm cube. Set the block aside.
5. From the remaining agar, safely cut out a 1.0 cm x 2.0 cm x 2.0 cm cube. Set this block with the others.
6. Once all three blocks have been cut, dispose of the scraps of remaining agar. Do not dispose of the
blocks you just cut.
7. Use a ruler to calculate the surface area, volume, and surface area to volume ratio for each block. Refer
to the example calculations provided after the procedure for help. Record the calculations in Table 2.
8. Fill the 250 mL beaker with 150 mL of vinegar. Gently place all three blocks into the vinegar solution.
9. Let the blocks rest in the vinegar for seven minutes. Observe as the blocks begin to change color (from
blue to clear). Record how long it takes for each block to completely change colors (from blue to clear).
Note, use any of the blocks that do not experience total diffusion to measure the distance of diffusion in
Step 11.
10. After seven minutes, remove the blocks from the vinegar solution. Pour the remaining vinegar solution
down the drain.
11. Gently blot the blocks dry and then safely cut them in half. For each block, measure the distance the vine-
gar diffused into the gelatin cube, as detected by the color change. Do this by measuring from the outer
edge of the block to the blue rim inside the cube. Record that value in Table 2.
67
Sample Calculations (refer to these examples to complete Table 2)
Surface Area can be calculated with the following equation: Length x Width = Area. To find the surface
area of a cube, calculate the area of one side and multiply that by the total number of sides.
Problem:
If an equilateral cube is structured so that every side is 3 cm. long, what is the total surface area?
Given:
Length = 3 cm
Width = 3 cm
9 cm2 per side
Total Number of Sides = 6
Solution:
1. Solve for the area of each individual side:
Length x Width = 3 cm x 3 cm = 9 cm2
2. Multiply the area of one side by the total number of sides in the shape.
6 sides x 9 cm2 = 54 cm2
Note: If the 3D structure you are measuring does not contain equilateral dimensions, you must determine
the surface area of each side and add them up individually.
Volume can be calculated with the following equation: Length x Width x Height = Volume.
Problem: Suppose you are working with the same cube as above. What is the total volume?
Given:
Length = 3 cm
Width = 3 cm
Height = 3 cm
Solution:
1. Plug your variables into the equation to solve for volume:
3 cm x 3 cm x 3 cm = 27 cm3
Note: To determine surface area to volume ratio, divide the surface area by the volume.
68
Table 2: Results from Surface Area to Volume Experiment
Block Dimensions Surface Area (cm2) Volume (cm3) Time Required for Complete Distance of
Color Change Diffusion
1 cm x 1 cm x 1 cm
1 cm x 2 cm x 2 cm
1 cm x 1 cm x 6 cm
Post-Lab Questions
1. How did the surface area effect the diffusion of the block? What about the volume? What about the sur-
face area to volume ratio? Which of these had the greatest affect on the diffusion of the block?
2. How does this experiment demonstrate the need for larger cells to divide?
3. Determine the surface area, volume, and surface area to volume ratio for the following three blocks. Then,
circle the one you believe would be the most efficient as a cellular morphology, and write a summary stat-
ing why.
1.5 cm x 1.5 cm x 1.5 cm
0.5 cm x 0.5 cm x 6.0 cm
3.0 cm x 2.0 cm x 2.0 cm
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Lab 3
Mitosis and Meiosis
Mitosis and Meiosis
Concepts to Explore
• Genes • Centromere
• Alleles • Plant vs. Animal Mitosis
• Homologous Chromosomes • Meiosis
• Parent vs. Daughter Cells • Gametes
• Ploidy • Independent Assortment
• Cell Cycle Division • Crossing Over
• Sister Chromatids • Mutations
• Chromatin
Introduction
All of a cell’s hereditary information is encoded by the genome.
The genome contains the genes that direct the formation of all
the proteins the cell needs to survive. In prokaryotes, the ge-
nome consists of the bacterial chromosome(s) and plasmids. In
eukaryotes, the genome is encoded by chromatin, which con-
denses into chromosomes during cell division. Genes are
stretches of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that encode ribonu-
cleic acid (RNA) and polypeptide (protein) products. They are
often described as units of heredity. Genes have specific loci
(locations) on the DNA strand and code for inheritable traits
(such as hair color). The human genome is comprised of 23
pairs of chromosomes. Homologous chromosomes carry the
same genes but often different versions, or, alleles. Alleles are
alternative forms of the same gene (e.g., brown vs. blue eyes).
Figure 1: Mitosis is only one
Somatic cells (e.g., bone, heart, skin, liver) contain two alleles
stage of the cell cycle.
(2n) for each gene. One allele is supplied by the sperm, and
the second is supplied by the egg.
As previously discussed (in Lab 2: Cell Structure and Function) DNA is a double-stranded molecule, con-
structed from repeating units of a phosphate, a sugar (deoxyribose), and one of four possible nitrogenous ba-
ses - adenine, thymine, cytosine, or guanine. Units which incorporates these three structures are called nu-
cleotides. Hydrogen bonds between complementary nucleotides (adenine and thymine [A-T] and cytosine to
guanine [C-G]) hold DNA strands together. If the DNA from a single human cell was uncoiled and stretched
73
Mitosis and Meiosis
out, it would be over two meters long. As a result, DNA is found as tightly packed chromosomes during cell
division; and, as a slightly more relaxed form, chromatin, during the rest of the cell cycle.
Different species may have a different number of chromosomes, as well as a different number of copies of
each chromosome. Species with more than two copies of each chromosome are considered polyploidy. For
example, somatic human cells have two copies (diploid) of 23 chromosomes, resulting in 46 chromosomes
per cell. On the contrary, somatic kiwifruit cells have six copies (hexaploidy) of 29 chromosomes, resulting in
174 chromosomes per cell.
Almost all somatic, mammalian cells have two complete sets of chromosomes. One set originates from the
mother and one set originates from the father, resulting in pairs of homologous chromosomes. This means
that they are 2n; or, diploid. Cell cycle division generates two new diploid daughter cells from one original
parent cell. Each new daughter cell contains two complete sets of chromosomes. The cellular content is iden-
tical to the parent cell as long as no mutations or errors occur during cell cycle division.
Cell Cycle Division

Cell cycle division is divided into three phases: interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis. These phases are fur-
ther broken down into individual stages. These stages are identified as:
Interphase; Stage:
• Gap 1 (G1): The first stage of interphase; or, the first growth phase.
• S: DNA synthesis. The second stage of interphase.
• Gap 2 (G2): The third stage of interphase; or, the second growth stage.
Mitosis; Stage:
• Prophase
• Metaphase
• Anaphase
• Telophase
Cytokinesis:
• There are no further subdivided stages within cytokinesis.
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Mitosis and Meiosis
A cell normally completes the cycle in 18 - 24 hours. Mitosis only occupies one to two hours of that period.
Each stage is regulated by specialized proteins, such as cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) that
coordinate the division and cell growth. Certain types of cancer are associated with the failure of these pro-
teins.
During interphase, the cell prepares for mitosis and cytokinesis by growing larger in size, duplicating its in-
ternal organelles (G1), replicating its DNA (S) and preparing for cell division (G2). You can easily remember
the activity which occurs during the S phase because it is when new DNA is synthesized (synthesized
starts with s). When the full set of DNA is replicated, two identical copies of each chromosome exist in the
parent cell. These identical copies pair up and are referred to as sister chromatids. Sister chromatids ex-
ist as loose strands of genetic content called known as chromatin during interphase. These structures
don’t condense into chromosomes until mitosis. To form a chromosome, two sister chromatids are joined
together as a four-arm structure by a centromere (see prophase stage below). Chromosomes also incor-
porate a variety of proteins, such as histones, which tightly package the DNA.
After the DNA is fully replicated, the cell engages in “proofreading” and additional protein production (G2).
In this process, proteins involved in DNA replication (such as DNA polymerase) review the replicated con-
tent and correct any errors which may have been made during replication. G1 and G2 are also responsibly
for initiating a variety of checkpoints which verify that the size and environmental growth factors are suffi-
cient prior to entering mitotic division.
Mitosis follows interphase. It is during mitosis that sister chromatids segregate into two daughter cells. The
four stages of mitosis are described below:
Mitosis (Figure 2):

• Prophase: DNA condenses into chromosomes. Centromeres attach themselves to coiled
(condensed) sister chromatids to hold their structure together. The nuclear envelope of the par-
ent cell breaks down. Pairs of centrioles, which serve as cellular anchors during division, appear
at the mitotic spindle, located at the cellular poles at separate sides of the cell.
• Metaphase: Sister chromatids migrate towards the metaphase plate. Microtubules (long
strands) grow from the centrioles and link together while attaching to each pair of sister chroma-
tids. Microtubules attach to the centromeres and also to other microtubules from opposite poles.
The orientation of each pair of sister chromatids is independent from all other pairs. This means
they can “flip flop” as they line up, effectively shuffling their genetic information into new combi-
nations
• Anaphase: The microtubules attached to the centromeres shorten This causes the sister chro-
matids to separate and move toward opposite poles of the parent cell. At this point, each sister
chromatid is now an individual chromosome. Microtubules attached to other microtubules from
75
Mitosis and Meiosis
the opposite pole lengthen, effectively elongating the cell.
• Telophase: One set of chromosomes arrives at each pole. A new nuclear envelope begins to
form, chromosomes are uncoiled back into chromatin, and a new nucleus is formed at each end
of the cell.
Figure 2: Cell cycle division, including the stages of mitosis.
Cell cycle division concludes with cytokinesis. During animal cell cytokinesis, the plasma membrane of the
cell folds in and encloses around each nucleus, creating two, diploid daughter cells.
Mitosis is virtually identical in plant and animal cells, however, there is one small difference which occurs
during telophase. Plants, due to the presence of a cell wall, cannot “pinch” the cytoplasm into two daughter
cells. Instead, a new cell wall must be developed which will then separate the two cells, allowing them both
to be fully covered with a cell wall.
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Mitosis and Meiosis
Meiosis
Meiosis, also known as gametogenesis, only occurs in sexually reproducing organisms (plants and animals).
In humans, this process generates haploid (1n) cells called gametes. Male gametes are referred to as sperm
cells, while female gametes are referred to as egg cells. Gametes contain complete set of one of each chro-
mosome. Haploid gametes (one sperm and one egg) fuse during fertilization to form a diploid cell with two
copies of each chromosome (2n).
Meiosis is similar to mitosis, but involves a second round of cellular division. Therefore, the parent cell pro-
duces four daughter cells, each with a single set of chromosomes (1n). These two rounds of division are re-
ferred to as Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
Through meiosis I, a parent cell produces two haploid daughter cells. It is important to note that unlike mito-
sis, meiosis I creates haploid cells, rather than diploid. This is because homologous chromosomes pair up
and separate. That is, each daughter cell contains the sister chromatids from one of each of the parent cell’s
pair of homologous chromosomes.
Meiosis II provides a second round of cellular division during which the two haploid cells are further divided
and produce four haploid gamete cells. At this point, the sister chromatids separate and each gamete con-
tains one copy of each chromosome. For humans, each gamete contains one copy of each of the 23 chromo-
somes. A complete set of 46 chromosomes is created when a sperm and an egg cell fuse together.
Similar to mitosis, meiosis is preceded by a period of interphase during which the cell grows, cellular content
is replicated, and the DNA is proofread for accuracy. These actions prepare the cell for meiotic division.
Meiosis proceeds interphase. The stages of meiosis I and meiosis II are described below:
Meiosis I (Figure 3):

• Prophase I: DNA condenses into chromosomes. Centromeres attach themselves to coiled
(condensed) sister chromatids to hold their structure together. Homologous chromosomes pair up
and form a chiasma. Crossing over may occur at this point. This means that homologous chromo-
somes may exchange and recombine regions of DNA. Crossing over creates a unique genetic fin-
gerprint for the daughter cells, and is what contributes to the diversity seen in progeny.
Similar to mitotic prophase, the nuclear envelope of the parent cell breaks down. Pairs of centri-
oles, which serve as cellular anchors during division, appear at the mitotic spindle, located at the
cellular poles.
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Mitosis and Meiosis
• Metaphase I: Homologous chromosomes migrate towards the metaphase plate. Microtubules
grow from the centrioles and either link together or attach to each pair of homologous chromo-
somes at the centromeres. The orientation of each pair of sister chromatids is independent from all
other pairs. This means they can “flip flop” as they line up, effectively shuffling their genetic infor-
mation into new combinations, providing a second source of genetic variation.
• Anaphase I: Microtubules attached to chromosomes shorten, pulling homologous chromosomes

apart (sister chromatids remain paired) and moving them toward opposite poles. Microtubles at-
tached to other microtubules from opposite poles lengthen, effectively elongated the cell.
• Telophase I: One set of chromosomes arrives at each pole. A new nuclear envelope begins to
form, chromosomes are uncoiled back into chromatin, and a new nucleus is formed at each end of
the cell.
Meiosis II:
• Prophase II: Daughter cells produced during meiosis immediately enter into prophase II. New
spindle fibers form as the nucleus break down again. Chromosomes condense in the form of sister
chromosomes
• Metaphase II: Sister chromatids migrate towards the metaphase plate. As in metaphase I, micro-
tubules link together or attach to centromeres.
• Anaphase II: Sister chromatids are separated as microtubules pull them apart. The cell elongates
as microtubules attached to microtubules from opposite poles lengthen.
• Telophase II: 23 chromatids arrive at each pole, at which time a new nucleus forms around each.
Cytokinesis follows meiosis II. During this stage, the plasma membrane of the parent cell folds in and engulfs
each nucleus. The end of cytokinesis results in four gametes.
REMEMBER: Meiosis I produces two haploid (1n) cells. In humans, each hap-
loid cell contains 23 chromosomes in the form of two sister chromatids. These ?
Did You Know...
haploid cells then undergo meiosis II, which results in four haploid cells. Each
Mutations that are not
cell contains one chromatid from each of the 23 sister chromatid pairs. caught by the cell’s self-
check system can result in
chromosomal abnormali-
Meiotic division is complex and highly regulated. There are a series of check- ties like Down’s syndrome,
points that a cell must pass before the next stage of division will begin. When in which there are three
these checkpoints function properly, mutations and errors are identified and copies of chromosome 21.
repaired.
78
Mitosis and Meiosis
One mutation of particular concern is when the amount of genetic material existing in a cell changes. It is criti-
cal that a gamete contains only one copy of each chromosome found in a parent cell.
Figure 3: Stages of Meiosis I and II.
Definitions
Alleles – Alternate forms of the same gene.
Centriole – An organelle that forms the microtubules which separate chromosomes during cell divi-
sion.
Centromere – The region of the chromosome where chromatids are held together. This forms the ki-
netochore. This is also where microtubules attach during cell division.
79
Mitosis and Meiosis
Chiasma – The point where crossovers occur.
Chromatids – One of two identical chromosomes (often called “sister chromatids”).
Chromosome – A threadlike structure consisting of chromatin that contains a long, continuous strand
of DNA and its associated proteins.
Crossing Over – The process, during meiosis I, by which two, paired homologous chromosomes are
paired and exchange regions of DNA.
Cytokinesis – The final step of the cell cycle where the cell splits to produce two daughter cells.
Diploid – Cells that have two copies (2n) of each chromosome.
Haploid – Cells that have one copy (1n) of each chromosome.
Gamete – A cell containing a single copy of each chromosome (egg cells and sperm cells).
Gene – A sequence of DNA that codes for a specific detectable product such as a protein or RNA.
Genetic Variation – The diversity in the DNA found in otherwise similar organisms.
Homologous Chromosome – Chromosomes that contain the same genes, but potentially different
alleles.
Locus – The exact position of a gene on a chromosome.
Meiosis – The stage of the cell cycle when the nucleus is divided into daughter cells (gametes: sperm
cells and egg cells) with a reduced number of chromosomes (from diploid to haploid).
Microtubules – Long polymer strands of protein that separate chromosomes during cell division.
80
Mitosis and Meiosis
Ploidy – The number (n) of copies of each chromosome contained in a cell (usually 1n or 2n in ani-
mals).
Tetrad – Four homologous chromosomes, two of each pair of sister chromatids, that line up during
prophase I in meiosis.
Pre-Lab Questions
1. What are chromosomes made of?
2. Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis.
3. Research the differences that exist in mitosis in plant versus animal cells.
4. Cancer is a disease related to uncontrolled cell division. Investigate two known causes for these rapidly
dividing cells and use this knowledge to invent a drug that would inhibit the growth of cancer cells.
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Mitosis and Meiosis
Experiment 1: Observation of Mitosis in a Plant Cell
In this experiment, we will look at the different stage of mitosis in an onion cell. Remember that mitosis only
occupies one to two hours while interphase can take anywhere from 18 - 24 hours. Using this information and
the data from your experiment, you can estimate the percentage of cells in each stage of the cell cycle.
Materials
Onion (allium) Root Tip Digital Slide Images
Procedure
1. The length of the cell cycle in the onion root tip is about 24 hours. Predict how many hours of the 24 hour
cell cycle you think each step takes. Record your predictions, along with supporting evidence, in Table 1.
2. Examine the onion root tip slide images on the following pages. There are four images, each displaying a
different field of view. Pick one of the images, and count the number of cells in each stage. Then count
the total number of cells in the image. Record the image you selected and your counts in Table 2.
3. Calculate the time spent by a cell in each stage based on the 24 hour cycle:
Hours of Stage = 24 x Number of Cells in Stage

Total Number of Cells Counted
4. Locate the region just above the root cap tip.

5. Locate a good example of a cell in each of the following stages: interphase, prophase, metaphase, ana-
phase, and telophase.
6. Draw the dividing cell in the appropriate area for each stage of the cell cycle, exactly as it appears. In-
clude your drawings in Table 3.
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Mitosis and Meiosis
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Chromosomes
Cell wall
Onion Root Tip: 100X 83

Mitosis and Meiosis
84 Onion Root Tip: 100X

Mitosis and Meiosis
Table 1: Mitosis Predictions
Predictions:
Supporting Evidence:
Table 2: Mitosis Data
Number of Cells in Each Stage Total Number of Cells Calculated % of Time Spent in Each Stage
Interphase: Interphase:
Prophase: Prophase:
Metaphase: Metaphase:
Anaphase: Anaphase:
Telophase: Telophase:
Cytokinesis: Cytokinesis:
Table 3: Stage Drawings
Cell Stage: Drawing:
Interphase:
Prophase:
Metaphase:
Anaphase:
Telophase:
Cytokinesis:
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Mitosis and Meiosis
Post-Lab Questions
1. Label the arrows in the slide image below with the appropriate stage of the cell cycle.
A C
B
86
Mitosis and Meiosis
2. What stage were most of the onion root tip cells in? Does this make sense?
3. As a cell grows, what happens to its surface area : volume ratio? (Hint: Think of a balloon being blown
up). How does this ratio change with respect to cell division?
4. What is the function of mitosis in a cell that is about to divide?
5. What would happen if mitosis were uncontrolled?
6. How accurate were your time predication for each stage of the cell cycle?
7. Discuss one observation that you found interesting while looking at the onion root tip cells.
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Mitosis and Meiosis
Experiment 2: Following Chromosomal DNA Movement through Mitosis
Although mitosis and meiosis share similarities, they are different processes and create very different results.
In this experiment, you will follow the movement of the chromosomes through mitosis to create somatic
daughter cells.
Materials
2 Sets of Different Colored Pop-it® Beads (32 of

each - these may be any color)
4 5-Holed Pop-it® Beads (used as centromeres)
Procedure
Mitosis
Genetic content is replicated during interphase. DNA exists as loose molecular strands called chromatin; it
has not condensed to form chromosomes yet.
Sister chromatids begin coiling into chromosomes during prophase. Begin your experiment here:
1. Build a pair of replicated, homologous chromosomes. 10 beads should be used to create each individual
sister chromatid (20 beads per chromosome pair). The five-holed
bead represents the centromere. To do this...
a. For example, suppose you start with 20 red beads to cre-
ate your first sister chromatid pair. Five beads must be
snapped together for each of the four different strands.
Two strands create the first chromatid, and two strands
create the second chromatid.
b. Place the five-holed bead flat on a work surface with the
node positioned up. Then, snap each of the four strands
into the bead to create an “X” shaped pair of sister chro-
mosomes. Figure 4: Bead set-up. The blue beads
represent one pair of sister chromatids
c. Repeat this process using 20 new beads (of a different
and the red beads represent a second
color) to create the second sister chromatid pair. See Fig- pair of sister chromatids.
ure 4 for reference.
2. Assemble a second pair of replicated sister chromatids; this time using 12 beads, instead of 20, per pair
(six beads per each complete sister chromatid strand). Snap each of the four pieces into a new five-holed
bead to complete the set up.
88
Mitosis and Meiosis
3. Repeat this process using 12 new beads (of a different color)
to create the second set of sister chromatids. See Figure 5 for
reference.
4. Configure the chromosomes as they would appear in each of
the stages of the cell cycle (prophase, metaphase, anaphase,
telophase, and cytokinesis). Diagram the images for each
stage in the section titled “Cell Cycle Division: Mitosis Beads
Diagram”. Be sure to indicate the number of chromosomes
present in each cell for each phase.
Cell Cycle Division: Mitosis Beads Diagram:

Prophase Figure 5: Second set of replicated chromo-
somes.
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Cytokinesis
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Mitosis and Meiosis
Experiment 3: Following Chromosomal DNA Movement through Meiosis
In this experiment, you will follow the movement of the chromosomes through meiosis I and II to create gam-
etes.
Materials
2 Sets of Different Colored Pop-it® Beads (32 of

each - these may be any color)
4 5-Holed Pop-it® Beads (used as centromeres)
Procedure
Trial 1
As prophase I begins, the replicated chromosomes coil and condense\

sister chromatid (20 beads per chromosome pair). The five-holed bead represents the centromere. To do
this...
a. For example, suppose you start with 20 red beads to create your first sister chromatid pair. Five
beads must be snapped together for each of the four different strands. Two strands create the first
chromatid, and two strands create the second chromatid.
b. Place the five-holed bead flat on a work surface with the node positioned up. Then, snap each of
the four strands into the bead to create an “X” shaped pair of sister chromosomes.
c. Repeat this process using 20 new beads (of a different color) to create the second sister chromatid
pair. See Figure 4 (located in Experiment 2) for reference.
bead to complete the set up. See Figure 5 (located in Experiment 2) for reference.
3. Pair up the homologous chromosome pairs created in Step 1 and 2. DO NOT SIMULATE CROSSING
OVER IN THIS TRIAL. You will simulate crossing over in Trial 2.
5. Configure the chromosomes as they would appear in each of the stages of meiotic division (prophase I
and II, metaphase I and II, anaphase I and II, telophase I and II, and cytokinesis).
6. Diagram the corresponding images for each stage in the sections titled “Trial 1 - Meiotic Division Beads
Diagram”. Be sure to indicate the number of chromosomes present in each cell for each phase.
7. Disassemble the beads used in Trial 1. You will need to recycle these beads for a second meiosis trial in
Steps 7 - 11.
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Mitosis and Meiosis
Trial 1 - Meiotic Division Beads Diagram
Prophase I
Metaphase I
Anaphase I
Telophase I
Prophase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II
Cytokinesis
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Mitosis and Meiosis
Trial 2
sister chromatid (20 beads per chromosome pair). The five-holed bead represents the centromere. To do
this...
a. For example, suppose you start with 20 red beads to create your first sister chromatid pair. Five
beads must be snapped together for each of the four different strands. Two strands create the first
chromatid, and two strands create the second chromatid.
b. Place the five-holed bead flat on a work surface with the node positioned up. Then, snap each of
the four strands into the bead to create an “X” shaped pair of sister chromosomes.
c. Repeat this process using 20 new beads (of a different color) to create the second sister chroma-
tid pair. See Figure 4 (located in Experiment 2) for reference.
bead to complete the set up. See Figure 5 (located in Experiment 2) for reference.
10. Pair up the homologous chromosomes created in Step 8 and 9.
11. SIMULATE CROSSING OVER. To do this, bring the two homologous pairs of sister chromatids together
(creating the chiasma) and exchange an equal number of beads between the two. This will result in chro-
matids of the same original length, there will now be new combinations of chromatid colors.
12. Configure the chromosomes as they would appear in each of the stages of meiotic division (prophase I
and II, metaphase I and II, anaphase I and II, telophase I and II, and cytokinesis).
13. Diagram the corresponding images for each stage in the section titled “Trial 2 - Meiotic Division Beads
Diagram”. Be sure to indicate the number of chromosomes present in each cell for each phase. Also, in-
dicate how the crossing over affected the genetic content in the gametes from Trial 1 versus Trial 2.
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Mitosis and Meiosis
Trial 2 - Meiotic Division Beads Diagram:
Prophase I
Metaphase I
Anaphase I
Telophase I
Prophase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II
Cytokinesis
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Mitosis and Meiosis
Post-Lab Questions
1. What is the state of the DNA at the end of meiosis I? What about at the end of meiosis II?
2. Why are chromosomes important?
3. How are meiosis I and meiosis II different?
4. Why do you use non-sister chromatids to demonstrate crossing over?
5. What combinations of alleles could result from a crossover between BD and bd chromosomes?
6. How many chromosomes were present when meiosis I started?
7. How many nuclei are present at the end of meiosis II? How many chromosomes are in each?
8. Identify two ways that meiosis contributes to genetic recombination.
9. Why is it necessary to reduce the number of chromosomes in gametes, but not in other cells?
94
Mitosis and Meiosis
10. Blue whales have 44 chromosomes in every cell. Determine how many chromosomes you would expect
to find in the following:
Sperm Cell:
Egg Cell:
Daughter Cell from Mitosis:
Daughter Cell from Meiosis II:
11. Research and find a disease that is caused by chromosomal mutations. When does the mutation occur?
What chromosomes are affected? What are the consequences?
12. Diagram what would happen if sexual reproduction took place for four generations using diploid (2n) cells.
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Mitosis and Meiosis
Experiment 4: Crossing Over
In this lab, pictures of a prepared slide of the fungus
Sordaria fimicola will be used to examine the ef-
fects of crossing over. The life cycle of this fungus
begins in the haploid state. However, after the com-
bination of two different types of strains, they devel-
op a diploid nucleus. As the life cycle continues, the
diploid nucleus undergoes meiosis, along with mito-
sis, and produces eight haploid ascospores which
are stored in a sac called an ascus (Figure 6). Once
maturation has been reached, the sac will burst,
allowing the ascospores to be released. These
spores are haploid and thus begin the life cycle
again.
Figure 6
Sordaria fimicola is often used to observe crossing over because the wild type strain has black ascospores
and the mutant type has tan ascospores. When the two strains go through meiosis, the location of the asco-
spores will directly show if crossing over has occurred.
If crossover does not occur, the ascospores will be arranged like Figure 7.
If crossover does occur, the ascospores will be arranged like Figure 8.
Figure 7 Figure 8
The measurement to describe the difference between genes is referred to as map unit. As the distance in-
creases between genes, the likelihood of crossing over becomes greater, therefore demonstrating that the
96
Mitosis and Meiosis
proportion of crossovers corresponds with the distance between genes. As a rule, the percentage of recombi-
nations is equal to the number of map units between two genes or a gene and the centromere.
Materials
Sordaria fimicola Digital Slide Images
Procedure
1. Examine the three fields of view of the Sordaria fimicola.
2. There are at least 10 different hybrids (crossovers) in the following images. Count the total number of
clearly visible crossovers, as well as the number of clearly visible non-crossovers. Record your data for
each image in Table 4.
Sordaria fimicola 400X (Image 1)
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Mitosis and Meiosis
98
Mitosis and Meiosis
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Mitosis and Meiosis
Table 4: Sordaria fimicola Crossover Data
Image Number of Crossovers: Number of Non-Crossovers:
Image 1
Image 2
Image 3
Post-Lab Questions
1. Determine the percentage of crossovers. To do this, divide the number of crossovers by the total number
and multiply it by 100.
2. Determine the map distance. To accomplish this, divide the percentage of crossovers by two. Note: the
number is divided by two because crossover occurs once between two chromosomes.
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Mitosis and Meiosis
Experiment 5: The Importance of Cell Cycle Control
Some environmental factors can cause genetic mutations which result in a lack of proper cell cycle control.
When this happens, the possibility for uncontrolled cell growth occurs. In some instances, uncontrolled growth
can lead to tumors, which are often associated with cancer, or other biological diseases.
In this experiment, you will review some of the karyotypic differences which can be observed when comparing
normal, controlled cell growth and abnormal, uncontrolled cell growth. A karyotype is an image of the com-
plete set of diploid chromosomes in a single cell.
Materials
*Internet Access
*Computer Access *You must provide
Procedure:
1. Begin by constructing a hypothesis to explain what differences you might observe when comparing the
karyotypes of human cells which experience normal cell cycle control versus cancerous cells (which expe-
rience abnormal, or a lack of, cell cycle control). Record your hypothesis in Post-Lab Question 1.
Note: Be sure to include what you expect to observe, and why you think you will observe these fea-
tures. Think about what you know about cancerous cell growth to help construct this information
2. Go online to find some images of abnormal karyotypes, and normal karyotypes. The best results will come
from search terms such as “abnormal karyotype”, “HeLa cells”, “normal karyotype”, “abnormal chromo-
somes”, etc. Be sure to use dependable resources which have been peer-reviewed!
3. Identify at least five abnormalities in the abnormal images, and list them in the Data section at the end of
this experiment. Do these abnormalities agree with your original hypothesis?
Hint: It may be helpful to count the number of chromosomes, count the number of pairs, compare the
sizes of homologous chromosomes, look for any missing or additional genetic markers/flags, etc.
Data
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Mitosis and Meiosis
Post-Lab Questions
1. Record your hypothesis from Step 1 in the Procedure section here.
2. What do your results indicate about cell cycle control?
3. Suppose a person developed a mutation in a somatic cell which diminishes the performance of the body’s
natural cell cycle control proteins. This mutation resulted in cancer yet, but was effectively treated with a
cocktail of cancer-fighting techniques. Is it possible for this person’s future children to inherit this cancer-
causing mutation? Be specific when you explain why or why not.
4. Why do cells which lack cell cycle control exhibit karyotypes which look physically different than cells with
normal cell cycle.
5. What are HeLa cells? Why are HeLa cells appropriate for this experiment?
6. Research the function of the protein called p53. What does this function do? Explain how it can affect cell
cycle control.
7. What is the Philadelphia chromosome? How is this chromosome related to cancer? Identify how this chro-
mosome appears physically different on a karyotype than it appears on a karyotype of normal chromo-
somes.
102
Lab 4
Concepts to Explore
• Diffusion • Dialysis
• Rate of Diffusion • Osmosis
• Direction of Diffusion • Tonicity
• Solute Size • Water Potential
• Concentration Gradient • Osmotic Pressure
• Molarity • Aquaporins
• Membrane Permeability
Introduction
Molecules are constantly in motion due to the kinetic energy present in every atom. This energy results in the
net movement of molecules from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration, a process called
diffusion. If uninhibited, this net movement will continue until equilibrium is reached and the molecules are
uniformly distributed. Once equilibrium is achieved, molecules will continue to move in each direction at an
equal rate.
Diffusion
A solution contains two or more substances (solutes) that have been dissolved by a solvent. In the context of
a cell, the intracellular and extracellular fluids are the solvents which contain dissolved material (solutes). The
rate of diffusion depends on membrane characteristics, size of the solute, and molecular polarity. Because
the medium will not change in a biological system, the diffusion rate is usually dictated by molecular charac-
teristics of the solute. Small, non-polar molecules exhibit a higher rate of diffusion than large, charged ones.
The direction of diffusion depends on concentration gradients, heat, and pressure. The concentration gra-
dient is the change of molecular density over a given area (remember that density is defined as unit mass
per volume of space). Temperature and pressure typically remain constant in biological systems, making the
concentration gradient the best indicator of directionality. In general, molecules will move towards areas of
lower concentration.
Molarity (moles/liter) is a way to express concentration. It is the number of moles of solute dissolved in one
liter of solution, and is commonly represented by ‘M’. You may recall that a mole is 6.02 x 1023 molecules or
atoms. Molecular weight (MW) is the weight of one mole of a chemical and is based off the atomic mass of
each atom in the chemical formula. Once the molecular weight of a chemical is known, the weight of chemi-
cal to dissolve in a solvent for a specific molar solution can easily be calculated.
105
A major determinant of diffusion within a biological system is membrane permeability. Cells, as well as some
organelles within the cell, are surrounded by selective and differentially permeable membranes. These mem-
branes control the interaction of the cell and its surrounding environment. Acting as a living gatekeeper, the
membrane allows, slows, or denies access into the cell.
Cellular membranes are composed of two layers of hydrophobic lipids. This lipid bilayer selects for molecules
that can dissolve into the lipid environment and against those that cannot. The ability of a molecule to cross
the membrane is also determined by its size and electrical charge. Small, uncharged molecules often pass
through the membrane easily, while most large or charged molecules are prevented from passing. Molecules
which cannot diffuse across the membrane may be able to cross through other regulated gateways located
within the membrane.
Dialysis is the separation of molecules through diffusion. In dialysis, a dif-

ferentially permeable membrane is used to separate the components of a ? Did You Know...
mixed solution containing more than one type of molecule. This mem-
brane allows the free passage of water, but limits the movement of mole-
cules by their size. In one of the following experiments, you will dialyze a
solution of glucose and starch to observe membrane permeability.
The concentration of a solution may also impact the membrane permeabil-

ity. A solution or its components may not be able to pass through a mem-
brane if the concentration is too high. For this reason, serial dilutions may Hemodialysis is a method of re-
moving toxic substances from
be performed to create solutions of lower concentrations. The original
the blood when the kidneys are
sample is a known volume and concentration. A small volume of this sam- unable to do so. It is frequently
ple is transferred sequentially among new tubes, called dilution blanks. used for patients with kidney fail-
The sample is mixed with water (or another diluent) throughout the pro- ure, but may also be used to
cess to create more dilute solutions (Figure 1). quickly remove drugs or poisons
in dangerous situations.
Osmosis
The movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane, like the plasma membrane of the cell, is
called osmosis. Osmosis is directed from an area of high water concentration to an area of low water con-
centration. Ultimately, membrane selectivity and the movement of water in and out of the cell regulate the
concentration of intracellular material. As solute concentration increases, solvent concentration decreases. In
order to achieve equilibrium, the solvent from a low solute concentration solution will move into an area of
high solute concentration to create an equal ratio of solvent to solute in both areas. Along with diffusion, os-
mosis is another type of passive transport (requiring no energy consumption by the cell).
106
9 mL 9 mL 9 mL 9 mL 9 mL 9 mL
Figure 1: Serial dilution schematic. The dilution blanks all have 9 mL of diluent in them such that when 1 mL is add-
ed, it represents 1/10th the concentration of the previous tube. The dilution of the sample is written below each tube.
Tonicity
Tonicity is a relative term that describes the solute difference between solutions and determines the net di-
rection of movement of water molecules (osmosis). There are three types of tonicity:
Hypertonic: A solution with a higher solute concentration than the solute concentration on the oppo-
site side of the permeable membrane.
Hypotonic: A solution with a lower solute concentration (i.e., a higher percentage of water content)
than the solute concentration on the opposite side of the permeable membrane.
Isotonic: A solution with equal solute concentrations on both sides of the permeable membrane
(Figure 2).
Figure 2: Chemical diffusion can create a variety of states

for the cell or even an entire organ.
107
In osmosis, water flows from hypotonic solutions to hypertonic solutions, until they become isotonic. This
underscores the concept of water potential. Biologists use this term to describe the tendency of water to
leave one place in favor of another. Water always moves from an area of higher water potential to an area of
lower water potential. The more negative the water potential, the higher the concentration of solutes in the
system.
In most biological systems, cells are hypertonic and extracellular water flows into them. If placed in pure wa-
ter, they will burst (lyse) as a result of the increased pressure on the membrane from the additional water that
diffused into the cell.
Osmotic pressure (the force required to prevent osmosis), also called pressure potential, is the tendency of
a solution to gain water across an ideal, partially permeable membrane. It directly correlates with tonicity
(higher tonicity causes an increase in osmotic pressure). Some cells, such as plant cells, have specialized
structures that regulate osmotic pressure and prevent lysis. This pressure, as well as solute concentration,
can affect the water potential (high osmotic pressure = low water potential). This relationship is demonstrated
by the following formula:
Ψ = Ψp + Ψs
In this equation, Ψ represents water potential, Ψp is pressure potential, and Ψs is the solute potential.
Both diffusion and osmosis are imperative to cell survival. They enable cells to maintain equilibrium of solute
concentrations across two sides of a permeable membrane. However, the two processes facilitate solute
equilibrium in opposite ways.
Aquaporins
For much of scientific history, the abundance of water molecules throughout the body led many scientists to
believe that osmosis alone was a sufficient mechanism for water movement across cellular membranes.
However, in 1992 Peter Agre discovered a unique family of proteins, later termed “aquaporins”, which were
also involved in water transport. Agre won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2003 for this paradigm-changing
discovery. You can learn more about Peter Agre and his discovery here: http://www.nobelprize.org/
nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2003/agre-autobio.html
Aquaporins are a specific form of integral membrane proteins which span lipid bilayers to facilitate molecular
movement. They use a combination of electromagnetic and hydrophilic interactions and spatial selectivity to
funnel water molecules from one side of a membrane to another. Aquaporins are most populous in tissues
which require high levels of water transport such as the kidney, salivary glands, (lacrimal) tear glands and
other epithelial cells. Can you think of a reason why aquaporins are so important in these tissues? Although
108
aquaporins can be ubiquitous in certain locations, the actual aquaporin present may vary by tissue/organ.
The most common aquaporin in called aquaporin 1 (AQP1). AQP1 is found in the kidney and forms a homo-
tetramer protein across the cellular membranes within this organ. “Homotetramer” means that it is composed
of four, identical simpler molecules.
Water molecules are attracted to these pores. However, rather than moving through the central homotetram-
er central channel, water molecules move through one of the four individual channels formed by the four
monomer subunits. These channels are very tiny, with a diameter of only 3 Å. This further increases the spe-
cific of aquaporins because many molecules are much larger than this (note: water molecules are only 2.8 Å).
Pre-Lab Questions
1. Compare and contrast diffusion and osmosis.
2. Draw a picture of a cell in a isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic states.
3. What is the water potential of an open beaker containing pure water?
4. Why don’t red blood cells swell or shrink in blood?
5. How do osmotic power plants work?
6. Research the structures that protect plant and animal cells from damage resulting from osmotic pressure.
Write a few paragraphs explaining what they are, how they work, and where they are located.
109
Experiment 1: Diffusion through a Liquid
In this experiment, you will observe the effect that different molecular weights have on the ability of dye to
travel through a viscous medium.
Materials
Red and Blue Dye Solutions (Blue molecular Stopwatch

weight = 793 g/mole; Red molecular weight = 496 Ruler
g/mole)
2 Micropipettes
1 Bottle Corn Syrup
Tape
(1) 9 cm Petri Dish (top & bottom halves)
Procedure
1. Use tape to secure one half (either the bottom or the top half is fine) of the petri dish over a ruler. Make
sure that you can read the measurement markings on the ruler through the petri dish. The dish should be
positioned with the open end of the dish facing upwards.
2. Carefully fill the half of the petri dish with corn syrup until the entire surface is covered.
3. Place a single drop of blue dye in the middle of the corn syrup. Note the position where the dye fell by
reading the location on ruler.
4. Measure the diameter of the dye (the distance it has traveled) every ten seconds for a total of two
minutes. Record your data in Tables 1 and 2.
5. Repeat Steps 1 - 4 using the red dye, the second half of the petri dish, and fresh corn syrup.
110
Table 1: Rate of Diffusion in Corn Syrup
Time (sec) Blue Dye Red Dye Time (sec) Blue Dye Red Dye
10 70
20 80
30 90
40 100
50 110
60 120
Table 2: Speed of Diffusion of Different Molecular Weight Dyes
Structure Molecular Weight Total Distance Speed of Diffusion

Traveled (mm) (mm/hr)*
Blue Dye
Red Dye
*Multiply the total distance diffused by 30 to get the hourly diffusion rate
Post-Lab Questions
1. Examine the plot below. How well does it match the data you took in Table 2? Submit your own plot if nec-
essary.
Diffusion (mm)
Time (seconds)
111
2. Which dye diffused the fastest?
3. Does the rate of diffusion correspond with the molecular weight of the dye?
4. Does the rate of diffusion change over time? Why or why not?
Experiment 2: Diffusion - Concentration Gradients and Membrane Permeability

In this experiment, you will dialyze a solution of glucose and starch to observe:
• The directional movement of glucose and starch.
• The effect of a selectively permeable membrane on the diffusion of these molecules.
An indicator is a substance that changes color when in the presence of the substance it indicates.You will be
using an indicator to test for the presence of starch and glucose.
Materials
10 mL Glucose Solution, CH12O6 (Molecular 100 mL Graduated Cylinder

weight = 180 g/mole)
*Water
1% Starch Solution, C6H10O5 (Molecular weight =
*Scissors
>15,000 g/mole)
*15.0 cm Dialysis Tubing
1% Iodine-Potassium Iodide, IKI
4 Glucose Test Strips

*You must provide
(5) 100 mL Beakers
*Be sure to measure and cut only the length you
4 Small Rubber Bands
need for this experiment. Reserve the remainder
3 Pipettes for later experiments.
Stopwatch
112
Attention! Note:
Do not allow the open end of the dialysis

• Dialysis tubing can be rinsed and used again if you make a
mistake.
tubing to fall into the beaker. If it does, re-
move the tube and rinse thoroughly with • Dialysis tubing must be soaked in water before you will be
water before refilling with a starch/glucose able to open it up to create the dialysis “bag”. Follow the
solution and replacing it in the beaker. directions for the experiment, beginning with soaking the
tubing in a beaker of water. Then, place the dialysis tubing
between your thumb and forefinger and rub the two digits
together in a shearing manner. This should open up the
"tube" so you can fill it with the different solutions.
Procedure
1. Measure and pour 50 mL of water into a 100 mL beaker. Cut a piece of dialysis tubing 15.0 cm long. Sub-
merge the dialysis tubing in the water for at least 10 minutes.
2. Measure and pour 82 mL water into a second 100 mL beaker. This is the beaker you will put the filled dial-
ysis bag into in Step 9.
3. While the dialysis bag is still soaking, make the glucose/sucrose mixture. Use a graduated pipette to add
five mL of glucose solution to a third beaker and label it “Dialysis bag solution”. Use a different graduated
pipette to add five mL of starch solution to the same beaker. Mix by pipetting the solution up and down the
pipette six times.
4. Using the same pipette that you used to mix the dialysis bag solution, remove two mL of that solution and
place it in a clean beaker. This sample will serve as your positive control for glucose and starch.
a. Dip one of the glucose test strips into the two mL of glucose/starch solution in the beaker. After
one minute has passed, record the final color of the glucose test strip in Table 3. This is your posi-
tive control for glucose.
b. Use a pipette to transfer approximately 0.5 mL of IKI to into the two mL of glucose/starch solution
in the beaker. After one minute has passed, record the final color of the glucose/starch solution in
the beaker in Table 3. This is your positive control for starch.
5. Using a clean pipette, remove two mL of water from the 82 mL of water you placed in a beaker in Step 2
and place it in a clean beaker. This sample will serve as your negative control for glucose and starch.
a. Dip one of the glucose test strips into the two mL of water in the beaker. After one minute has
passed, record the final color of the glucose test strip in Table 3. This is your negative control for
glucose.
113
b. Use a pipette to transfer approximately 0.5 mL of IKI to into the two mL of water in the beaker. Af-
ter one minute has passed, record the final color of the water in the beaker in Table 3. This is your
negative control for starch.
Note: The color results of these controls determine the indicator reagent key. You must use these
results to interpret the rest of your results.
6. After at least 10 minutes have passed, remove the dialysis tube and close one end by folding over 3.0 cm
of one end (bottom). Fold it again and secure with a rubber band (use two rubber bands if necessary).
7. Make sure the closed end will not allow a solution to leak out. You can test this by drying off the outside of
the dialysis bag with a cloth or paper towel, adding a small amount of water to the bag, and examining the
rubber band seal for leakage. Be sure to remove the water from the inside of the bag before continuing.
8. Using the same pipette which was used to mix the solution in Step 3, trans-
fer eight mL of the solution from the Dialysis Bag Solution beaker to the pre-
pared dialysis bag.
9. Place the filled dialysis tube in beaker filled with 80 mL of water with the
open end draped over the edge of the beaker as shown in Figure 3.
10. Allow the solution to sit for 60 minutes. Clean and dry all materials except
the beaker with the dialysis bag.
Figure 3: Step 9 reference.
11. After the solution has diffused for 60 minutes, remove the dialysis tube from the beaker and empty the
contents into a clean, dry beaker. Label it dialysis bag solution.
12. Test the dialysis bag solution for the presence of glucose and starch. Test for the presence of glucose by
dipping one glucose test strip into the dialysis bag directly. Again, wait one minute before reading the re-
sults of the test strips. Record your results for the presence of glucose and starch in Table 4. Test for the
presence of starch by adding two mL IKI. Record the final color in Table 4 after one minute has passed.
13. Test the solution in the beaker for glucose and starch. Use a pipette to transfer eight mL of the solution in
the beaker to a clean beaker. Test for the presence of glucose by dipping one glucose test strip into the
beaker. Wait one minute before reading the results of the test strip and record the results in Table 4. Add
two mL of IKI to the beaker water and record the final color of the beaker solution in Table 4.
114
Table 3: Indicator Reagent Data
Indicator Starch Positive Starch Negative Glucose Positive Glucose Negative

Control (Color) Control (Color) Control (Color) Control (Color)
IKI Solution n/a n/a
Glucose Test Strip n/a n/a
Table 4: Diffusion of Starch and Glucose Over Time
Indicator Dialysis Bag After 1 Hour Beaker Water After 1 Hour
IKI Solution
Glucose Test Strip
Post-Lab Questions
1. Why is it necessary to have positive and negative controls in this experiment?
2. Draw a diagram of the experimental set-up. Use arrows to depict the movement of each substance in the
dialysis bag and the beaker.
3. Which substance(s) crossed the dialysis membrane? Support your response with data-based evidence.
4. Which molecules remained inside of the dialysis bag?
5. Did all of the molecules diffuse out of the bag into the beaker? Why or why not?
115
Experiment 3: Osmosis - Direction and Concentration Gradients
In this experiment, we will investigate the effect of solute concentration on osmosis. A semi-permeable mem-
brane (dialysis tubing) and sucrose will create an osmotic environment similar to that of a cell. This selective
permeability allows us to examine the net movement of water across the membrane. You will begin the ex-
periment with a 30% sucrose solution, and perform a set of serial dilutions to create lower concentration solu-
tions. Some of the sucrose concentrations will be membrane permeable; while others will not be permeable
(can you determine why this is?).
Materials
60 g Sucrose Powder, C12H22O11 *Scissors

(3) 250 mL Beakers *Paper Towel
4 Waste Beakers (any volume)
*(4) 15 cm. Pieces of Dialysis Tubing
8 Rubber Bands (two red, two blue, two green,
and two yellow)
10 mL Graduated Cylinder *You must provide
100 mL Graduated Cylinder *Be sure to measure and cut only the length you
Stopwatch need for this experiment. Reserve the remainder
Permanent Marker for later experiments.
*Water
Procedure
1. Use the permanent marker to label the three 250 mL beakers as 1, 2, and 3.
2. Cut four strips of dialysis tubing, each 15.0 cm long. Fill Beaker 3 with 100 mL of water and submerge the
four pieces of dialysis tubing in the water for at least 10 minutes.
3. After 10 minutes, remove one piece of tubing from the beaker. Use your thumb and pointer finger to rub
the dialysis tubing between your fingers. This will work open the dialysis tubing.
4. Wrap one of the yellow rubber bands around one end of the dialysis tubing. Leave approximately 1 - 2 in
of tubing below the rubber band. Tie a knot in the remaining dialysis tubing just above or just below the
rubber band. This will create a seal and ensures that solution will not leak out of the tube later in the ex-
periment.
116
5. To test that no solution can leak out, add a few drops of water to the tubing and look for water leakage. If
any water leaks, tighten the rubber band and/or the knot in the tubing. Make sure you pour the water out
of the tubing before continuing to the next step.
6. Repeat Steps 4 - 5 with the three remaining dialysis tubes, using each of the three remaining rubber band
colors.
7. Reconstitute the sucrose powder (your kit contains 60 g of sucrose in a chemical bottle) according to the
instructions provided on the bottle’s label. This will create 200 mL of a 30% stock sucrose solution.
8. Use Table 5 to create additional sucrose solutions that are 30%, 15% and 3% concentrated, respectively.
Use the graduated cylinder and extra beakers to create these solutions. Set these solutions aside.
Table 5: Serial Dilution Instructions
Sucrose mL of Stock Sucrose mL of Water

Solution Solution Needed Needed
30% 10 0
15% 5 5
3% 1 9
3% 1 9
9. Pour 150 mL of the remaining stock sucrose solution into Beaker 1.
10. Use some of the remaining stock sucrose solution to create an additional 200 mL of a 3% sucrose solu-
tion into Beaker 2.
Hint: Use your knowledge of serial dilutions to create this final, 3% sucrose solution. Refer to the Intro-
duction for more information on performing a serial dilution.
11. Measure and pour 10 mL of the remaining 30% sucrose solution into the dialysis bag with the yellow rub-
ber band. Seal the top of this tubing with the remaining yellow rubber band.
12. Measure and pour 10 mL of the 15% sucrose solution in the bag with the red rubber band, and seal the
top of the dialysis tubing with the remaining red rubber band. 10 mL of the 3% sucrose solution in the bag
with the blue rubber band, and seal the dialysis tubing with the remaining blue rubber band. The final 10
mL of 3% sucrose solution in the bag with the green rubber band. Seal the dialysis tubing with the remain-
ing green rubber band.
117
Figure 4: The dialysis bags are filled with varying concentrations of sucrose so-
lution and placed in one of two beakers.
13. Verify and record the initial volume of solution from each bag in Table 6.
14. Place the yellow, red, and blue banded tubing in Beaker 2. Place the green banded tubing in Beaker 1
(Figure 4).
15. Hypothesize whether water will flow in or out of each dialysis bag. Include your hypotheses, along with
supporting scientific reasoning in the Hypotheses section at the end of this procedure.
16. Allow the bags to sit for one hour. While waiting, pour out the water in the 250 mL beaker that was used to
soak the dialysis tubing in Step 1. You will use the beaker in Step 19.
17. After allowing the tubing to sit for one hour, remove them from the beakers.
18. Carefully open the tubing. The top of the tubing may need to be cut off/removed as they tend to dry out
over the course of an hour. Measure the solution volumes of each dialysis bag using the 100 mL graduat-
ed cylinder. Make sure to empty and dry the cylinder completely between each sample.
19. Record your data in Table 6.
118
Hypothesis:
Table 6: Sucrose Concentration vs. Tubing Permeability

Band Color Sucrose % Initial Volume (mL) Final Volume (mL) Net Displacement (mL)
Yellow
Red
Blue
Green
Post-Lab Questions
1. For each of the tubing pieces, identify whether the solution inside was hypotonic, hypertonic, or isotonic in
comparison to the beaker solution it was placed in.
2. Which tubing increased the most in volume? Why?
3. What does this tell you about the relative tonicity between the contents of the tubing and the solution in
the beaker?
119
4. What would happen if the tubing with the yellow band was placed in a beaker of distilled water?
5. Osmosis is how excess salts that accumulate in cells are transferred to the blood stream so they can be
removed from the body. Explain how this process works in terms of tonicity.
6. How is this experiment similar to the way a cell membrane works in the body? How is it different? Be spe-
cific with your response.
7. If you wanted water to flow out of a tubing piece filled with a 50% solution, what would the minimum con-
centration of the beaker solution need to be? Explain your answer using scientific evidence.
120
Experiment 4: Osmosis - Tonicity and the Plant Cell
Plant cells are able to generate osmotic pressure while other cells cannot. This is due to specialized plant
structures such as the cell wall which prevent lysis caused by osmosis. By taking advantage of this system,
you will be able to look at the effects of tonicity in a biological system.
Materials
16 g Sodium Chloride, NaCl Test Tube Rack
4 Test Tubes *Water
100 mL Graduated Cylinder *2 Potatoes (these must be different types; e.g.,

russett, Idaho, sweet, etc.)
2 Pipettes
*Knife (sharp enough to cut a potato)
Ruler
*Cutting Board
Stopwatch
Permanent Marker
Procedure
1. Use the permanent marker to label two test tubes as A, and two test tubes as B. Place the test tubes in
the test tube rack.
2. Identify the two potato types in the first two cells of the first column in Table 7. Then, select one potato to
test first and record observations about the physical characteristics in Table 7.
Note: Be sure to include observations which acknowledge the texture, color, and any other distin-
guishing factors.
3. Use a knife to carefully cut two strips of the potato on a cutting board. These will be referred to as Sample
A and Sample B. The strips should be as close to 10.0 cm. long and 1.0 cm. wide as possible to ensure
that the strips fit in the test tubes.
4. Fill the 100 mL graduated cylinder with 50 mL of water. Place the first potato strip (Sample A) into the
graduated cylinder and record the initial displacement in Table 7.
Note: Displacement is a measurement of change. It is calculated by subtracting the original volume

(50 mL) from the final volume after the potato is added to the 50 mL of water. For example, 57 mL - 50
mL = 7 mL of displacement.
121
5. Remove Sample A from the graduated cylinder and place it in Test Tube A. If any water was lost in the
graduated cylinder, refill it to the 50 mL graduation mark.
6. Place the second potato strip (Sample B) into the graduated cylinder. Record the initial displacement in
Table 7.
7. Remove Sample B from the graduated cylinder and place it in Test Tube B. If any water was lost in the
graduated cylinder, refill it to the 50 mL graduation mark.
8. Repeat Steps 2 - 7 for the second potato type, using the remaining test tubes in the test tube rack.
9. Use a pipette to add water to each of the test tubes with the A samples in them until the water covers the
potato strips.
10. Refer to the instructions provided on the bottle with 16 g of sodium chloride in it to create a 20% sodium
chloride solution. Use a pipette to add the 20% sodium chloride solution to each of the test tubes with the
B potato samples in them until the solution covers the potato strips.
11. After an hour, pour out the liquid from the test tubes.
12. Repeat Steps 4 - 7 for each sample and type, and record the final displacement values in Table 7.
13. Complete the last column of Table 7 by subtracting the initial displacement from the final displacement.
Table 7: Water Displacement per Potato Sample
Potato Potato Sample Initial Displacement (mL) Final Displacement Net Displacement
Type Observations (mL) - Step 11 (mL)
122
Post-Lab Questions
1. How did the physical characteristics of the potato vary before and after the experiment? Did it vary by po-
tato type?
2. What does the net change in the potato sample indicate?
3. Different types of potatoes have varying natural sugar concentrations. Explain how this may influence the
water potential of each type of potato.
4. Based on the data from this experiment, hypothesize which potato has the highest natural sugar concen-
tration. Explain your reasoning.
5. Did water flow in or out of the plant cells (potato cells) in each of the samples examined? How do you
know this?
6. Would this experiment work with other plant cells? What about with animal cells? Why or why not?
7. From what you know of tonicity, what can you say about the plant cells and the solutions in the test tubes?
123
8. What do your results show about the concentration of the cytoplasm in the potato cells at the start of the
experiment?
9. If the potato is allowed to dehydrate by sitting in open air, would the potato cells be more likely to absorb
more or less water? Explain.
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Lab 5
Tissues and Skin
Tissues and Skin
Concepts to Explore
• Homeostasis • Voluntary Muscles

• Epithelial Tissue • Involuntary Muscles
• Connective Tissue • Intercalated Discs
• Nervous Tissues • The Integumentary System
• Neurons • Layers of the Skin
• Muscle Tissue • Sudoriferous Glands
Introduction
If cells are the building blocks of life, tissues are the fabric in
which cells come together. Rarely do human cells function
as individual units. Instead, they depend on each other to
perform higher, more sophisticated functions. Many of these
operations are highly specified and are used for localized
processes, while others are broadly incorporated through-
out the body. Homeostasis, for example, is required in
many different systems. Homeostasis, a term coined by
Walter Bradford Cannon in the 1920s, describes the body’s
ability to maintain a relatively consistent internal environ-
ment. Human cells, tissues, and organs work in concert to
upkeep this constancy. Homeostasis is seen in properties
such as temperature, pH, and chemical concentrations such
as oxygen, iron, etc.
Devastating consequences can occur if the body deviates

from homeostasis. For example, blood pH must remain at
approximately 7.35 - 7.45. A person can become seriously,
or even fatally, ill if the blood chemistry causes the pH to Figure 1: The human body is composed of a hier-
rise above or drop below this value. archy of structural units: cells, tissues, organs,
and systems.
Homeostasis is no small feat. The body is constantly breaking down and building biomolecules within cells,
which results in fluctuating chemical concentrations. Adding to the difficulty is the dynamic quality of the extra-
cellular environment. The chemical concentrations found in the extracellular environment are often changing
as different chemicals and biomolecules enter the body. This results in a complex, and highly specific cellular
processes which promote homeostasis.
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Tissues and Skin
Tissues are ensembles of structurally similar cells with highly related functions (beyond the general need for
homeostasis). There are over 200 distinctly different types of cells that compose the human body. From the-
se, there are four primary tissues: epithelial, connective, nervous and muscle tissues. The ability to detect
these four tissues at the microscopic level enables the observer to identify the organs of the body.
Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissue, called epithelium, consists of cells packed closely together with little intercellular material.
Since this tissue is avascular, nutrient and waste exchange occurs through diffusion with neighboring tissues.
The upper surface of this tissue is exposed – either to the outside of the body or the internal body cavity. The
basal surface is lined with a thin extracellular layer called the basement membrane, which rests on connective
tissue. Cell division occurs rapidly in epithelial cells to replace damaged or dead cells. Epithelium is charac-
terized by cell composition (squamous, cuboidal, columnar, or transitional) and number of cell layers (simple,
stratified, pseudostratified).
Connective Tissue
Connective tissue is a dense, fibrous tissue. It is the most abundant tissue type and can be identified all
over the body as a major component of organ structures as well as discrete structures. Collagen is one of the
most abundant proteins found in connective tissue. Collagen supplies a tissue with strength necessary for
structure and support. Elastic and reticular fibers are also found in connective tissues. There are five sub-
types of connective tissue: bone, cartilage, blood, dense connective, and loose connective; while reticular and
adipose tissue are subtypes of loose connective tissue. Most of these five major subtypes have a nerve sup-
ply, and are well vascularized.
Connective tissue structure, with the exception of blood, consists of scattered cells throughout a fibrous, ex-
tracellular matrix. The type of matrix, as well as the ratio of ground substance (secreted cell adhesion and gly-
coproteins) to fiber volume determines the character and type of connective tissue. The cells that produce
and maintain the matrix also vary by connective tissue type.
Common cells are fibroblasts (in both loose and dense con-
nective tissue), adipocytes (in loose connective tissues), retic-
ular cells (in loose connective tissues), chondroblasts and
chondrocytes (in cartilage), osteoblasts and osteocytes (in
bone), and hemocytoblasts (in bone marrow).
Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue has the unique ability to conduct and trans-
mit electrical signals all over the body, functioning to integrate
stimuli and control the responses to those stimuli. This is one
Figure 2: Giant multipolar motor neurons and
neuroglia cells. 400X Magnification. of the major information communication systems of the body,
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Tissues and Skin
and is critical to unconscious actions like breathing as well as conscious movements like running. Two types
of cells compose nervous tissue – neurons (nerve cells) and neuroglial cells. Neurons are the functional
unit of the nervous system. They possess three distinct structural features that aid in their function: a cell
body, an axon, and dendrites. Five different types of neuroglial cells function to support neurons. Unlike neu-
rons, neuroglial cells are capable of cell division.
Muscle Tissue
Muscle tissue contains a distinctive combination of pro-
teins that enable it to produce a force upon stimulation.
Actin and myosin protein filaments convert chemical en-
ergy [adenosine triphosphate (ATP)] into a mechanical
force. There are three types of muscle tissue: smooth
muscle, cardiac muscle, and skeletal muscle. Skeletal
muscle is composed of long, fibrillar cells. These cells
appear striped when viewed under high magnification.
These multinucleated cells form skeletal muscle, which
is attached to bones by tendons and facilitates move-
ment of the body. These are referred to as voluntary
muscles because they are under conscious control.
Cardiac muscle is also striated, but these cells house Figure 3: This muscle tissue is striated and has mul-
tiple nuclei in each cell. Which type is it?
only one nucleus and are branched. Cardiac muscle
cells are joined by intercalated discs that allow them to contract as a unit. Lastly, smooth muscle is made from
elongated, single-nucleus cells that are not striated. This tissue lines the walls of blood vessels and certain
organs that require muscles to aid in the movement of substances. Cardiac and smooth muscle tissue are not
under conscious control, and are therefore called involuntary muscles.
There are many types of organs within the body – the heart, the liver, the kidneys, even skin. When two or
more organs work together, an organ system is formed. There are 11 organ systems in the human body: skel-
etal system, muscular system, circulatory system, nervous system, integumentary system, respiratory sys-
tem, digestive system, excretory system, endocrine system, reproductive system, and the lymphatic system.
You will learn more about each of these systems in subsequent labs in this manual.
The Integumentary System

The skin, or integument, is considered an organ because of its complexity. The skin, hair and nails comprise
the integumentary system. These tissues work collectively and affect the homeostasis of the body. The skin
prevents dehydration, prevents infection, regulates body temperature, synthesizes Vitamin D, and excretes
body waste.
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Tissues and Skin
Skin is an engineering marvel, as it displays
great strength, but maintains flexibility. Made
largely from connective and epithelial tissues,
the skin acts as a shield that protects the body
from harmful elements – threats of chemical,
thermal, and mechanical nature. It also is criti-
cal to maintaining fluid balance of the body by
preventing water loss, yet allows wastes such
as urea, salts, and excess water to leave the
body. The complicated structure of skin, in
part, enables the variability of the skin’s func-
tion
Layers of the Skin

Figure 4: Hair and skin. 100X magnification.
The outer layer of skin is called the epidermis.
The epidermis is a stratified epithelium that is
composed of five layers. The stratum corneum is the outermost layer, and is 20 - 30 cell layers thick. The
cells in this layer are no longer alive, as they are too far away from a blood vessel for nutrients to diffuse. Be-
fore the cells die, they secrete protein filaments called keratin that are intercellularly bound. This network of
connected, dead cells is said to be keratinized since the main component is the keratin filaments. It also con-
Hair Shaft
Sweat Pore
Sebaceous
gland Arrector pili muscle
Hair follicle
Pacinian corpuscle
Sweat gland
Figure 5: Diagram of skin.
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Tissues and Skin
tains glycolipids, which provide a waterproofing quality of the skin. The next
layer is called the stratum granulosum, which is 3 - 5 cell layers thick. The
keratin-producing cells, keratinocytes, populate this layer. Most of the cells in
the epidermis are keratinocytes. The cells become more and more flattened
(squamous) as they move towards the stratum corneum. This change in
structure is apparent under microscopic examination. The stratum spi-
nosum is a prickly layer and is where keratinization first starts to occur. Mel-
anin granules and Langerhans cells (the frontline defense of the immune
system in the skin) are abundant in this layer. The deepest layer of the epi-
dermis is the stratum basale, which is only a single-layer thick. Melanocytes
and Merkel cells are present in this layer, located between the stratum
corneum and the stratum granulosum. Melanocytes produce the pigment
melanin which , along with carotene and hemoglobin, contributes to skin col-
or. The stratum lucidum is found only in thick skin regions such as the
palms of the hands, the soles of the feet, and the fingertips. Figure 6: Papillae form the fin-
gerprint functions to help with
gripping. These friction ridges
display a number of characteris-
tics, or minutiae, that are unique
The subcutaneous tissue layer is composed of fat and connective tissue, to each individual.
and houses larger blood vessels and nerves. This portion of the skin regu-
lates temperature of the skin, and ultimately the body’s temperature. The dermis is a strong, flexible connec-
tive tissue made from collagen, elastin, and reticular fibers. Papillae from the upper dermis form the ridges on
the palms of the hands and soles of the feet.
Sudoriferous Glands
There are several key structures found within the dermis that expand the functionality of this protective barri-
er. Two types of sudoriferous glands (sweat glands) are present, eccrine and apocrine glands. Sudoriferous
glands secrete into ducts that lead to the body surface. Eccrine glands are most abundant, covering most of
the body. An aqueous solution containing trace elements of NaCl, vitamin C, urea, uric acid, ammonia, and
lactic acid, is secreted by exocytosis into pores. This sweat can be released in response to heat or cold (due
to fright or nervousness). Located in the axillary and anogenital areas, apocrine glands secrete sweat into hair
follicles beginning at puberty. This sweat mixture contains lipids and proteins, food for bacteria which produce
body odor when molecules decompose. Mammary glands are modified apocrine glands which secrete milk.
Oil-secreting sebaceous glands are also found in the dermis. Sebaceous glands secrete sebum into hair fol-
licles to lubricate and soften hair and skin, prevent water loss, and kill bacteria. Another structural unit found
in the dermis is the hair follicle. This part of the skin grows hair by packing old cells together. A muscle fiber
called the arrector pili is connected to the hair follicle, and is responsible for causing the follicle to become
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Tissues and Skin
more perpendicular to the skin and also causing it to protrude slightly (e.g.,
goose bumps). A hair matrix (specialized epithelial cells and melanocytes) sur-
?
Did You Know...
round the bulb of the hair follicle and form the hair. Although DNA exists in all
cells, hair and fingernails
are often used by forensic
Numerous types of nerves are found within the skin, and provide sensation for scientists to generate crimi-
nal evidence. Mitochondrial
touch, pain, and heat. Table 1 lists several receptors and the sensation they
or nuclear DNA can be ex-
are most sensitive to perceiving. The same specialized epithelial cells that form tracted and used in a lab.
hair also form fingernails and toenails. This keratin-based appendage of the Small regions of the DNA,
skin provide a counterforce when the end of the finger touches an object, en- such as a short tandem re-
hancing the sensitivity of the finger. The only living part of the nail lies under peat (STR) region, are then
amplified through polymer-
the epidermis, and is called the matrix. It produces keratin which creates the
ase chain reaction (PCR).
nail plate (the hard and translucent portion). The eponychium is commonly re- PCR creates enough genet-
ferred to as the cuticle, and is surrounded by the paronychium. These parts ic content to run a gel elec-
protect the nail matrix. The hyponychium is the point of attachment between trophoresis and compare
the nail plate and the nail bed (responsible for the pinkish color of the nail bed). the sizes and weights to
computer database infor-
The matrix periphery may be visible as the lunula, a whitish crescent shape
mation. These databases
visible on larger nails. allude to trends in popula-
tion genetics and may lead
to an ultimate prosecution.
Table 1: Integument Receptors and Corresponding Sensations Detected

Receptor Detected Sensation
Meissner’s corpuscles Light touch
Merkel’s disks Light touch
Pacinian corpuscles Deep pressure
Ruffini’s corpuscles Deep pressure and stretch
Bare nerve endings Pain and temperature
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Tissues and Skin
Pre-Lab Questions
1. What is a tissue?
2. What is the function of epithelial tissue?
3. What is the function of connective tissue?
4. What is the function of muscular tissue?
5. What is the function of nervous tissue?
6. Describe sebaceous glands, sweat glands, and hairs with regard to the function of the skin.
7. What is the function of melanin?
8. List the similarities and differences of the layers of the epidermis.
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Tissues and Skin
Experiment 1: Microscopic Slide Examination of Tissue
As you have learned, there are four tissues within the human body: epithelial tissue, connective tissue, nerv-
ous tissue and muscular tissue. Each tissue type has unique functions based upon its unique structural make-
up. In this lab, you will examine a variety of prepared tissue slides. Pay close attention to the similarities and
differences that you observe within the different types of tissue.
Materials
Simple Squamous Epithelial Digital Slide Image Dense Regular Connective Tissue Digital Slide
Image
Simple Cuboidal Epithelial Digital Slide Image
Dense Irregular Connective Tissue Digital Slide
Simple Columnar Epithelial Digital Slide Image
Image
Stratified Squamous Epithelial (Non-Keratinized)
Hyaline Cartilage Connective Tissue Digital Slide
Digital Slide Image
Image
Stratified Squamous Epithelial Digital Slide Image
Elastic Cartilage Connective Tissue Digital Slide
Stratified Cuboidal Epithelial Digital Slide Image
Image
Stratified Columnar Epithelial Digital Slide Image
Fibrocartilage Connective Tissue Digital Slide Im-
Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelial Digi- age
tal Slide Image
Cardiac Muscle Digital Slide Image
Transitional Epithelial Digital Slide Image
Skeletal Muscle Digital Slide Image
Adipose Connective Tissue Digital Slide Image
Smooth Muscle Digital Slide Image
Areolar Connective Tissue Digital Slide Image
Nervous Tissue Digital Slide Image
Reticular Connective Tissue Digital Slide Image
Procedure
Epithelial Tissue
1. Observe each epithelial tissue image carefully. For each slide, note the size and shape of the cytoplasm,
the presence or absence of cilia, goblet cells and microvilli.
2. Refer to the Introduction for information to identify the epithelial tissues shown at the end of the proce-
dure.
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Tissues and Skin
Alveolar sac
Alveolar sac
Simple Squamous Epithelium 100X. Simple squamous epithelium is constructed of a single layer of
flat cells to enable diffusion and filtration of biomolecules (e.g., gas exchange within the lung). How-
ever, the thin structure results in decreased protection. Each cell has a disc-shaped nuclei.
Nuclei
Simple Squamous Epithelium 1000X. Observe the disc-shaped nuclei.
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Tissues and Skin
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium 100X. Simple cuboidal epithelium consists of cube-shaped cells
attached to the basement membrane. The layer can support absorption and secretion. Sim-
ple cuboidal epithelial tissue can be found in the kidney, where filtration and absorption are
particularly important for urine production.
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Tissues and Skin
Lumen
Lumen
Nucleolus
Ovular Nucleus
Lumen
Microvilli
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium 1000X. The cells have ovular nuclei with an observable nucleo-
lus, visible as a dark dot within the nuclei. Microvilli, which increase surface area, can be
found on the apical surface of the cell and form a brush border.
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Tissues and Skin
Simple Columnar Epithelium 100X. Simple cuboidal epithelial tissue is often found in the digestive
tract and functions in absorption and secretion. This layer can also be found in the kidney, where fil-
tration and absorption are particularly important for urine production.
138
Tissues and Skin
Nuclei
La
mi
na
P ro
pri
Br
a Basement
us
h
Membrane
Bo
rd
re
Simple Columnar Epithelium 1000X. Simple columnar epithelium consists of one layer of long or col-
umn-shaped cells attached to the basement membrane. The apical surface of the membrane includes
microvilli and cilia forming a brush border. Each cell incorporates a nuclei which is typically round and
located near the basal surface of the cell. Mucous-secreting goblet cells (not observable in this image)
are also found with the simple columnar epithelial cells. A lamina propria is located beneath the base-
ment membrane and contains capillaries, macrophages, and plasma cells to help keep the region nour-
ished and healthy from infection.
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Tissues and Skin
Stratified Squamous Epithelial Cells (Non-Keratinized) 100X. This region is comprised of multiple
layers of cells which vary in shape. However, the cells tend to become more and more squamous as
they approach the surface of the epithelia (visible in the image above). They are primarily used for
protection and tend to line moist cavities such as the oral cavity or the vagina.
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Tissues and Skin
Basement membrane
Living layer
Dead layer
Stratified Squamous Epithelial Cells 100X. This type of epithelial tissue is located on the outside of the
body, and is also used for protection. There is an exposed layer of dead cells which are shed off, and an
internal layer of living epithelial cells connected to the basement membrane.
141
Tissues and Skin
Squ
am
ous
a nd
c olu
m nar
c ells
Stratified Squamous Epithelial Cells 1000X. These are found in different shapes (such as squamous and
columnar) and sizes and include keratin, making them impenetrable to water and some biomolecules.
142
Tissues and Skin
Stratified Cuboidal Epithelial Cells 100X. Stratified cuboidal epithelial cells are comprised of multiple
layers of cube-shaped cells. These cells are often found surrounding apocrine and endocrine glands
such as mammary glands or sweat glands.
143
Tissues and Skin
Stratified Columnar Epithelial Cells 100X. Stratified columnar epithelial cells function in secretion and/
or absorption, and are found in areas such as the eye, uterus, and the urethra.
144
Tissues and Skin
i
ucle
s of n
la yer
l tiple
Mu
Stratified Columnar Epithelial Cells 1000X. This tissue is comprised of multiple layers of column-shaped
cells.
145
Tissues and Skin
Goblet
cells a
nd cili
Nuclei at different heights

a, not vis
ible, lo
ca ted alo
ng this
pria
layer.
a Pro
Basem
Lamin
e nt M
embra
ne
Arteriole
Arteriole
Red blood cells within
each arteriole.
Arteriole
Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelial 100X. This layer consists of a single layer of cells which
vary by size and shape. Thus, it often appears to be layered because the visible nuclei appear higher
and lower depending on the size of the cell. Again, these cells are attached to the basement membrane.
This layer also contains goblet cells and cilia along the apical surface of the cells.
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Tissues and Skin
Goblet
Cilia Cells
Nuclei at different heights

Basem
e nt M
embra
ne
Lamina
Propria
Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelial 1000X.
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Tissues and Skin
O
ut
er
la
ye
r
B
as
ria
em
op
en
pr
tm
a
em
in
m
br
La
an
e
Transitional Epithelial Cells 100X. The cells in this type of epithelial tissue vary by size and shape de-
pending on the condition of the organ in which they are located. For example, epithelial cells in the
bladder are dome-shaped when the bladder is empty, but can stretch to become squamous shaped
when the bladder fills.
148
Tissues and Skin
Transitional Epithelial Cells 1000X.
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Tissues and Skin
Connective Tissue
3. Observe each connective tissue image, noting their similarities and differences. Pay close attention to
matrix of the cell, specifically how closely packed or sparse the matrix is. While observing the tissue im-
ages, also keep an eye out for a mast cell (dark granule within the cytoplasm).
4. Refer to the Introduction for information to identify the connective tissues shown at the end of the proce-
dure.
Adipocytes
Adipose Connective Tissue 100X. Adipose tissue is located beneath the hypodermis, and is largely
composed of adipocytes. It is also highly vascularized.
150
Tissues and Skin
Pl
as
m
Nucleus
a
m
em
br
an
e
Tryglyceride
y
i l lar
p
Ca
Adipose Connective Tissue 1000X. Adipocytes are filled with triglycerides and appear as large, white,
round spaces within the adipose tissue. In fact, there is so much triglyceride material in the adipocytes
that the nucleus, organelles, and capillaries are often pushed towards the perimeter of the cell. This is
why you may observe small dark circles (nuclei) near what appears to be the periphery of the cell.
151
Tissues and Skin
Elongated fibroblasts
Areolar Connective Tissue 100X. Areolar connective tissue comprises the lamina propria observed in
many of the epithelial tissue types. Areolar connective tissue is characterized by the loosely organized
network of fibroblasts, collagen and elastic fibers. Many different cell types which are used to fight in-
fections reside here, such as macrophages, plasma cells, and lymphocytes
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Tissues and Skin
Areolar Connective Tissue 1000X. Mix of cells such as macrophages, plasma cells, and lymphocytes
153
Tissues and Skin
Reticular Connective Tissue 100X. Reticular connective tissue cells are termed parenchyma. Many of
these cells are part of the lymphatic system and support lymphoid organs.
154
Tissues and Skin
Reticular Connective Tissue 100X. Reticular connective is primarily composed of reticular fibers. These
fibers are constructed of thin collagen fibers and may look like small tree branches in slide images. Re-
ticular fibers form a network which is referred to as the stroma.
155
Tissues and Skin
Reticular Fibers
Reticular Connective Tissue 1000X. Reticular fibers.
156
Tissues and Skin
Dense Regular Connective Tissue 100X. Dense regular connective tissue is commonly found in tendons
or ligaments within the muscular system. It is primarily composed of unidirectional collagen fiber bun-
dles.
157
Tissues and Skin
Collagen fiber bundle
Fibroblasts
Dense Regular Connective Tissue 100X. Fibroblasts are the most common cell type found in dense reg-
ular connective tissue. The nuclei of these cells can be observed as long, narrow, dark spots in the con-
nective tissue. The collagen fibers are visible as the pink regions (the majority of the image). The wavy
shape of the tissue as a whole allows for structural elasticity.
158
Tissues and Skin
Collagen fiber bundle
Fibroblast nuclei
Dense Regular Connective Tissue 1000X.
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Tissues and Skin
Dense Irregular Connective Tissue 100X. Dense irregular connective tissue serves when an organ requires
strength from multi-directional forces. This is seen as the upper layer of the skin or as an organ lining.
Collagen fibers
Fibroblasts
Dense Irregular Connective Tissue 100X. Dense irregular connective tissue is structurally similar to
dense regular connective tissue, but the collagen fibers are thicker and they are oriented in many dif-
ferent directions.
160
Tissues and Skin
Dense Irregular Connective Tissue 1000X.
161
Tissues and Skin
Perichondrium
Hyaline Cartilage Connective Tissue 100X. Hyaline cartilage is primarily constructed by a dense mesh-
work of collagen fibers. It is avascular, and adult hyaline cartilage is encompassed by dense irregular
connective tissue except for on the articular surface of bones. This connective tissue is called the peri-
chondrium.
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Tissues and Skin
Chondrocytes
Hyaline Cartilage Connective Tissue 100X. Hyaline cartilage contains cells called chondrocytes which
reside within the lacunae (gaps) of the cartilage. The collagen fibers of the hyaline cartilage prevent
even distribution of the chondrocytes amongst the cartilage; therefore, clusters of chondrocytes called
nests (indicated by circles on the image above) often occur.
163
Tissues and Skin
Nest
Chondrocytes
Lacunae
Hyaline Cartilage Connective Tissue 1000X.
164
Tissues and Skin
Perichondrium
Hyaline Cartilage Connective Tissue 1000X.
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Tissues and Skin
Elastic Cartilage Connective Tissue 100X. Elastic cartilage is present when structural support is needed
along with elasticity (e.g., the outer ear). Elastic cartilage is similar to hyaline cartilage in that it is also
avascular, and has a perichondrium surrounding the outer surface. However, the elastic cartilage
makeup makes the structure appear rougher on a slide image, and the chondrocytes are larger in size.
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Tissues and Skin
Perichondrium
Elastic Cartilage Connective Tissue 100X. Elastic cartilage is similar to hyaline cartilage in that it is also
avascular, and has a perichondrium surrounding the surface. However, the elastic cartilage makeup
makes the structure appear rougher on a slide image, and the chondrocytes are larger in size.
167
Tissues and Skin
Lacunae
Chondrocytes
Elastic Cartilage Connective Tissue 1000X.
168
Tissues and Skin
Chondrocytes
Fibrocartilage Connective Tissue 100X. Like hyaline and elastic cartilage, fibrocartilage also has chon-
drocytes. Collagen fiber bundles are also abundant which allow the cartilage to provide support while
remaining compressible (e.g., within the spinal vertebrae).
169
Tissues and Skin
Lacunae
Chondrocyte
Fibrocartilage Connective Tissue 1000X.
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Tissues and Skin
Muscular Tissue
5. Observe each muscle tissue image, noting their similarities and differences. Pay close attention to the pres-
ence of striations, the shape of the muscle fibers and the number of nuclei present.
6. Use the annotations provided and refer to the Introduction for information to identify the muscular tissues
shown at the end of the procedure.
Cardiac Muscle Tissue 100X. Cardiac muscle is well known for its location and striations. It is only
found as a component of the heart walls. They are branched in structure and possess one nucleus (as
opposed to skeletal muscle which is cylindrical in shape and multi-nucleated). Cardiac muscle also pos-
sess intercalated discs which hold the cardiac muscle fibers together when the heart undergoes con-
traction.
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Tissues and Skin
Branched structure
Cardiac Muscle Tissue 100X. Note the branched structure.
Cardia
c muscl
e
cell nu
cleus
In t e
rcal
a t ed
d is c
s
Cardiac Muscle Tissue 1000X.
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Tissues and Skin
Muscle Fibers
Skeletal Muscle 100X. The multinucleated skeletal muscle fibers run parallel to each other.
Single Muscle
Nuclei Fiber
Skeletal Muscle 1000X. Striations resulting from the arrangement of contractile proteins that run
perpendicular to the muscle fiber.
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Tissues and Skin
Nervous Tissue
7. Observe each nervous tissue image. Pay close attention to cell body, dendrites (processes), axons and
nuclei in the neurons; as well as to the neuroglial cells
8. Refer to the Introduction for information to identify the nervous tissues shown at the end of the procedure.
Nervous Tissue 100X. Nervous tissue is composed of neurons and neuroglial cells. Neurons contain three
separate structures: the soma (also known as the cell body), dendrites, and axons. The soma, or body, hous-
es the majority of the cell organelles. Long, branched dendrites (also known as processes function to receive
nervous input from cells in the nervous system. Axons, typically long and unbranched, are the structures
which pass along the nervous input.
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Dendrites
Somas
Axons
Neuroglial Cells
Nervous Tissue 1000X. The plentiful neuroglial cells are the supporting cells of the nervous system.
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Epithelial Tissue
A) Epithelial Tissue Type: B) Epithelial Tissue Type:
Connective Tissue
C) Connective Tissue Type:
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Connective Tissue (continued)
D) Connective Tissue Type:
E) Connective Tissue Type:
Muscular Tissue
F) Muscular Tissue Type:
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Tissues and Skin
Muscular Tissue (continued)
G) Muscular Tissue Type:
Additional Tissue Type
H) Unidentified Tissue Type:
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Post-Lab Questions
1. What structural characteristics did you observe for each type of tissue? Be specific.
2. What is the difference between simple, stratified and pseudostratified epithelial tissue?
3. Describe the cell shape of squamous, cuboidal and columnar epithelial cells.
4. Does the number of cell layers or the cell shape play a role in the function of the epithelial tissue? Provide
three examples.
5. List and describe the different types of connective tissue. What similarities and differences did you notice
when viewing the prepared slides?
6. What are the three components of the extracellular matrix in connective tissue?
7. What are the three types of cartilage? What are their similarities and differences?
8. What are the three types of muscular tissue? For each, describe the cell shape, the type of control
(voluntary or involuntary) and the presence or absence of striations.
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9. Looking at the nervous tissue, state the cell processes visible (i.e., axon) on the prepared slide. For each
process, state the function.
10. What is the difference between multipolar, bipolar and unipolar neurons?
Experiment 2: Microscopic Slide Examination - Skin

The skin is a large organ that provides protection to the body. In this experiment, you will examine a prepared
slide of human skin with hair follicles.
Materials
Human Skin Digital Slide Image
Procedure
1. Observe each human skin digital slide image.
2. Distinguish between the epidermis and the dermis layers. Also look for the dermal papillae, sweat gland
ducts, hair follicles, and keratinocytes.
180 Human Skin 100X.

Tissues and Skin
Epidermis
Layer Sweat gland duct
Dermal Papillae
Dermis Layer
Human Skin 400X. The stratum corneum contains primarily keratinized cells. Dermal papillae can
form ridges that aid in gripping (fingerprints).
Human skin 1000X. The layers of the epidermis can be distinguished at this magnifica-
tion. The keratinocytes of the stratum granulosum contain dark staining granules. 181
Tissues and Skin
Hair follicle
Human skin 1000X. Enlargement of a hair follicle located in the dermis. The kerantinized hair
root and the hair matrix (region of cell division) are enclosed by the hair follicle.
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Post-Lab Questions
1. Label the arrows in the following slide image:
A B
C
Human Skin 400X.
D
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Tissues and Skin
2. For the following questions, state whether the statement pertains to the epidermis or dermis.
a. _________________ This layer consists of the papillary layer and the reticular layer
b. _________________ Composed of keratinized stratified Squamous epithelium
c. _________________ Langerhans cell and Merkel cell reside in this layer
d. _________________ Composed of dense irregular connective tissue
e. _________________ The fingerprint pattern, unique to each individual, is created in this layer
f. _________________ Outermost layer of skin
g. _________________ This layer has laminated granules and keratohyalin granules within the stra-
tum granulosum.
h. _________________ The dense supply of blood allows this layer to play a part in body tempera-
ture regulation
3. List the five layers of the epidermis from most internal to most external and describe their function.
4. List the two layers of the dermis from most internal to most external and describe their function.
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Experiment 3: Sweat Gland Distribution
Sweat glands, also called sudoriferous glands, are found all over the body and produce a water-like sub-
stance composed of salt and water. These glands function in body temperature regulation. In this experiment,
you will measure the density of sweat glands in different areas of the body.
Materials
Graph Paper Ruler
Tape *Scissors
Betadine® Swab
Stopwatch *You must provide
Procedure
1. Carefully measure and cut out four, 5.0 cm by 5.0 cm squares of graph paper. Then, locate a region on
your right anterior forearm, right palm, right anterior thigh, and right anterior foot that do not have large
creases. For example, the elbow region would NOT be an ideal region for this experiment.
2. Use the Betadine® swab to paint a square on each of your selected regions. This square should be slight-
ly larger than the graph paper square(s) you cut out in Step 1.
3. Allow the Betadine® to dry for one minute. Use the tape to secure a square of graph paper on each paint-
ed square. Be sure the graph paper is securely fastened. Keep the graph paper in place for approximately
20 minutes.
4. After 20 minutes, remove each graph paper square one at a time. Count the amount of dots on the paper.
Each dot will appear as a dark blue, brown, or black; and represents a sweat gland. Record the density of
sweat glands per cm2 for each region in Table 2.
Note: Your Betadine swab may not produce a high number of dots if your body does not sweat very
much. This is normal.
5. To remove the Betadine® from your skin, wash each area thoroughly with soap and water.
Table 2: Sweat Gland Distribution

Body Region Sweat Glands/cm2
Right Anterior Forearm
Right Palm
Right Anterior Thigh
Right Anterior Foot

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Post-Lab Questions
1. What area of the body had the greatest density of sweat glands, based on your experimental results?
What area had the lowest? Why do you think this is?
2. What is the purpose of sweat glands?
3. If you were to perform this same test on a friend, do you believe their results would be similar or different
to yours? Why or why not?
Experiment 4: Skin Receptors

The receptors for the sense of touch are distributed across the surface of the entire body. However, certain
parts of the body are more sensitive to touch than others, as they have a higher concentration of the recep-
tors in that area. In this activity, you will determine which areas of your body are most sensitive to touch.
Materials
16 Paperclips *Partner
Ruler
Tape *You must provide
Procedure
1. Make a caliper by unwinding two of the paperclips until they are straightened. Then, bend each paperclip
in the middle to form a U-shape. There should be approximate-
ly 0.5 cm between the two tips of each paperclip after being
bent into a U-shape.
2. Tightly wrap each tip with a small piece of adhesive tape. This
minimizes any sharp points on the paperclip. See Figure 7.
3. Repeat Steps 1 - 2 for the remaining paperclips with the ends

Figure 7: Paperclip shape reference.
set 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5 and 4.0 cm apart. When finished,
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Tissues and Skin
you should have two calipers for each other the eight possible sizes.
4. To test the sensitivity of different body regions, ask your partner to close his/her eyes. Start with the larg-
est caliper (the one with 4.0 cm between the tips) and place both tips of the paperclip onto the left side of
your partner’s scalp. Do NOT tell your partner if you place one or both of the tips on his/her head.
5. Ask your partner how many points s/he can distinguish. If s/he can feel two points, move on to the 3.5 cm
caliper and test again (your partner should keep his/her eyes closed!). Repeat until your partner can only
feel one point. Record the caliper size at which only one point can be felt in Table 3.
6. Continue to test different regions on the left side of the body. Use Table 3 to select body regions.
7. Repeat Steps 4 - 5 on the right side. Observe if there is a difference between the left and right sides of the
body, and record your results in Table 3.
Table 3: Two-Point Discrimination Test Results

Body Region Left Side Caliper Measurement Right Side Caliper Measurement
Scalp
Forehead
Lips
Front of Neck
Back of Neck
Shoulder
Upper Arm
Elbow
Forearm
Wrist
Back of Hand
Palm of Hand
Tip of Thumb
Tip of Second Finger
Tip of Third Finger
Tip of Fourth Finger
Tip of Fifth Finger
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Post-Lab Questions
1. Which region was most sensitive to this test? Which was least sensitive?
2. Can you think of an advantage to having a greater distribution of touch receptors in the area that you
found to be most sensitive?
3. Was there a difference between the measurements of the left and right side of the body? Why or why not?
Experiment 5: Introduction to the Fetal Pig

The dissection experiments in this lab manual use a fetal pig to examine many anatomical systems. Because
the pig is a mammal, many of its anatomical structures are very similar to those of the human body. This ren-
ders the fetal pig as a realistic model of the systems within the human body.
Materials
Fetal Pig Dissection Tools Kit

Dissection Tray String
Procedure
1. To begin, lay your underpad down and place your dissecting tray on top of it. Lay out your dissecting
tools. Be sure you have all of your safety equipment on before beginning.
2. Once prepared, gently open the bag your pig is in.
Note: DO NOT destroy this bag or empty out the preserving solution within the bag, you will need it for
the whole semester.
3. Lay your pig into the dissecting tray, ventral side-up. Tie a piece of string to each of the pig’s legs (forearm
to foreleg; hind leg to hind leg) and tie together the strings from the forearms and the strings from the hind
legs on the underside of the dissecting tray, allowing the pig’s belly to be exposed.
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Tissues and Skin
4. Look at the exterior of the pig. You may notice a thin, peeling layer of embryonic tissue covering your pig.
This layer is called the epitrichium and sloughs off as the pig develops hair.
5. Also spend some time looking at the details of the skin. Make observations regarding the look and feel of
the skin before any dissection has occurred.
6. The pig can be divided into four sections: the head, the neck, the trunk and the tail. Beginning with the
head region, locate the snout, nares (nostrils), pinnae (external ears) and the upper and lower eyelid.
Make observations in Table 4 regarding what you notice. Also, list what type of tissue(s) you think make
up these structures.
7. Moving to the neck region, notice that there are not any external structures present. Do pay attention to
the thickness of this region.
8. Inferior to the neck is the truck region. While making observational notes in Table 4, notice the forelegs
and hind legs, each attached to a shoulder of the pig. On each hoof, notice there are only four toes.
9. Look for the mammary papillae as well (Figure 8). Typically a fetal pig will possess five to seven pairs.
10. Also take note of the umbilical cord (Figure 8). This cord provides contact between the mother and fetus
during gestation.
11. Caudal of the umbilical cord is the tail. Between the umbilical cord and the tail lies the anus of the pig. Al-
so located in this region is the urogenital opening. Determine the sex of your pig. Male pigs will display a
penis and a scrotum (a sac of skin ventral to the anus). Female pigs display labia (small folds on both
sides of the urogenital opening) that come together to form the genital papilla. Record your observations
in Table 4.
12. As you finish with your external observations, remember that throughout the dissection you will encounter
many different tissues. Many tissues lie superficial to the skin and are therefore not currently visible. As
the dissection progresses, always take note of the tissues present in each experiment.
13. To finish, slide the strings off the dissection tray. Keep the strings tied to the hooves of your pig.
14. Locate the bag the pig came in. Gently place the pig back into the bag and tightly secure the bag with a
rubber band, or place in the zip-seal bag provided in the dissection box.
15. Now that the bag has been opened, the pig must be kept in a dark, cool environment.
16. After your pig has been put away, clean off your dissecting tray and dissection tools with soap and water.
Because we have not cut into the pig, there should not be any biological scraps. But always remember,
biological scraps should not be thrown into the garbage. Securely store the biological scraps until the end
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Tissues and Skin
of the term so they can be properly disposed of at one time.
17. Clean the area in which you worked with soap and water. As long as the underpad has not been dam-
aged, keep it for future experiments.
Hindleg
Umbilical Cord
Mammillary Papillae
Foreleg
Figure 8: The ventral side of the fetal pig.
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Tissues and Skin
Table 4: External Observation of the Fetal Pig
Area Observations
Skin
Head Region
Neck Region
Trunk Region
Tail Region (including sex of pig)
191
Lab 6
The Skeletal System
The Skeletal System
Concepts to Explore
• Axial Skeleton • Bone Marrow
• Appendicular Skeleton • Types of Bones
• Osseous Tissue • Remodeling
• Cortical Bone • Joints
• Trabecular Bone • Cartilage
Introduction
The 206 bones in the human body (270 bones in infants) play a vital role. The skeletal system is constructed
of cartilage, bone, and the membranes that line the bones. It supports and protects the body, and also ena-
bles movement, stores key nutrients, and produces new blood cells. Each bone is an organ that consists of
mineralized osseous tissue, blood, cartilage, adipose tissue, connective tissue, nervous tissue, and blood
vessels. Bones can also adapt to stresses imposed upon it through a continuous cycle of remodeling.
Figure 1: The skeletal system is made of more than 200 bones.
Axial vs. Appendicular Skeletons

The skeleton is organized into two groups: the axial skeleton (80 bones) and the appendicular skeleton (126
bones). The axial skeleton revolves around the vertical axis of the skeleton. This includes the cranium, spi-
nal column, and bony thorax (sternum and ribs). The axial skeleton provides the body’s principal source of
mechanical support. It also protects vital organs such as the brain and the heart. Tables 1, 2, and 3 define
major cranial bones, locations, and markings. Table 4 defines major facial bones. The appendicular skele-
ton includes the upper and lower limbs. These bones are more susceptible to breaking or dislocating than the
axial skeleton bones. However, they are also much less severe than when they occur in the axial skeleton.
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The Skeletal System
Table 1: Cranial Bone Locations
Bone Cranial Bone Location
Frontal Bone • Forehead (anterior).
Parietal Bones • Superior lateral wall on both sides of skull, come together at the midline of the skull (top).
Temporal Bones • Lateral wall inferior to the Parietal Bone on both sides of skull, extends inferiorly behind
ears.
Occipital Bone • Posterior portion of the skull extending inferiorly.
Sphenoid Bone • Base of the skull, forms the superior and lateral walls of the eye, posterior to ethmoid, can
only palpate greater wing located anterior to the ear.
Ethmoid Bone • Floor of the anterior portion of the skull, roof of the nose, connects cranial and facial bones.
Table 2: Specified Cranial Bone Markings
Bone Specified Cranial Bone Markings
Frontal • Supraorbital foramen - Small openings above the orbit of the eye allowing the supraorbital nerve
Bone and blood vessels to pass through.
Temporal • External Auditory Meatus - Small passageway that leads from the external ear to the eardrum (the
Bones tympanic membrane).
• Styloid Process - Long and thin projection inferior to the external auditory meatus that attaches to
muscles and ligaments of the neck and tongue.
• Mastoid Process - Rough, rounded attachment site for muscles posterior to the external auditory
meatus.
• Zygomatic Process - Bridge-like projection that articulates with the Zygomatic Bone forming the
Zygomatic Arch.
• Mandibular Fossa - Depressions on the inferior portion of they zygomatic process that articulates
with the mandibular condyle.
• Stylomastoid Foramen - Opening for cranial nerve VII.
• Jugular Foramen - Opening for jugular vein and cranial nerves IX, X and XI.
• Carotid Foramen (canal) - Opening for internal carotid artery.
• Foramen Lacerum - Jagged opening filled with cartilage that provides a channel for small nerves.
• Internal Auditory Meatus - Opening for cranial nerves VII and VIII.
Occipital • Foramen Magnum - Opening at the base of the occipital allowing for the lower brain and spinal
Bone cord to connect.
• Occipital Condyles - Rounded projection that articulates with the atlas (first cervical vertebra)
• Hypoglossal Canal - Opening for cranial nerve XII (hypoglossal nerve).
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The Skeletal System
Table 3: Cranial Bone Markings (continued)
Bone Specified Cranial Bone Markings
Sphenoid Bone • Greater and Lesser Wings - Anterior to the temporal, form a portion of the anterior and
lateral floor of the cranium and a portion of the orbits of the eyes.
• Superior Orbital Fissures - Opening for cranial nerves III, IV, V and VI as well as blood
vessels to enter the orbit.
• Sella Turcica - Depression in the midline of the sphenoid that encloses the pituitary
gland.
• Optic Foramina - Opening for cranial nerve II.
• Foramen Ovale - Opening for mandibular branch of cranial nerve V posterior to the sella
turcica.
• Foramen Rotundum - Opening for maxillary branch cranial nerve V.
Ethmoid Bone • Crista Galli - Projection providing attachment point for dura mater.
• Cribiform Plates - Lateral to the crista galli, together form the perpendicular plate.
• Perpendicular Plate - Superior portion of the nasal septum.
• Superior and Middle Nasal Conchae - Projections on the lateral walls of the nasal cavity.
Mandible • Alveoli - Tooth socket.
• Body - Curved portion that forms the chin.
• Ramus - Posterior extensions on either side of the body.
• Mental Foramen - Opening on the mandibular body for blood vessels and nerves.
• Mandibular Condyles - Round projections on the rami that articulate with the mandibu-
lar fossa of the temporal bone.
• Coronoid Process - Triangular anterior portion of the ramus where muscles attach.
Maxilla • Alveoli - Tooth sockets.
• Palantine Process - Form anterior portion of hard palate.
• Infraorbital Foramen - Opening under the orbit allowing nerves and blood vessels into
the nasal cavity.
Zygomatic Bones • Temporal Process - Posterior projection that forms the zygomatic arch with the zygo-
matic process of the temporal bone.
Lacrimal Bones • Lacrimal Fossa - Opening that holds the lacrimal sac; channel for tears.
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The Skeletal System
Table 4: Facial Bone Markings
Bone Location
Mandible Lower jaw, articulates with temporal bone, only bone in the skull that is mobile.
Maxilla Articulation of the two bones forms upper jaw and hard palate, inferior portion of the or-
bit, carry upper teeth.
Palatine Bones Posterior one-third of the hard palate.
Zygomatic Bones Bones form the observable cheek, extend superiorly towards the frontal bone, medially
towards the maxilla and posterior towards the temporal bone.
Lacrimal Bones Small bone located in the medial wall of the orbital.
Nasal Bones Articulate medially to form the bridge of the nose.
Inferior Nasal Small bones extending off the maxilla into the nasal cavity, churn air as it enters the nasal
Conchae cavity.
Vomer Midline of the nasal cavity, divides the cavity into the right and left halves (nostril).
Bone is made of mineralized osseous tissue. This tissue is rigid, yet porous. In other words, it is not a solid
material and has hollows distributed among its hard material. This allows cells to penetrate and thrive within
this matrix. Osseous tissue is a relatively hard and lightweight composite material formed mainly from organic
matrix of collagen (secreted by osteoblasts) and inorganic molecules called hydroxyapatite (calcium salts). It
displays compressive strength but weakness in tension.
Cortical and Trabecular Bones

Depending on the orientation of collagen fibers, two
types of bone can be distinguished: cortical (also called
lamellar or compact bone) and trabecular (also called
cancellous or spongy) bone. Cortical bone is the hard
mineralized material that forms the shafts of long bones.
It consists of cylindrical units called osteons, or Haver-
sian systems. Osteons have a central canal surrounded
by concentric lamellae of hard, calcified matrix. Mature
bone cells called osteocytes are lodged in lacunae be-
tween the lamellae, and are connected to each other and
the central canal via canaliculi (singular canaliculus).
Volkmann’s canals, also called perforating canals, ena-
ble blood vessels to penetrate the bone. Nutrients travel Figure 2: Ground bone at 100X magnification. What
to the osteocytes in blood vessels through Volkmann’s structures are evident at this magnification?
canals and central canals.
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The Skeletal System
Trabecular bone has slender trabeculae constructed of irregular lamellae (thin, plate-like structures) a few
cell-layers thick. These plates form irregular networks. Osteocytes reside in small spaces called lacunae be-
tween calcified lamellae. Red bone marrow fills the internal cavities of this type of bone.
Bone marrow is a flexible tissue found in the hallow cavities of bones constructed with trabecular bone.
There are two types of bone marrow – red marrow and yellow marrow. Red marrow is made from myeloid tis-
sue and is a source of hematopoietic stem cells that can act as a source for new blood cells. Yellow marrow
is mainly adipose tissue.
Types of Bones
Bones are classified as long, short, flat, sesamoid, or irregular based on shape and the ratio of compact to
spongy bone. A long bone is longer than it is wide, and widens at the extremities. Each has a diaphysis
(cortical bone shaft) and epiphyses (spongy bone ends). A cavity called the medullary be located in the diaph-
ysis. The endosteum, consisting of a thin layer of cells, lines the medullary canal. In adults, the canal contains
yellow marrow. An external covering of dense, highly-vascularized connective tissue called the periosteum
shields the diaphysis and serves as an attachment point for muscles and tendons. Bone remodeling, which
includes resorption and deposition of bone matrix by osteoclasts and osteoblasts, respectively, occurs
throughout life. These two cell types are found under the periosteum.
Short bones are nearly proportional in width and length,

exhibiting a cube-shape. They have only a thin layer of
cortical bone surrounding a spongy interior. Flat bones
display a flattened shape and are generally curved.
They are constructed with two parallel layers of cortical
bone with a thin layer of trabecular bone in between
each layer. Red marrow is also found in flat bones. Ir-
regular bones have unique shapes which do not classi-
fy as long, flat or short. This includes bones such as
vertebrae and hip bones. They are a “sandwich” of cor-
tical and trabecular bone, similar to the mix featured in
flat bones. Lastly, sesamoid bones are bones which are
embedded within a tendon. Sesamoid bones protect
the tendon and increase its mechanical effectiveness. Figure 3: Parts of a long bone.
Remodeling
Remodeling is a continual process which bone cells undergo to create new bone (ossification) and remove
old bone (resorption). As a result, bones contain both living and dead cells entrapped in the mineralized ma-
trix that forms the bone tissue. There are several types of cells involved in remodeling. Osteoblasts are mon-
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The Skeletal System
onucleate, bone-forming cells that produce osteoid from collagen. When mineralized, this material becomes
the bone matrix. Osteoblasts also manufacture hormones that act on the bone tissue. Inactive osteoblasts
form a barrier on the surface of the bone to protect against certain ions. Osteocytes are mature osteoblasts
that have entrapped themselves in the matrix they produce. They occupy the lacunae and have numerous
processes that join with neighboring osteocytes and osteoblasts to allow them to communicate. Together, the
osteocytes and osteoblasts form bone, influence the maintenance of the matrix found within the bone, and
monitor calcium homeostasis.
Table 5: Bone Classification

Classification Description Example
Long Bone Longer than they are wide Femur
Short Bone About as wide as they are long Carpals
Flat Bone Thin and flat, may be curved Scapulae
Irregular Bone Vary in shape, do not fit into any other category Vertebrae
Sesamoid Bone Small bones formed in tendons Patella (Kneecap)
Classification Location
Axial Form the vertical axis of the body
Appendicular The appendages of the body
Mechanoreceptors play an important role in bone remodeling. These proteins provide the means by which
osteocytes regulate stress response, mechanical loads, chemical and hormonal signals, and new bone de-
posits. According to Wolff’s Law, bones thicken, become more dense, or rearrange their trabeculae in sites
where stressed. Osteoblasts add to the existing bone, and therefore another cell type is required to resorb
bone when a lack of stress or mechanical load signals this change. These cells are called osteoclasts. Oste-
oclasts are large, multi-nucleate cells located on the surface of bones. They migrate to a specific area, and
secrete lysosomal enzymes that hydrolyze the mineral substrate of bone. The action of osteoblasts and oste-
oclasts are controlled by a number of chemical and hormonal factors, in addition to cell signaling to control
the activity of each other.
Blood Calcium
Blood calcium levels need to be accurately maintained in the body due to calcium’s integral role in muscle
contractions, nerve impulse transmission, and blood clotting. As mentioned earlier, bone acts as a storage
site for minerals, especially calcium. Low blood calcium concentrations stimulate the parathyroid gland to re-
lease parathyroid hormone. Parathyroid hormone stimulates osteoclasts, which then results in a surge of cal-
cium release from bones into the blood. On the contrary, high blood calcium levels lead to the release of cal-
citonin from the thyroid gland. Calcitonin is an antagonist to parathyroid hormone and will stimulate osteo-
blasts. Together, these hormones maintain the blood calcium concentration.
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The Skeletal System
Figure 4: The process of bone remodeling.
Cartilage
Cartilage is a firm but elastic connective tissue composed from a matrix containing chondroitin sulfate
(ground substance) and collagen or elastic protein fibers that bind with water. It is present throughout the
skeletal system, in the two varieties: hyaline and fibrocartilage.
• Hyaline cartilage - Cartilage with a clear translucent matrix. This type of cartilage is found primarily on
the ends of ribs and on the trachea, and covers the end of bone to form the smooth articular surface.
• Fibrocartilage - Cartilage containing many collagen fibers, resulting in tough tissue. This type of carti-
lage is found in the intervertebral disks and pubic symphysis, as well as attachments of certain ten-
dons and ligaments.
Cartilage does not contain blood vessels, but cells receive vital nutrients via diffusion. Together with bone,
this strong tissue creates the skeleton.
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The Skeletal System
Joints
The site where two bones meet is called a joint. Joints connect
bones together and permit various degrees of movement.
Joints can be classified into three structural groups: fibrous,
cartilaginous, and synovial joints. Fibrous joints occur where
two bones are held together by fibrous connective tissue. This
dense tissue prohibits movement. The suture joints found be-
tween the bones of the skull provide an example of fibrous
joints. Cartilage unites the two bones of cartilaginous joints.
Cartilaginous joints permit slight mobility. Intervertebral discs
found between vertebrae provide an example of cartilaginous
joints. Lastly, synovial joints possess a joint cavity enclosed
by a fibrous capsule. These capsules contain synovial fluid,
which helps lubricate and protect the bones. Thus, the two Figure 5: The main shoulder joint is where
bones coming together are not directly joined and can engage the humerus attaches to the scapula. Also
in a variety of movements. Synovial joints comprise most of called the glenohumeral joint, this ball and
the joints found within the human skeletal system. socket joint allows the arm to rotate and to
hinge up and away from the body.
Figure 6: Major synovial joints on the human body.

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The Skeletal System
Figure 7: Joints occur where two or more bones come together.

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The Skeletal System
Pre-Lab Questions
1. List the functions of the skeletal system.
2. What material contributes greatest to the compressive strength of bone?
3. Briefly describe the process of bone remodeling.
4. Research Wolff’s Law. How does the formation of torus mandibularis relate to this proven theory?
5. Given your understanding of Wolff’s Law, what mechanical considerations would be important when de-
signing a bioreactor for osteocytes growth ex vivo?
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The Skeletal System
Experiment 1: Classification of Bones
Bones are primarily classified by two factors: shape and location. In this exercise, you will use the model skel-
eton and determine the classification of the specified bones.
Materials
Skeleton Model
Procedure
1. Begin by looking over the model skeleton. You will be classifying any 10 bones on the skeleton and de-
scribing them in Table 6.
2. Use Table 5 (Introduction) to classify the shape of each of the 10 selected bones. Record your findings in
Table 6.
3. Next, classify each bone based on its location. Record your findings in Table 6.
Table 6: Classification of Numbered Bones

Bone Name Classification by Shape Classification by Location
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The Skeletal System
Post-Lab Questions
1. Why is it important to classify bones?
2. Aside from length, what are some other common characteristics of a long bone? Are long bones typically
associated with the axial or appendicular skeleton?
3. Compare flat bones and long bones. How are they different? How are they the same?
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The Skeletal System
Experiment 2: Digital Slide Image Examination - Bone
In this experiment, you will explore the components within cortical and trabecular bone.
Materials
Cortical (Compact) Bone Digital Slide Image
Trabecular (Spongy) Bone Digital Slide Image
Procedure
1. Examine the cortical bone digital slide images. Look for examples of a Haversian (central) canal, a Haver-
sian system (osteon), a concentric lamellae, and an interstitial lamellae.
2. Next, locate the trabecular digital slide images. Look for the trabeculae. Then, look for the lacunae (you
will need to use the high magnification images to find this).
Haversian
system
Haversian canals
Interstitial lamellae
Concentric
lamellae
Cortical Bone 100X. Cylindrical units called osteons are notable in cortical bone.
207
The Skeletal System
Cortical Bone 100X.
Lacunae containing osteocytes
Canaliculi Lamella
Cortical Bone 1000X. Osteocytes, mature bone cells, are located in cavities called lacunae.
208 Canaliculi provide passageways for nutrients traveling to the osteocytes.
The Skeletal System
Trabeculae
Ma
rro
w
Ca
vit
y
Trabecular Bone (Spongy Bone) 100X. Marrow fills the internal cavities found in trabecu-
lar bone.
Trabeculae
Marrow Cavity
Trabecular Bone 1000X. 209

The Skeletal System
Post-Lab Questions
1. Label the arrows in the following digital slide images:
Cortical Bone 100X.
A
D
210
The Skeletal System
A
Trabecular Bone: 100X

B
2. Compare and contrast the structure of cortical and trabecular bone.
3. What is the purpose of cortical bone? What is the purpose of trabecular bone?
4. What are trabeculae? What is their function?
5. What are Haversian systems? What is their function?
211
The Skeletal System
Experiment 3: Owl Pellet Dissection
Birds of prey often consume their prey items whole, rather than selecting for the digestible components. How-
ever, proteolytic enzymes present within the bird’s stomach are not capable of digesting all of the different
structures found in an organism, and often can’t break down items such as hair, bone, teeth, bones, or exo-
skeletons. As a result, owls (like many other predatory bird species) produce and regurgitate pellets which
contain many of these indigestible items approximately 18 - 20 hours prior to consumption. Very small bones
or bone fragments occasionally pass through the pyloric sphincter and proceed through the digestive system,
but pellets often contain complete animal skeletons.
In this experiment, you will probe a barn owl (Tyto alba) pellet to learn more about the skeletal system’s gen-
eral physical characteristics. Note that some of the bones which you recover from the pellet will appear ho-
mologous to a human skeleton (e.g., the ribs and vertebra), while others will vary significantly (e.g., the skull).
Materials
Black Construction Paper 250 mL Beaker

Owl Pellet Aluminum Foil
Hand Lens *Water
Forceps (from Dissection Tools Kit) *Paper Towel
2 Toothpicks
Note: Save the bones you recover from the owl pellet for the next experiment (Effect of Acid on
Bones) in a sealed container.
Caution: The owl pellets have been heat-treated but may still harbor microbes. Wear protective goggles,
gloves, and apron when performing this experiment. Thoroughly wash your hands and all work surfaces with
warm water and soap after complete.
Procedure
1. With your gloves on, unwrap the aluminum foil from the owl pellet and set the pellet atop the black con-
struction paper. This will make it easier to identify the bones in the pellet as you dissect.
2. Measure the dimensions of your pellet. Record your data in Table 7.
3. Review the physical characteristics of the pellet such as texture, color, scent, etc. Be sure to use the
212
The Skeletal System
wafting technique to detect the scent of the pellet (see the Appendix for a description of this technique).
Record your observations in Table 7.
4. Carefully use the toothpicks and forceps to probe the pellet. If your pellet feels very firm, submerge it in a
beaker filled with water for 1 - 3 minutes to soften it.
5. Isolate any bones you come across.
6. Continue to probe the pellet for the bones, removing fur and debris from the bones. Note that the bones
will be fragile. Be careful not to break any of the bones during the dissection.
7. Use Figure 8 to identify the bones found in the pellet. Record the bones you identify in Table 7.
8. Try to recreate the skeleton of one animal found in the pellet by organizing the bones in the arrangement
of the skeletal system. Pay particular attention to where the joints might have been located.
Note: Each pellet is likely to contain bones from several different animal species. Be sure to refer to
Figure 8 to complete this step.
9. Empty the water from the 250 mL beaker (if you used it) and dry the beaker with a paper towel.
10. Use the forceps to gently place the bones in the 250 mL beaker and cover the beaker with foil.
11. Dispose of the pellet in a trash receptacle, and store the beaker in a place safe from students or animals.
Keep the bones for use in Experiment 4.
Table 7: Owl Pellet Data
Pellet Characteristics
Pellet Length (cm):
Pellet Width (cm):
Physical Observations:
Bone Animal Source Number of Bones
Skull
Jaw
Scapula
Rib
Vertebrae
Hindlimb
Forelimb
Pelvic bone
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The Skeletal System
Figure 8: Owl pellet bone identification chart.
214
The Skeletal System
Post-Lab Questions
1. What types of bones did you recover from the pellet?
2. Compare the bones you dissected in the owl pellet to human bones. Which bones are similar, which
bones are different, and why?
3. How can scientists use owl pellets to study the skeletal systems of small mammals in a specific ecosys-
tem?
4. Other birds of prey produce pellets as well, and the contents are dictated by where the bird lives. What
would you expect to find in the pellet from a shorebird, such as a gull?
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The Skeletal System
Experiment 4: Effects of Acid on Bone
As you have learned, the skeletal system provides critical strength and support to the body. Remarkably,
bones are fairly light weight but can resist large amounts of stress. Within the bone, collagen fibers provide
the strength and flexibility that bones need to handle the stress they bear. The hardness and firmness of the
bone comes from mineral compounds. If these components are damaged, the structure of the bone may also
change. In this lab, you will examine the effect that excessive acid have on the structure of bone.
Materials
Recovered Bones from Owl Pellet Forceps (from Dissection Tools Kit)
200 mL Acetic Acid (Vinegar), C2H4O2 *Water
(2) 250 mL Beakers
Aluminum Foil *You must provide
Permanent Marker
Note: This lab requires five days of observation. Wear gloves when handling bones.
Procedure
1. Use the permanent marker to label the two 250 mL beakers as 1 and 2.
2. Measure and pour 200 mL of water into Beaker 1.
3. Measure and pour 200 mL of vinegar into Beaker 2.
4. Locate the bones from your owl pellet experiment. Sort out the bones into two, similar groups. For exam-
ple, try to locate two forelimbs, hindlimbs, pelvic bones, etc. that are similar size/shape. Aim to create two
separate groups with four to five different bones each.
Note: It is helpful to create similar groupings for comparative analysis of the results. It is okay if you
cannot find two copies of similar bones, but try to create groups that are as similar as possible.
5. Use the forceps or a gloved hand to gently place the first group of bones in Beaker 1. The bones may
float or sink. Cover the beaker with aluminum foil and let sit at room temperature for five days.
6. Use the forceps or a gloved hand to gently place the second group of bones in Beaker 2. Again, the
bones may float or sink. Cover the beaker with aluminum foil let sit at room temperature for five days.
7. On the 5th day, remove the vinegar and water from Beaker 1 and Beaker 2, respectively. Carefully pour
the bones onto the underpad, keeping the two groups separated.
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The Skeletal System
8. Visually examine the physical characteristics of the bones. Record your observations in Table 8.
9. Using a gloved hand, gently try bending each of the three bone specimens. Notice the differences in the
flexibility. Record your observations in Table 8.
Table 8: Effect of Acid on Pellet Bones

Beaker Observations
Beaker 1: Water
Beaker 2: Vinegar
Post-Lab Questions
1. Which group of bones is more flexible? Why is this so?
2. What was damaged in the bone placed in the vinegar?
3. How might the experimental results vary if the same procedure was performed using bones which had not
been regurgitated in an owl pellet (such as a raw chicken bone)?
4. Some people suffer from a disease called Rickets in which their bones have not been adequately calci-
fied. Which group of bones is most similar to that of a patient with Rickets? Why?
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The Skeletal System
Experiment 5: Physical Skeleton - The Axial Skeleton
As you have learned, the bones of the body are separated into the axial and appendicular skeleton based on
their location. The axial skeleton is divided into three regions: the skull, the vertebral column and the thoracic
cage. In this exercise, we will look at the bones that comprise each of these three regions, along with their
functionality.
Materials
Skeleton Model
Procedure
The Skull
1. The skull is divided into two types of bones: cranial bones and facial bones. Begin by locating the cranial
bones of the skull on the model skeleton. The cranium is composed of eight bones: frontal bone, two pari-
etal bones, two temporal bones, occipital bone, sphenoid bone and the ethmoid bone. Use Figures 9 and
10 as guides.
2. On your own skull, palpate the cranial bones (you may not be able to palpate all bones). You may need
to stand in front of a mirror to be sure you are palpating the correct area. Use Figures 9 and 10, and Ta-
ble 1 as guides.
3. Next, try and locate the specified cranial bone markings listed in Tables 2 and 3 (Introduction) on the
model skeleton.
4. Next, locate the facial bones of the skull on the model skeleton. There are 14 facial bones: mandible, two
maxillae, two palatine bones, two zygomatic bones, two lacrimal bones, two nasal bones, two inferior na-
sal conchae and vomer. Use Figure 9 and 10 and Table 4 (Introduction) as guides.
5. On your own skull, palpate the facial bones (you will probably not be able to palpate all bones). You may
need to stand in front of a mirror to be sure you are palpating the correct areas.
6. Next, locate the specified facial bone markings on the model skeleton. Use Table 4 (Introduction) as a
guide.
7. Locate and palpate the hyoid bone. It is located above the larynx and attaches to the tongue and other
muscles of the neck. Use Figure 11 as a guide.
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The Skeletal System
Parietal Bone
Frontal Bone
Sphenoid Bone
Occipital Bone
Ethmoid Bone
Zygomatic Bone
Zygomatic Temporal Bone

Process
Maxilla
Mandible
Figure 9: Cranial bones.
219
The Skeletal System
Occipital Bone
Parietal Bone
Frontal Bone
Figure 10: Cranial bones.
Hyoid Bone
Figure 11: The hyoid bone.
220
The Skeletal System
The Vertebral Column
1. Begin by locating the vertebral column on the model skeleton.
2. Next, locate the three vertebral regions of the vertebral column (see Figure 12):
• Cervical vertebrae - Superior portion of vertebral column forming the neck region composed of
seven vertebrae (C1 - C7).
• Thoracic vertebrae - Located in the thorax, these 12 (T1 - T12) vertebrae articulate with the ribs.
• Lumbar vertebrae - Five vertebrae (L1 - L5) located in the lower back .
3. Continuing down the vertebral column, locate the sacrum and coccyx. The sacrum lies inferior to the 5th
lumbar vertebrae. Inferior to the sacrum lies the coccyx. The sacrum is composed of five fused vertebrae
whereas the smaller coccyx is composed of four fused vertebrae.
C1-C7
T1-T12
L1-L5
Sacrum
Coccyx
Figure 12: The vertebral column 221

The Skeletal System
4. Next, observe the curvatures of the spine. Notice the primary curvatures of the thoracic and sacral re-
gions (concave, anterior facing) and the secondary curvatures of the cervical and lumbar regions
(concave, posteriorly facing).
5. Now, locate the individual vertebra. Observe the common features in Table 8.
Table 8: Vertebral Feature Locations
Vertebral Feature Location
Vertebral Body Central, anterior portion used in transmitting weight throughout the body.
Vertebral Arch Composed of pedicles and lamina that extend posteriorly from the vertebral body.
Vertebral Foramen Opening formed by the vertebral body and vertebral arch through which the spinal cord
passes.
Transverse Processes Lateral projections off each side of the vertebral arch.
Spinous Process Posterior projection off the medial portion of the vertebral arch.
Inferior and Superior Lateral paired projections off the vertebral foramen used in articulation with neighboring
Articular Processes vertebrae. Inferior Articular Processes project inferiorly from the pedicle whereas the Supe-
rior Articular Processes project superior to the pedicle.
Intervertebral Foramina Opening between vertebrae that allow the spinal nerves to enter.
6. Looking again at the model skeleton, notice the intervertebral discs between the bodies of neighboring
vertebrae. This fibrocartilage cushion is located between all vertebrae except C1 and C2.
7. Looking closer at the cervical region, notice that the C1 vertebra, called the atlas, does not contain a ver-
tebral body. Instead, the superior surface of this vertebrae contains deep indents that articulate with the
occipital condyles at the base of the skull. This articulation, called the atlantooccipital joint, allows for the
nodding “yes” motion of the head.
8. Inferior to the atlas is the C2 vertebra, called the axis. This vertebra contains a large superior projection
called the dens that articulates with the atlas to allow the “no” rotation of the head.
9. The remaining cervical vertebrae possess a few unique characteristics. Examine the specified features of
the cervical region and record your observations in Table 9.
10. The spinous process of the C7 vertebra is also called the vertebra prominens because of its size and lo-
cation. Palpate your vertebra prominens. To do this, place your hand on the superior midline of your neck
and slowly begin moving inferiorly. The first prominent bony projection you come across is the vertebra
prominens.
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The Skeletal System
Table 9: Cervical Vertebrae Observations
Vertebral Feature Observations
Size of cervical vertebrae in compari-

son to those of the thoracic and lum-
bar region
Shape of the vertebral foramen
Spinous Process of the C3 - C6

Vertebrae
Spinous Process of the C7 Vertebra
11. Using the model skeleton, now locate the twelve thoracic vertebrae. Remember, these vertebrae can be
easily spotted because of their articulation with the ribs.
12. Examine the specified features of the thoracic region and record your observations in Table 10.
Table 10: Thoracic Vertebrae Observations
Size and weight of the thoracic vertebrae in com-

parison to those of the cervical and lumbar region
Shape of the vertebral body
Appearance and projection direction of the Spinous

Process
13. When looking at the articulation between the thoracic vertebrae and the ribs, notice the inferior and supe-
rior costal facets (flat surfaces) off the vertebral body.
14. Continuing to move inferiorly, locate the five vertebrae of the lumbar region. Examine the specified fea-
tures and record your observations in Table 11.
15. Inferior to the L5 vertebra lies the sacrum. The sacrum is composed of five vertebrae that have been
fused together. Using Table 12, locate the specified features of the sacrum on your skeleton. Use Figure
13 as a guide.
16. You may attempt to palpate the median sacral crest of your own sacrum. However, this should only be
done in private due to the location of the sacrum.
17. Continuing to move inferiorly, locate the coccyx on your skeleton. This bone is typically formed by the fu-
sion of 3 - 5 (though most often four) vertebrae. This is the tail bone of the human body and represents a
vestige of a tail that develops during the early embryonic stages but disappears before birth.
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The Skeletal System
Table 11: Lumbar Vertebrae Observations
Size of the lumbar vertebrae in com-

parison to those of the cervical and
lumbar region
Shape of the vertebral body
Appearance and projection direction

of the Spinous Process
Table 12: Sacral Feature Locations
Sacral Feature Location
Median Sacral Crest Bony projections located on the midline of the dorsal surface, composed of the spinous
processes of the fused vertebrae.
Alae Bony projections formed from the fusion of the transverse processes of the fused verte-
brae located on the lateral edges, articulate laterally with the hip bone and assist in
weight distribution.
Sacral Foramina Small openings located ventrally and dorsally that transport nerves and blood vessels.
Sacral Canal Continuation of the vertebral canal, ends at the sacral hiatus (a large opening near the
coccyx).
Sacral Promontory Bony protrusion on the anterior body of the sacrum used as a marker for obstetric meas-
urements.
Ala (pl. Alae)
Median Sacral Crest
Figure 13: The sacrum.

224
The Skeletal System
The Thoracic Cage
1. The thoracic cage is composed of the sternum and the 12 pairs of ribs. This structure functions
in the protection of the organs within the thoracic cavity, such as the lungs and the heart.
2. Locate the sternum on the skeleton model. The sternum is a flat bone located on the anterior surface of
the thoracic cage. It is composed of three bones that have been fused together: the manubrium, the body
and the xiphoid process. Use Table 13 locate the three sections of the sternum on the model skeleton.
Refer to Figure 14 as a guide.
Table 13: Sternum Feature Locations
Sternum Feature Location
Manubrium Superior section of the sternum that articulates with the clavicle and first pair
of ribs.
Body Longest section of the sternum, articulates with the second through seventh
pairs of ribs.
Xiphoid Process Inferior section of the sternum, composed of hyaline cartilage in children, but
ossifies into adulthood.
3. Along with the three sections of the sternum, there are also specific features unique to the sternum. Use
Tables 13 and 14 to locate the specified features of the sternum on the model skeleton.
Table 14: Sternum Feature Locations (continued)
Sternum Feature Location
Jugular Notch Superior concave margin of the manubrium.
Sternal Angle Articulation between the manubrium and the body, come together at a slight
angle forming a crest allowing anterior movement during inhalation, the crest
also acts as a landmark .
Xiphisternal Joint Articulation between the body and the xiphoid process.
4. Palpate the jugular notch and sternal angle on your own body. You will not be able to palpate the xiphi-
sternal joint.
5. Continuing in the thoracic cage, locate the 12 pairs of ribs on your skeleton. Notice the articulation be-
tween the head and tubercle of the ribs and the thoracic vertebrae. Also note the downward curve of the
ribs after as they move towards the anterior surface.
6. Using the Table 15, examine the specified features of the ribs on the model skeleton and record your ob-
servations.
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The Skeletal System
Table 15: Rib Feature Observations
Rib Feature Observations
Length of ribs 1 - 7 (do they in-

crease or decrease in length?)
Length or ribs 8 - 12 (do they in-

crease or decrease in length?)
Articulation of the ribs and thorac-

ic vertebrae (notice the specific rib
and vertebra that articulate)
Manubrium
Jugular
Notch Body
Xiphisternal Joint
Xiphoid
Process
Figure 14: The thoracic cage.
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The Skeletal System
7. The ribs are broken down into the three categories based on their attachment to the sternum: true, false,
or floating. Use Table 16 to locate the three rib types on the model skeleton.
8. Focus on rib 4 (a typical rib). Use Table 17 to locate the important features on this rib.
9. Notice the space between each of the ribs. This space is called the intercostal space and contains three
layers of muscle. These muscles are key in respiration.
Table 16: Rib Feature Specifications
Ribs Specifications
True Ribs Ribs 1 - 7. These ribs are called true ribs because of their direct attachment to the
sternum via their coastal cartilage.
False Ribs Ribs 8 - 10, also called the vertebrochondral ribs, are called false ribs because the
cartilage of these three ribs connects together and then indirectly attaches to the
sternum via the cartilage of rib 7. Ribs 11 - 12 are also called false ribs, although
they do not attach to the sternum. See more below.
Floating Ribs Ribs 11 - 12, also called the vertebral ribs, are called floating ribs because they do
not connect to the sternum at all.
Table 17: Rib Feature Locations
Rib Feature Observations
Vertebral End Articulates with the vertebral column.
Sternal End Articulates with the sternum (directly or indirectly) or does not articu-
late at all (ribs 11 - 12).
Head Located on the vertebral end of the rib, articulates with the correspond-
ing thoracic vertebrae, as well as superior vertebrae and the interverte-
bral disc typically.
Tubercle Located on the vertebral end of the rib, articulated with the transverse
process of the corresponding thoracic vertebrae.
Neck Area between the head and tubercle.
Body Primary portion of the rib.
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The Skeletal System
Post-Lab Questions
1. What are the three components of the axial skeleton? Describe the function of each.
2. On the skull below, fill in the blanks with the correct bone names.
E
A
B F
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The Skeletal System
3. For the following bones, state whether they are cranial or facial bones and give their location.
Bone Facial or Cranial Location
Temporal Bones
Mandible
Vomer
Zygomatic Bones
Parietal Bones
Ethmoid Bone
Sphenoid Bone
Lacrimal Bones
4. What are the three regions of the vertebral column? Describe the general shape and size of the vertebrae
in each region.
5. What are the atlas and axis? What are their functions?
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The Skeletal System
6. On the vertebra below, fill in the blanks with the correct vertebral structure.
7. What is the purpose of the thoracic cage?
8. Describe the three components of the sternum.
9. Describe the difference between true ribs, false ribs and floating ribs.
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The Skeletal System
Experiment 6: Virtual Model - The Axial Skeleton
The previous experiment provided a hands-on approach to learning about the skeletal system. In this experi-
ment, you will use the virtual skeletal model to gain a more detailed understanding of the axial skeleton.
Materials
eScience Labs Student Portal Account

*Internet Access *You must provide
*Computer Access
Procedure
1. Log into your eScience Labs Student Portal account.
Note: If you have not registered your Student Portal account, go to www.eScienceLabs.com/portal
and register your account using the kit code sticker located on the underside of your lab kit’s box lid.
2. After you have entered your Anatomy and Physiology Lab Kit, click on the “Virtual Model” link.
3. Familiarize yourself with the Virtual Model by navigating through the different human systems. Practice
using the commands below:
a. Hover your cursor over different areas on the model to display labeled terms.
b. Click on any term in the left side to highlight, center, and zoom to the corresponding feature on the
model.
c. Double click any item on the model to center and zoom the perspective The corresponding ana-
tomical term with also become highlighted in the left side panel.
d. Blue buttons located to the left of each term control the visibility scale of the anatomy. Click the
button once and the corresponding feature will become transparent; click it again and the feature
will become invisible. This is useful when trying to view deeper anatomy that may be blanketed by
superficial anatomy.
e. Plus (+) and minus (-) signs located to the left of each term convey content hierarchy. Click these
buttons to expand or restrict content for the different systems.
f. A search bar in the top right corner can be used to search for key terms. Note: terms must be
spelled correctly.
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The Skeletal System
g. Use the left mouse button to select any region on the model and move its orientation around the
screen. Repositioning the model allows you to more easily view features of interest.
h. Use the left mouse button to select any region on the background screen and rotate the model 360
degrees. This technique is useful when you need to adjust the orientation to view features on the
opposite side of the model (e.g., you can rotate the model to view anterior features if the model is
currently showing the posterior features, superior features if the model is showing inferior features,
etc.)
i. A user-controlled zoom bar is located on the right side of the screen. Use the left mouse button to
select and hold the slider on the zoom bar. Pull the slide up the bar to zoom in; pull the slider down
the bar to zoom out.
j. Click the “Reset View” button located in the lower left corner to restore the model’s default posi-
tioning on the screen.
k. The model will automatically rotate to display dorsal features when dorsally located terms are dou-
ble clicked or searched for in the search bar.
4. After you are comfortable with the Virtual Model interface, select the Male Musculoskeletal option from the
homepage.
5. Click on the plus (+) symbol next to Upper Body from the left side panel.
Note: As mentioned in the Introduction, the axial skeletal system includes the bones which comprise
the core of the human body. It does not span into the lower body; therefore, the lower body will not be
explored in this experiment.
6. You need to clearly view the skeletal system for this experiment, so
click on the blue button to the left of Muscular System to toggle the
viewing into transparent or invisible (recommended) format.
Note: You can enable the muscular system by clicking on the

viewing button next to Muscular System at any time. This is rec-
ommended to help view how the muscular and skeletal systems
work together, but it is important to isolate the skeletal system
for part of the experience as well for visibility.
Toggle the viewing mode of the mus-
7. Click on the plus (+) symbol next to Skeletal System from the left cular system into transparent or in-
visible to more easily view the skele-
side panel.
tal system components.
8. Click on the plus (+) symbol next to Axial from the left side panel.
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The Skeletal System
9. Click through the axial skeletal system components; this includes the skull, clavicles (right and left), scap-
ula (right and left), vertebral column, thoracic cage, and the ossa membri inferiors. Be sure to work
through the subcontent within the skull, vertebral column, thoracic cage, and the ossa membri inferiors.
Work your way through the upper axial skeletal system to better understand the ana-
tomical placement of each bone.
10. Hover the cursor over different skeletal components to view the term. The information provided in the in-
troduction and Experiment 5 will also help guide your exploration, and should be referred to for functionali-
ty information as you view the anatomical positions.
Hint: Review the Post-Lab Questions as you work through the axial skeletal components to help guide
your exploration.
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The Skeletal System
Post-Lab Questions
1. What features are located inferior to the cranium, and superior to the mandibular? Identify the category
here. How many individual items are included in this category? Hint: The answer is not a bone.
2. Why aren’t teeth considered bones?
3. Identify the two major bones which compose the head.
4. To what bone does the right scapula attach?
5. Is the left clavicle superior or inferior to the right scapula?
234
The Skeletal System
Experiment 7: Physical Skeleton - The Appendicular Skeleton
As can be derived from its name, the appendicular skeleton is composed of the bodily appendages, better
known as the extremities. The appendicular skeleton is divided into two regions: the upper extremity and the
lower extremity. In this experiment, you will take a closer look at the bones within each of the these regions,
along with their functionality.
Materials
Skeleton Model
Procedure
The Upper Extremity
1. The upper extremity can be divided into four parts: the pectoral girdle, the arm, the forearm and the hand.
Pectoral Girdle
2. The pectoral girdle is composed of a pair of clavicles and scapulae (one on each side of the body) and
serve as the attachment point between the upper extremities and the axial skeleton.
3. The clavicles are thinner bones with two prominent curves. The medial (or sternal) end has a triangular
shape and is convex anteriorly and attaches to the manubrium of sternum. The flat lateral (or acromial)
end of the clavicle is convex posteriorly and attaches to the scapula. On the model skeleton, locate the
clavicles and notice their curvatures and attachment sites. Then, use Table 18 to locate the specific fea-
tures of the clavicle on your skeleton.
Table 18: Clavicle Feature Locations
Clavicle Features Location
Sternoclavicular Articulation between the manubrium of the sternum and the clavicle of the pectoral gir-
Joint dle. This is the only articulation point between the upper extremities and the axial skele-
ton which provides a great deal of mobility, but also forgoes a great deal of stability.
Conoid Tubercle Bony projection on the inferior portion of the clavicle that serve as an attachment point
for ligaments.
Acromioclavicular Articulation between the acromial end of the clavicle and the acromion process of the
Joint scapula.
4. The scapulae, or shoulder blades, have a distinct flat, triangular shape, almost appearing as “wings”. Lo-
cate the scapulae on the model skeleton. Then, use Table 19 to locate the specific features of the scapu-
la on the model skeleton.
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The Skeletal System
Table 19: Scapula Feature Locations
Scapula Features Location
Acromion Process Triangular, enlarged end of the scapula that articulates with the acromial end of
the clavicle.
Coracoid Process Hook-like structure on the superior anterior portion of the scapula, serves as an
attachment site for certain muscles.
Suprascapular Notch Small notch at the base of the coracoid process allowing nerves to pass.
Glenoid Cavity On the lateral portion of the scapula, this small cavity articulates with the head
of the humerus.
5. Now, on your own body, palpate the clavicle and the scapula. Though it may be hard to palpate these on
your own body, attempt to palpate the acromioclavicular joint (this will be the very top point of the shoul-
der) as well as the sternoclavicular joint (right before the jugular notch).
Arm
6. The arm is composed of one bone, the humerus. This long bone articulates with the glenoid cavity of the
scapula on its proximal end and also articulates with the radius and ulna of the forearm on its distal end.
Locate the humerus on the model skeleton and examine both articulations.
7. Use Tables 20 and 21 to locate the specific features of the humerus on the model skeleton.
8. On your own body, palpate the shaft of the humerus. Also palpate the lateral and medial epicondyle.
Table 20: Humerus Feature Locations
Humerus Features Location
Head Located on the proximal end, this rounded edge articulates
Anatomical Neck Separates the head and shaft.
Shaft Long, cylindrical portion of the bone.
Greater Tubercle Projection on the lateral proximal end opposite to the head.
Lesser Tubercle Projection on the medial proximal end opposite the head.
Intertubercular Groove that separates the greater and lesser tubercle, allowing
Groove tendons of the bicep to pass through.
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The Skeletal System
Table 21: Humerus Feature Locations (continued)
Humerus Features Location
Trochlea Located on the distal end, articulates with the trochlear notch on the ulna.
Capitulum Located on the distal end, articulates with the radial head of the radius.
Medial Epicondyle Located medially off the trochlea and capitulum, also known as the funny bone.
Lateral Epicondyle Located laterally off the trochlea and capitulum.
Coronoid Fossa Located on the anterior surface, superior to the trochlea, this depression allows
greater mobility in the elbow.
Olecranon Fossa Located on the posterior surface, superior to the trochlea, this depression also
allows great mobility in the elbow.
Forearm
9. There are two bones located in the forearm: the radius and the ulna. In anatomical position, the radius is
located on the lateral portion of the forearm and the ulna is located on the medial portion. Locate the radi-
us and ulna on your skeleton.
10. Focusing in on the radius, locate the specific features on your skeleton specified in Table 22. Refer to Fig-
ure 15 as a guide.
11. Moving to the ulna, locate the specific features on your skeleton specified in Table 23. Refer to Figure 15
as a guide.
Table 22: Radius Feature Locations
Radius Features Location
Head Located on the proximal end, the circular shaped head articulates with the capit-
ulum of the humerus.
Radial Tuberosity Projection on the medial portion of the radius, serves as an attachment site for
muscles and tendons.
Ulnar Notch Located on the distal end, this small cavity articulates with the medial distal end
of the ulna.
Styloid Process Located on the distal end, this downward projection serves an attachment site.
for tendons and muscles of the wrist.
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The Skeletal System
Table 23: Ulna Feature Locations
Ulna Features Location
Olecranon Process Located on the proximal end, this projection forms the bump felt on the posteri-
or portion of the elbow.
Coronoid Process Located on the proximal end, this triangular projection forms the lower portion
of the trochlear notch.
Radial Notch Located on the proximal end, this small cavity articulates with the medial por-
tion of the radial head.
Styloid Process Located on the distal end, this small inferior projection serves as an attachment
site for ligaments of the wrist.
Scapula
Humerus
Metacarpals
Ulna
Radius
Phalanges
Figure 15: The bones of the arm and hand.
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The Skeletal System
12. The wrist is composed of eight bones called carpals that are arranged in two rows. The proximal row of
carpals, from lateral to medial, is composed of the scaphoid, lunate, triangular and pisiform. The distal
row of carpals, from lateral to medial, is composed of the trapezium, trapezoid, capitate and hamate. Lo-
cate these bones on the model skeleton. Notice also that the scaphoid and lunate carpals articulate with
the distal portion of the radius.
13. The hand is composed of two different sets of bones; the metacarpals and the phalanges. The metacar-
pals are the bones located in the palm, whereas the phalanges are the bones within the fingers. There
are five metacarpal bones labeled one through five, beginning on the thumb side of the palm. There are
also 14 phalanges, three in each finger; except in the thumb, where there are only two. Locate the meta-
carpals and phalanges on the model skeleton. Also, palpate your own metacarpals and phalanges. Refer
to Figure 15 as a guide.
The Lower Extremity
14. The lower extremity can also be divided into four regions: the pelvic girdle, the thigh, the leg and the foot.
Pelvic Girdle
15. The pelvic girdle contains two coxal bones that articulate posteriorly with the sacrum and anteriorly with
one another, giving a circular appearance. Locate the pelvic girdle on the model skeleton.
16. Each coxal bone is composed of three bones: the ilium, ischium and pubis. These bones fuse together
during puberty. Notice that the fusion of these three bones is near the center of an indent on the lateral
surface of the coxal bones called the acetabulum. Locate this indent on the model skeleton.
17. The ilium is the largest and most superior of the three bones and articulates directly with the sacrum. Use
Table 24 to locate the specified features of the ilium on the model skeleton.
18. On your own body, palpate your iliac crest. To locate it, place your hands on your hips. The bony promi-
nence you feel is the iliac crest.
19. The ischium is located inferior and posterior to the ilium. The ischium bears the weight of the body when
in a seated position. Locate the ischium on the model skeleton. Use Table 25 to locate the specified fea-
tures of the ischium.
20. The anterior portion of the coxal bone is comprised of the pubis. Locate the pubis on the model skeleton.
Use Table 26 locate the specified features of the pubis.
21. The pelvic girdle as a whole, along with the sacrum and coccyx from the axial skeleton compose the bony
pelvis. Locate the bony pelvis on the model skeleton. The pelvis can be divided into two regions by the
pelvic brim.
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The Skeletal System
22. The pelvic brim is a circular border beginning at the sacral promontory, traveling along the arcuate lines
and ending at the superior portion of the pubic crest. Locate the pelvic brim on the model skeleton. The
pelvic brim divides the pelvis into the false or greater pelvis and the true or lesser pelvis.
23. The false pelvis is superior to the pelvic brim and the true pelvis is inferior to the pelvic brim. Locate both
the false and true pelvis on the model skeleton. Refer to Figure 16 as a guide.
Table 24: Ilium Feature Locations
Ilium Features Location
Iliac Crest Superior region of the Ilium, flares out creating bony prominences.
Auricular Surface Medially located, articulates with sacrum.
Sacroiliac Joint Articulation between the sacrum and the auricular surface of the ilium.
Anterior Superior Iliac Spine Anterior end of iliac crest, important landmark.
Posterior Superior Iliac Spine Posterior end of iliac crest, important landmark with an overlying dimple
that can be seen on very thin individuals.
Greater Sciatic Notch Small opening located on the posterior side of the ilium allowing the sciatic
nerve to pass through.
Arcuate Lines Rounded edge on the medial surface of the ilium.
Iliac Fossa Concave region on the internal surface of the ilium.
Table 25: Ischium Feature Locations
Ischium Features Location
Ischial Tuberosity Bony bulge on the posterior portion of the ischium that bears the majority of the
weight when sitting, also an attachment point for muscles of the upper leg.
Ischial Spine Superior to the ischial tuberosity, this triangular posterior projection is an im-
portant landmark, is shorter and farther apart in females.
Lesser Sciatic Notch Small opening inferior to the ischial spine, allows blood vessels and nerves to
pass through.
Table 26: Pubis Feature Locations
Pubis Features Location
Pubic Symphysis Cartilaginous articulation between the two pubis bones of the two coxae.
Pubic Crest Anterior border of the pubis bone, site of pubic symphysis.
Obturator Foramen Oval opening bordered by the ischium and pubis that allows blood vessels and
nerves to pass through.
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The Skeletal System
Pubic bone
Pelvic brim
Pubic crest
Iliac crest
Coccyx
Pelvic arch
Figure 16: The pelvis.
The Thigh
24. The thigh lies inferior to the pelvic girdle. The thigh contains only one bone: the femur. The femur is the
longest, heaviest and strongest bone of the body. Locate the femur on the model skeleton. Use Table 27
to locate the specified features of the femur on the skeleton.
25. Observe the articulation with the patella along the distal edge of the femur. The patella is a sesamoid
bone located within the tendon of the quadriceps femoris muscle group. It articulates with the femur in a
depression located between the medial and lateral condyles. Locate the patella on the model skeleton.
Then, palpate the patella on your own body.
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The Skeletal System
Table 27: Femur Feature Locations
Femur Features Location
Head Round prominence on the proximal end of the femur that articulates with the
acetablum of the pelvic girdle.
Neck Short, angled process that connects the head and the shaft of the femur.
Shaft Long, cylindrical body of the femur.
Greater Trochanter Attachment site for muscles located laterally to the head and neck.
Lesser Trochanter Smaller attachment site for muscles located inferiorly to the head and neck.
Medial Condyles Located on the medial distal end of the femur, articulates with the tibia.
Lateral Condyles Located on the lateral distal end of the femur, articulates with the tibia.
Medial Epicondyles Attachment site for ligaments, located proximal to the medial condyle.
Lateral Epicondyles Attachment site for ligaments, located proximal to the lateral condyle.
The Leg
26. The leg is composed of two bones: the tibia and fibula. The tibia, or
the shin bone, is the larger of the two leg bones and is located medi-
ally to the fibula. Locate the tibia on your skeleton. Use Table 28 to
locate the specified features of the tibia on the model skeleton.
27. On your own body, palpate your tibial tuberosity and medial malleo-
lus. The tibial tuberosity is located just below the kneecap and has a
rough, bumpy feel. The medial malleolus is the protrusion you feel on
the medial distal portion of the ankle.
28. The fibula is the smaller and more lateral of the two leg bones and
does not articulate with the femur. Locate the fibula on the model
skeleton. Use Table 29 to locate the specified features of the fibula
on the model skeleton.
Femur
29. On your own body, palpate the lateral malleolus. It can be located by
Figure 17: Thigh bones.
the large “bump” on the lateral side of your ankle.
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The Skeletal System
Table 28: Tibia Feature Locations
Tibia Features Location
Medial Condyle Located on the medial proximal end of the tibia, articulates with the femur.
Lateral Condyle Located on the lateral proximal end of the tibia, articulates with the femur.
Tibial Tuberosity Rough prominence located slightly inferior to the condyles, attachment site for
the quadriceps femoris muscle group.
Anterior Crest Anterior surface of the tibia.
Medial Malleolus Bony projection on the medial distal end of the tibia, articulates with the foot.
Table 29: Fibula Feature Locations
Fibula Features Location
Head Located on the proximal end of the fibula, articulates with the lateral condyle of
the tibia.
Lateral Malleolus Bony projection on the lateral distal end of the fibula, articulates with the foot.
Tibia
Fibula
Figure 18: Leg bones. 243

The Skeletal System
The Foot
30. The foot consists of seven tarsal bones, five metatarsal bones and 14 phalanges. Use Table 30 to locate
the seven different tarsal bones on the model skeleton
31. Use Figure 19 to help locate the metatarsals on the model skeleton. These bones are traditionally num-
bered 1 - 5, beginning on the medial side of the foot.
32. Locate the foot phalanges. Notice, similar to the hand, that the big toe only contains two phalanges while
the other toes contain three.
33. On your own body, palpate the calcaneus, metatarsals and phalanges of the foot.
Table 30: Tarsal Bone Locations
Tarsal Bones Location
Talus (ankle bone) Most superior, articulates with the distal end of the tibia and fibula to form the
ankle joint.
Calcaneus (heel bone) Largest of the tarsals, located inferior to the talus.
Navicular Medially located, articulates proximally with the talus and distally with the cunei-
forms.
Cuboid Laterally located, cube shaped, articulates proximally with the calcaneus and
distally with the metatarsals.
Medial Cuneiform Medially located, articulates proximally with the navicular and distally with the
metatarsals.
Intermediate Cuneiform Located between the medial and lateral cuneiform, articulates proximally with
the navicular and distally with the metatarsals.
Lateral Cuneiform Laterally located, articulates proximally with the navicular , laterally with the cu-
boid and distally with the metatarsals.
244
The Skeletal System
Metatarsals
Phalanges
Figure 19: Foot bones.
245
The Skeletal System
Post-Lab Questions
1. What are the four parts of the upper extremity and the lower extremity of the appendicular skeleton?
2. Compare and contrast the size and function of the upper and lower extremities of the appendicular skel-
eton (refer to the skeleton below for help).
3. What are the three fused bones that make up the coxae of the pelvic girdle? What is their location in
relationship to one another?
246
The Skeletal System
Experiment 8: Virtual Model - The Appendicular Skeleton
The previous experiment provided a hands-on learning approach to the skeletal system. In this experiment,
you will use the virtual skeletal model to gain a more detailed understanding of the appendicular skeleton.
Materials
eScience Labs Student Portal Account *Computer Access

Procedure
3. Select the Male Musculoskeletal option from the homepage.
5. You need to clearly view the skeletal system for this experiment, so click on the blue button to the left of
Muscular System to toggle the viewing into transparent or invisible (recommended) format.
Note: You can enable the Muscular System by clicking on the viewing button next to Muscular System
at any time. This is recommended to help view how the muscular and skeletal systems work together,
but it is important to isolate the skeletal system for part of the experience as well for visibility.
6. Click on the plus (+) symbol next to Skeletal System from the left side panel.
7. Click on the plus (+) symbol next to Appendicular from the left side panel.
8. Click through the upper appendicular skeletal system components; this in-
cludes the ossa membri superiors. Be sure to work through the subcontent
within this category to explore the arms and the hands (right and left).
Hint: Review the Post-Lab Questions as you work through the appendicu-
lar skeletal components.
9. Hover the cursor over different skeletal components to view the associated
terms. The information provided in the introduction and Experiment 7 will also
help guide your exploration, and should be referred to for functionality infor-
Content hierarchy.
247
The Skeletal System
mation as you view the anatomical positions.
Hint: Review the Post-Lab Questions as you work through the upper appendicular components.
Work your way through the appendicular skeletal system to better understand
the anatomical placement of each bone.
11. Click on the minus (-) symbol next to Upper Body from the left side panel. Then, click on the plus (+) sym-
bol next to the Lower Body.
12. Click on the plus (+) symbol next to Skeletal System from the left side panel.
13. Click on the plus (+) symbol next to ossa membri inferiors from the left side panel and work through the
bones of the right and left legs. Be sure to include the ossa pedis (right and left) in your process.
14. Hover the cursor over different skeletal components to view the term. The information provided in the in-
troduction and Experiment 7 will also help guide your exploration, and should be referred to for functionali-
ty information as you view the anatomical positions.
Hint: Review the Post-Lab Questions as you work through the lower appendicular components.
248
The Skeletal System
Post-Lab Questions
1. How many left metatarsals are there?
2. Is the right fibula inferior or superior to the patella?
3. Are the ossa digitorum or the ossa metatarsalia more proximal to the body?
4. Which two bones attach to the patella?
5. Identify the three bones which comprise the leg.
249
The Skeletal System
Experiment 9: Articulations
Articulations, or joints, are formed when two bones come together. The joints of the body are crucial in keep-
ing the body intact and in providing movement. Joints can be classified two ways: structure or mobility. As
mentioned earlier, the three types of structural classifications are fibrous, cartilaginous and synovial joints.
The three types of mobility based classifications are synarthroses (immobile), amphiarthroses (slightly mo-
bile) and diarthroses (mobile). Though both classifications are useful, we will focus on the structural classifi-
cations. In this exercise we will examine the different types of articulations.
Materials
Skeleton Model
Procedure
Fibrous Joints
1. Fibrous joints are held together with fibrous tissue and do not posses a joint cavity. Though there are a
few fibrous joints that are amphiarthrotic, most are synarthrotic. There are two main types of fibrous joints:
sutures and syndesmoses.
2. Sutures are composed of tight fitting bones with little or no connective tissue and are only found within the
skull.
3. In syndesmoses, the bones are joined together by a small amount of dense fibrous connective tissue.
Though there can be slight movement within the joints, they’re typically considered synarthrotic.
4. Use Table 31 to locate the four prominent sutures between the cranial bones of the skull on the model
skeleton.
5. Locate the articulation between the distal ends of the tibia and fibula on the model skeleton. Also, look at
the articulation between the radius and ulna. These are both examples of syndesmoses.
Cartilaginous Joints
6. Bones are connected with either a plate of hyaline cartilage or a disc of fibrocartilage in cartilaginous
joints. These joints, similar to the fibrous joints, do not have a joint cavity; although, most of them are am-
phiarthrotic.
7. There are two types of cartilaginous joints: symphysis and synchondroses. In symphysis joints, the bones
are connected with disc of fibrocartilage. In synchondroses bones, the bones are connected with a plate
of hyaline cartilage.
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The Skeletal System
Table 31: Skull Suture Locations
Skull Sutures Location
Coronal Suture Articulation between the posterior portion of the frontal bone and anterior por-
tion of the parietal bones.
Lambdoid Suture Articulation between the anterior portion of the occipital bone and the posterior
portion of the two parietal bones.
Sagittal Suture Articulation between the two parietal bones.
Squamous Sutures Articulation between the inferior portion of the parietal bone and the superior
portion of the temporal bone.
8. Locate the pubic symphysis on the model skeleton. As the name suggests, this joint is a symphysis. Ex-
amine the vertebral column. Each vertebrae is connected via an intervertebral disc composed of fibro-
cartilage.
9. Locate the articulation between the first rib and the sternum on the model skeleton. This is an example
of a synchondroses.
Synovial Joints
10. Synovial joints are the most common articulation within the body. Between the two articulating bones lies
a joint cavity filled with synovial fluid allowing all synovial joints to be diarthrotic, though the type of mobil-
ity (side to side, multiple directions, etc.) varies.
11. Six subcategories have been created based on the type of movement because of the many synovial
joints within the body. Use Table 32 to locate examples of the six different subcategories of synovial
joints on the model skeleton. Become familiar with the movement associated with each example.
12. Using Table 33, perform the listed movements on the model skeleton. Then perform these same move-
ments on your own body. Pay attention to the type of synovial joint (gliding, hinge, etc.) that is involved
with each movement.
251
The Skeletal System
Table 32: Synovial Joint Information
Subcategory of Movement Examples

Synovial Joints
Gliding Flat articulating surfaces allow for sliding • Intercarpal Joints at the wrist
movement side-to-side and back-and-
• Intertarsal Joints in the foot
forth.
• Sacroiliac Joints
Hinge Articulating surfaces between a convex • Elbow Joint

bone and concave bone allow for uniaxial
• Knee Joint
movement (one plane). Typically this
movement is flexion or extension. • Ankle Joint
Pivot Uniaxial rotation (one plane) occurs from • Atlantoaxial Joint (atlas and axis)
the conical surface of one bone articulat-
• Radioulnar Joint
ing with a shallow depression of another
bone.
Condyloid An oval condyle of one bone fits with an • Radiocarpal Joint (wrist)
(Ellipsoidal) elliptical cavity of another allowing biaxi-
• Metacarpophalangeal Joints
al movement (two plane).
(knuckles)
Saddle Both bones involved in the articulation • Metacarpal of the thumb and the Tra-
possess both a concave and convex su- pezium of the wrist
face, called a saddle, that allows for biax-
ial movement (two plane).
Ball and Socket Ball-like head articulates with a cup-like • Shoulder Joint
depression allowing for multiaxial move-
• Hip Joint
ment (all directions).
252
The Skeletal System
Table 33: Types of Joint Movement
Type of Movement Definition Example
Flexion Bending motion that decreases the In anatomical position, bring the palm of the
angle between the two bones. hand towards the shoulder, bending the elbow.
Extension Straightening motion that increas- With the elbow bent and the palm of the hand
es the angle between the two touching the shoulder, straighten the arm,
bones (opposite of flexion). bringing the palm down to the original starting
position.
Abduction Moving a body part away from the Move the left thigh laterally away from the mid-
midline of the body. line of the body.
Adduction Moving a body part towards the With the thigh positioned laterally away from
midline of the body (opposite of the body, bring it back towards the midline un-
abduction). til it reaches the original starting position.
Circumduction Movement combining flexion, ex- In anatomical position, bend the wrist anatomi-
tension, abduction and adduction. cally to produce flexion, then move the wrist
laterally to produce abduction, then move the
wrist posteriorly to produce extension and
then move your wrist medially to produce ad-
duction. Continue these motions, increasing
the speed to produce a single motion.
Rotation Movement around the longitudinal With the head beginning in anatomical posi-
axis of the bone. tion, look left and then look right as if shaking
your head “no”.
Pronation Rotating movement of the palm In anatomical position with the palm facing up,
and forearm from an anterior posi- rotate the palm medially until it is facing down.
tion to a posterior position.
Supination Rotating movement of the palm With the palm facing down (posterior), rotate
and forearm from a posterior posi- the palm laterally until it is facing up.
tion to an anterior position.
Inversion Moving sole of foot medially. In anatomical position, move the sole of the
foot medially.
Eversion Moving sole of foot laterally In anatomical position, move the sole of the
(opposite of inversion). laterally.
Dorsiflexion Bending movement of the ankle In anatomical position, lift the toes upward as
where the foot is flexed upward. if standing on the heels.
Plantar flexion Bending movement of the ankle In anatomical position, point the toes towards
where the foot is flexed downward. the ground, as if standing on the toes.
253
The Skeletal System
Post-Lab Questions
1. What two ways can joints be classified? What are the three classifications of each type?
2. Fibrous joints are either sutures or syndesmoses. What is the difference between the two? Give exam-
ples of each type.
3. A symphysis and synchondroses are two classifications of what type of joint? What are the differences
between the two classifications?
4. What allows synovial joints to be diarthrotic?
5. For the following, match the correct synovial joint to the movement it produces.
Joint Movement
a. Pivot Joint 1. Uniaxial movement, typically flexion or extension

b. Gliding Joint 2. Uniaxial rotation
c. Ball and Socket Joint 3. Side-to-side and back-and-forth movement
d. Condyloid Joint 4. Multiaxial movement
e. Saddle Joint 5. Concave and convex surfaces of both bones allow for biaxial movement
f. Hinge Joint 6. Ellipsoidal fit allows for biaxial movement
6. Fill in the chart below:
Joint Articulating Bones Type of Synovial Joint Movement
Elbow
Knee
Hip
Ankle
Wrist
254
The Skeletal System
Experiment 10: Virtual Model - Skeletal System Coloring Activity
The skeletal system relies on critical junctures and structural integrity in order to support the body. In this ex-
periment, you will use the Coloring Book Activity in the Virtual Model on the Student Portal to identify some of
the critical bones within the skeletal system and better view their articulations.
Materials

*Computer Access
Procedure
2. After you have entered your Anatomy and Physiology Lab Kit, click on the link titled “Virtual Model”.
3. Select the Coloring Book option.
4. Select the skeletal system images, and find the image

titled “Skeletal System: Left Arm”. See Figure 20 for
reference
5. Using the paint tool, color the humerus red, radius

blue, ulna purple, and the scapula green.
6. Take a screen shot of your image, title the image

“Skeletal System - Left Arm”, and save it to your com-
puter.
Note: This image (and the proceeding images)

should be submit to your teacher as part of the
assignment. Be sure to remember where you
save it. Figure 20: Skeletal system coloring book image
reference.
7. Find the image titled “Skeletal System: Thoracic Cage
- Sternum and Clavicles”. Using the paint tool, color the sternum red, the clavicles purple, costas II - V
green, and costas VI - X yellow.
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The Skeletal System
8. Take a screen shot of your image, title the image “Skeletal System - Sternum and Clavicles”, and save it
to your computer.
9. Find the image titled “Skeletal System: Vertebral Column”. Using the paint tool, color the vertebrae cervi-
cales green and the vertebrae thoracicae yellow. Then, color the scapulae purple and the humeri red.
10. Take a screen shot of your image, title it as “Skeletal System - Vertebral Column”, and save it to your
computer.
11. Find the image titled “Skeletal System: Right Hand”. Using the paint tool, color the metacarpals orange,
the phalanges proximalis blue, the phalanges media yellow, and the phalanges distalis green.
12. Take a screen shot of your image, title it as “Skeletal System - Right Hand”, and save it to your computer.
13. Find the image titled “Skeletal System: Sacrum”. Using the paint tool, color the pelvic bones red, the sa-
crum blue, and vertebrae lumbales I - V yellow.
14. Take a screen shot of your image, title it as “Skeletal System - Sacrum”, and save it to your computer.
15. Find the image titled “Skeletal System: Legs”. Using the paint tool, color the patellae purple, the tibias red,
and the fibulas blue.
16. Take a screen shot of your image, title it as “Skeletal System - Legs”, and save it to your computer.
17. Find the image titled “Skeletal System: Feet”. Using the paint tool, color the cuneiforme mediale yellow,
the cuneiforme intermedium blue, and the cuneiforme laterale red. Then, color metatarsals I - IV green,
phalanges proximales I - IV orange, the phalanges media brown, and the phalanges distalis purple.
18. Take a screen shot of your image, title it as “Skeletal System - Feet”, and save it to your computer.
256
The Skeletal System
Experiment 11: Skeletal System of the Fetal Pig
In this exercise you will become familiar with the skeletal system of the fetal pig. Because the fetal pig had not
reached its full gestation, many of the bones have not fully developed, but are instead still cartilaginous. Still,
we can look at this structures to gain a better understanding of the axial and appendicular skeletons, along
with the joints.
Materials

Dissection Tray String (should still be tied onto pig’s hooves)
Procedure
tools. Be sure you have all of your safety equipment on before beginning the experiment.
the whole semester.
3. Lay your pig into the dissecting tray, dorsal side facing up. Slide the strings over the dissection tray to hold
the pig in place.
4. Look at Figure 21 displaying the skeletal system of a grown pig. Notice the similarities and differences be-
tween that of your human skeleton and that of the pig.
Figure 21: The pig skeleton 257

The Skeletal System
5. Due to the rigidity of your pig, it typically will not stay in this position on its own so you will need to hold it
while you examine the skeletal system.
6. Begin by examining, through the skin, the axial skeleton as shown in Figure 21. Feel the bones of the
skull, then continue down the vertebral column feeling the vertebrae along the way. Notice that the tail of
the pig is composed of caudal vertebrae. Note your observations in Table 34.
7. Slide the strings off of the dissection tray and gently turn your pig ventral side up. Slide the strings back
under the dissection tray after the pig is correctly positioned.
8. Feel the thoracic cage of the pig. Though you will not cut into the pig today, feel the similarities that occur
between the fetal pig and the human skeleton model. Note your observations in Table 34.
9. Turn your attention to the appendicular skeleton. The pig’s four appendages correlate to the human arms
and legs. Use Figure 21 as a guide to try and feel the different bones of the arms and legs (humerus, fe-
mur, tibia, etc.). Note your observations in Table 34.
10. In Figure 21, look at the pelvic girdle of the pig. This structure appears noticeably different than that of a
human. However, the innominate bones of the pig are created by the ilium, ischium and pubis.
11. Focus your attention on the joints of the pig. The pig should be fairly rigid due to the preservation fluids.
However, you should still attempt to produce the movements created by synovial joints on the pig (e.g.,
flexion, rotation, etc.). Notice the joints at which these movements are possible. Do they correlate to hu-
man movement? Note your observations in Table 34.
12. You are now finished with the external observations of the skeletal system. Remember that as you dis-
sect into your pig, you will be able to touch and feel the bones of the skeletal system. As the dissection
progresses, always take note of the bones present within the fetal pig.
13. To finish, locate the bag the pig came in. Gently place the pig back into the bag and tightly secure the
bag with a rubber band, or place in the zip-seal bag provided in the dissection box.
14. Place the pig back into the cool environment you had previously stored it in. Remember, the best place to
keep the pig is in a cool, dark place.
There should not be any biological scraps because you did not cut into the pig. However, biological
scraps should not be thrown into the garbage.
16. Clean the area in which you worked with soap and water as well. As long as the underpad has not been
damaged, keep it for future experiments.
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The Skeletal System
Figure 22: Palpate the skeleton of the fetal pig using gloved hands.
Table 34: Skeletal Region Observations
Skeletal Region Observations
Axial Skeleton
Appendicular Skeleton
Joints
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The Skeletal System
Post-Lab Questions
1. What are some of the similarities and differences you noticed between the human skeletal system and
the palpation of the fetal pig skeletal system?
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Lab 7
The Muscular System
The Muscular System
Concepts to Explore
• Skeletal, Cardiac, and Smooth Muscle • Action Potentials
• Gross Muscle Anatomy • Motor Neurons
• Skeletal Muscle Fiber • Muscle Contraction Factors
• Histological Muscle Anatomy • Twitch Fibers
• Actin Myosin Crossbridge Cycle • Force Summation
• Sliding Filament Theory
Introduction
The muscular system is the largest group of tissues in the
body. In fact, the muscular system typically accounts for
approximately 50% of the averages person’s weight. The
synergistic actions of muscle contractions in the body en-
able a full spectrum of motility. For example, muscles are
used to move white blood cells through their environment,
pump blood throughout the body, and enable skeletal
movements such as jumping or picking up a glass of wa-
ter. These movements are made possible by the muscle
cells’ ability to contract and create tension within a mus-
cle tissue. This tension creates pressure and propulsion,
and enables movements ranging as broad as mastication
to ambulation.
Three Types of Muscles

There are three major muscle types: skeletal, cardiac, and Figure 1: The muscular system provides a mecha-
smooth. The majority of the muscles in the body are skel- nism for movement. Skeletal muscle facilitates lo-
etal muscle, and are associated with the skeletal system. comotion while smooth and cardiac muscle works
In fact, skeletal muscle is estimated to comprise approxi- to transport materials throughout the body.
mately 40% of an average male’s weight, and approximately 32% of an average female’s weight. These mus-
cles define the contour of the body, facilitate ambulation, and enable interaction with the world. Two other
types of muscle, cardiac and smooth muscle, are found within organs and circulatory system and play an im-
portant role in transport within the body systems. The muscular system refers to skeletal muscle, and will be
the focus of this lab.
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The Muscular System
Gross Muscle Anatomy
Muscles are most easily identified through gross muscle anatomy. In other words, the location and structure
of the muscle should be reviewed first. All muscle tissues are composed of individual fibers. Muscle tissues
also have an origin and an insertion. The origin is defined as the tendinous connection of the muscle to a
bone (usually the bone that is stabilized). Conversely, the insertion is defined as the tendinous connection of
the muscle to a bone (usually the bone to be moved). Muscles are further defined as being pennate or not.
Muscle fibers which are not pennate are all organized in the same direction and form a direct path between
the origin and the insertion. Alternatively, pennate muscle fibers are organized at an angle relative to the in-
sertion point (or, more precisely, relative to the point of action). As a result, pennate muscles accommodate
more fibers per tissue and can create a stronger force than non-pennate muscles. However, pennate mus-
cles also create a smaller, overall, length change due to the angularity of the fibers.
Figure 2: Gross muscle anatomy of the human body.
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The Muscular System
Skeletal Muscle Fiber
Skeletal muscle is surrounded by connective tissue called the epimysium. The muscle is made of bundles of
fasciles, which themselves are bundles of myocytes, and are also sheathed by connective tissue called the
perimysium. Each muscle fiber is also enclosed by a connective tissue sheath, called the endomysium. These
bands of connective tissue converge to form a tendon connecting the muscle to its attachment site on the
bone. Tendons and ligaments also have a hierarchical structure of parallel-aligned collagenous fibers, which
contribute to their impressive tensile strength.
Figure 3: Microscopic anatomy of the muscle fiber.

Microscopic examination of skeletal muscle reveals some unique features, and illuminates why this tissue is
also referred to as striated muscle. The long cylindrical cells, called muscle fibers or myocytes, assemble into
the muscle tissue and appear striated (striped). Each muscle fiber, a single muscle cell, is an assembly of my-
ofibrils with multiple oval nuclei interspersed throughout the bundle. It is covered by a specialized membrane
called the sarcolemma which isolates individual muscle cells from each other.
Histological Muscle Anatomy

Muscle contractions occur through the interaction of two contractile proteins: actin and myosin. These pro-
teins form myofilaments within each muscle fiber. Myofilaments are bundled into myofibrils which account for
the majority of volume with the sarcoplasm. Myofilaments are generally divided into thick (dark) and thin
265
The Muscular System
(light) myofilaments. Thin filaments are composed of
actin, and are anchored into the Z-disk of the sarco-
mere. Thick filaments are composed mainly of myosin.
The striations visible in skeletal muscle are the result
from the orderly alternations of thin and thick bands
along the myofibrils.
The actual contractile units within a muscle fiber are

sarcomeres, found in the myofibrils. The sarcomere
can be divided into discrete sections based on the
banding pattern shown in Figure 3. The A band is a
dark band that corresponds to the length of a bundle of
myosin protein filaments. The light band are called the
I bands, and are composed mainly of actin filaments. A
protein disk, called the Z line, bisects and anchors the
I band. The Z line is also where the I bands are an-
chored. In the middle of the A band is a zone corre-
sponding to the area between thin filaments called the
H-zone. Within the H zone is the m line which repre- Figure 4: Muscle fiber anatomy.
sents the proteins that anchor the myosin.
Extensions of the sarcolemma called transverse tubules (or t-tubules) protrude into the sarcoplasm. These
invaginations allow the muscle impulse, an electrical stimulus, to travel deep into the muscle fiber. Thus, the
sarcolemma is more than a simple sheath that protects the muscle cell; it also provides a conduit for nerve
signals to reach each sarcomere in the muscle via the t-tubules. The sarcoplasmic reticulum, a specialized
endoplasmic reticulum, also surrounds the sarcomeres, and contains large stores of calcium which is vital to
a muscle contraction. Within the sarcoplasmic reticulum, there are sac-like regions known as the terminal cis-
ternae that store calcium ions. When two terminal cisternae are associated with a t-tubule, the structure is
identified as a triad. When a muscle impulse reaches this region, calcium ions diffuse from the cistenae into
the sarcoplasma. The calcium ions also affect the interaction of actin and myosin resulting in contractions.
Sliding Filament Theory

The sliding filament theory states that the thick filaments are pulled toward the sarcomere centers by cross
bridge activity of the thick filaments. The length of the A band does not change as a muscle contracts, as the
action is a result of the actin sliding past the myosin – not as a result of the myofilaments changing in size.
Therefore, the width of the banding patterns changes as the degree of overlap changes and results in the
shortening of the I band. Understanding how muscles generate a force explains why muscles can only pull,
and never push.
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The Muscular System
Actin Actin
Myosin
Myosin
Figure 5: Actin and myosin filaments slide past each other to engage a muscle contraction.
Action Potentials
Muscle fiber contraction is regulated by the generation and transmission of action potentials along the sar-
colemma. When this excitatory impulse arrives at the muscle fiber, a rapid depolarization occurs and initiates
the physiologic response – contraction – by releasing calcium ions, Ca2+, from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
This is known as excitation-contraction coupling.
Figure 6: The actin-myosin crossbridge cycle.
ATP energizes this cycle, supplying chemical energy that is converted into mechanical energy. The first step
involves ATP binding to a myosin. Here, myosin ATPases hydrolyze ATP into ADP and Pi, which remain
bound to the myosin head. Intracellular Ca2+ binds with troponin, a protein associated with actin. The binding
of Ca2+ to troponin causes a positional change in a second protein associated with actin, tropomyosin. Tropo-
myosin shifts to expose myosin binding sites on the actin filaments. This exposure of the actin filaments al-
lows myosin heads to attach, forming cross bridges between actin filaments and myosin heads. This causes
the ADP and Pi to be released and alters the shape of the myosin head. This shape change generates the
sliding motion of the actin toward the center of the sarcomere and produces a power stroke. The cross
bridge cycle ends when Ca2+ is pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
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The Muscular System
In sum, muscle contraction involves four phases:
1. A latent period is required for the release of Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
2. A contraction period represents the time of the actual cross bridge formation
3. A relaxation period identifies the period during which Ca2+ stores are resupplied
4. A refractory period is the time immediately following the stimulus during which the muscle fiber will
not respond to another action potential.
? Did You Know...

Aerobic activity results in a lot more than calorie burn-off! In fact, as soon as you start exercising a biologi-
cal domino effect takes place. Here’s the breakdown:
1. Your body begins breaking ATP down into ADP and phosphate
ions. When these bonds break, energy is released which can be
used for muscle contraction.
2. The initial store of ATP is used up within a minute or two. To har-

ness more, glycogen, glucose, and fat molecules are broken down
as an alternative energy source to create ATP.
3. Breaking down these molecules requires extra oxygen. To

achieve this, heart rate increases and blood is pulled away from
unneeded systems like the digestive system. This allows the body to pump more blood quickly, pushing
red blood cells throughout the body which drop off oxygen molecules to the muscles.
4. Every time an ATP, glycogen, or glucose molecule is broken down energy is released. Some of this ener-
gy is used by the muscles to accommodate the exercise movements, but the energy also results in an
increase in body temperature.
5. To maintain a healthy body temperature, the circulatory system comes into play again by focusing blood-
flow towards the skin. This may cause redness, and releases heat as sweat glands are activated to re-
lease heat-laden moisture.
6. When a workout is complete, the brain releases a rush of endorphins which contributes to the “runners
high” many people feel.
Motor Neurons
A motor unit is one motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates. The neuron’s axon has several ter-
minal branches which each form a neuromuscular junction with one muscle fiber. The neuromuscular junc-
tion controls voluntary muscle function. Motor neurons are neurons that stimulate muscles. The action po-
tential travels along the neuron until it reaches the end of the neuron. A gap, called a synapse, separates
the neuron from the muscle fiber. Acetylcholine (ACh), a neurotransmitter, is released from the neuron and
diffuses across the synapse. ACh binds to ACh receptors on the sarcolemma, generating a self-propagating
action potential that travels, as a muscle impulse, down the t-tubules and initiates Ca2+ release causing the
cross-bridge cycle to commence.
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The Muscular System
Muscles of the Human Body
• abductor digiti • constrictor of pharynx -inferior • extensor digitorum brevis (foot)

minimi (foot)
• abductor digiti • constrictor of pharynx -middle • extensor digitorum longus (foot)

minimi (hand)
• abductor hallucis • constrictor of pharynx -superior • extensor hallucis brevis
• abductor pollicis • coracobrachialis • extensor hallucis longus

brevis
• abductor pollicis • corrugator supercilii • extensor indicis

longus
• adductor brevis • cremaster • extensor pollicis brevis
• adductor hallucis • cricothyroid • extensor pollicis longus
• adductor longus • dartos • external oblique abdominis
• adductor magnus • deep transverse perinei • flexor carpi radialis
• adductor pollicis • deltoid • flexor carpi ulnaris
• anconeus • depressor anguli oris • flexor digiti minimi brevis (foot)
• articularis cubiti • depressor labii inferioris • flexor digiti minimi brevis (hand)
• articularis genu • diaphragm • flexor digitorum brevis
• aryepiglotticus • digastric • flexor digitorum longus (foot)
• auricularis • erector spinae - spinalis • flexor digitorum profundus
• biceps brachii • erector spinae - iliocostalis • flexor digitorum superficialis
• biceps femoris • erector spinae - longissimus • flexor hallucis brevis
• brachialis • extensor carpi radialis brevis • flexor hallucis longus
• brachioradialis • extensor carpi radialis longus • flexor pollicis brevis
• buccinator • extensor digiti minimi (hand) • flexor pollicis longus
• bulbospongiosus • extensor digitorum (hand) • frontalis
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The Muscular System
Muscles of the Human Body (continued)
• gastrocnemius • interossei - plantar of foot • longus capitis
• gemellus inferior • interspinales • longus colli
• gemellus superior • intertransversarii • lumbricals of foot
• genioglossus • intrinsic muscles of tongue • lumbricals of hand
• geniohyoid • ishiocavernosus • masseter
• gluteus maximus • lateral cricoarytenoid • medial pterygoid
• gluteus medius • lateral pterygoid • medial rectus
• gluteus minimus • lateral rectus • mentalis
• gracilis • latissimus dorsi • mylohyoid
• hyoglossus • levator anguli oris • nasalis
• iliacus • levator ani-coccygeus • oblique arytenoid
• inferior oblique • levator ani - iliococcygeus • obliquus capitis inferior
• inferior rectus • levator ani-pubococcygeus • obliquus capitis superior
• infraspinatus • levator ani-puborectalis • obturator externus
• intercostals exter- • levator ani-pubovaginalis • obturator internus
• intercostals inner- • levator labii superioris • omohyoid

most
• intercostals inter- • alaeque nasi • opponens digiti minimi (hand)

nal
• internal oblique • levator palpebrae superioris • opponens pollicis

abdominis
• interossei - dorsal • levator scapulae • orbicularis oculi

of hand
• interossei -dorsal • levator veli palatini • orbicularis oris

of foot
• interossei- palmar • levatores costarum • palatoglossus

of hand
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The Muscular System
• palatopharyngeus • rectus abdominis • splenius cervicis
• palmaris brevis • rectus capitus anterior • stapedius
• palmaris longus • risorius • sternocleidomastoid
• pectineus • salpingopharyngeus • sternohyoid
• pectoralis major • sartorius • sternothyroid
• pectoralis minor • scalenus anterior • styloglossus
• peroneus brevis • scalenus medius • stylohyoid
• peroneus longus • scalenus minimus • stylopharyngeus
• peroneus tertius • scalenus posterior • subclavius
• piriformis • semimembranosus • subcostalis
• plantaris • rectus capitus lateralis • subscapularis
• platysma • rectus capitus posterior major • superficial transverse perinei
• popliteus • rectus capitus posterior minor • superior oblique
• posterior cricoaryte- • rectus femoris • superior rectus

noid
• procerus • rhomboid major • supinator
• pronator quadratus • rhomboid minor • supraspinatus
• pronator teres • semitendinosus • temporalis
• psoas major • serratus anterior • temporoparietalis
• psoas minor • serratus posterior inferior • tensor fasciae lata
• pyramidalis • serratus posterior superior • tensor tympani
• quadratus femoris • soleus • tensor veli palatini
• quadratus femoris • sphincter ani • teres major
• quadratus lumborum • sphincter urethrae • teres minor
• quadratus plantae • splenius capitis • thyro-arytenoid & vocalis
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The Muscular System
• thyro-epiglotticus • transversospinalis -rotatores • uvulae
• thyrohyoid • transversospinalis -semispinalis • vastus intermedius
• tibialis anterior • transversus abdominis • vastus lateralis
• tibialis posterior • transversus thoracis • vastus medialis
• transverse arytenoid • trapezius • zygomaticus major
• transversospinalis - • triceps • zygomaticus minor

multifidus
Muscle Contraction Factors

Many factors influence the force of the muscle contraction, including: the frequency of the stimuli, the
strength of the stimulus, the length of the muscle fiber contraction, the type of contraction (isotonic vs. iso-
metric), the type of muscle fiber (slow vs. fast twitch), as well as muscle tone and fatigue. An isotonic con-
traction occurs when muscle tension remains the same as muscle length changes (shortens). Lifting an ob-
ject would involve an isotonic contraction. Alternatively, an isometric contraction occurs when muscle length
remains the same as muscle tension increases. Pushing against an immovable object like a wall is an exam-
ple of an isometric contraction.
Twitch Fibers
Muscle fibers are often defined as a short twitch fiber or a fast twitch fiber. Short twitch fibers are able to
elongate the period during which action potentials are fired, and consume oxygen very efficiently. It takes
longer for short twitch fibers to reach fatigue than it would for a fast twitch fiber. Therefore, they are more
suitable for endurance sports such as marathon races. On the contrary, fast twitch fibers fire action poten-
tials very quickly and are able to generate powerful bursts of energy. These fibers rely on anaerobic metabo-
lism for energy (i.e., oxygen is not required). These muscle fibers are better suited for the type of motion
needed for short distance sprinting.
Force Summation
Skeletal muscles are able to generate different levels of force through a concept called Force Summation.
Essentially, skeletal muscles are able to employ more (or less) twitch muscle contractions at faster (or slow-
er) frequencies. Individually, twitch muscle contractions are the weak byproduct of a single action potential.
They are not long or strong enough to create a useful contraction. Successive stimuli can generate addition-
al tension, depending on the amount of Ca2+ accumulated between stimulation, and result in a more or less
forceful muscle contraction overall. The term multiple fiber summation describes when the amount of twitch
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The Muscular System
contractile units is increased; while the term frequency summation describes when the number of action po-
tentials fired at the twitch contractile units is increased. Twitch contractions are uncommon in the body as
muscle fibers typically act in concert to generate an effective contraction.
As you have learned, ATP is the energy source for muscle contraction. It is obtained from a coupled reaction
of creatine phosphate and ADP, as well as from aerobic and anaerobic metabolism of glucose (which results
in lactic acid accumulation and oxygen depletion). When ATP is depleted, muscle fatigue occurs.
Muscles are classified as prime movers or agonists, antagonists, synergists, and fixators. Prime movers or
agonists are the main muscle responsible for a movement. Antagonists cause the opposite movement of the
prime mover, while synergists aid in the movement of the prime mover. Fixators aid in the stability of joints.
The criteria for naming muscles include a muscle’s location, shape, relative size (maximus, minimus, longus
or brevis), fascicle direction (rectus, transverses, oblique), number of origins, attachment sites, and action
(flexor, extensor, abductor, adductor, pronator or supinator). Select 30 muscles from the “Muscles of the Hu-
man Body” list, and research their location and the movement they enable.
Pre-Lab Questions
1. How do banding patterns change when a muscle contracts?
2. What is the difference between a muscle organ, a muscle fiber, myofibril and a myofilaments?
3. Outline the molecular mechanism for skeletal muscle contraction. At what point is ATP used and why?
4. Explain why rigor mortis occurs.
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The Muscular System
Experiment 1: Tendons and Ligaments
Connective tissue plays a key role in the muscular system, securing muscles to bones (tendons) and holding
bones in place (ligaments).
Materials
Tendon-Muscle Insertion Digital Slide Image Ligament (Longitudinal Section) Digital Slide Im-
age
Tendon Digital Slide Image
Ligament Digital Slide Image
Tendon (Longitudinal Section) Digital Slide Image
Procedure
1. Examine the digital slide images provided on the following pages. Be sure to note what structural compo-
nents of the tissues are visible in each image.
274
The Muscular System
Tendon
Muscle Fibers
Tendon-Muscle insertion 100X.
Chondrocytes
Collagen
Tendon-Muscle Insertion 1000X.
275
The Muscular System
Tendon (Longitudinal Section) 100X.
Nuclei
Collagen Fibers
276 Tendon (Longitudinal Section) 1000X. Collagen fibers contribute greatly to the tendon strength.
The Muscular System
Ligament (Longitudinal Section) 100X.
Skeletal Muscle Fibers
Collagen Fibers
Ligament (Longitudinal Section) 1000X. 277

The Muscular System
Ligament 100X.
Skeletal Muscle Fibers
Collagen Fibers
Ligament 1000X. Collagen fibers give ligaments their strength.
278
The Muscular System
Post-Lab Questions
1. Label the arrows in the slide images below based on your observations from the experiment.
Tendon-Muscle Insertion: 100X

B
279
The Muscular System
C D
Ligament: 1000X
280
The Muscular System
E F
Tendon (Longitudinal Section) 1000X
2. How does the extracellular matrix of connective tissues contribute to its function?
3. Why are tendons and ligament tissues difficult to heal?
4. Sketch and label the hierarchy of tendons, starting with the reticular membrane through tropocollagen.
5. What difference do you see between the tendon – muscle insertion image and the tendon image?
6. What differences do you see between the tendon and ligament sections?
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The Muscular System
Experiment 2: The Neuromuscular Junction
Each skeletal muscle is connected to the nervous system by motor end units. When the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine is release at this site, the muscle fiber depolarizes. Calcium ions are released from stores in
the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The presence of Ca2+ triggers the ratcheting of actin and myosin filaments and
the contraction of the myofiber as all of the myofibrils contract simultaneously.
Materials
Neuromuscular Junction Digital Slide Images
Neuromuscular Junction (Longitudinal Section) Digital Slide Images
Procedure
1. Examine the digital slide images of the neuromuscular junction.
Axons
Muscle Fibers
Neuromuscular junction 100X.
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The Muscular System
Axon
Muscle Fiber
Neuromuscular Junction (Longitudinal Section) 1000X.
283
The Muscular System
Post-Lab Questions
1. Identify the axon, terminal branches, and muscle fibers in the slide image below. If possible, trace the fiber
to its terminus.
A. Axon
B. Terminal
Branches
C. Muscle
Fibers
Neuromuscular Junction (Longitudinal Section) 100X.

2. Are there few or many nuclei at the end plate?
3. What is a motor unit?
4. How is a greater force generated (in terms or motor unit recruitment)?
5. What types of sensors are present within the muscle to identify how much force is generated?
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The Muscular System
Experiment 3: Muscle Fatigue
Muscle contractions are essential for muscles to function properly. The inability of a muscle to maintain ten-
sion is muscle fatigue. Failure to contract may occur because of the accumulation of lactic acid, a lack of
ATP, or decreased blood flow. In this exercise, you will investigate the correlation between repeated move-
ments and muscle fatigue.
Materials
Rubber Band Stopwatch
Note: If you suffer from a medical condition that does not permit you to perform this activity, please ask a part-
ner to volunteer for you.
Procedure
1. Hypothesize how many times you can stretch a rubber band between your thumb and pinky finger in 20
seconds. Record your predictions in the table below.
2. Using your dominant hand, count the number of times you can completely stretch a rubber band be-
tween the thumb and pinky finger in 20 seconds. Be sure to stretch the rubber band as far as possible
each time and do not take a break in between trials.
3. Record your count for each trial in Table 1.
Table 1: Experimental Counts
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5
Predicted Value
Actual Value
Post-Lab Questions
1. How did the predicted results compare to the actual results?
2. Did you notice any changes in the number of repetitions you could perform, or how your hand felt after
each of the trials?
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The Muscular System
3. Explain the actions that were occurring at the cellular level to produce this movement. Include sources of
energy and any possible effect of muscle fatigue.
4. Hypothesize what would happen if blood flow was restricted to the hand when this experiment is per-
formed.
Experiment 4: Gross Anatomy of the Muscular System

Muscle actions are often described as a departure from the anatomical position of the body. In performing the
next exercise, you will understand how muscles act to affect motion.
Materials
*Participant (can be yourself)
*Heavy Object (approximately 5 pounds) *You must provide
Procedure
1. Begin by examining muscles found in the upper limbs. First, extend your forearm so you have a clear view
of your hand. What muscle is required to perform this extension? Extend your fingers out so they are
straight and splayed apart. Then, retract your fingers into a tight fist. Repeat this motion several times,
observing the wrist and hand muscles as the flex and relax. What muscles are used to complete this ac-
tion? Record your observations in Table 2.
Note: It is helpful to palpate the area being flexed to better identify which muscles are being used.
2. Moving up the limb, extend your forearm out until it is parallel to the ground. Have a partner press down
on your forearm. Flex your forearm to provide resistance as your partner pushes down. Observe the fore-
arm and identify which muscles are being used. Record your observations in Table 2.
3. The partner should stop pushing down on your forearm, but keep it extended. Curl the forearm upward,
creating a bend at the elbow. Observe which muscles are being used to complete this action, and record
your observations in Table 2.
4. Find a heavy object, and pick it up. Keeping your arm straight, raise the object out to the side until it is
parallel to the ground. What muscles does this require? Continue holding the object, drop your arm down
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The Muscular System
and rotate it back behind you. What muscles does this activate? Record your observations in Table 2.
Note: Be sure the heavy object is not too heavy before you lift it. This item should be approximately 5 -
10 pounds. This object should never be raised above your head!
5. Move down to the lower limbs, and determine what motions are needed to view the lower limb muscles in
action. For example, you may want to walk, jump, sit, point your toes, etc. Engage at least seven different
muscles and indicate what motion was used to engage each muscle in Table 2.
Table 2: Gross Anatomy Data

Movement Muscle(s) Activated Action(s) of Muscle(s)
1. Forearm Extended (Step 1)
2. Fingers Extended and Splayed

(Step 1)
3. Fingers Retracted (Step 1)
4. Forearm Pressed Down Upon

(Step 2)
5. Elbow Bent (Step 3)
6. Arm Raised to Side with Heavy

Object (Step 4)
7. Arm Extended Back with Heavy

Object (Step 4)
8. (lower limbs; student selects

actionE)

actionE)

actionE)

actionE)

actionE)

actionE)

actionE)
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The Muscular System
Post-Lab Questions
1. Label the human muscle diagram.
2. Which muscle(s) were used to extend your arm backwards?
3. Which muscle(s) were used to extend and splay your fingers outward?
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The Muscular System
Experiment 5: ATP and Muscle Fatigue
Muscles require energy to contract. Energy is released when biomolecules such as sugars and fats are bro-
ken down, and is stored in the form of ATP. ATP enables muscle contraction, but can only be stored in rela-
tively small amounts. For this reason, the body must continually metabolize new ATP molecules.
Muscle fatigue occurs if the local ATP reservoir for a muscle becomes depleted. This is a common result of
strenuous exercise in which ATP is consumed at a faster rate than it is produced. At this point, muscles may
fail to contract and the intensity of an exercise must decrease. In this experiment, you will test how long it
takes your muscles to fatigue.
Materials
Stopwatch
*Participant *You must provide
*Sturdy Wall to Stand Against
Procedure
1. To begin, find a wall that is strong enough for you to push against. A temporary wall (such as a partition
panel) is not suitable.
2. Find the stopwatch and adjust the settings so it is ready to operate.
3. Stand with your back pressed up against the wall, and lower yourself into a “wall-sit”. To do this:
a. Align the backs of your heels, hips, and shoulders with the wall.
b. Keeping your back pressed against the wall, take a few small steps forward (your upper half will
lower as you walk your feet out).
c. Lower yourself into a sitting position, keeping your back flat against the wall, until your knees form
a 90 degree angle.
d. Steady this position by focusing the majority of your weight in your heels. Do not allow your lower
back to pull away from the wall.
4. Start the stopwatch and time how long you are able to hold the wall-sit position. The amount of time will
vary, but will likely fall within approximately 30 - 120 seconds. When you are tired, check the time on the
stopwatch, and move out of the position by slowly lowering your body down to the floor or standing up.
5. Record how long you were able to hold the wall-sit in Table 3.
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The Muscular System
6. Allow your muscles to rest for approximately two minutes, reset the stopwatch, and repeat Steps 3 - 5.
7. Again, allow your muscles to rest for approximately two minutes, reset the stopwatch, and repeat Steps 3
- 5. You should have three trials of data.
Table 3: Muscle Fatigue Data
Trial Time (seconds)
Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Post-Lab Questions
1. What happened to the time intervals between Trial 1 and Trial 3? What caused this change?
2. Identify three muscles which were engaged during the wall-sit.
3. Explain the biochemical reasoning behind muscle fatigue.
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The Muscular System
Experiment 6: Virtual Model - The Muscular System (Upper Body)
The previous experiments investigate the physiological aspects of the muscular system. In this experiment,
you will use the virtual model to learn about the anatomical placement of each muscle. Through this process
you will obtain a more detailed understanding of the muscular attachments and coordinated movements
which allow humans to move, as well as contract for postural control or force applications.
Materials

*Computer Access
Procedure
Note: If you have not registered your Student Portal account, go to www.eScienceLabs.com/portal and
register your account using the kit code sticker located on the underside of your lab kit’s box lid.
model.
c. Double click any item on the model to center and zoom the perspective. The corresponding ana-
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The Muscular System
spelled correctly.
etc.)
5. After you are comfortable with the Virtual Model interface, click on the plus
(+) symbol next to Upper Body from the left side panel.
6. You will need to clearly view the muscular system for this experiment, so click
on the blue, column-shaped button to the left of Skeletal System to toggle its
content into transparent (one click; recommended) or invisible (two clicks)
mode.
Note: You can enable the skeletal system visibility by clicking on the col-
umn-shaped viewing button next to Skeletal System at any time. This is
recommended to help view how the muscular and skeletal systems work
together, but it is important to isolate the muscular system for part of the
experiment for visibility purposes.
7. Click on the plus (+) symbol next to Muscular System from the left side panel.
Content hierarchy.
8. Click through the complete suite of upper body muscles. This includes the
abdomen, back, head, neck, thorax, and upper limbs (right and left). Be sure to include the subcontent
listed within each of these muscle groups in your exploration.
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The Muscular System
Upper body muscular system. Note how the skeletal system has been tog-
gled into transparency, and the upper body is isolated.
Hint: Review the Post-Lab Questions as you work through the upper body muscular components.
9. Hover your mouse over the individual muscles to reveal the terms. The information provided in the Intro-
duction will continue to be useful in determining the corresponding movement performed by each muscle.
Work your way through the upper body muscles to better understand the anatomical placement and coor-
dination of each muscle group.
10. Answer the Post-Lab Questions when you have finished exploring the upper body.
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The Muscular System
Post-Lab Questions
1. What is the scientific term for the muscles of the mouth?
2. Are the muscles used in deep mastication located on the ventral or dorsal side of the body?
3. Do the m. pectoralis major muscles belong to the deep thorax group or the superficial thorax group?
4. Is the m. rectus abdominis or the m. obliques externus more deep within the body?
5. Is the m. trapezius located in the abdomen, back, head, neck, or thorax?
6. Which muscle lies directly posterior to the m. serratus posterior inferior right and left muscle groups?
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The Muscular System
Experiment 7: Virtual Model - The Muscular System (Lower Body)
In this experiment, you will focus on the muscular components of the lower human anatomy.
Materials

*Computer Access
Procedure
2. After you have entered your Anatomy and Physiology Lab Kit, click on the link titled “Virtual Model”.
4. Click on the plus (+) symbol next to Lower Body from the left side pan-
el.
Note: You may wish to close the skeletal system subcategories by

selecting the minus (-) symbol next to the Skeletal System if they
were previously opened for ease of viewing. You may also need to
toggle the viewing mode for the lower body muscular system into
the visible mode if it was toggled into transparent or invisible mode
from a previous experiment. This can be done by clicking the col-
umn-shaped viewing button next to the Muscular System until the
viewing enters the visible mode.
5. You will need to clearly view the muscular system for this experiment, Content hierarchy.
so click on the blue, column-shaped button to the left of Skeletal Sys-
tem to toggle its content into transparent (one click; recommended) or invisible (two clicks) mode.
Note: You can enable the skeletal system by clicking on the column-shaped viewing button next to
Skeletal System at any time. This is recommended to help view how the muscular and skeletal sys-
tems work together, but it is important to isolate the muscular system for part of the experiment for vis-
ibility purposes.
6. Click on the plus (+) symbol next to Muscular System from the left side panel.
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The Muscular System
Work your way through the lower body muscles to better understand the anatomical place-
ment and coordination of each muscle group.
7. Click on the plus (+) symbol next to Lower Limb, R from the left side panel and click through the foot, hip,
leg, and thigh muscles. Be sure to review the subcontent listed within each of these categories.
Hint: Review the Post-Lab Questions as you work through the components of the lower right limb.
Identify the muscles of the lower right limb.
8. Hover the cursor over different muscles to view the associated terms. The information provided in the In-
troduction will continue to be useful in determining the movements performed by each muscle.
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The Muscular System
9. Click on the minus (-) symbol next to Lower Limb, R. Then, click on the plus (+) symbol next to Lower
Limb, L and click through the foot, hip, leg, and thigh muscles. Be sure to review the subcontent listed
within each of these categories.
Hint: Review the Post-Lab Questions as you work through the muscular components of the lower right
limb.
10. Answer the Post-Lab Questions when you have finished exploring the lower body.
Post-Lab Questions
1. Is the extensor digitorum longus or the extensor digitorum brevis more superficial to the skin?
2. How many adductor muscles exist within the body? List them here.
3. Are the plantar muscles located in the foot, hip, leg, or thigh muscle group?
4. Does the lateral group of muscles extend towards the hallux (“big toe”) or the fifth toe (“baby toe”)?
5. Which foot muscle group is most distal; the lateral group, the medial group, or the middle group?
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The Muscular System
Experiment 8: Virtual Model - Muscular System Coloring Activity
The layering and coordination of the muscular system is a fascinating, yet complex, feature in human anato-
my. In this experiment, you will use the Coloring Book Activity in the Virtual Model on the Student Portal to
identify some of the major muscles within the muscular system.
Materials

*Computer Access
Procedure
4. Select the muscular system images, and find the image titled
“Muscular System: Abdomen”. See Figure 7 for reference.
5. Using the paint tool, color the obliques externus green and the
pectorales blue.
6. Take a screen shot of your image, title the image “Muscular Sys-
tem - Abdomen”, and save it to your computer.
Note: This image (and the proceeding images) should be

submit to your teacher as part of the assignment. Be sure to
Figure 7: Muscular system coloring
remember where you save it. book image reference.
7. Find the image titled “Muscular System: Back”. Using the paint tool, color the latissimus dorsi yellow, the
trapezii green, the infraspinati orange, deltoidei blue, the triceps brachii (lateral head) brown, and the tri-
ceps brachii (long head) purple.
8. Take a screen shot of your image, title it as “Muscular System - Back”, and save it to your computer.
9. Find the image titled “Muscular System: Head”. Using the paint tool, color the orbicularis oris purple, the
orbicularis oculi yellow, the occipitofrontale red, the zygomaticus minors blue, and the zygomaticus majors
orange.
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The Muscular System
10. Take a screen shot of your image, title it as “Muscular System - Head”, and save it to your computer.
11. Find the image titled “Muscular System: Upper Limb”. Using the paint tool, color the brachioradialis or-
ange, the anconeus blue, the extensor carpi ulnaris red, the flexor carpi ulnaris blue, and the extensor dig-
itorum green.
12. Take a screen shot of your image, title it as “Muscular System - Upper Limb”, and save it to your comput-
er.
13. Find the image titled “Muscular System: Lower Limbs (Posterior)”. Using the paint tool, color the glutei
maximi purple, the biceps femoris blue, the semitendinosi yellow, the tesnor fasciae latae red, and the
gastrocnemii green.
14. Take a screen shot of your image, title it as “Muscular System: Lower Limbs (Posterior)”, and save it to
your computer.
15. Find the image titled “Muscular System: Lower Limbs (Anterior)”. Using the paint tool, color the rectus
femoris muscles red, the sartorii orange, and the vastus medialis green.
16. Take a screen shot of your image, title it as “Muscular System - Lower Limbs - Anterior”, and save it to
your computer.
17. Find the image titled “Muscular System: Lower Limbs (Anterior - Distal)”. Using the paint tool, color the
solei brown, the extensor digitorum longi purple, the tibialis anterior muscles blue, and the meroneus longi
yellow.
18. Take a screen shot of your image, title it as Muscular System - Lower Limbs - Anterior - Distal”, and save
it to your computer.
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The Muscular System
Experiment 9: Fetal Pig Dissection - Muscular System
In this exercise you will become familiar with the muscular system of the fetal pig. The muscular system of
the fetal pig closely resembles that of the human body and, thus, will allow for a viable hands-on examina-
tion of key muscles.
Materials

Dissection Tray String (should still be tied onto pigs hooves)
Procedure
Note: DO NOT destroy this bag or empty out the preserving solution within the bag, you will need it
for the whole semester.
3. Lay your pig into the dissecting tray ventral (belly) side up. Slide the tied string over the dissection tray,
allowing the belly of the pig to be exposed.
4. To view the muscular system, you must cut away the skin of the pig.
5. Using the scalpel, make a skin-deep incision running from the umbilical cord to neck of the pig. Be VERY
careful not to cut through the muscular tissue below the skin. Remember, do not rush or you will cut
through the muscle. Some areas may take more time, but be patient to insure the best cuts are made. If
you accidently cut too deeply, move on - it will be okay!
6. Use Figure 8 as a guide for the incisions required to remove the skin from the pig.
7. Begin by pulling slightly upward on the umbilical cord. Starting about 1.0 cm superior to the umbilical
cord, cut away from your body along the mid-ventral line towards the neck (Figure 8; insertion 1). Trace
a circle one cm around the umbilical cord.
Note: Use caution when cutting around the neck region.
8. The second cut will vary based on the sex of your pig. Follow the lines shown in Figure 8; 2M is for
males while 2F is for females.
9. Cut along the jawline (Figure 8; 3). When you turn the pig over you will complete this incision around the
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The Muscular System
dorsal side of the fetal pig.
10. Make a lateral cut at the level of the hindlimbs (Figure 8; 4), then another just below the ribcage (Figure 8;
5).
11. Make an incision up each limb (Figure 8; 6 and 7). Cut completely around each limb at the distal ends.
12. Cut completely around the tail with the scalpel.
13. Carefully peel away the skin from the underlying muscle using the scalpel and blunt probe to break the
connective tissue holding the skin to the fascia. Use scissors to remove any skin flaps.
14. Remove the strings from the dissection tray and turn the pig over so its dorsal side is facing up.
15. Re-secure the strings underneath the dissection tray.
16. Use a shallow cut along the mid-dorsal line along the backbone.
17. Again, carefully peel away the skin from the underlying muscle using the scalpel and blunt probe to break
the connective tissue holding the skin to the fascia.
2M
4 5
8 2F 1
3
2M
Figure 8: Cut lines for skinning the fetal pig.
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The Muscular System
18. If a whitish layer of adipose tissue is preventing your view of the muscle, use a teasing needle to gently
remove the tissue to reveal the underlying muscles. You may also need to wipe the whitish adipose from
the muscle with a paper towel.
19. Pat the muscles dry with a paper towel and examine the muscles of the shoulder, hind leg, chest, back,
and abdomen. You should be able to see the fibrous structure of the muscle tissue. Pay special attention
to the points of origin and insertion, as well as how they act. Remember the following terms:
Adductors - Pulls a body part toward the midline of the body.

Abductors - Pulls a body part away from the midline of the body.
Flexors - Bends a body part against another body part, to reduce the angle between them.
Extensors - Straightens a body part to increase the angle between two body parts.
Constrictors - Contracts a body part to shorten it.
20. Complete Table 4.
Table 4: Experimental Data
Muscle Origin Insertion Movement
Pectoralis major
Latissimus dorsi
Deltoids
Rectus abdominus
Transverse abdominis
Gluteus medius
21. To finish, locate the bag the pig came in. Gently place the pig back into the bag and tightly secure the bag
with a rubber band, or place in the zip-seal bag provided in the dissection box.
Biological scraps should not be thrown into the garbage. Securely store the biological scraps until the end
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The Muscular System
Post-Lab Questions
1. Describe the tissue that covers muscles.
2. How many layers of abdominal muscle are there?
3. What direction do the muscle fibers of the external oblique run?
4. Why are muscle fibers considered excitable?
5. Why is it important to have both flexors and extensors?
6. How can muscle mass be influenced by training or age?
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Lab 8
The Nervous System
The Nervous System
Concepts to Explore
The Central Nervous System Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions

The Peripheral Nervous System The Brain
The Somatic Nervous System The Spinal Cord
Vision and the Eye Neurons and Glial Cells

Hearing and the Ear Action Potentials
The Autonomic Nervous System Synapses
Introduction
The nervous system carries a large responsibility for maintaining the ho-
meostasis within the body. It is the master control and communication
center of the body. The nervous system allows the body to interpret, inte-
grate, and react to the surrounding environment as well as the internal
stimuli occurring simultaneously throughout the body. Voluntary actions
such as writing, reading, or running, as well as involuntary actions such
as the heart pumping blood through the body, the pancreases releasing
enzymes, or the gut digesting food are monitored by this complex sys-
tem.
The three main responsibilities of the nervous system are sensory input
(for stimuli inside and external to the body), integration of sensory input,
and a motor response by activating effector organs. To accomplish these
substantial tasks, the nervous system is organized into two distinct sub-
systems: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nerv-
ous system (PNS).
The Central and Peripheral Nervous System

The CNS and PNS are divided anatomically as follows:
1. CNS - Integration and command center.
• Brain: Receives and processes sensory information,
initiates responses, stores memories, generates
thoughts and emotions.
• Spinal cord: Conducts signals to and from the brain
and controls reflexes.
Figure 1: Nervous system anatomy.
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The Nervous System
2. PNS - Carries neural impulses to and from the brain.
• Sensory (Afferent) Neurons: Carries signals to the CNS from sensory organs.
• Motor (Efferent) Neurons: Carries signals from the CNS that control the activities of mus-
cles and glands.
• Somatic Nervous System: Controls the voluntary movements by activating skeletal mus-
cle.
• Autonomic Nervous System: Controls the involuntary responses by stimulating organs,

glands, and smooth muscle.
• Sympathetic Division: Preparing the body for stressful or energetic responses; “Fight or
flight” responses.
• Parasympathetic Division: Controls maintenance activities; tranquil actions.
Figure 2: The Functional Organization of the Nervous System
The PNS can be classified in three ways. First, the PNS neurons are differentiated based on how they con-
nect to the CNS. Cranial nerves originate from or terminate in the brain, while spinal nerves begin or end in
the spinal cord.
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The Nervous System
The PNS is also segregated functionally into afferent and efferent divisions. Afferent pathways convey im-
pulses to the CNS and efferent pathways convey impulses from the CNS. Afferent nerve fibers carry impuls-
es from skin, skeletal muscles and joints to the brain (sensory afferent fibers) as well as transmitting signals
from visceral organs to the brain (visceral afferent fibers). The efferent division also includes somatic
(voluntary) system and the autonomic (involuntary) systems. This group of neurons is further divided based
on the effectors they target, into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The
somatic nervous system is responsible for such actions as the conscious control of skeletal muscle.
Brain
Highly complex organ that forms the cen-
ter of the upper nervous system.
Cervical Plexus Spinal Cord

Branch from cervical vertebrae. Tubular bundle of nervous ssue con-
Muscles of head, neck and shoul- necng brain and peripheral nervous sys-
ders tem.
Brachial Plexus Vertebrae

Shoulder and upper extremies. (Lumbar vertebrae marked L1-L5).
Greater Splanchnic Nerve

Branches into gastrointesnal sys-
tem. Kidneys, ureters, bladder and Thoracic Intercostal Nerves
rectum. Branch from thoracic vertebrae. Muscles
between the ribs and chest walls.
Hypogastric Nerves
Abdominal wall muscles, lower Ilioinguinal Nerve
abdomen and pelvic region. Branch of ﬁrst lumbar nerve. Abdominal
wall muscles and genital region.
Femoral Nerve
Largest branch of lumbar nerves. Genitofemoral Nerve
Thigh, legs and foot. Branches from L1 and L2. Thigh and geni-
tal region.
Pudenal Nerve
Sphincters of rectum and bladder. Sciac Nerve
External genitalia. Skin and muscles of thigh, lower leg and
foot.
Figure 3: Major nerves of the nervous system.
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The Nervous System
Vision and the Eye
The somatic system relies on widely distributed, generalized receptors. By contrast, the nervous system also
features many specialized functions which rely on organs and cells with precise locations and utility. These
functions are often referred to as the five senses, or specialized senses. Vision is one of the five senses.
Vision is dependent on the ability to respond to external stimuli; as well as the interaction between the CNS
and the eye. Light-sensitive cells found on the surface of the retina field optical images, which can be translat-
ed into a meaningful picture through the nervous system.
The eye is a spherical, approximately 2.3 cm in diameter, structure housed in the orbital sockets of the skull.
The majority of the eye consists of two fluids: aqueous humor and vitreous humor. Aqueous humor fills the
empty space between the cornea and the iris, as well as the iris and the lens. This fluid is clear, and water like
in viscosity. It enhances vision by providing shape, structure, and nutrients to the eye. Vitreous humor fills the
primary cavity of the eye. It is a gel-like substance estimated to be composed of approximately 99% water.
This fluid provides structure and support, but does not offer nutritional value.
Three primary layers are responsible for the majority of eye function. The first layer consists of the sclera and
the cornea. The sclera is a thin membrane which encloses and protects the eyeball. This membrane contrib-
utes to the firm, white component of the eye. The cornea is located within the sclera, but is only present near
the front (outward facing) region of the eye. The cornea projects slightly outward, and is a very delicate mem-
brane which allows light rays to pass into the eye.
4 1 = Aqueous Humor
1 2 =Vitreous Humor
2
3 3 = Sclera
4 = Choroid
10 7 6 4 5 = Ciliary Body
9
6 = Iris
7= Pupil
5 8 = Retina
8
9 = Optic Nerve
10 = Lens
Figure 4: Eye anatomy.

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The Nervous System
The second layer consists of the choroid, the ciliary body, and the iris. The choroid is enriched with blood ves-
sels which nourish the eye with oxygen, zinc, and other nutrients. The iris forms a round, pigmented layer be-
neath the cornea and accounts for eye color. The “opening” near the center of the iris is called the pupil. The
pupil is a dark aperture which can contract or dilate to control the amount of light entering the interior of the
eye. This function is useful when the amount of light available is insufficient (e.g., at night) or excessive (e.g.,
bright lights).
The retina sits beneath the choroid, comprising the third layer. This layer includes an outer layer of rods and
cones, a middle layer of bipolar neurons, and an inner layer of ganglion cells. Combined, these three layers of
the retina exhibit the neural component of vision. Rods and cones are specialized photoreceptors which trans-
late light waves into electrical signals (neural impulses). Axons of the ganglion cells form the optic nerve,
which carries neural impulses to the brain. In this way, the optic nerve is considered part of the eye as well as
part of the brain. The brain then interprets the impulses delivered by the optic nerve into a meaningful image.
Hearing and the Ear

Hearing is another one of the five senses. Similar to vision, hearing is dependent on coordination with the
CNS; and, similar to the eye, the ear has three primary layers. Hearing is also very specialized as the brain
must isolate different sounds using pitch, intensity, and timbre. However, the ability to hear something re-
quires the nervous system to transform sound waves into a meaningful noise.
The first layer is called the external ear. The external layer includes the pinna (the ear), external auditory mea-
tus (ear canal), and tympanic membrane (ear drum). The pinna is the visible, skin-covered portion of the carti-
lage which projects on the outside of the head. This layer is responsible for collecting sound waves from the
external environment and funneling them into the external auditory meatus. The pinna also filters certain
sound waves prior to entering the external auditory meatus, resulting in a narrowed range of sound waves
which can be used for hearing. The remaining sound waves cause the tympanic membrane to vibrate accord-
ing to the frequency of the sound waves.
6
2 1 = Pinna
1 4 7 2 = External Auditory Meatus
3
3 = Tympanic Membrane
4 = Middle Ear Bones
5 = Cochlea
6 = Semicircular Canals
Figure 5: Ear anatomy. 311

The Nervous System
The vibration of the tympanic membrane sets off a domino effect of vibrations, beginning with the bones of
the middle ear. These bones, termed the incus, stapes, and the malleus, vibrate at the same frequency of the
tympanic membrane. This vibration causes a feature on the stapes called the oval window to vibrate and trig-
ger vibrations throughout the inner ear fluid.
The inner ear is primarily composed of the cochlea, a coiled tube which is often described as looking like a
snail shell. The cochlea is dependent on the Organ of Corti, which contains auditory sensory receptor cells.
Every receptor cell is married to a hair cell which is able to open and trigger a series of electrochemical inter-
actions which eventually reaches the primary auditory cortex. Here, sounds can be processed and hearing
results.
The Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous

System
The ANS innervates cardiac and smooth muscle, as well
as glands, to regulate the many involuntary actions the
human body performs to maintain homeostasis. The ANS
is further divided into the sympathetic and parasympathet-
ic subsystems. The sympathetic nervous system is en-
gaged when the body prepares for activities that are gen-
erally considered “fight or flight” responses (increasing
heart rate, increasing the release of sugar from the liver
into the blood). These actions enable one to fight or re-
treat from danger. By contrast, the parasympathetic
nervous system is responsible for the subconscious reg-
ulation of organs and glands. These two systems typically
work both independently and cooperatively through a sys-
tem of checks and balances to maintain homeostasis.
The Brain
The master control center for the nervous system is the
brain. This organ enables voluntary movements, interpre-
tation and integration of sensation, consciousness, and
cognitive function. Anatomically, the brain can be divided
into the cerebrum (with its two hemispheres), the dien-
cephalon (the interbrain), brain stem, and cerebellum. The
cerebral hemispheres and cerebellum contain gray matter
nuclei surrounded by white matter and an outer cortex of
gray matter. The diencephalon and brain stem differ in
composition from the cerebral hemispheres in that they Figure 6: The sympathetic nervous system.
lack a cortex and contain cerebrospinal fluid. They have
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The Nervous System
cavities which are continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord and
are responsible for protecting the brain, reducing pressure at the base of
the brain, transporting chemical signals, and carrying waste away from the
brain tissue.
The cerebrum is noteworthy for its distinct shape, consisting of gyri

(bumps), sulci (grooves), and fissures (deep grooves). The precise pattern
of these furrows varies from person to person, but generally shares the
same form. The post-central gyrus can be found just posterior to the cen-
tral sulcus, and the pre-central gyrus is directly anterior to the central sul-
cus. The neurons of the post-central gyrus are activated in somatic sensa-
tion, and those of the pre-central gyrus control voluntary movement. Neu-
rons located in the superior temporal gyrus are critical to hearing.
Figure 7: The human brain is locat-
ed in the cranial cavity of the skull.
Each cerebral hemisphere is composed of the cerebral cortex, cerebral white matter, and basal ganglia. It
sends and receives impulses from the opposite side of the body. The diencephalon consists of the thalamus,
hypothalamus, and epithalamus. The brain stem is made of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. The
cerebellum can be divided into two lateral hemispheres, separated by the vermis. It is connected to the brain
stem by superior, middle, and inferior peduncles. It functions to process and interpret impulses from the motor
cortex and sensory pathways to effect coordinated movements. The anatomy of the brain is outlined in Fig-
ures 8, 9, and 10; and, the associated functions are described in Table 1.
Table 1: Brain Function
Prefrontal Cortex: Higher men- Somatosensory Cortex: Tactile Visual Cortex: Visual percep-
tal functions information processing tion/recognition
Motor Association Cortex: Com- Sensory Association Area: Multi- Association Area: Auditory
plex movement coordination sensory information association, verbal memory
Broca’s Area: Speech produc- Wernicke’s Area: Spoken lan- Olfactory Area: Sense of
tion guage comprehension smell
Primary Motor Cortex: Volun- Auditory Cortex: Hearing and Emotional Area: Pain, thirst,
tary movement sound perception hunger, etc.
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The Nervous System
10 1 = Frontal Lobe
11 2 = Parietal Lobe
2 3 = Occipital Lobe
12 4 = Temporal Lobe
5 5 = Brocca’s Area
6 6 = Tertia Optica Area
1 8 9
7 = Wernicke’s Area
8 = Pars Triangularis
7 9 = Pars Opercularis
10 = Gyrus Praemotoricus
3 11 = Gyrus Praecentralis
4
12 = Gyrus Postcentralis
13 = Hemispheria Inferiora and
13 Hemispheria Superiora
14 14 = Pons Medula Omnis
Figure 8: Brain anatomy (lateral view).
Figure 9: Sagittal plane.
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The Nervous System
Broca’s Area
Writing Touch
Corpus Callosum
(right-handed)
Auditory Cortex Auditory Cortex (left-

(right-ear) ear)
Spatial Visualization and

Wernicke’s Area
Analysis
(language,
math, etc.)
Visual Cortex Visual Cortex (left

(right-field) -field)
Figure 10: Superior view. The right and left cerebral hemispheres are connected by the corpus
callosum, allowing them to coordinate actions
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The Nervous System
The Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is a two-way impulse conduction pathway and a reflex center. It serves two main functions:
the transmission of nerve impulses and spinal reflexes. It resides within the vertebral column and is protected
by meninges and cerebrospinal fluid. An extension of the brain stem, it begins at the foramen magnum and
extends to the vertebral canal, continuing to the end of the first lumbar vertebra (L1). Here, the spinal cord ta-
pers to a point called the conus medullaris and is held in place by the filum terminale, an extension of the pia
matter that attaches to the coccyx. The spinal cord is held in position within the vertebral canal by denticulate
ligaments.
White Matter
Anterior Horn
Central Canal Anterior Median Fissure
Gray Matter Dura Mater

Dura Mater
Posterior Median Sulcus Arachnoid
Subarachnoid Space
Epidural Space
Spinal Nerve
Posterior Horn
Disk
Vertebra
Vertebral Arch
Figure 11: The spinal cord
Spinal nerves emerge from the spinal cord in pairs, one extending from each side. Thirty-one pairs of spinal
nerve roots can be identified along the length of the spinal cord. It is enlarged in the cervical (C4-T1) and lum-
bar (T9-T12) regions where nerves extending to the limbs originate. Two grooves run the length of the spinal
316
The Nervous System
cord: the anterior median fissure and the posterior median sulcus. A grouping of nerves called the cauda
equina attach to the end of the spinal cord and continue to run alongside before diverging to other parts of the
body.
When examining a cross-section of the spinal cord (Figure 11), the central gray matter of the spinal cord ap-
pears H-shaped surrounded by white matter. The anterior horns of this gray matter are composed mainly of
somatic motor neurons while the posterior horns contain visceral motor neurons and posterior horns contain
interneurons that synapse with sensory neurons. Two major roots, or branches of the spinal nerve that con-
nect to the spinal cord, are present in the spinal cord: ventral and dorsal roots. Ventral roots enter the ventral
side of the spinal cord, and contain motor nerve axons responsible for transmitting impulses to skeletal mus-
cles. Dorsal roots enter the dorsal side of the spinal cord, and contain sensory nerve fibers that relay impuls-
es from peripheral regions of the body to the spinal cord. Dorsal root ganglions are clusters of sensory nerve
cell bodies that reside on the dorsal root.
Neurons and Glial Cells

There are two principle cell types within the nervous tissue. Neu-
rons are the excitable cells that transmit electric impulses, while
glial cells surround and wrap neurons to aid in their functionality.
Neurons are the structural units of the nervous system. They are
composed of a body containing the nucleus, an axon which aris-
es from the axon hillock of the cell body, and dendrites and their
plasma membrane function in electrical signaling. Neurons can
be classified structurally into the following groups based on the
number of processes that extend from the cell body: multipolar
(the majority of neurons in the body), bipolar (sensory neurons
found in the special senses), and unipolar (located in the CNS).
Figure 12: Multipolar neuron.
There are several varieties of glial cells, including:
• Neuroglia provide support scaffolding for neurons in order to segregate and insulate the neurons.
• Astrocytes are the most abundant and versatile glial cells. Their highly branched structure enable
them to support neurons and encase capillaries to insure nutrient delivery.
• Schwann cells (neurolemmocytes) encloses the fibers of the PNS with concentric layers of its plas-
ma membrane (myelin sheath), insulating them for enhanced impulse transmission and protecting the
axon. A single Schwann cell is responsible for sheathing one axon.
• Oligodendrocytes are branched cells that wrap CNS nerve fibers. They behave similar to Schwann
cells, except for wrapping themselves around multiple axons at a given time.
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Together the cells of the nervous system generate and transmit action potentials, the electric signals that
provide direction for cells throughout the body. Action potentials are generated when a stimulus causes ion
channels to open, resulting in a change in the number of ions on either side of the plasma membrane. This
electrochemical gradient creates a change in the membrane potential difference, which when reaches the
threshold, depolarization occurs. This depolarization becomes self generating, and the action potential trav-
els without decreasing in strength over a distance. Thus, action potentials are the principle means of commu-
nication in the nervous system.
Schwann Cell Axons

Neuron Dendrites
Oligodendrocyte
Astrocyte
End Feet Axon

Capillary Terminals
Figure 13: Different types of nerve cells found throughout the nervous system. Microglial Cell
Action Potentials and Synapses

Action potentials can be transferred from one neuron to another neuron, or an effector cell, by means of func-
tional connections called synapses. This junction mediates the transfer of impulses through electrical and
chemical synapses. Electrical synapses are less common than chemical, though are found in the brain and
copiously in embryonic tissue. They allow the flow of ions from one neuron to the next because the two neu-
rons are actually coupled by gap junctions – a set of aligned channels in the presynaptic and postsynaptic
neurons. Ions are free to diffuse through the pore of this gateway in either direction, and permits action poten-
tials to continue almost instantaneously into another cell. Chemical synapses, on the other hand, are physical-
ly separated from the target cell (neuronal or non-neuronal). These junctions are specialized for the release
and reception of chemical messengers called neurotransmitters, chemicals released from neurons that trav-
el across a synapse to reach a target cell. The axonal terminal of the presynaptic neuron contains synaptic
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vesicles that contain the messenger molecules. When an ac-
tion potential reaches the axonal terminal, voltage-gated Ca2+
channels open and the ions set forth a conformational change
in a calcium-sensitive protein on the vesicle. This prompts the
neurotransmitter-filled vesicle to dock on the internal surface
of the presynaptic membrane, where it fuses and empties the
neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft (the space between the
two structures). The neurotransmitter binds with receptors on
the post-synaptic cell membrane and activates a downstream
response (excitatory or inhibitory) in the post-synaptic cell.
Pre-Lab Questions
1. What is the primary function of the nervous system?
2. Why does the cerebral cortex contain so many folds?
Figure 14: A nerve synapse.
3. What is a nerve impulse?
4. What are Schwann cells and what do they form?
5. What is an all-or-none response?
6. What two effects might neurotransmitters have?
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Experiment 1: Microscopic Anatomy of the Nervous System
The human nervous system is capable of a wide variety of functions. These abilities stem from the micro-
scopic anatomy of this system, which you will observe in this activity.
Materials
Spinal Cord Smear Digital Slide Image
Myelinated Nerve Fibers Digital Slide Image
Procedure
1. Locate and examine the spinal cord smear and myelinated nerve fiber digital slide images. Then, answer
the Post-Lab Questions.
Axon
Cell bodies
Spinal Cord Smear 100X. Neuroglial cells are closely associated with neurons as they act as supporting
cells.
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The Nervous System
Neuroglial
Dendrites
Cells
Cell Body
Spinal Cord Smear 1000X.
Nerve fiber
Perineurium
Myelinated Nerve Fiber 100X.
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Myelin sheaths
Myelinated axons
Myelinated Nerve Fiber 1000X. Schwann cells create a myelin sheath by wrapping around the fiber in
a ‘jelly roll’ fashion.
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The Nervous System
Post-Lab Questions
1. Label the arrows in the slide images below based on your observations from the experiment.
Spinal Cord Smear 100X
Myelinated Nerve Fiber 1000X.
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2. What is the major function of the neuron?
3. Are the nodes of Ranvier spaced equally along the axon? Why is this significant?
4. Define depolarization.
5. Describe how Schwann cells form the myelin sheath and the neurilemma.
6. What determines whether a neuron is unipolar, bipolar, or multipolar? Draw an example of each below.
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Experiment 2: Virtual Model - The Nervous System
The previous experiment provided an overview of the microscopic structure of the nervous system compo-
nents. However, the macroscopic organization also provides important information about the function and
utility of the nervous system within the body. In this experiment, you will use the Virtual Model to identify the
nervous system components with respect to the body as a unit.
Materials

*Computer Access
Procedure
b. Click on any term in the left side to highlight, center, and zoom to the corresponding feature on
the model.
c. Double click any item on the model to center and zoom the perspective The corresponding ana-
tomical term will also become highlighted in the left side panel.
will become invisible. This is useful when trying to view deeper anatomy that may be blanketed
by superficial features.
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spelled correctly.
etc.)
j. Click the “Reset View” button located in the lower left corner to restore the model’s default position-
ing on the screen.
4. After you are comfortable with the Virtual Model program, select the “Male
Full Body (minus Lymph Vessels)” option from the homepage.
5. You will need to clearly view the nervous system for this experiment, so
click on the blue buttons next to the Skeletal, Muscular, and Lymphatic
Systems, and Organs to toggle the viewing into transparent (one click) or
invisible (two clicks; recommended) mode.
Note: You can enable these systems at any time by re-clicking on the
blue buttons next to the respective categories. This is recommended to
help view how all of the systems work together, but it is important to
isolate the circulatory system for clear visibility.
6. Click on the plus (+) symbol next to Nervous System from the left side pan-
el.
8. Click through and identify the different organs and nerves associated with
the upper nervous system; this includes the head, spinal cord, arms, and
Content hierarchy.
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thorax. Be sure to work through the subcontent listed within the head, arms, and thorax.
Hint: Review the Post-Lab Questions as you work through the upper nervous vessels to help guide
your exploration.
The pons is superior to the medulla, inferior to the brain, and anterior to the cerebellum.
9. After you have completed your exploration of the upper nervous system, click on the minus (-) symbol
next to the Upper Body category. Then, click on the plus (+) symbol next to the Lower Body category.
10. Click through and identify the nerves associated with the lower body; this includes the pelvis and the
legs. Be sure to work through all of the subcontent listed within the pelvic and legs categories.
Hint: Review the Post-Lab Questions as you work through the upper nervous vessels to help guide
your exploration.
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The sciatic nerve is the longest and widest nerve in the human body.
Post-Lab Questions:
1. Which feature is more superior, the sciatic nerve or the tibial nerve?
2. What appendages is the radial nerve located in?
3. Where is the subcostal nerve located?
4. Is the brachial plexus anterior or superior to the lumbar plexus
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The Nervous System
Experiment 3: Virtual Model - The Nervous System Coloring Activity
The nervous system receives, coordinates, and integrates all of the electrochemical signals it receives from
the body. The pathways involved in this transmission span the body, but the critical organs reside in the upper
body near the head. In this experiment, you will use the Coloring Book Activity in the Virtual Model on the Stu-
dent Portal to better understand the extent of the nervous pathways as well as the architecture of the brain,
spinal cord, and brain stem.
Materials

*Computer Access
Procedure
3. Scroll down to the nervous system images, and find the image titled
“Nervous System: Brain (Side View)” (see Figure 15).
4. Using the paint tool, color the cerebellum blue, the temporal lobe
green, the parietal lobe yellow, the frontal lobe purple, and the
brainstem red.
6. Take a screen shot of your image, title it as “Nervous System -

Brain - Side View”, and save it to your computer.
Note: This image (and the proceeding images) should be sub-

mit to your teacher as part of the assignment. Be sure to re-
Figure 15: Image reference for color-
member where you save it. ing book activity.
7. Find the image titled “Nervous System: Brain (Arial View)”. Using
the paint tool, color the occipital lobe red, the parietal lobe blue, and the frontal lobe yellow.
8. Take a screen shot of your image, title it as “Nervous System - Brain - Arial View”, and save it to your
computer.
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The Nervous System
9. Find the image titled “Nervous System: Thorax. Using the paint tool, color the intercostal nerves purple,
the subcostal nerves red, the brachial plexus green, and the spinal cord yellow.
10. Take a screen shot of your image, title it as “Nervous System - Thorax”, and save it to your computer.
11. Find the image titled “Nervous System: Pelvic Region”.
12. Using the paint tool, color the iliohypogastric nerve yellow, the femoral nerve orange, the sacral plexus
red, the obturator nerves green, and the spinal cord purple.
13. Take a screen shot of your image, title it as “Nervous System - Pelvic Region”, and save it to your com-
puter.
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The Nervous System
Experiment 4: Cow Eye Dissection
Survival depends on the meaningful interpretation of stimuli. The five senses (taste, sight, touch, sound,
smell) are completely dependent on the nervous system. Nearly 70% of the sensory receptors in the body
are found in the eye. Photoreceptors are specialized cells that sense and encode light patterns, from which
the brain can construct images. The cow eye is quite similar to the human eye. Through this experiment, you
will gain an understanding of how the eye forms images and communicates with the brain through dissection
and examination of the cow eye.
Materials
Cow Eye Dissection Tools Kit
Dissection Tray
Definitions
Aqueous Humor: Aqueous fluid that provides shape to the front eye
Choroid: The middle layer of the eye that contains blood vessels
Cornea: A clear protective layer that refracts light
Fovea Centralis: Contains photoreceptors used for color interpretation
Iris: The colored muscle of the eye that regulate pupil size to protect the retina from light
Lens: Structure that refracts light onto the retina
Optic Nerve: Pathway for impulses to the occipital lobe of the brain
Pupil: Similar to a condenser on a microscope, this muscle allows light into the eye
Retina: Posterior portion of eye that contains photoreceptors (rods and cones)
Sclera: The white, outermost protective part of the eye
Vitreous Humor: A viscous liquid that provides shape to the eye
Procedure
1. Carefully observe the eye and remove any fat or extrinsic muscle with the scalpel. After removing this tis-
sue, the sclera and optic nerve should be visible.
2. Make an incision with the scalpel in the cornea until the aqueous humor (a clear liquid) is released.
3. Make an incision with the scalpel through the sclera around the middle of the eye so that one half will
have the anterior features of the eye (the cornea, lens, iris, and ciliary body) and the other half will con-
tain the posterior features (most noticeably where the optic nerve is attached to the eye).
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4. Place posterior half with the cornea on the dissection tray.
5. Using a scalpel, slice through the cornea.
6. Using forceps, remove the iris, located between the cornea and the lens.
7. The anterior half of the eye contains the lens. Notice the humor, the clear gel posterior to the lens.
8. Using the scalpel and forceps, remove the lens from the specimen.
9. Place the lens on a piece of paper with writing on it.
Note: In a living creature, the lens is clear and flexible; after preservation, it may have yellowed and
become more rigid.
10. Remove the vitreous humor from the posterior half of the eyeball and note the blood vessels on the pos-
terior wall. This is the retina.
11. Using gloved fingers, gently press on the retina and slide it around the eye ball to get a sense of where
the optic nerve connects to this tissue.
12. Use forceps to gently lift the retina off the inside wall of the eye. You should observe a colorful, shiny tis-
sue – the choroid coat (vascular tunic).
13. Turn the eye over and observe where the nerve enters the eyeball.
14. When finished, clean your dissecting tray and dissection tools with soap and water. Biological scraps
should not be thrown into the garbage. Securely store the biological scraps until the end of the term so
they can be properly disposed of at one time.
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The Nervous System
Post-Lab Questions
1. How does the eye work?
2. What is the hole in the center of the iris? What is its function?
3. What are the material properties of the lens?
4. What is the blind spot of the retina?
5. What is the purpose of the reflective material in the choroid coat? What is it called?
6. How did the image appear when you looked through the lens?
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Experiment 5: Brain Mapping
The brain is the control center of the body. It responds and interacts with the rest of the body as a unit, but
there are specialized regions within the brain that oversee unique functions such as movement, vision, analy-
sis, etc. In the following exercise, you will learn the anatomy of the brain and the functional areas important to
our everyday actions.
Materials
*White Swim Cap *The swim cap contains latex. Please don nitrile
gloves when handling the swim cap if you have
Permanent Marker
latex allergies.
Figures 8, 9, and 10
Procedure
1. Lay the swim cap on a flat surface, or you may choose to ask a volunteer to put it on while you map.
2. Outline and label the following lobes:
• Frontal
• Temporal
• Parietal
• Occipital
3. On the left side of the swim cap, outline the following structures:
• Area Brocca
• Area Tertia Optica
• Area Wernicke
• Cerebellum
• Pars Triangularis
• Pars Opercularis
• Postcentral Gyrus
• Precentral Gyrus
• Premotor Cortex
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4. Number the functional areas of the brain according to the following legend. Refer to Figure 8 for help.
1 = Auditory Cortex (right-ear)
2 = Auditory Cortex (left-ear)
3 = Broca’s Area
4 = Touch
5 = Visual Cortex (right-field)
6 = Visual Cortex (left-field)
7 = Wernicke’s Area
8 = Writing
5. Take a few pictures of your swim cap and submit the image to your professor. Be sure to capture each
angle of the swim cap to ensure that all of the information is conveyed through your pictures.
Post-Lab Question
1. Describe the function of three areas of the brain (you choose which areas you wish to discuss).
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The Nervous System
Experiment 6: Sheep Brain Dissection
The brain is the master control center of the body. This experiment will guide you through a dissection of a
preserved sheep brain in order to familiarize yourself with the structures of the brain.
Materials
Sheep Brain Dissection Tools Kit
Dissection Tray
Procedure
1. Examine the external features of the sheep brain. Compare the cerebrum, brain stem, and cerebellum
structures. Locate the frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal lobes, and the central sulcus from a lateral
view.
2. Place the brain with the ventral side-down to view the dorsal side of the organ. Note the pia mater extend-
ing downward into the sulci on the superior and lateral surfaces. Observe the dura mater, the arachnoid
mater, and blood vessels on the surface of the brain. The two cerebral hemispheres are separate by a
longitudinal fissure. Each hemisphere is divided into four major lobes. The frontal lobes are directly anteri-
or from the cruciate fissure; these may be difficult to locate. Moving posterior, you will see the parietal lobe
and then the occipital lobe. The temporal lobe can be identified as the slight bulge superior to the hippo-
campus gyrus. This may be ill-defined.
3. Turn the brain over to examine its inferior aspect.
4. View the club-like olfactory bulbs on the inferior surface of the frontal lobes of the cerebral hemispheres.
5. Locate the optic nerve. Find the optic chiasm, the x-shaped structure where medial fibers from each optic
nerve cross over to the opposite side.
6. Find the pituitary gland (posterior to the chiasm).
7. Locate the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata posterior to the optic chiasm.
8. Place the brain with the ventral side down.
9. Using a scalpel, make a mid-saggital cut along the longitudinal fissure of the cerebrum and midline of the
cerebellum to create left and right halves. Note the tree-like arrangement of the white matter that is the
cerebellar cortex.
10. Observe the exposed corpus callosum, the prominent collection of axons that extends along the medial
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face of the cerebral hemispheres.
11. Identify the lateral, third, and fourth ventricles, continuations of the central canal that carry cerebrospinal
fluid through the spinal cord.
12. Just outside the third ventricle is the pineal body.
13. Identify the thalamus and hypothalamus.
14. Slice a small cross-section of the spinal cord. Note the classic butterfly-shaped section of the gray matter
and the dorsal and ventral roots on the outside of the spinal cord.
15. When you are finished, clean your dissecting tray and dissection tools with soap and water. Biological
scraps should not be thrown into the garbage. Securely store the biological scraps until the end of the
term so they can be properly disposed of at one time.
16. Clean the area in which you worked and your hands with soap and water. As long as the underpad has
not been damaged, keep it for future experiments.
Post-Lab Questions
1. How does the sheep brain compare to the human brain? Name at least two differences.
2. What two lobes does the central sulcus separate?
3. How does the size of the olfactory bulb in sheep relate to the size in humans? What might this tell you
about the sense of smell in the sheep’s survival, in particular about how it acquires food?
4. What circulates through the ventricles? What is the function?
5. Describe the function of each region of the cerebral cortex.
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The Nervous System
Experiment 7: Reflexes
Nerve impulses travel through the nervous system via nerve pathways. A reflex is a rapid, involuntary re-
sponse to a stimulus which occur over pathways called reflex arcs.
Materials
Flashlight
Procedure
1. Find an area with dim lighting to conduct this experiment.
2. Stand next to the participant and instruct him/her to focus on a distant object.
3. Quickly shine the light into the right eye.
4. Wait 30 seconds and repeat the procedure with the right eye. Examine the response of the left eye.
Post-Lab Questions
1. What is the papillary response of the right eye when a light was shone into the pupil?
2. What is the consensual response? (The response of the left eye)
3. What branch of the nervous system controls this response?
4. Can this response be inhibited?
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Experiment 8: Reflexes (Part II)
In this experiment, you will continue to explore reflexes.
Materials
Ruler
Procedure
1. Hold a ruler approximately 8.0 cm above the outreached hand of your partner. Instruct him/her to catch
the ruler between the thumb and forefinger.
2. Record the measurement where your partner caught the ruler in Table 2. Repeat this two more times.
3. Hold the ruler approximately 8.0 cm above the outreached hand of your partner. Tell him/her to close his/
her eyes and try to catch the ruler between the thumb and forefinger after you say the word “release”.
Note: Release the ruler immediately after you say the word “release”.
5. Hold the ruler approximately 8.0 cm above the outreached hand of your partner. Tell him/her to close his/
her eyes and try to catch the ruler between the thumb and forefinger after you pat his/her back. As you
release the ruler with one hand, pat your partner’s back with the other.
6. Record the measurement where your partner caught the ruler in Table 2.
Table 2: Reflex Data
Reflex Trial 1: Distance Caught (cm) Trial 2: Distance Caught (cm) Trial 2: Distance Caught (cm)
Visual
Verbal
Tactile
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Post-Lab Questions
1. Define what a reflex is.
2. Name five essential components of a reflex arc.
3. What does your data tell you about visual, verbal, and tactile responses?
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Experiment 9: Fetal Pig Dissection - Nervous System
The similarities between the human nervous system anatomy and the fetal pig nervous system anatomy are
vast. Thus, observation of the fetal pig nervous system anatomy is useful in understanding the form and func-
tion of the human nervous system.
Materials
Procedure
the whole semester.
3. Lay the pig on the dissecting tray, positioned dorsal side up. Slide the strings underneath the dissection
tray to secure the pig.
4. Palpate the spinal column with your fingers.
Figure 16: The exposed spinal column of the fetal pig.
5. Using the dissection scissors, cut along either side of the spinal column to remove 1in2 of skin and mus-
cle in the thoracic region, directly over the vertebrae.
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6. Clear away any muscle from the spinal column using a teasing needle, forceps, and scissors.
7. Expose the vertebral column, and slice through the vertebral canal by cutting off the vertebral arch with
the dissecting scissors. Repeat on the opposite side to free a section of the spinal cord.
8. Inspect the segment of the spinal column and record any distinct features you are able to discern.
with a rubber band.
Always remember, biological scraps should not be thrown into the garbage.
12. When you are finished, clean your dissecting tray and dissection tools with soap and water. Biological
scraps should not be thrown into the garbage. Securely store the biological scraps until the end of the
term so they can be properly disposed of at one time.
Post-Lab Questions
1. Did you notice a covering on the spinal cord? What is it?
2. Describe the properties of the vertebral column. Why are these important?
3. What is the difference between white and gray matter?
4. Research multiple sclerosis. What is the effect of this disease on the nervous system?
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Lab 9
Concepts to Explore
Endocrine Organs Parathyroid Gland

Amino Acid-based Hormones Adrenal Glands
Steroids Pancreas
Hypothalamus Pineal Gland
Pituitary Gland Testes & Ovaries
Thyroid Gland
Introduction
Along with the nervous system, the endocrine system con-
trols the functions of the body. The endocrine system is crit-
ical for the regulation of metabolism, growth, tissue func-
tion, and sexual development and function. While the nerv-
ous system utilizes electrical signals conducted through
nerves to cause a change, the endocrine system employs
extracellular signaling molecules called hormones that
travel though blood vessels. Hormones diffuse through the
interstitial fluid to reach their target. Specialized receptors
on target cells enable these chemicals to relay information
based on the commands of the endocrine system.
Endocrine Organs
Figure 1: Typical endocrine gland with blood capillaries.
The major endocrine organs are the pituitary, thyroid,
parathyroid, adrenal, pineal, and thymus glands, as well as
the pancreas and gonads (ovaries and testes). A gland is a
group of cells that work together to produce and secrete
chemicals. The glands of the endocrine system are ductless
so they release hormones directly into the bloodstream.
These chemical signals act on cells which possess recep-
tors for that specific hormone, either internal to the cell or
within its plasma membrane. These receptors are dynamic
structures to the extent that increased levels of hormones
can upregulate (increase) or downregulate (decrease) the
number of receptors present as well as their level of sensi-
tivity. Due to the specificity of hormone and target cells, the
Figure 2: The thyroid gland
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effects produced by a single hormone may vary among different kinds of target cells.
Pituitary Gland
Thyroid Gland
Liver
Adrenal Glands
Kidney
Pancreas
Testes
Figure 3: Major organs and glands of the endocrine system.
Hormone Release
Stimuli from various origins can initiate the release of hormones from endocrine glands. This includes hor-
mones from other glands, various chemical constituents of blood, and neural stimulation. Negative feedback
regulates most hormone production, employing endocrine tissue and the nervous system.
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Table 1: The primary glands of the endocrine system and some corresponding hormones.
Gland/Organ Secreted Hormone Effect
Adrenal Gland Aldosterone Regulates salt and water balance.
Adrenal Gland Corticosteroid Controls key functions in the body; acts as an

anti-inflammatory; maintains blood sugar lev-
els, blood pressure, and muscle strength; reg-
ulates salt and water balance.
Pituitary Gland Antidiuretic hormone Affects water retention in kidneys; controls

(Posterior Lobe) blood pressure.
Pituitary Gland Corticotrophin Controls production and secretion of adrenal

(Anterior Lobe) cortex hormones.
Pituitary Gland Growth hormone Affects growth and development; stimulates

(Anterior Lobe) protein production.
Pituitary Gland Luteinizing hormone (LH) and fol- Controls reproductive functioning and sexual
(Anterior Lobe) licle-stimulating hormone (FSH) characteristics.
Pituitary Gland Oxytocin Stimulates contraction of uterus and milk

(Posterior Lobe) ducts in the breast.
Pituitary Gland Prolactin Initiates and maintains milk production in

(Anterior Lobe) breasts.
Pituitary Gland Thyroid-stimulating hormone Stimulates the production and secretion of

(Anterior Lobe) (TSH) thyroid hormones.
Kidneys Renin and Angiotensin Controls blood pressure.
Kidneys Erythropoietin Affects red blood cell (RBC) production.
Pancreas Glucagon Raises blood sugar levels.
Pancreas Insulin Lowers blood sugar levels; stimulates metabo-

lism of glucose, protein, and fat.
Ovaries Estrogen Affects development of female sexual charac-

teristics and reproductive development.
Ovaries Progesterone Stimulates the lining of the uterus for fertiliza-

tion; prepares the breasts for milk production.
Parathyroid Gland Parathyroid hormone Affects bone formation and excretion of calci-
um and phosphorus.
Thyroid Gland Thyroid hormone Affects growth, maturation, and metabolism.
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Hormones alter cell activity by stimulating or inhibiting characteristic cell functions. This may involve changes
in membrane permeability, protein synthesis, chemical secretion, gene activation, or biomolecular stimulation
or inhibition of the cell. Each hormone has a lag time, ranging from seconds to hours, before it is activated,
but they tend to have prolonged effects.
There are two classes of hormones: amino acid-based and steroids. Amino acid-based hormones are most
common, and include amines, thyroxine, and protein hormones. Steroids are synthesized from cholesterol in
the gonads and adrenal glands.
The endocrine function of the body is controlled by the following:
• The hypothalamus is located in the forebrain, just above the brain stem. It monitors chemical and
physical characteristics of the blood and receives nervous impulses from other parts of the brain
and peripheral nerves. The hypothalamus restores homeostasis when it receives signals indicating
a deviation has occurred. The infundibulum attaches the pituitary gland to the bottom of the hypo-
thalamus, and when signaled, neurosecretory cells release a hormone into a capillary that leads to
the pituitary gland.
• The pituitary gland is a small, oval gland that lies at the base of the brain. The anterior pituitary
gland and the posterior pituitary gland are the two lobes that make the pituitary gland. Hormones
are synthesized in the anterior pituitary gland, and are released upon signals from the hypothala-
mus. The posterior pituitary gland comprises nearly 50,000 nerve endings that release their hor-
mones directly into the blood.
• The thyroid gland is a bi-lobed, butterfly-shaped structure found at the trachea. It synthesizes and
secretes thyroxine, iodothyronine, and calcitonin - major regulators of the body’s metabolism and
calcium levels, respectively. The parathyroid glands are four small glands embedded in the thy-
roid that produce and secrete the parathyroid hormone. This hormone is involved with calcium and
vitamin D levels.
• Atop each kidney sits the adrenal glands. Each gland is divided into an outer adrenal cortex and
an inner adrenal medulla. The main responsibility of these endocrine glands is to regulate the
body’s response to stress through the production of corticosteroids and catecholemines.
• The pancreas is both an endocrine and an exocrine organ. As an endocrine organ, it secretes
hormones, including insulin and glucagon that control blood glucose levels (see Figure 4).
• The pineal gland is a small, red, pinecone-shaped structure in the brain that secretes melatonin.
Melatonin slows the maturation of sperm, eggs, and reproductive organs by controlling other hor-
mones, and also plays a role in regulating the circadian rhythm of the body.
• The testes are responsible for the synthesis and secretion of androgens, while the ovaries pro-
duce and secrete steroid hormones known as estrogens and progesterones.
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Figure 4: Small islands of endocrine tissue (Islets of Lagerhans) are scattered throughout the pancreas. These islets
secrete insulin from beta cells, glucagon from alpha cells, and somatostatin directly into the capillaries that run
through the pancreas. Insulin and glucagon lower and raise blood glucose levels, respectively, and somatostatin
regulates levels of both insulin and glucagon. Acinar cells secrete digestive enzymes into the gut via a duct system.
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Pre-Lab Questions
1. What is the function of the endocrine system?
2. Research two types of hormones and describe the mode of action for each.
3. Which gland is both endocrine and exocrine?
4. Which hormones control the fight or flight response?
5. What is type 1 diabetes and what is the treatment for this disease?
6. Describe how Ca2+ levels in the blood are regulated by hormones.
7. How do the nervous and endocrine systems work together to maintain homeostasis of the body?
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Experiment 1: Microscopic Anatomy of the Endocrine System
Visualizing the microscopic anatomy of the endocrine system will aid in your understanding of its function.
Materials
Thyroid Gland Digital Slide Image Adrenal Gland Digital Slide Image
Parathyroid Gland Digital Slide Image Pituitary Gland Digital Slide Image
Pancreas Digital Slide Image Anterior Pituitary Gland Digital Slide Image
Procedure
1. Locate and examine the low-magnification thyroid gland image. The follicles are spherical sacs filled with
colloid.
2. Locate and examine the high-magnification thyroid gland image. Note the cells lining the follicles are cu-
boidal epithelial cells. These are responsible for the production of the follicular products.
3. Record your observations in Table 2.
4. Locate and examine the low-magnification parathyroid gland image. Note that there are two cell types in
this tissue. The chief cells, which produce parathyroid hormone, are the smaller cells. The oxyphil cells,
which appear during puberty, serve an unknown function.
6. Locate and examine the pancreas images.
7. Find the pancreatic islets in the pancreas image. Special stains can identify the alpha cells, which pro-
duce glucagon, and beta cells, which synthesize insulin, among the islet cells.
9. Locate the adrenal gland images and record your observations in Table 2.
10. Locate the pituitary gland images and record your observations in Table 2.
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Thyroid follicles
Thyroid Gland 100X.
Follicular cells
Colloid
Thyroid Gland 1000X. Simple, cuboidal epithelial cells line the follicles found in the thyroid
gland. These cells lines the circumference of the colloid.
352
Thyroid Follicles
Parathyroid
Gland
Parathyroid gland 100X. The thyroid gland and parathyroid gland reside within very close proximity.
Parathyroid Gland 1000X. The parathyroid gland consists of chief cells and oxyphil cells. Chief cells com-
prise the majority of the parenchyma, and secrete parathyroid hormone. At high magnification, one can
observe anastomosis (reconnection of two previously branched structures) between chief cell cords and
the nuclei. Oxyphils are found in groups within the parathyroid gland; the amount of oxyphil cells in-
creases with age, but their function remains unknown.
353
Intralobular
ducts
Pancreas 100X. Notice the pancreatic islets, also known as the Islet of Langerhans, (encircled
above) located within this portion of a pancreas lobule. Pancreatic islets are composed of alpha,
beta, delta, PP, and epsilon cells. Also note the intralobular ducts located in the bottom left cor-
ner.
Pancreas 1000X. Different cell types within the pancreas synthesize and secrete different hor-
mones. However, digital slide images, such as this one, often display a cell population which ap-
pears relatively homologous; unless specialized stains have been applied.
354
Peripheral
cortex
Medulla
Peripheral
cortex
Adrenal Gland 100X. Note the central medulla running within the peripheral cortex of the adrenal gland.
Capillary
permeation
Zona fasciculata rows
Vacuolated
appearance
Adrenal Gland 100X. The outermost layers of the adrenal gland are referred to as the zona glomeru-
losa and the zona fasciculata, followed by the zona reticularis and the innermost medullary cells.
The zona fasciculata cells are larger than the zona glomerulosa cells, and tend to form in linear
groups. Zona fasciculate cells also tend to appear vacuolated when stained for histology due to the
lipid droplets located within the cytoplasm. Note the capillary permeation within the adrenal gland.
355
Anterior
Pituitary
Pars intermedia
Posterior
Pituitary
Pituitary gland 100X. The pituitary gland is divided into the anterior and the posterior lobes. These
regions are separated by the pars intermedia. The pituitary gland is comprised of three primary ell
Vascular
canals
Anterior Pituitary Gland 1000X. Hormone secreting cells tend to organize in clusters (see circles
above). Vascular canals surround the clusters to provide nutrients to the region.
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Table 2: Experiment 1 Image Observations
Image Type Image Observations
Thyroid Gland
Parathyroid Gland
Pancreas
Adrenal Gland
Pituitary Gland
Anterior Pituitary
Gland
Post-Lab Questions
1. Label the items in the following slide images based on your observations.
Thyroid Gland: 1000X
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Parathyroid Gland: 1000X
Adrenal Gland: 1000X
358
2. Define what a hormone is.
3. How do hormones establish selectivity?
4. Explain how insulin regulates glucose levels in the blood.
Experiment 2: Stress Response

A number of different environmental factors can illicit a physiological stress response from the body. Some of
the most common triggers are temperature, exercise, pain, posture, and noise. In this experiment, you will
test the body’s natural response to temperature and posture through manipulation of blood pressure and/or
heart rate.
Materials
Sphygmomanometer (Blood Pressure Cuff) participant’s hand)

Stopwatch *Paper Towel
*Ice *2 Participants
*Water
*Bucket or deep bowl (deep enough to submerge *You must provide
Note: One volunteer should monitor the subject throughout the experiment. Volunteers should remain atten-
tive in case the subject should ever feel faint or dizzy.
359
Procedure
Testing Temperature
1. Construct a hypothesis indicating how you anticipate your body’s heart rate and blood pressure to re-
spond to decreased temperature. Record your hypothesis in Post-Lab Question 1.
2. Obtain a deep bowl or bucket (large enough to submerge subject’s hand), and fill approximately 50%
with ice cubes. Fill the container with cool water until the ice cubes are covered.
Note: Be sure to leave enough space at the top of the container empty to compensate for the mixture
that will be vertically displaced when the subject’s hand is immersed in it.
3. Select a subject. The subject should roll up his/her shirt-sleeve or change into a short-sleeved shirt to
expose the bare skin of the forearm in preparation for the blood pressure cuff.
4. Wrap the blood pressure cuff around the subject’s forearm. Blood pressure cuffs are traditionally placed
between the elbow and shoulder, but may be placed below the elbow if the upper arm is too large to ac-
commodate the cuff.
Note: Blood pressure readings taken from below the elbow are typically not as
accurate as readings taken from above the elbow.
5. Verify that the cuff is evenly positioned around the circumference of the forearm,
lining up the patch which says “artery” with the subject’s brachial artery. Place the
diaphragm on the stethoscope on the brachial artery (see Figure 5), and secure the
cuff with the Velcro. Be sure that the cuff is not so tight that it causes pain. The
gauge should be clipped to a flat, sturdy surface. It should not be clipped to the cuff.
6. Make sure that the ice water and stopwatch are within arm’s reach. The subject Figure 5: Diaphragm
placement.
should sit comfortably for five minutes. If possible, elevate the arm with the cuff on it
to heart-level by resting it on a piece of furniture. Do not hold the arm out in the air without support as this
may result in muscle fatigue.
7. After five minutes have passed, palpate the subject’s pulse by placing the pointer and middle fingers on
the radial artery (located on the posterior side of the subject’s wrist). Count the number of heart beats in
15 seconds, and multiply the value by four. Record the total in Table 3 as beats per minute. Then, meas-
ure subject’s blood pressure. To do this\
a. Insert the earpieces of the stethoscope into the subject’s ears. Inflate the cuff by closing the valve
on the bulb and repeatedly squeezing the bulb until it sounds like the blood flow has stopped
through the stethoscope. This will likely occur at approximately 130 - 180 mmHg.
b. Rotate the silver valve on the bulb to slowly release the cuff pressure.
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c. Listen with the stethoscope for the return of blood flow into the forearm, called the sounds of
Korotkoff.
d. Systolic pressure is the pressure at which the first sound of blood flow is heard after pressure is
released. You may also see a tapping of the needle on the pressure gauge that corresponds with
the pulse.
e. As the pressure continues to decrease, blood flow returns to normal and the sounds of Korotkoff
can no longer be heard. The pressure at which this transition occurs is diastolic pressure.
f. Record the blood pressure measurement in Table 3.
8. Deflate the cuff, but leave it secured on the subject’s arm.
9. Place the subject’s hand (from the same arm with the blood pressure cuff) in the bucket of ice water.
10. Leaving the hand in the water, measure the blood pressure and heart rate in 30 second intervals for up to
two minutes. Record your data in Table 3.
Note: Remove subject’s hand from the ice water if the temperature becomes uncomfortably cold. The
subject may stop the experiment early or try again later if necessary.
11. Remove subject’s hand from the ice water and pat dry with a paper towel for approximately two minutes.
The subject should remain still during this time.
12. Measure subject’s blood pressure and heart rate a final time, and record the data in Table 3.
Testing Body Position

1. Construct a hypothesis indicating how you anticipate the body’s heart rate and blood pressure to respond
to postural changes. Record your hypothesis in Post-Lab Question 2.
2. Roll up your sleeve or change into a short-sleeved shirt to expose the bare skin on your forearm in prepa-
ration for the blood pressure cuff.
3. Select a subject. The subject should roll up his/her shirt-sleeve or change into a short-sleeved shirt to ex-
pose the bare skin of the forearm in preparation for the blood pressure cuff.
4. Wrap the blood pressure cuff around the subject’s forearm. Blood pressure cuffs are traditionally placed
between the elbow and shoulder, but may be placed below the elbow if the upper arm is too large to ac-
commodate the cuff.
Note: Blood pressure readings taken from below the elbow are typically not as accurate as readings
taken from above the elbow.
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5. Verify that the cuff is evenly positioned around the circumference of the forearm, lining up the patch which
says “artery” with the subject’s brachial artery. Place the diaphragm on the stethoscope on the brachial
artery (see Figure 5), and secure the cuff with the Velcro®. Be sure that the cuff is not so tight that it caus-
es pain. The gauge should be clipped to a flat, sturdy surface. It should not be clipped to the cuff.
6. Make sure that the stopwatch is within arm’s reach. The subject should sit comfortably for five minutes.
7. After five minutes have passed, measure the subject’s heart rate and blood pressure. Refer to Step 7
from “Testing Temperature” for instructions regarding how to take these measurements. Record the val-
ues in Table 4.
8. Deflate the cuff, but leave it secured on the subject’s arm.
9. The subject should now stand up with his/her back resting against a wall for support. Try to relax and re-
main quiet. Take the subject’s initial blood pressure and heart rate. Record values in Table 4.
Note: Standing up too quickly can result in light-headedness. Volunteers should pay special attention
at this step to ensure that the subject does not feel faint or dizzy.
10. Continue to take blood pressure and heart rate measurements at one minute intervals for two minutes.
Record all measurements in Table 4.
11. Sit back down comfortably for two minutes. Take a final blood pressure and heart rate measurement.
Record in Table 4.
Table 3: Effect of Temperature on Blood Pressure and Heart Rate
Time (Step #) Heart Rate (beats/minute) Blood Pressure (mmHg)
Initial - Normal Temperature

(Step 7)
30 Seconds in Ice Water

(Step 10)

(Step 10)

(Step 10)

(Step 10)
Final - Dry
(Step 12)
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Table 4: Effect of Posture on Blood Pressure and Heart Rate
Time (Step #) Heart Rate (beats/minute) Blood Pressure (mmHg)
Initial - Sitting
(Step 7)
Initial - Standing
(Step 9)
1 Minute Standing
(Step 10)
2 Minutes Standing
(Step 10)
Final - 2 minutes Sitting

(Step 11)
Post-Lab Questions
1. Write your hypothesis for the “Testing Temperature” portion of this experiment. Be sure to include how
you think the decreased temperature will affect blood pressure and heart rate, and, why.
2. Write your hypothesis for the “Testing Body Position” portion of this experiment. Be sure to include how
you think blood pressure and heart rate will vary when you sit versus when you stand.
3. Explain your results in terms of the endocrine system. Indicate how the endocrine system is involved in
the physiological response to temperature and body position.
4. Which glands are most likely to be involved with the physiological response caused in this experiment?
Which hormones are most likely to be involved?
5. How does this experiment demonstrate the “fight or flight” response?
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Experiment 3: Fetal Pig Dissection - Endocrine System
Like many other systems, the endocrine system of the fetal pig provides a good representation of the anato-
my of the human endocrine system. The following experiment will guide you through an exploration of some
of the larger endocrine system glands.
Materials
Fetal Pig Dissection Tools
Procedure
the whole semester.
3. Lay the pig on the dissecting tray, positioned with the ventral side facing up. Slide the strings under the
dissection tray to secure the pig in the tray.
4. To view the internal anatomy of the fetal pig, it is necessary to cut through the muscle covering the body.
If your lab kit includes Lab 6: The Muscular System you have already completed these incisions and
therefore simply need to peel back the skin flaps and pin them to your dissection tray. If you have not
completed these incisions, follow Steps 5 – 9. Use Figure 6 for guidance.
5. Incision 1: Using the forceps, grasp the umbilical cord tightly. While pulling slightly upward on the umbilical
cord, use a scalpel or dissecting scissors to make an incision along the mid-ventral line of the body start-
ing about 1.0 cm superior to the umbilical cord and continuing to the upper portion of the throat. Return to
the umbilical cord and trace a circular incision around it.
Note: Always cut away from your body when possible. Use appropriate force on your blade to ensure
you do not puncture internal organs. Use a sensitive touch to cut through the muscle ONLY. It is better
to go back and re-trace your incision than to cut too deeply! Use caution when cutting through the
neck area, and use a light pressure to insure underlying structures are not damaged.
Trace the umbilical cord with a circular incision, using Figure 6 as a guide.
364
6. Incision 2: The inferior incision will depend on the sex of your specimen; see Figure 6 for the appropriate
cut lines for male (2M incision lines) versus female (2F incision lines) pigs.
Figure 6: Cut lines for exposing the body cavity of the fetal pig.
7. Continue to deepen Incision 1 and 2 until the body cavity, or coelom, is exposed.
8. Incision 3, 4, 5: To fully open the body cavity, make lateral incisions on either side of the mid-ventral inci-
sion. See Figure 5 for guidance. Continue and make the following incisions:
• V-shape at shoulder level
• Lower edge of the ribs following the contour of the ribcage (Figure 6; 5)
• U-shaped across the hindlimbs connecting with Incision 2 (Figure 6; 4)
9. Use the scalpel and forceps to free the muscle from the thoracic cage.
10. After making these incisions, you should be able to peel back the four thoracic flaps (on either side of the
mid-ventral line.
Note: Do not peel back the pelvic flap. This must be kept intact for future dissections of muscle to re-
veal the underlying organs. Pin the flaps of muscle to your dissecting tray mat.
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11. Use a scalpel or dissecting scissors to cut through the ribcage.
Note: The ribs of the fetal pig are not fully developed, and can be separated with a sharp blade. Use
extreme caution as to not damage the underlying internal organs.
12. Examine the coelom of your fetal pig (the fluid-filled sac that contains the organs). You will notice coe-
lomic fluid surrounding the internal organs, which helps to lubricate them. You should see thin sheets of
connective tissue surrounding the internal organs. These are called mesenteries and functions to sus-
pend organs for proper spacing. A large muscular structure called the diaphragm divides the mammalian
body cavity into the thoracic cavity and the abdominal cavity. Use your scalpel to free the diaphragm
from connective tissue, but do not remove it.
13. The thyroid gland of the fetal pig is located inferior to the larynx along the trachea.
Note: You may have to lift the thymus to view. It appears as a small, reddish, bilaterally symmetric
mass.
14. Locate the pancreas. This is an elongated, granular mass positioned between the stomach and the
small intestine. The pancreas acts in both endocrine and exocrine manners. You will not be able to see
the microscopic patches of endocrine tissue (the Islets of Langerhans), but remember their importance
in secreting insulin and glucagon directly into surrounding capillaries.
15. The crescent-shaped adrenal gland is located on the superiomedial margin of each kidney. They appear
lighter in color than the reddish-brown kidneys. These glands may be difficult to see, but do your best to
locate them in your pig. The layers of this gland are responsible for the secretion of glucocorticoids
(middle cortex), androgens (inner cortex), and neurotransmitters (adrenal medulla).
17. Place the pig back into the cool environment you previously stored it in. Remember, the best place to
18. After your pig has been put away, clean off your dissecting tray and dissection tools with soap and wa-
ter. Biological scraps should not be thrown into the garbage. Securely store the biological scraps until
the end of the term so they can be properly disposed of at one time.
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Post-Lab Questions
1. Describe the techniques utilized while dissecting the outer muscle layers of your pig.
2. What surprised you about the internal anatomy of the pig?
3. What is unique about the glands of the endocrine system?
4. Explain the function of the thyroid gland and the hormones it secretes. Include how the release of hor-
mone is regulated and what cells the hormone act on.
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Lab 10
Blood and the Heart
Blood and the Heart
Concepts to Explore
The Heart Cardiac Muscle Cells

Cell Types Electrical Conduction in the Heart
Hematopoiesis Electrocardiograms
Blood Types Heart Valves
Anatomy of the Heart Atherosclerosis
Introduction
All cells, and ultimately organ systems in the human body, require nutri-
ents and oxygen and must be capable of eliminating waste products as
they accumulate. The circulatory and respiratory systems play a major
role in these processes.
The circulatory system is driven by the heart, a muscular pump that

moves blood through the network of arteries, arterioles, capillaries, ven-
ules, and veins of the body. This mechanism delivers nutrients and oxy-
gen to all the cells of the body. The circulatory system also gives the
body an opportunity for waste removal. The circulatory system is a
closed system where the blood remains in the vessels (arteries and Figure 1: Illustration of the heart.
veins) and does not flow freely in the organs.
Blood Cell Types

Blood, a fluid tissue, is a mixture of plasma and formed ele-
ments (erythrocytes, lymphocytes, and platelets). The blood
that circulates throughout the veins and arteries of the body is
made of a variety of cells and cell fragments suspended in a
liquid called plasma. Plasma makes up the largest portion of
blood, accounting for 55% of the fluid. Plasma itself is nearly
90% water. Table 1 lists different types of cells found in blood
and their corresponding functions.
Figure 2: Red and white blood cells fighting a

pathogen.
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Blood and the Heart
Blood serves three main functions:
1. To transport oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, hormones, heat, and wastes.
2. To regulate pH, body temperature, and water content of cells.
3. To protect against blood loss through clotting, and against disease through phagocytic white blood
cells and antibodies.
Table 1: Types of Blood Cells
Erythrocytes Also known as red blood cells; comprise approximately 45% of blood. Contain he-
moglobin for oxygen and carbon dioxide transport.
Lymphocytes Involved in the immune response; produce antibodies.
Monocytes Phagocytotic macrophages.
Thrombocytes Also known as platelets. Involved in blood clotting.
Neutrophils Key to wound healing.
Eosinophils Phagocytosis.
Basophils Release histamines.
Leukocytes Also known as white blood cells; comprise approximately 1% of blood. Involved in
fighting disease and foreign objects in the body as part of the immune system.
The most abundant blood cells are the erythrocytes and the lymphocytes.
Erythrocytes are responsible for the transportation of respiratory gases
such as O2 and, to a lesser degree, CO2 (although most CO2 is dissolved
in the plasma) to and from the lungs and cells. This exchange of gases
and nutrients is known as respiration. Erythrocytes are able to perform
respiration because they incorporate a special iron-containing protein
called hemoglobin. Hemoglobin possesses a special binding site for oxy-
gen, which can be released into tissues. Hemoglobin also gives blood its
characteristic scarlet color; but also turns to a purple-blue hue when deox-
ygenated (this is why veins look purple).
Figure 3: Alveoli are the smallest

branch of the lung. They are cov-
Leukocytes are one component of the body’s defense system that attack
ered by capillaries to facilitate re-
foreign microorganisms and produce antibodies. Platelets are responsible oxygenation of blood.
for clotting blood. Platelets have also recently been shown to aid in some
aspects of the immune system.
372
Blood and the Heart
Hematopoiesis
The adult human body contains five liters of blood, accounting for nearly 8% of a person’s body weight. It is
formed by a process called hematopoiesis. Hematopoiesis produces the formed elements of the blood, tak-
ing place in the red bone marrow of long bones, flat bones, vertebrae, and also in the pelvis. Within the red
bone marrow, hematopoietic stem cells divide to produce various “blast” cells. Each of these cells mature and
becomes a particular formed element of blood.
Hemocytoblast
Common myeloid progenitor Common lymphoid progenitor
Erythrocyte Mast cell

Myeloblast Natural killer cell Small lymphocyte
Megakaryocyte
Basophil Neutrophil Eosinophil Monocyte T lymphocyte B lymphocyte
Thrombocytes
Macrophage Plasma cell
Figure 4: Hematopoiesis sequence.
373
Blood and the Heart
Blood Type
There are four types of blood (A, B, AB, O), characterized by the glycoproteins and lipoproteins embedded in
the surface of red blood cells. In addition to type, each blood type can have a rhesus (Rh factor) of positive or
negative. These proteins are inherited, and may differ from individual to individual. If during a transfusion an
individual receives blood containing RBCs with proteins that the individual does not carry (for either blood
type or positive Rh factor), then these proteins may be recognized as antigens. If so, antibodies are produced
that bind to the antigens and cause agglutination (clumping) and subsequent destruction of the foreign RBCs.
Figure 5: ABO blood type diagram.
Anatomy of the Heart

Blood is circulated throughout the body by the pumping action of the heart. As the heart contracts and relax-
es, it pumps blood through arteries, capillaries, and veins to deliver nutrients to each and every cell. The heart
is located in the mediastinum, the cavity between the lungs, and is tilted so that the apex (the pointed end),
points toward the left hip, while the base (the broader end), points toward the right shoulder. The heart is sur-
rounded by the pericardium, a sac with an outer fibrous layer that anchors the heart to the surrounding struc-
tures, and an inner serous layer that consists of an outer parietal layer and an inner visceral layer. A thick lay-
er of serous fluid, called the pericardial fluid, lies between these two layers to provide lubrication during heart
contractions.
374
Blood and the Heart
Cardiac Muscle Cells
The muscular wall of the heart consists of three layers:
1. Epicardium: the visceral layer of the serous pericardium.
2. Myocardium: the muscular part of the heart that consists of contracting cardiac muscle and
noncontracting Purkinje fibers that conduct nerve impulses.
3. Endocardium: the thin, smooth, endothelial, inner lining of the heart, which is continuous with the
inner lining of the blood vessels.
Figure 6: The anatomy of the heart
375
Blood and the Heart
As blood travels through the heart, it passes through four chambers
regulated by four valves. The two upper chambers, the right and left ? Did You Know...
atria, are separated longitudinally by the interatrial septum. The two
lower chambers, the right and left ventricles, are the pumping ma-
chines of the heart and are separated longitudinally by the interventric-
ular septum. A valve follows each chamber and prevents the blood
from flowing backward into the chamber from which the blood originat-
ed. Two prominent grooves, the coronary sulcus and the anterior inter-
ventricular sulcus, are visible on the surface of the heart.
Blood Pathway
The pathway of blood through the chambers and valves of the heart is
described as follows. Deoxygenated blood from the systemic circula-
Complete blood count, or CBC,
tion enters the right atrium through three veins, the superior vena cava,
tests are one of the first procedures
the inferior vena cava, and the coronary sinus. During the interval when
taken when working with healthcare
the ventricles are not contracting, blood passes down through the right
patients. CBCs provide a quick, yet
atrioventricular (AV) valve into the next chamber, the right ventricle.
comprehensive, assessment of a
The AV valve is also called the tricuspid valve because it consists ofpatients health by measuring a
glossary of blood constituents such
three flexible cusps, or flaps. Blood is temporarily stored in the right
as red blood cell levels, white blood
atrium, located in the upper right side of the heart, as well as in a small
cell levels, and platelet levels. It al-
appendage called the right auricle, so that blood will be ready to enter
so checks hemoglobin levels, which
the right ventricle when the heart relaxes. indicates the amount of oxygen car-
rying proteins present in the blood,
and hematocrit levels, which indi-
The right ventricle is referenced as the pumping chamber for blood cates the ratio between red blood
directed to the lungs. The ventricle has thicker, more muscular walls cells to plasma in the blood.
than the atrium that are used to generate a forceful contraction that pumps blood through the three-cusped
pulmonary semilunar valve and into the pulmonary trunk. The pulmonary trunk branches into two pulmonary
arteries, which lead to the left and right lungs. The following events occur in the right ventricle:
• When the right ventricle contracts, the right AV valve closes and prevents blood from moving back
into the right atrium. Chordae tendineae are attached to papillary muscles at the opposite, bottom
side of the ventricle to restrict the movement of the AV valve. This prevents it from extending too
far (into the atrium) and so an effective seal is created.
• When the right ventricle relaxes, the initial backflow of blood in the pulmonary artery closes the
pulmonary semilunar valve and prevents the return of blood to the right ventricle.
The left atrium and left auricle receive oxygenated blood from the lungs though pulmonary veins extending
from each lung. The left atrium, like the right atrium, is a reservoir for blood awaiting movement into the left
376
Blood and the Heart
ventricle. When the ventricles relax, blood leaves the left atrium and passes through the left AV valve into the
left ventricle. The left AV valve is also called the mitral valve (also called the bicuspid valve), the only heart
valve with just two leaflets. The left ventricle is the pumping chamber for the systemic circulation. Because
a greater blood pressure is required to pump blood through the much more extensive systemic circulation
than through the pulmonary circulation, the left ventricle is larger in size than the right ventricle, due to the
increased muscle required to generate this force. When the left ventricle contracts, it pumps oxygenated
blood through the aortic semilunar valve, into the aorta, and throughout the body. The following events occur
in the left ventricle, simultaneously and analogously with those of the right ventricle:
Figure 7: Electrical conduction of the heart is controlled by the SA node, the AV node, and the bundle of His.
• When the left ventricle contracts, the left AV valve closes and prevents blood from moving back
into the right atrium. As in the right AV valve, the chordae tendineae prevent hyperextension of the
left AV valve.
• When the left ventricle relaxes, the initial backflow of blood in the aorta closes the aortic semilunar
valve and prevents the return of blood to the left ventricle.
377
Blood and the Heart
The heart sounds associated with the beating of the heart can be heard by auscultating (listening to) the thor-
ax with a stethoscope. While many people assume that this sound is a result of the physical heart beat con-
tractions, the famous “lub-dub” sound actually originates from blood turbulence generated by the rhythmic
opening and closing of two pairs of heart valves. The mitral and tricuspid heart valves cause the “lub” sound
as they close, preventing blood from flowing from the ventricles back into the atria. The corresponding “dub”
sound occurs when the aortic and pulmonary valves close after blood exits the left ventricle and leaves the
heart. Abnormal heart sounds called murmurs are usually caused by improperly functioning valves.
The microscopic anatomy of cardiac muscle cells gives them a special ability of electrical excitabliltiy. Unlike
skeletal muscle cells, cardiac muscle fibers are linked by intercalated discs, areas where the plasma mem-
branes overlap. Within the intercalated discs, the adjacent cells are structurally connected physically by des-
mosomes, tight seals that connect the plasma membranes together. They are also and electrically coupled by
gap junctions, ionic channels that allow the transmission of a depolarization event. As a result, the entire my-
ocardium functions as a single unit with a single contraction of the atria followed by a single contraction of the
ventricles. This contraction originates in autorhythmic cells. These highly specialized cells are able to auto-
matically generate an action potential, without input from a nerve cell. These cells serve as the natural pace-
maker for the heart, generating the rhythmic contraction known as the heartbeat.
William Einthoven received the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine in 1924 for his work that led to the
discovery of the electrocardiogram. This test is able to detect the electrical activity of the heart and provide
useful clinical information regarding the strength and frequency of the heart’s contractions. The typical graph
generated from an electrocardiogram has a characteristic P-Q-R-S-T wave that corresponds to the depolariz-
ing events of the cardiac cycle. The electrical currents generated by the contraction of the heart muscle can
be monitored through 12 electrodes placed strategically on the body and an electrocardiograph. Figure 8
shows the distinctive pattern of a typical electrocardiogram. The P wave is a small wave that represents the
depolarization of the atria. During this wave, the muscles of the atria are contracting. The QRS complex is a
rapid down-up-down movement. The upward movement produces a tall peak, indicated by R. The QRS com-
plex represents the depolarization of the ventricles. The T wave represents the repolarization of the ventri-
cles. Electrical activity generated by the repolarization of the atria is concealed by the QRS complex.
378
Figure 8: An electrocardiograph of a typical heartbeat.
Blood and the Heart
Physiologically, this is accomplished though the electrically excitable cells and special nodes that initiate
those signals. The sinoatrial (SA) node, located in the upper wall of the right atrium, initiates the cardiac cycle
by generating an action potential that spreads through both atria through the gap junctions of the cardiac
muscle fibers. The atrioventricular (AV) node, located near the lower region of the interatrial septum, receives
the action potential generated by the SA node. A slight delay of the electrical transmission occurs here, allow-
ing the atria to fully contract before the action potential is passed on to the ventricles. The atrioventricular
(AV) bundle (bundle of His) receives the action potential from the AV node and transmits the impulse to the
ventricles by way of the right and left bundle branches. Except for the AV bundle, which provides the only
electrical connection, the atria are electrically insulated from the ventricles. The Purkinje fibers are large diam-
eter fibers that conduct the action potential from the interventricular septum, down to the apex, and then up-
ward through the ventricles. These mechanics enable the heart to beat more than two billion times in a life-
time, providing the nutrients cells need to exist on a daily basis.
Pre-Lab Questions
1. Research the process of erythropoiesis, and explain the role erythropoietin plays. Why is this a popular
“doping” drug for athletes?
2. How would the hemoglobin content differ in a person living in Philadelphia (Elevation: 39 feet) compared
to someone living in Denver (Elevation: 5280 feet)? Why?
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Blood and the Heart
Experiment 1: Heart Valves and Pumps
The heart beats an average 100,000 times daily, and pumps approximately 7,571 liters of blood through its
chambers every day. This is made possible through an intricate network of vesicular pathways, arterial ca-
nals, and heart valves. This architecture is coupled to the heart’s electrochemical pumping system (kick start-
ed by the sinoatrial node) and a nest of cardiac muscle which contracts to pump blood towards the lungs and
other organs.
Heart valves are flexible membranes which influence the directionality of blood through the heart. They ex-
pand when fluid is present, and collapse when fluid departs. This dynamism prevents blood from retracing its
route. In this experiment, you will explore the function of the heart valves and their role in pumping blood.
Materials
2 Balloons (only 1 balloon is required. An extra is 1 Waste Beaker (any volume)

provided in case the first balloon is compromised
Tape
during procedural use)
*Scissors
1 Canning Jar
*Water
2 Straws (with hinged mouth piece)
1 Skewer
*You must provide
Ruler
Procedure
1. Use scissors to cut the neck off of the balloon. This cut should remove almost 100% of the neck, but
should not remove the main, circular section of the balloon. Set balloon and neck aside.
2. Fill the canning jar with water until it is approximately halfway full.
3. Fasten the circular section of the balloon around the top of the jar. The goal is to create a tight seal. Care-
fully cut off more of the balloon if the circular section is too large to form a tight seal on the jar.
4. Use the skewer to poke two small holes in the balloon on the jar. These holes should be approximately
2.0 cm apart from each other.
5. Position one straw in each of the holes. This should create a tight fit and should not compromise the
sealed environment.
Note: It is important that the holes which the straws are inserted into are not so large that air can pass
through the holes outside of the straw canal. Restart the procedure using a new balloon if the holes
appear too large.
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Blood and the Heart
6. Rotate the end of one of the exposed straws by pulling on the accordion folds at the top of the straw and
pressing down.
7. Retrieve the balloon neck (cut off in Step 1). Position the neck over the down-pointing straw.
8. Tape the neck to the straw to seal the connection. The neck should hang limp, forming a flap on top of the
straw. This constitutes your “valve”.
9. Obtain a waste beaker (any volume) and position it beneath the valve.
10. Use your pointer finger to press on the balloon stretched over the jar. Continue to press and release the
balloon until water moves through the straw(s). Record what happens in Table 2. If possible, record the
amount of water which is displaced into the waste beaker.
11. Remove the tape and neck from the straw, and pour out the water from the waste beaker.
12. Repeat Step 10. Pay attention to how the results vary from those in Step 10.
Table 2: Experimental Observations
Observations (with valve) and mL H2O Displaced? Observations (without valve) and mL H2O Displaced?
Post-Lab Questions
1. What happened when you pressed on the balloon stretched over the jar? What does this result represent?
2. What structure in this experiment mimics a heart valve?
3. How did the valve influence the experimental results? If possible, indicate the difference (in mL) in water
displaced with the valve versus without the valve. Does the valve enhance the water flow, and why?
4. What other organs or body systems incorporate valves? How are they used?
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Blood and the Heart
Experiment 2: Effect of Chelation Therapy on Arterial Plaque Levels
Chelation is a widely accepted treatment used to remove heavy metals when lead poisoning or high levels of
metals are detected. Chelation therapy relies on a chelating agent, such as ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
(EDTA), to bind and remove heavy metals from a surface.
Chelation therapy is proven to treat lead poisoning, and evidence suggests that additional health concerns
may be treated with chelation therapy as well. For example, atherosclerosis, an arterial disease that causes
white blood cell and low-density lipoprotein deposits on the interior surface of arteries, may be minimized
through chelation therapy. Psoriasis, Alzheimer’s disease, angina, and other diseases have also reported
positive results from chelation therapy. However, these reports are less definitive and further research is
needed to draw widespread conclusions. In this experiment, you will observe the effect of EDTA on egg shells
and draw conclusions about the efficacy of chelation therapy as an atherosclerosis treatment.
Materials
(3) 250 mL Beakers *Water
1 Bottle of 4% EDTA Solution *2 Uncooked Eggs
1 Bottle of 8% EDTA Solution
Permanent Marker *You must provide
100 mL Graduated Cylinder
Note: The EDTA provided in your kit should not, under any circumstances, be consumed. **Gloves should be
worn when working with egg shells. Wash hands and all labware with warm, soapy water when finished with
experiment.**
Procedure
1. Label three 250 mL beakers as 1, 2, and 3 with the permanent marker.
2. Use the 100 mL graduated cylinder to measure and pour approximately 150 mL water into Beaker 3. To
do this, you will have to perform two pours, for a total of 150 mL.
3. Carefully pour the full contents of the 4% EDTA solution into Beaker 1.
4. Carefully pour the full contents of the 8% EDTA solution into Beaker 2.
5. Put on a pair of gloves (located in the Safety Kit provided in your lab kit).
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Blood and the Heart
6. Obtain two uncooked eggs. Standing over a sink or trash receptacle, carefully crack each egg in half to
create four approximately equally sized, dome-shaped pieces. Rinse the yolk and egg whites down the
drain with running water, if standing over a sink. Dispose of one piece in a trash receptacle; you will only
need three for this experiment.
7. Gently rinse the eggs shells with warm water, being careful not to break the shell. Place one shell into
Beaker 1, Beaker 2, and Beaker 3.
Note: It is best to fill the dome formed by each egg shell with the EDTA or water contained within the
beaker. This will cause the egg shell to sink towards the bottom, rather than float at the top of the
beaker, and create greater solution coverage. Thoroughly wash hands after handling egg shells.
8. Observe the egg shells over the next 7 - 14 days. Record daily observations of the shells in Table 3.
9. Dispose all egg shells in trash when experiment is complete.
Table 3: Egg Shell Observations
Day Beaker 1 Observations Beaker 2 Observations Beaker 3 Observations

(4% EDTA Solution) (8% EDTA Solution) (Pure H2O)
10
11
12
13
14
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Blood and the Heart
Post-Lab Questions
1. Describe the differences you observed between Beaker 1, Beaker 2, and Beaker 3.
2. Does Beaker 3 serve as a positive or negative control? How do you know?
3. Research and determine the composition of eggshell. State your findings below, and, indicate why this
composition makes eggshell a good material for EDTA to chelate.
4. EDTA is a synthetic amino acid, which the body perceives as a foreign substance. EDTA is therefore deliv-
ered to the kidneys and removed from the body in urine. Explain how this process also leads to the removal
of heavy metals.
5. Based on your results, do you believe chelation therapy would be an effective treatment for atherosclero-
sis? Support your argument with experimental evidence.
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Blood and the Heart
Experiment 3: Microscopic Anatomy of Blood
Visualizing the microscopic anatomy of blood cells will aid your understanding of blood.
Materials
Sickle Cell Digital Slide Image
Variety Blood Cell Types Digital Slide Image
Procedure
1. Look at the following digital slide images. Then, answer the Post-Lab Questions.
Typical red blood cells
Sickled red blood cells
Red Blood Cells 1000X. Red blood cells (RBCs) are typically circular in shape. Patients with sick-
le cell anemia produce blood cells with atypical cell shapes; these tend to appear elongated or
suckered near the middle of the cell.
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Blood and the Heart
Atypical RBCs
Normal RBCs
Sickle Cell Blood 1000X. Note that the typical and atypically shaped red blood cells are inter-
mingled. Sickled blood cells can clog the capillaries and cause a crisis.
Blood smear 1000X. Blood cell types shown include erythrocytes (red blood cells), lympho-
386 cytes (the sparse, large, pale pink circles), and neutrophils.
Blood and the Heart
Post-Lab Questions
1. What makes red blood cells unique, compared to other cells in the body?
2. How is new blood made?
3. What is the main function of platelets?
4. Describe how the body stops bleeding.
5. Sickle cells are named so because of their characteristic shape. What problems can this shape cause?
6. Explain how the absence of a nucleus affects a red blood cell’s life span.
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Blood and the Heart
Experiment 4: Blood Typing Experiment
Blood typing is an important part of medicine. Antigens, specific glycoproteins on the surface of red blood
cells, carry the potential to agglomerate when a foreign antibody is present within the circulatory system. Mix-
ing multiple blood types can cause this event if RBCs with different antigens are in the same environment be-
cause their respective antibodies will react to the foreign antigens.
In this experiment, you will view this reaction in this experiment by mixing simulated blood samples and simu-
lated antibodies. Agglutination will occur if the antibody and corresponding foreign antigen are mixed. In this
fictitious scenario, blood sample A comes from a patent named Ali, blood sample B comes from a patient
named Brian, and blood sample C comes from a patient named Camille. Ali, Brian, and Camille are all unsure
of their blood type. Your goal is to follow the procedure to mix the anti serums provided with each blood sam-
ple and determine the patient’s blood types.
Materials
Permanent Marker Anti-B serum
Blood Sample A Anti-Rh serum
Blood Sample B 12-Well Plate
Blood Sample C 9 Toothpicks
Anti-A serum
How to Evaluate Your Experimental Results: Positive experimental results may vary per blood type.
They may be indicated by a dark-colored precipitate formed within the well, or by agglutination (clumping) of
the solution. The precipitate will form near the bottom of the well. If you are unsure of the experimental re-
sults, try stirring or prodding the solution in the well with a toothpick from the experiment module. If agglutina-
tion has occurred, the solution may feel “thicker” and can even be molded upwards with the toothpick to form
a small mound.
Agglutination may be more difficult to observe than the precipitate because there is not a remarkable color
differentiation. If you are unsure, try viewing the solution from different perspectives (aerial, eye-level, etc.) to
evaluate the solution for possible clumping.
Procedure
1. Use the permanent marker to label the 12-well plate according to Figure 9. The fourth column (on the far
right side of the plate) will not be used for the experiment. Use abbreviations if you have trouble writing
388
Blood and the Heart
the names within the provided space on the 12-well tray.
Ali - A Brian - B Camille - C

1
Figure 9: Labeling diagram for the 12-well plate.
2. Place one drop of anti-A serum in wells A1-3.

3. Place one drop of anti-B serum in wells B1-3.
4. Place one drop of anti-Rh serum in wells C1-3.
5. Place one drop of blood sample A into wells A1, B1 and C1; place 1 drop of blood sample B into wells A2,
B2 and C2; place one drop of blood sample C into wells A3, B3 and C3.
Note: The chemical bottles provided for this experiment contain plenty of extra solution. Adding extra
blood sample is not required, but may help visualize your results. You may add extra blood sample
(drop-wise) as long as the anti- serum to blood sample ratio remains constant.
6. Use a clean toothpick to mix the blood sample and typing sera in each well.
7. Wait two minutes. Then, observe each well for agglutination, which indicates a positive result. Note that
the agglutination will be observable as a precipitate when working with simulated blood samples.
8. Record observations in Table 4. Determine the blood type of each sample based on the results.
Table 4: Blood Typing Results
Anti Serum Ali (Blood Sample A) Brian (Blood Sample B) Camille (Blood Sample C)
1 (Anti-A Serum)
2 (Anti-B Serum)
3 (Anti-Rh Serum)
Results:
Blood Type:
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Blood and the Heart
Post-Lab Questions
1. What determines blood type?
2. What type of blood antigens are expressed if a person is blood type AB negative?
3. Why doesn’t a negative transfusion reaction occur the first time a Rh positive patient is exposed to Rh
negative blood?
390
Table of Contents
Experiment 5: Virtual Model - The Heart Coloring Activity
The heart is located in the mediastinum, which is a cavity located between the lungs. The primary function of
the heart is to accept deoxygenated blood from the body, pump this blood towards the lungs for oxygenation,
and deliver the oxygenated blood back out of the heart to be circulated throughout the body. In this experi-
ment, you will use the Coloring Book Activity in the Virtual Model on the Student Portal to better understand
the general structure of the heart.
Materials

*Computer Access
Procedure
model.
d. Blue buttons located to the left of each term control the visibility scale of the anatomy. Click the but-
ton once and the corresponding feature will become transparent; click it again and the feature will
become invisible. This is useful when trying to view deeper anatomy that may be blanketed by su-
perficial anatomy.
391
Blood and the Heart
spelled correctly.
h. Use the left mouse button to select any region on the background screen and rotate the model
360 degrees. This technique is useful when you need to adjust the orientation to view features on
the opposite side of the model (e.g., you can rotate the model to view anterior features if the mod-
el is currently showing the posterior features, superior features if the model is showing inferior
features, etc.)
select and hold the slider on the zoom bar. Pull the slide up the bar to zoom in; pull the slider
down the bar to zoom out.
k. The model will automatically rotate to display dorsal features when dorsally located terms are
double clicked or searched for in the search bar.
5. Select the heart images, and find the image titled “The
Heart” (Figure 10).
6. Using the paint tool, color the lower heart surfaces red, the left
and right atria yellow, and the pulmonary trunk purple.
7. Take a screen shot of your image, title it as “The Heart”, and

save it to your computer.
Note: This image should be submit to your teacher as part

Figure 10: Image reference for Coloring
of the assignment. Be sure to remember where you save it. Book activity.
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Blood and the Heart
Experiment 6: Sheep Heart Dissection

Sheep hearts are readily available and share structural and functional characteristics with human hearts. In
Materials
Sheep Heart Dissecting Tray
Dissecting Tools Kit
this activity, you will explore sheep heart anatomy to identify major heart features.
Procedure
1. Examine the anterior surface of the heart. Identify the following structures:
• Pericardium
• Epicardium
• Base
• Apex
• Right auricle
• Left auricle
• Right ventricle
• Left ventricle
• Pulmonary trunk
2. Examine the posterior surface of the heart. Identify the following structures:
• Coronary sulcus
• Left auricle
• Left ventricle
• Right auricle
393
Blood and the Heart
• Right ventricle
3. Insert a blunt probe into the collapsed superior vena cava and into the right atrium. Find the opening for
the inferior vena cava and push the probe into this vessel.
4. Make a coronal cut of the sheep heart with a scalpel. Start at the apex and cut toward the base, slicing
through both auricles but not all the way through the base (do not completely separate the two halves).
5. Identify the following internal structures: myocardium, endocardium, right atrium, right auricle, pectinate
muscle, opening of superior and inferior vena cava, opening of the coronary sinus, tricuspid valve, right
ventricle, chordae tendineae, papillary muscles, pulmonary semilunar valve.
6. Insert a blunt probe into the right atrium and find the opening of the coronary sinus (this will be inferior to
the opening of the inferior vena cava). Insert the probe into this region, and observe its movement.
7. While still in the right atrium, use the blunt probe to explore the pulmonary trunk, pushing the probe to the
superior end of the vessel. Remove the probe and make a longitudinal incision across the pulmonary
trunk with a scalpel. This will expose the pulmonary semilunar valve.
8. Identify the following structures on the left side of the heart: left atrium, left auricle, bicuspid valve, left ven-
tricle, aortic semilunar valve, aorta. Note if there are chordae tendineae or papillary muscles on the valves
of the heart.
9. Identify the openings to the right and left coronary arteries just anterior to the flaps of the aortic valve.
10. If keeping the heart for further use, store wrapped in a damp paper towel in a sealed bag. When finished,
clean your dissecting tray and dissection tools with soap and water. Biological scraps should not be
thrown into the garbage. Securely store the biological scraps until the end of the term so they can be
properly disposed of at one time.
394
Lab 11
Concepts to Explore
Pulmonary System Tunica
Systemic System Capillaries
Oxygen Rich Vessels Blood Pressure
Oxygen Poor Vessels Cardiac Output
Arteries
Introduction
The blood vessels of the circulatory system make up a closed system for
transport of blood. As the heart contracts, blood is propelled from the left
ventricle into the aorta. From there, it travels through successively smaller
arteries before reaching arterioles, capillary beds, and finally tissues. To-
gether with the heart, the circulatory system is responsible for distributing
blood to all the cells of the body.
There are two systems identified in the circulatory system: the pulmonary
system and the systemic system. The pulmonary system is responsible
for transporting blood to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated. The
systemic system is responsible for delivering oxygenated and nutrient
rich blood to the rest of the body. Both are one-way systems, ensuring
only oxygenated blood is pumped through the body.
Arteries
Arteries are the largest vessels that transport oxygen-rich blood away
from the heart to the tissues of the body. However, there are two excep-
tions to this rule: pulmonary arteries, which transport oxygen-poor blood
from the heart to the lungs; and, umbilical arteries which transport deoxy-
genated blood from the fetus to the placenta. Arteries always consist of
three layers, or tunica.
• Tunica Intima: The inner layer facing the blood. It is composed of Figure 1: The circulatory system
an innermost layer of simple squamous epithelium surrounded by showing the pulmonary system in
connective tissues. blue and the systemic system in red.
398
• Tunica Media: The middle layer. It is composed of smooth muscle with variable amounts of elastic fi-
bers.
• Tunica Adventitia: The outer layer. It is composed of connective tissue.
Figure 2: The pulmonary and systemic circuits of the circulatory system.
There are three types of arteries in the body. The largest arteries of the body, such as the aorta, are called
elastic arteries. Most of these vessels are nearby to the heart, and have to expand as they receive blood
399
from the heart. These arteries have a large amount of elastic proteins in their
tunica media, allowing them the flexibility to expand when a bolus of fluid is
? Did You Know...
ejected from the heart. When the heart relaxes, the elastic properties of these Many regions of the body
arteries propel blood forward and the elastic arteries return to their original receive blood supplies from
size. Muscular arteries branch from elastic arteries and distribute the blood two or more arteries. The
across the body. Their name rises from an increased percentage of smooth points where these arteries
muscle in the tunica media, enabling the vessels to help regulate blood flow. merge are called arterial
To slow blood movement, these vessels can constrict by contraction of the anastomoses. Arterial anas-
tomoses allow tissues to
smooth muscle, and to increase blood flow muscles relax and they dilate. The
receive blood even after one
final subdivision from these arteries is a smaller vessel called the arteriole.
of the arteries supplying
These sometimes microscopic vessels can also regulate blood flow through
blood has been blocked.
vasoconstriction and vasodilatation.
Capillaries
The next branch in the circulatory system is the capillary. These vessels have extremely thin walls, consist-
ing only of the tunica intima, some only one cell layer thick. Capillaries penetrate most of the body’s tissue,
creating a highly branched network of capillary beds. The thinness of their walls allows oxygen and nutrients
to diffuse from the vessel into surrounding tissues, and carbon dioxide and other waste products to leave the
tissues and enter the capillary. Many of these vessels are large enough for blood cells to pass through in sin-
gle line fashion, maximizing the potential for exchange. The types of capillaries are outlined in Table 1.
Table 1: Types of Capillaries
Type of Capillary Function
Metarterioles Blood vessels between arterioles and venules that pass through capillary beds but
are not true capillaries. Like arterioles, these vessels have smooth muscle present in
the tunica media that allows it to acts as a shunt to regulate blood flow into the true
capillaries that branch from it.
True capillaries These vessels form the bulk of the capillary bed. They branch away from a metarteri-
ole at its arteriole end and return to merge with the metarteriole at its venule end.
Continuous Making up the majority of capillaries, these vessels have continuous, unbroken walls
capillaries consisting of cells that are connected by tight junctions.
Fenestrated These permeable vessels have continuous walls between endothelial cells, but the
capillaries cells have numerous pores and are found in the kidneys, lining the small intestine,
and in other areas.
Sinusoidal Found in bone marrow, the spleen, and the liver, these capillaries have large gaps
capillaries between endothelial cells that permit the passage of blood cells.
400
Veins
After blood travels through the capillaries, it reaches a vein. Veins are the vessels that carry the oxygen-poor
blood to the heart, where it can be pumped back to the pulmonary system to be re-oxygenated. One excep-
tion to this is the pulmonary vein, which carries oxygen-rich blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart.
Post-capillary venules are the smallest vein. Similar to capillaries, veins are porous, but have smooth muscle
scattered throughout the tunica media. Different veins come together to form venules. These vessels possess
the three layers found in arteries (the tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica adventitia), but are still some-
what more porous to allow the transfer of white blood cells out of the vessel. Although veins possess all three
layers typical to a blood vessel, the tunica intima and tunica media are much thinner in comparison to those
found in the arteries. However, the tunica adventitia is well-developed. In some veins, such as those found in
the limbs, the tunica adventitia creates flaps inside the lumen of the vessel that form valves. Skeletal muscle
surrounding veins helps to pump the blood from chamber to chamber, with valves preventing backflow. This
helps to regulate the movement of the deoxygenated blood as it makes its way back to the heart.
Blood Pressure
Pressure is the driving force that keeps the blood flowing throughout all of the branches of blood vessels. Hy-
drostatic pressure on the walls of the blood vessels is generated when the heart pumps blood through an ar-
tery. Systolic pressure of arteries, measured when the ventricles are contracted, is equal to about 120 mm
Hg in healthy adults. Diastolic pressure is measured when the ventricles are relaxed and is normally around
80 mm Hg (millimeters mercury) in arteries. As blood travels throughout the arteries, resistance (and there-
fore pressure and velocity of blood flow) is reduced due to the change in tunica layers. Recall the increase in
smooth muscle cells, and resulting regulation of blood flow in arterioles. As the blood enters the arterioles (the
main resistance vessels of the system), pressure is sharply reduced and continues to decline in the capillar-
ies. Blood pressure in veins is nearly zero. These measurements are useful diagnostic tools to understand
cardiovascular health, and are monitored closely by several systems in the body.
Cardiac Output
Cardiac output, the amount of blood ejected from the left
ventricle, and resistance in blood vessels are two
measures that the body can alter when blood pressure is
too high or too low. The cardiovascular control center is
located in the medulla oblongata, and is involved in regu-
lating blood volume and blood vessel resistance.
Higher brain centers and specialized sensors in blood ves-

sels (baroreceptors for pressure and chemoreceptors for
chemicals) monitor the state of the circulatory system.
Cardiac output can be increased by increasing the heart Figure 3: Blood volume influences blood pressure.
401
rate as well as the force of contraction. Sympathetic cardiac innervation allows this control by the cardiovas-
cular center in the brain. Parasympathetic vagus innervation of the heart allows the nervous system to de-
crease the heart rate. The vasomotor center is connected to sympathetic nerves that innervate smooth mus-
cle in arterioles. When the resistance in these vessels needs to be changed, nerves stimulate the smooth
muscle of arterioles accordingly.
Pre-Lab Questions
1. Draw a map of blood traveling through the closed system of the circulatory system starting with the right
atrium.
2. What are the main resistance vessels of the circulatory system? How are they controlled?
Experiment 1: Microscopic Examination of Blood Vessels

Over the course of a lifetime, the heart beats more than three billion times, circulating five liters of blood
throughout the body every minute. Understanding the microscopic anatomy of the circulatory system is key to
realizing the importance of cardiovascular health. This system is responsible for delivering oxygen and nutri-
ent-rich blood to the 30 trillion cells that constitute a human body. In this activity, you will explore the structure
of the vessels that carry this liquid of life.
Materials
Artery Digital Slide Image Vein Digital Slide Image
Procedure
1. Examine the artery and vein digital slide images.
402
Lumen
Elastica interna
Tu
ni
c
a
a
a intim
ad
Tun i c
ve
nt
iti
Tunica media
a
Artery 100X. The artery is structured in three layers. The tunica intima is nearest the central
lumen and appears as gentle waves on the surface. Elastic interna is found in close proxim-
ity to the tunica intima, and is followed by the tunica media, and the tunica adventia.
Artery 1000X. The tunica media, shown above, is comprised of smooth muscle and elas-
tic tissue. 403
Tunica adventitia
Lumen
Tunica intima
Tunica media
Vein 100X. Similar to arteries, veins also possess a tunica intima, tunica media, and
a tunica adventitia. Lipids surround the region in the form of droplets
Vein 1000X. The tunica intima comprises the innermost layer of veins and arteries. This
404 layer is strengthened by the elastic lamina
Post-Lab Questions
1. Label each of the items in the following slide pictures based on your observations.
Artery: 100X
405
D
Vein: 100X
2. What differences did you observe in the structure of an artery versus the structure of a vein?
3. Explain the direction of blood flow and the type of blood (oxygenated or deoxygenated) found in each ves-
sel in the pulmonary and systemic circuits.
406
4. Which vessels allow diffusion of oxygen and nutrients across their cell layers?
5. List the vessels in order of ascending pressure within the circulatory system.
407
Experiment 2: Virtual Model - The Circulatory System
The previous experiment demonstrated the microscopic anatomy of the circulatory system. In this experi-
ment, you will use the Virtual Model to explore the macroscopic anatomy of the circulatory system. In this
way, students better understand the locations and extent of the circulatory system features.
Materials

*Computer Access
Procedure
the model.
408
spelled correctly.
etc.)
4. After you are comfortable with the Virtual Model program, select the “Male Full Body (minus Lymph Ves-
sels)” option from the homepage.
5. You will need to clearly view the circulatory system for this experiment, so click on the blue buttons next to
the Skeletal, Muscular, Nervous, Organs, and Lymphatic Systems to toggle the viewing into transparent
(one click) or invisible (two clicks; recommended) mode.
Note: You can enable these systems at any time by re-clicking on the blue buttons next to the respec-
tive categories. This is recommended to help view how all of the systems work together, but it is im-
portant to isolate the circulatory system for clear visibility.
6. Click on the plus (+) symbol next to Circulatory System from the left side panel.
8. Click through and identify the different arteries and veins associated with the upper circulatory system;
this includes the head, arms, and thoracic regions. Be sure to work through the subcontent within each of
these regions.
Hint: Review the Post-Lab Questions as you work through the upper circulatory vessels to help guide
409
your exploration.
The common carotid artery supplies blood to the neck and head.
9. After you have completed the upper circulatory system, click on the minus (-) symbol next to Upper Body.
Then, click on the plus (+) symbol next to Lower Body.
The tibial vein is broken down into the posterior tibial vein and the anterior tibial vein.
410
10. Click through and identify the vessels associated with the lower circulatory system; this include the pelvic
and leg regions. Be sure to review the subcontent within these categories.
Hint: Review the Post-Lab Questions as you work through the lower circulatory vessels to help guide
your exploration.
Post-Lab Questions
1. In what body region does the aorta originate?
2. Into what organ(s) does the renal artery empty?
3. What artery supplies the chin/jaw region of the head with blood?
4. Is the common iliac vein anterior or posterior to the femoral artery?
5. What is the name of the artery which branches off from the femoral artery in the pelvic region?
411
Experiment 3: Virtual Model - Circulatory System Coloring Activity
The vastness of the circulatory system allows it to remove wastes and deliver nutrients, hormones and oxy-
gen throughout the body. It is also involved in many homeostatic requirements such as body temperature, pH,
and water content. Arteries and veins are the largest tubules involved, but smaller conduits such as capillar-
ies, arterioles, and venules remain just as pertinent as they enable biochemical diffusion. In this experiment,
you will use the Coloring Book Activity in the Virtual Model on the Student Portal to better view the complexity
of this system and understand the broad territory covered.
Materials

*Computer Access
Procedure
4. Select the circulatory system images, and find the

image titled “Circulatory System: Thorax” (Figure
4).
5. Using the paint tool, color the subclavian vein blue

and the axillary artery red. Then, color the rib veins
purple.
Note: Rib arteries are also present in this re-

gion. However, the veins and arteries rest in
very close proximity and only one type can be
Figure 4: Image reference for Coloring Book activity.
colored in this image.
6. Color the aorta yellow, and the pulmonary veins green.
7. Take a screen shot of your image, title it as “Circulatory System - Thorax”, and save it to your computer.
Note: This image (and the proceeding images) should be submit to your teacher as part of the assign-
ment. Be sure to remember where you save it.
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8. Find the image titled “Circulatory System: Superior Lower Limbs”.
9. Using the paint tool, color the great saphenous veins blue and the femoral artery red. Then, color the fem-
oral veins purple and the external iliac arteries orange.
10. Take a screen shot of your image, title it as “Circulatory System - Superior Lower Limbs”, and save it to
your computer.
11. Find the image titled “Circulatory System: Inferior Lower Limbs”.
12. Using the paint tool, color the tibial veins blue and the femoral artery red. Then, color the posterior tibial
artery purple and the femoral veins green.
13. Take a screen shot of your image, title it as “Circulatory System - Inferior Lower Limbs”, and save it to
your computer.
14. Find the image titled “Circulatory System: Head”.
15. Using the paint tool, color the external jugular vein blue and the common carotid vein purple. Then, color
the facial vein green, and the internal carotid artery red.
16. Take a screen shot of your image, title it as “Circulatory System - Head”, and save it to your computer.
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Experiment 4: Blood Pressure
Blood pressure conveys physical information about the heart and circulatory system. Blood pressure increas-
es, specifically throughout the arterioles, when the ventricles of the heart contract. Arterial blood pressure is
directly dependent on the amount of blood pumped by the heart each minute and the resistance to the flow of
blood through arterioles. Thus, blood pressure is an important indicator of circulatory system health. The fol-
lowing activities can be performed by yourself, or with a partner, to observe how physical activity affects heart
rate and blood pressure.
Materials
Sphygmomanometer (Blood Pressure Cuff)
Stethoscope
Stopwatch
Note: Consult a physician if you are concerned about the safety of this experiment, or if you have any health
concerns.
Procedure
1. To take a pulse, place the pad of your forefinger on the radial artery and count the number of beats felt in
fifteen seconds.
2. Multiply this number by four to calculate the beats per minute.
Note: The pulse can be felt on any artery close to the surface and compressed over a bone or other
firm tissue. A stethoscope can also be used to listen to the heartbeat by placing the chest-piece on the
thorax, just medial to the left nipple.
3. Wrap the blood pressure cuff around your upper arm, so that the bottom of the cuff
is above the elbow.
4. The subject (you or a partner) should sit comfortably with one arm elevated to heart
level.
5. Place the earpieces of the stethoscope in the ear, and place the diaphragm on the
brachial artery. See Figure 5.
6. Inflate the cuff by closing the valve on the bulb and squeezing the bulb repeatedly
Figure 5: Diaphragm
until blood flow stops (this will likely occur around 130 - 180 mmHg). placement.
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7. Crack the silver valve on the bulb to slowly release the cuff pressure.
8. Listen with the stethoscope for the return of blood flow into the forearm. This is called the sounds of Korot-
koff.
9. Systolic pressure is the pressure at which the first sound of blood flow is heard after pressure is released.
You may also see a tapping of the needle on the pressure gauge that corresponds with the pulse.
10. As the pressure continues to decrease, blood flow returns to normal and the sounds of Korotkoff can no
longer be heard. The pressure at which this transition occurs is diastolic pressure.
11. Record your results in Table 2.
12. Record your blood pressure lying down and record the reading in Table 2.
13. Record your blood pressure after 25 jumping jacks and record the reading in Table 2.
Table 2: Blood Pressure and Pulse Readings
Activity Blood Pressure (mmHg) Pulse (beats/minute)

Systolic/Diastolic
Basal (Normal)
Lying down
After exercise
Post-Lab Questions
1. What is systolic pressure? Diastolic pressure?
2. Why is pressure a sensible reading to measure circulatory health?
3. Explain the “lub-dub” sounds of the heartbeat.
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4. Why do blood pressure and heart rate change after exercise?
5. How might the results in Table 2 change if someone else preformed the activities? Why?
6. Why is it important for blood to flow in only one direction?
Experiment 5: Fetal Pig Dissection: The Circulatory System

The blood vessels in the fetal pig have been injected with latex for identification via the left carotid artery and
left jugular vein. Arteries have been injected with red latex, while veins have been injected with blue latex.
Larger arteries with thicker walls may appear white. Other smaller vessels may not have any latex within.
Materials
Procedure
the whole semester.
4. Open the chest wall, exposing the pericardium. Identify the diaphragm and the heart.
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5. The veins that drain blood from the head and neck lie superior to the heart. Identify the following vessels:
internal jugular, external jugular, right jugular, left jugular, superior vena cava.
6. Identify the following anterior arteries: aorta, brachiocephalic artery, right subclavian artery, and right ca-
rotid artery.
7. Examine the coronary arteries that supply blood to the heart muscle and the veins that remove deoxygen-
ated blood.
8. The abdominal blood vessels will be obscured by organs that you have not yet removed. When you ex-
plore the digestive system, pay close attention to the circulatory system in this region.
Biological scraps should not be thrown into the garbage.
damaged, keep it for future experiments. Securely store the biological scraps until the end of the term so
they can be properly disposed of at one time.
Post-Lab Questions
1. What is the process that is responsible for moving molecules from an area of high concentration to an ar-
ea of low concentration? In what part of the circulatory system does this happen?
2. What observations did you make about the fetal pig‘s circulatory system?
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Lab 12
Concepts to Explore
Non-Specific Defenses Antibodies
Specific Defenses The Thymus
The Lymphatic System The Spleen
The Immune System Lymph Nodes
Introduction
The human body is exposed to microbes every day. In fact, the
body’s nutrient cache, warm temperature, and moist environment
present attractive conditions for microorganism and viral propaga-
tion. While some microorganisms exist symbiotically within the
body, many do not. Fortunately, the human body is equipped with
an efficient system for protection. Physical barriers, proteins, and
other cellular components are part of non-specific and specific de-
fense mechanisms that aid in the fight against the onslaught of vi-
ruses, bacteria, fungi, and other agents of disease such as tumor
cells. Specific defenses are generated by the immune system to
target specific invaders that survive the non-specific lines of de-
fense. The human immune system is finely tuned to distinguish be-
tween biochemical structures that are local to the body from those
that are not. This allows this system to coordinate an array of spe-
cific defense mechanisms when evidence of an invasion is found.
Non-Specific Defenses
There are several types of non-specific defenses that protect the
body from pathogens. The primary defense against pathogens en-
tering the body are external barriers—the skin, linings of the respir- Figure 1: The lymphatic system is a net-
atory, gastrointestinal, and genitourinary tracts which serve to pre- work of conduits that carry lymph through-
vent foreign bodies from entering the body. Other factors that con- out the body.
tribute to non-specific defenses are acids that create unfavorable
conditions for microorganism growth, mucous that entraps and removes foreign elements, and chemicals se-
creted by glands that attack the pathogen. Inflammation is a one of the first non-specific defenses that occurs
within the body and leads to such changes as increased vasodilation, increased permeability of the vascular
system to certain proteins, and phagocyte recruitment. Effectively, this creates a physical barrier to prevent
the spread of infection and promote healing once the foreign body is removed. Phagocytes, which are the
white blood cells, neutrophils, monocytes, and eosinophils, engulf pathogens within the cellular membrane by
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a process called phagocytosis. These cells also release inflammatory mediators to downregulate the inflam-
mation response to the foreign body.
The complement system is a group of proteins that initiate a cascade of biochemical reactions that work
with antibodies and phagocytic cells to mark foreign cells, tagging them for destruction. These proteins are
made in the liver and are responsible for creating holes in the membrane of pathogens, leading to cytolysis as
well as the removal of neutralized antigen-antibody complexes.
? Did You Know...

Allergic reactions manifest in many ways; ranging from negligible sniffles to potentially fatal anaphylactic
shock. Anything from insects, mites, pollens, drugs, or food can provoke an allergic reaction, but they are
caused by the same biological activity: an inappropriate immune response. The body is unnecessarily hyper-
sensitive to an environmental substance, causing an over-reactive immune response which attacks the body.
The first step in an allergic reaction is exposure. For

example, male pollen grains often drift airborne in
search of a mate. They often are inhaled or rubbed
into eyes, stimulating the body to produce an anti-
body called immunoglobulin E, or IgE.
IgE quickly coats mast cells, a component of the im-

mune system. This incites the mast cells to release
chemicals such as histamine. Excess histamine caus-
es the familiar symptoms of sneezing, watery eyes,
itchiness, etc.
Antihistamine medications effectively treat the symp-

toms if taken quickly. However, additional chemicals
Microscopic pollen grain rendition (right); Taraxacum
are released by the mast cells if the over abundance
officinale (dandelion weed) pollen grains (left).
of histamine is not medically acknowledged. The ad-
ditional chemicals may cause more serious consequences. This is because congestion will quickly set into
the respiratory system, making it more susceptible for sinus infections.
When a virus invades a body cell, it will secrete a protein called interferon, which helps neighboring cells to
produce protective defenses against the pathogen. A fever is a systemic response to infection that increases
cellular metabolism and creates unfriendly conditions for growth and replication of bacteria. Collectively, these
non-specific responses to infection or tissue damage initiate a cascade of events that lead to tissue repair.
Cells of the immune system are leukocytes (white blood cells), plasma cells, macrophages, macrophage-like
cells, and mast cells. They travel through the body within the circulatory system, but function within the tis-
sues of the body. Leukocytes move freely throughout the body and interact with and capture foreign debris,
foreign particles, or pathogens. They release a type of protein called cytokines, which recruit immune cells
and regulate the immune response. They are produced through the process of hematopoiesis, and cannot
421
Figure 2: The function of the lymphatic system is to transport interstitial fluids

from tissues to the bloodstream, and to remove foreign materials from the body.
422
reproduce on their own. Collectively, they work with the immune
system to identify and eliminate infection-causing pathogens.
Specific Defenses
The third line of defense for a foreign body invasion is a specific
attack by the immune system. This is an adaptable system
which is controlled by lymphocytes that target specific non-self
or foreign molecules (antigens) with specific antigen receptors
on the cell surface. This system can quickly identify self-and
non-self cells by human leukocyte antigens, a collection of gly-
coproteins on the plasma membrane that trigger activation of
lymphoctytes. This includes cells divisions and differentiation to
launch a systemic attack of the antigen-presenting cells all over
the body. The following portion of this introduction will explore
the lymphatic system in more detail.
Figure 3: The lymphatic vessels span the

The Immune System whole body.
The immune system is a collection of many types of interdependent cells that collectively protect the body
against foreign bodies. Lymphocytes are white blood cells that provide an immune response targeting spe-
cific cells foreign to the body (antigens). This class of cells can be further divided into two groups: T-cells and
? Did You Know...

Immunoglobulins (Ig), antibodies, are proteins found throughout
the body that are used to identify and immobilize foreign objects
within the body. Antibodies come in many shapes and fit with
their corresponding antibody in a lock-and-key fashion called an
induced fit.
Antibodies exhibit a small region at the tip of each protein called
the hypervariable region. This site is the antigen binding site,
which fits perfectly with the eptitope region on the antigen, and is
extremely specific so that each antibody binds with a singular an-
tigen.
This unique composition of antibodies allows the immune system

to recognize millions of different antigens in the midst of the tril-
lions of molecules that are found within an organism. The anti-
body-antigen complex is formed when they bind together, and this
tags the antigen for destruction by other cells in the immune sys-
tem. Some antigens also inhibit the pathogen directly by binding
to a site required for multiplication or attachment to a host cell.
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B-cells. T-cells are formed in bone marrow but migrate
to the thymus before reaching full maturity. These at-
tack cells seek out the body’s own cells that have been
invaded by pathogens, tumor cells, or foreign somatic
cells (such as those introduced via homologous organ
transplantation). B-cells originate and reach full maturi-
ty in bone marrow tissue. When these cells identify an
antigen, they differentiate into one of two types of cells:
plasma cells and memory cells. Plasma cells secrete
soluble antibodies while memory cells survive for
years so that the antibody is available if the antigen is
presented again with a future exposure. There are five Figure 5: Molecular structure of an antibody deter-
isotypes of antibodies in humans, and each functions mined by x-ray crystallography.
in a different way to initiate the proper defensive re-
sponse depending on the type of foreign body present.
Macrophages are white blood cells found within tissues that derive from monocytes. Monocytes, or white
blood cells, circulate throughout the bloodstream until chemical signals expose them to a foreign object or
damaged tissue. When the cell enters the tissue, it undergoes a series of changes to transform into a macro-
phage. Macrophages and monocytes are phagocytes that act in both non-specific and specific defenses. Non
-specifically, they engulf and digest pathogens and cellular
debris with specialized enzymes and peroxides. As part of a
specific immune reaction, macrophages stimulate lympho-
cytes and other cells to respond to a pathogen. After engulf-
ing a pathogen, they present the antigen from the pathogen
to a helper T-cell, leading to the production of antibodies.
Macrophages also secrete chemicals that play an essential
role in the body’s inflammation response and can become
activated by lymphokines to search and destroy specific
pathogens.
Figure 6: White blood cell.
Groupings of lymphatic cells constitute the organs of the immune system – bone marrow, the thymus, the
spleen, and lymph nodes. All of the cells of the immune system originally stem from bone marrow. Bone mar-
row is the flexible tissue found in the hollows of bones, and is responsible for producing new blood cells, a
process called hematopoiesis. Specifically, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets are formed by
bone marrow cells (See the Blood and the Heart lab for more information).
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As mentioned earlier, the thymus and spleen are other organs of the lymphatic system. The thymus is a bi-
lobed organ surrounded by connective tissue, located between the lungs. Immature T-cells from bone marrow
migrate through blood vessels to the thymus, where they finish developing. They leave the thymus, exiting
through blood vessels of efferent lymphatic vessels. The spleen is the largest lymphatic organ, and is located
between the diaphragm and the stomach. Within the spleen are two distinct tissues: white pulp and red pulp.
The white pulp resembles lymph nodes, and contains reticular fibers and lymphocytes while the red pulp
houses sinuses filled with blood. A filter comprised of reticular fibers, macrophages, and lymphocytes, is also
present in the red pulp. The functions of the spleen include the following:
• Filtering blood
• Destroying old blood cells
• Providing a reservoir of blood
• Playing an active role in immune responses
• Producing new blood
The Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system is a network of vessels throughout the body that circulate a liquid called lymph, as
well as the lymphoid tissues that are present throughout the body. Along with aiding the cardiovascular sys-
tem with the removal of toxins from the body, this system also plays a critical role in the body’s immunity.
Some of the vital roles the lymphatic system plays are: filtering, recycling, and producing lymph, as well as
cleaning lymph, collecting surplus fluids, and absorbing fat-soluble molecules from the digestive tract.
Lymphatic vessels are the conducting system of the lymphatic system. They appear alongside veins and
arteries to collect fluids, proteins, and cells that escape from the circulatory system. Lymph is moved through
this system in a unidirectional manner towards the heart. The lymphatic system is not a closed system; it
functions to return blood plasma (fluids, plasma proteins, and blood cells) that has left the vascular system
and moved into interstitial space back to the blood. The clear interstitial fluid mixture constitutes lymph. Move-
ment of lymph through the lymphatic vessels is accomplished by contraction of nearby skeletal muscle, the
physical act of respiration, and contraction of smooth muscle cells in the lining of the lymphatic muscles. Lym-
phatic capillaries are the smallest lymphatic vessels and begin as dead-end vessels. Lymphatic capillaries are
more porous than blood capillaries and pressure differentials drive the fluid from the interstitial space into the
lymphatic capillaries. When the volume of fluid within the vessel reaches capacity, pressure inside the vessel
closes the valves to prevent the fluid from escaping back into the tissue.
Lymph capillaries merge into lymphatic collecting vessels. As in lymphatic capillaries, valves are present to
prevent a backward flow of the liquid. Collecting vessels are similar in structure to veins, but the layers of
tissues are thinner and not as well defined. These collecting vessels merge together, forming a lymphatic
425
trunk. There are nine such trunks within the human body, named for
the region from which they are responsible for draining lymph from:
lumbar (left and right), jugular (left and right), subclavian (left and
right), bronchomediastinal (left and right), and the intestinal trunk. The
two largest of the lymphatic vessels are the thoracic duct and the right
thoracic duct. Again, valves are present to control the one-way flow of
lymph as it moves into the veins in the subclavian region and to pre-
vent blood from entering the lymph vessels. The lymphatic system al-
so filters the lymph to destroy pathogens, inactivate toxins, and re-
move particulate matter. Lymph nodes, small bodies interspersed
along lymphatic vessels, are the physical filters of the system and act
as immune response centers that defend against infection. These Figure 7: Cross section of a lymph
small, oval organs are found along lymphatic vessels especially in are- node showing the internal structures.
as where they merge to form trunks. Within these organs, collections of B-cells, T-cells, and other immune
cells are housed. Lymph enters the node through afferent vessels and exit through efferent vessels, which
contain valves to control the flow.
? Big Picture...
Viral particles, or virion, can travel through the air, and may be taken
into the body through the mouth, eyes, nasal passages, or other open
orifices. One of the most common viruses is influenza, or seasonal
flu. Over 200,000 Americans are annually hospitalized due to this vi-
rus. Here is a breakdown of how seasonal flu infects the body.
1. Upon exposure, the body begins producing extra T-cells and anti-
bodies to coat and attack the virion. In the meantime, virion repro-
duce in mass by hijacking the host cells’ replication machinery.
2. Infected host cells swell with virion and lyse open, allowing the Microscopic image of influenza virus.
virion to rapidly propagate throughout the body.
3. Within a few days, the body’s immune system can no longer combat the amount of virion present, caus-
ing it to become inflamed. Inflammation causes traditional flu symptoms such as nausea, fever, and
headaches to quickly set in.
4. The body prioritizes its energy to fight the virion. Therefore, people become very tired. Dead cells also
begin to accumulate within the respiratory tract. To prevent a potential clog, the body develops a cough
to help remove the cells. This causes irritation, which in turn causes an increase in mucus production.
5. What remains of the T-cells and antibodies continue to fight the virion, slowly gaining traction. The in-
flammation (along with the corresponding symptoms) begins to subside.
6. Contagious particles may remain for a few days after symptoms have ceased. Washing hands must re-
main a priority.
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The lymphatic system also absorbs lipids and fat-soluble materials from the digestive tract. Lacteals are spe-
cialized lymphatic capillaries with villi that project into the small intestine. Lymph collected from these vessels
is called chyle and is whitish due to the presence of lipids. The relatively low pressure of the lacteals allows
large lipid molecules to diffuse into them, whereas only small molecules like carbohydrates and amino acids
can diffuse directly into the bloodstream from the intestines.
Pre-Lab Questions
1. In what areas are lymph nodes clustered? Why is this desirable?
2. Explain how the flow of lymph is controlled through lymphatic vessels.
Experiment 1: Examining the Microscopic Anatomy of Lymphatic System

In this lab, you will identify the unique structures of lymphatic tissues.
Materials
Lymph Node Digital Slide Image
Spleen Digital Slide Image
Procedure
1. Examine the lymph node digital slide images. Notice the lymphoid follicles and the cortex/medulla re-
gions.
2. Examine the spleen digital slide images. Note that there are two regions visible in this tissue – the white
pulp and the red pulp.
427
Connective tissue
capsule/trabeculae
Medullary cords
(Medulla) Lymphoid Follicles
Lymph node 100X. Regions located within the lymph node which contain high concentrations of lympho-
cytes are referred to as lymphoid follicles. These are observable as a dark, ring-shaped structures and re-
sulting from a connective tissue capsule and peripheral trabeculae. Germinal centers (indicated with a star)
reside within the center of the follicles. This is where B-cells replicate and differentiate in function. The me-
dulla comprises the central region of the lymph node.
428
Lymph Node 1000X. Many types of immune cells such as B-cells, T-cells, and lymphocytes reside within
the lymph node.
429
Spleen 100X. A connective tissue capsule lines the perimeter of the spleen (not visible in this image). Many
fibrous trabeculae stem from this capsule into the spleen and create a network of support for the organ.
Splenic pulp reside within the patches (also known as areolae) formed by this trabecular webbing.
White pulp
Red pulp
Spleen 1000X. The majority of splenic pulp is red pulp, although white pulp is found interspersed within
the red pulp as well. Red pulp is termed this way because of its red appearance, caused by the abun-
dance of erythrocytes (red blood cells) located in the area. Further, white pulp is largely composed of lym-
phocytes (white blood cells).
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Post-Lab Questions
1. Label the items in the following slide pictures based on your observations.
Lymph node: 100X
A C D
431
F
E
Spleen: 40X
2. Are there more afferent or efferent vessels attached to a lymph node? What is the functional purpose of
this?
3. What structural similarities did you observe between the lymph node and spleen?
432
Experiment 2: Virtual Model - The Lymphatic System
This experiment will use the Virtual Model to guide you through the macroscopic anatomy of the lymphatic
system and vessels. Through this discovery, you will identify the placement of organs, nodes, ducts, and ves-
sels of this complex system.
Materials

*Computer Access
Procedure
model.
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spelled correctly.
h. Use the left mouse button to select any region on the background screen and rotate the model
360 degrees. This technique is useful when you need to adjust the orientation to view features on
the opposite side of the model (e.g., you can rotate the model to view anterior features if the mod-
el is currently showing the posterior features, superior features if the model is showing inferior fea-
tures, etc.)
select and hold the slider on the zoom bar. Pull the slide up the bar to zoom in; pull the slider
down the bar to zoom out.
4. After you are comfortable with the Virtual Model program, return to the
home page and select the “Male Lymphatic System” option. This option
allows you to view the lymphatic system (organs/ducts/nodes) and the
lymphatic vessels together.
5. The skeletal system is also enabled in this option. You may wish to
keep the skeletal system toggled to visibility mode for perspective, or
toggle the system into transparent or invisible mode (recommended) to
better view the lymphatic system/vessels; the viewing mode is your
choice. To toggle the skeletal system into transparent or invisible mode,
click on the blue button to the left of the Skeletal System category once
(transparent mode) or twice (invisible mode).
Note: You can enable the skeletal system by clicking on the blue
button next to the Skeletal System at any time.
6. Click on the plus (+) symbol next to the Lymphatic System.
7. Click through and identify the lymph organs, lymph nodes, and the tho-
Content hierarchy.
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racic duct. Be sure to also click through the subcontent contained within the organs (spleen, thymus, lin-
gual tonsils, and the cisterna chili) and the lymph nodes (inguinal, popliteal, cubital, axillary, cervical, me-
diastinal, iliac, and lumbar) categories.
The head lingual cervical vessels.
Hint: Review the Post-Lab Questions as you review the lymphatic system to guide your exploration.
8. Then, click on the (+) symbol next to the Lymphatic Vessels.
9. Click through and identify all of the lymphatic vessels.
Note: Some of the vessels may be difficult to observe, even after double-clicking on an anatomical
term from the left-hand list. This is because the thin structure of the vessels can result in a very subtle
highlighting. The highlighting of this system will appear dark or rust-colored. If you are not able to lo-
cate the vessel immediately, try double clicking the term again; or, move the cursor over the relative
region on the body and look for the terms which appear.
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Lymphatic vessels, organs, and ducts in concert.
Post-Lab Questions
1. Is the cisterna chyli or the spleen more medial to the spinal cord?
2. Are the cubital nodes or the axillary nodes more distal to the thymus?
3. What is the name of the most superior lymph nodes in the head region?
4. Where are the popliteal nodes located?
5. What are the most inferior lymph nodes in the body called?
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Experiment 3: Fetal Pig Dissection: The Lymphatic System
Like many other systems, the lymphatic system of the fetal pig provides a good representation of the anatomy
of the human lymphatic system. In this experiment, you will explore some of the structures of this system.
Materials
Procedure
the whole semester.
4. Peel back the flaps of the abdominal wall to expose the internal organs of the pig.
5. The right lymphatic duct is in the inferior neck region at the junction of the right subclavian and internal
jugular veins.
6. The cisterna chyli is in the abdomen, just inferior to the diaphragm and to the right of the second lumbar
vertebra. Follow the cisterna chyli to the point at which it narrows. This is the thoracic duct. Trace the path
of this vessel to the left internal jugular and subclavian veins, where it empties.
7. Look for aggregates of lymph nodes in the cervical, axillary, and inguinal regions.
8. Identify the non-capsulated thymus below the larynx. It will cover the trachea, thyroid gland, and anterior
region of the heart.
9. Locate the spleen, a dark reddish-brown organ posterior and lateral to the stomach.
437
Because you did not cut into the pig, there should not be any biological scraps. But always remember,
biological scraps should not be thrown into the garbage.
Post-Lab Questions
1. In what regions are high concentrations of lymph nodes present? Why?
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Lab 13
Concepts to Explore
Respiratory System Organs Internal Respiration
External Respiration Gas Exchange
Introduction
Respiration has two meanings in biology. At the cellular level, respiration refers to the chemical reactions
that consume oxygen to produce energy for the cell. At the organismal level, respiration is the process of
taking in oxygen from the environment and removing carbon dioxide from the body. This chapter will focus
on anatomy and function of the respiratory system at the organismal level.
The respiratory system provides gas exchange to ensure vital oxygen from the atmosphere is delivered to
cells and toxic carbon dioxide is removed from the body and exhaled back into the environment. With the
aid of the circulatory system, the respiratory system is able to maintain physiologically appropriate levels of
both oxygen and carbon dioxide molecules throughout the body. The respiratory system provides an airway
for movement of air into and out of the body, and a site for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. In
this way, the respiratory system can supply the body with oxygen and dispose of carbon dioxide.
The respiratory system is comprised of the lungs, the airways leading to them, and the chest structures re-
sponsible for movement of air into and out of them. The lungs are the stretchable organs whose volume de-
pends upon the pressure differential across the lungs, and how elastic the lungs are. The airways of this
system are typically segregated into the conducting zone and the respiratory zone. The conducting zone
consists of the trachea, bronchi, and terminal bronchioles. Respiratory zones consist are the site of gas
exchange, including the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli.
Organs of the Respiratory System

The main organs of the respiratory system are the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
• The nose is composed of bone (the base) and hyaline cartilage (anterior structures). Two external
nares provide an opening for air to enter a space called the nasal cavity, separated into left and right
spaces by the nasal septum. This space is lined with a mucous membrane that warms, humidifies,
and filters the air before it enters the lungs. It also serves as a resonating chamber for speech and
houses the olfactory receptors. The floor of the nasal cavity is formed by the soft and hard palates.
The paranasal sinuses lighten the skull and are located on the sides of the nasal cavity.
• The funnel-shaped tube of skeletal muscle that connects to the nasal cavity and the larynx is called
the pharynx. This muscle extends from the base of the skull to the C4 vertebra. It is divided into
442
three regions - the nasopharynx, the orophar-
ynx, and the laryngopharynx. The nasophar-
ynx is strictly an air passageway that is lined
with pseudostratified columnar epithelium. It
closes during swallowing to prevent food from
entering the nasal cavity. The oropharynx is a
passageway for both food and air. Protective
stratified squamous epithelium lines this con-
duit. The laryngopharynx is also a pathway
for both food and air, and extends to the lar-
ynx.
• The larynx is also known as the voice box. It
provides a patent airway, functions in voice
production, and also acts to route air and
food into their proper channels. The epiglot-
tis is a flap of elastic cartilage that covers the
laryngeal inlet during swallowing (both the
epiglottis and the vocal cords can close the
larynx). Vocal ligaments are composed of
elastic fibers that vibrate to produce sounds
as air rushes up from the lungs. Their ten- Figure 1: The human lungs are the site of gas exchange,
sion, length, and the force of the air rushing providing vital oxygen and means to rid the body of car-
bon dioxide.
past the cords alter the sound that emanates
from the larynx.
• The trachea is a flexible tube that extends from the larynx into the mediastinum. It is composed of
three layers, listed from inside to out: the mucosa, submucosa and adventitia. The trachea ends at the
carina, marking the beginning of the bronchi.
• The trachea divides into two main bronchi (singular bronchus) to the left and right, at the carina. The
right bronchus is wider, shorter, and more vertical than the left. The right bronchus branches into three
lobar bronchi, while the left is subdivided into two. These secondary bronchi divide further into tertiary
bronchi. In all, there are 23 sub-branches starting with the bronchi, and ending with bronchioles. Hya-
line cartilage and smooth muscle constitute the bronchi, and as branching continues through the bron-
chial tree, less and less cartilage is present. In the smallest subunit, there is not cartilage present –
only muscle. The mucous membrane also changes as the branching progresses, starting as ciliated
pseudostratified columnar epithelium to simple cuboidal epithelium to simple squamous epithelium.
Bronchioles terminate into alveolar ducts, leading to alveoli. This is the site of gas exchange. Alveoli
(and alveolar ducts) are primarily simple squamous epithelium, which permits rapid diffusion of oxy-
gen and carbon dioxide.
443
Figure 2: The anatomy of the human respiratory system
444
• The human body has two lungs. Their primary func-
tion is gas exchange. This occurs in individual alveo-
lus. Oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange passively
between the pulmonary capillaries and the alveoli.
These gases move along their partial pressure gradi-
ents, from areas of high partial pressure to areas of
low partial pressure.
Respiration involves three steps to transport the oxygen (with

the help of the cardiovascular system) and carbon dioxide
throughout the body. Pulmonary ventilation is the move-
ment of air between the atmosphere and the lungs. It occurs
during inhalation and exhalation. The diaphragm and the
muscles of the thoracic wall change the space and pressure
inside the lungs. When the diaphragm contracts, it leaves
more space for the lungs to expand and lowers the internal
air pressure. Air pressure is greater outside of the body, and
will move to a region of lower pressure (inside the lungs). Ex- Figure 3: The trachea subdivides into bron-
chi, bronchioles, and smaller conduits that
ternal respiration is the movement of oxygen from the alve-
conduct air from the external environment
oli into pulmonary capillaries and carbon dioxide from the pul-
to the alveoli, the site where gas exchange
monary capillaries to the alveoli. Oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs.
are transported between the lungs and body tissues. Internal
respiration is the movement of oxygen from the capillaries
into body cells, and of carbon dioxide from the body cells into capillaries.
The steps involved in respiration are:

? Did You Know...
• Ventilation
What gases are inside the • Gas exchange between alveolar air and lung capillaries
body? Oxygen and carbon
dioxide are found through- • Bulk flow of the circulation
out the body. Oxygen is
• Gas exchange between the capillaries and tissue cells
present, as it is one of the
key molecules necessary • Cellular consumption and production of gases
for the efficient production
of ATP. Metabolic pro-
cesses result in the pro- Molecules of oxygen and carbon dioxide are passively exchanged through the
duction of carbon dioxide,
process of diffusion into and out of the blood. Diffusion is the net movement of
which becomes toxic at
molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentra-
high concentrations.
tion as a result of their random movement.
445
Gas Exchange
Gases will always travel from an area of higher pressure to an area of lower pressure. Intrapulmonary pres-
sure is the pressure within the alveoli. Intrapleural pressure is the pressure within the pleural cavity, and is
always less than atmospheric pressure. The mechanical act of respiration involves a pressure change in the-
se two spaces that causes air to enter or exit the lungs. The diaphragm muscle plays a critical role in this ac-
tion, separating the abdominal cavity from the thoracic cavity. When the diaphragm contracts, this muscular
barrier moves downward and increases the size of the thoracic cavity. This effects a change in pressure on
the outside of the lungs, creating a negative pressure vacuum that expands the lungs to allow air to enter in
what is termed inhalation. In contrast, when the diaphragm relaxes the size of the thoracic cavity decreases.
This causes a positive external pressure on the lungs and forces them to deflate and release the air inside in
an activity called exhalation. This process is controlled by many neural factors.
Figure 4: Schematic diagram of the cardiopulmonary system that sends de-oxygenated blood to
the lungs and returns oxygen-rich blood to the heart to be pumped to the body.
446
Breathing is mostly an autonomic activity, though it can be consciously controlled for short periods of time.
The respiratory center in the pons influences the activity of the medullary respiratory centers, which control
the rhythmic breathing movements. These brain centers receive information from the body to modify breath-
ing so that proper levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide are achieved. Some of the influencers include: levels
of carbon dioxide, oxygen, hydrogen, stress, body temperature changes, and altitude.
Figure 5: The respiratory center in the brain can be used to influence respiration.
Pre-Lab Questions
1. Name two functions of the nasal cavity mucosa.
2. Why is the trachea reinforced with cartilaginous rings?
3. Describe the path a molecule of oxygen takes to get to body tissue, starting with the nares.
4. What is asthma?
447
Experiment 1: Microscopic Anatomy of the Respiratory System
Visualizing the microscopic anatomy of the respiratory system will aid in your understanding of its function.
Materials
Trachea Digital Slide Image
Lung Tissue Digital Slide Image
Procedure
1. Examine each of the digital slide images.
• For the trachea, observe the smooth muscle layer, the cartilaginous rings, and the pseudostratified
ciliated epithelium.
• For the lung, observe a bronchiole and the thin squamous epithelium lining alveolus.
448
Goblet cells
Connective tissue
Basement
of lamina propria
membrane
Cilia
Lumen
Columnar
cells
Trachea 1000X. Major features in tracheal tissue include cilia, goblet cells, columnar cells, a basement
membrane, and connective tissue of lamina propria. As mentioned previously, goblet cells are simple epi-
thelial cells which secrete mucin. Mucin creates a gel-like substance which lubricates tissues such as the
trachea.
449
Alveolar sac Capillaries
Alveoli
Bronchi
Bronchiole
Lung Tissue 40X. Lung tissue is punctuated with alveoli, alveolar sacs, bronchi, and bronchioles
to facilitate gas diffusion.
Bronchi
450 Lung Tissue 100X.

Lung Tissue 1000X.
Alveoli
Alveoli
Simple
squamous Alveoli
epithelium
Lung Tissue 1000X. Gas diffusion and filtration is particularly important in the lungs; thus, the
lung alveoli is surrounded by a single, thin layer of simple squamous epithelium. This structure
compromises the overall protection of the organ, but allows for better gas exchange 451
Table 1: Experimental Observations
Respiratory Image Descrip on of Visible Structure(s)
Trachea
Lung
452
Post-Lab Questions
1. Label the arrows in the slide images below.
Trachea 1000X.
G Lung 40X.
H 453
2. What structural features of alveoli make them an ideal place for gas exchange?
3. Why is mucus present in the trachea?
4. What is the specific function of the cilia on the walls of the trachea?
454
Experiment 2: Virtual Model - The Respiratory System
This experiment will use the Virtual Model to guide you through the macroscopic anatomy of the respiratory
system. Through this discovery, you will identify the placement of the respiratory organs and better under-
stand their synchronization.
Materials

*Computer Access
Procedure
model.
spelled correctly.
455
etc.)
4. After you are comfortable with the Virtual Model program, return to the
home page and select the “Male Full Body (minus Lymph Vessels)” option.
5. You will need to clearly view the organs of the respiratory system for this
experiment. To do this, click on the blue buttons to the left of the skeletal,
muscular, nervous, circulatory, and lymphatic systems to toggle their view-
ing into transparent (one click) or invisible (two clicks; recommended) for-
mat.
Note: You can enable any of these systems by clicking on the blue
buttons next to the corresponding systems at any time. It is recom-
mended to toggle the viewing back into visibility at some point to view
the different systems working together, but it is important to isolate the
respiratory system organs for at least part of this experiment.
6. Click on the plus (+) symbol next to the Organs category. Then, click on
the blue buttons to the left of the digestive, urinary, cardiovascular, repro-
ductive, circulatory, and lymphatic systems, as well as the right and left
tonsils to toggle their viewing into transparent or invisible (recommended)
format.
Content hierarchy
456
7. Click on the plus (+) symbol next to the Respiratory System category, and work through the organs in this
category; this includes the upper respiratory system, lungs, the larynx/trachea and bronchi, and the dia-
phragm.
Did you know that the right lung is divided into three lobes, while the left lung
is divided into two lobes. The right lung also has a higher air capacity.
Post-Lab Questions
1. How many diaphragm(s) exist in the human body?
2. Does deoxygenated blood become oxygenated in the upper respiratory tract, the lungs, or the dia-
phragm?
3. Is the trachea superior or inferior to the diaphragm?
4. Is the heart (located in the mediastinum) or the right lung more medial to the body?
5. What is the most inferiorly located organ of the respiratory system?

457
Experiment 3: Virtual Model - Respiratory System Coloring Activity
The respiratory system enables gas exchange and works closely with the circulatory system to deliver (and
remove) the gases which enable (and disable) life. Consequently, the organs involved in this system often
have very thin tissues and membranes. In this experiment, you will use the Coloring Book Activity in the Virtu-
al Model on the Student Portal to identify and view how these organs work in concert.
Materials

*Computer Access
Procedure
2. After you have entered your Anatomy and Physiology Lab Kit, click on the
“Virtual Model” link.
4. Select the respiratory system images, and find the image titled “Respiratory
System: Anterior View” (Figure 7).
5. Using the paint tool, color the lungs purple and the organ representing the
larynx, trachea, and bronchi orange. Then, color the diaphragm red, the up-
per respiratory system yellow.
6. Take a screen shot of your image, title it as “Respiratory System - Anterior

View” and save it to your computer.
Note: This image should be submit to your teacher as part of the assign-
Figure 7: Image reference
ment. Be sure to remember where you save it. for coloring book activity.
458
Experiment 4: Understanding Lung Mechanics
The diaphragm plays a critical role in breathing. It alters the relative pressure and forces lungs to expand or
contract by changing the volume of the intrapleural space. The following exercise demonstrates this action.
Materials
Wash bottle Rubber Band
Balloon
Procedure
1. Attach the balloon to the end of the straw that fits inside the wash bottle, and secure with a rubber band.
The balloon will act as the lung.
2. While gently squeezing the bottle, replace the top and secure tightly.
3. Squeeze the bottle and record what happens to the balloon in Table 2.
4. Release the bottle and observe what happens in Table 2.
Table 2: Understanding Lung Mechanics Observations
Squeezed Bottle Observations (Step 3) Released Bottle Observations (Step 4)
Post-Lab Questions
1. What happens to the balloon? Why?
2. What would happen if the seal at the base of the bottle leaked?
3. What causes a collapsed lung?
4. Is a collapsed lung functional? Why or why not?
459
Experiment 5: Peak Flow Meter
Spirometry is the most common test to measure pulmonary function. Literally meaning “measure of breath”,
this technique collects data on the rate of flow as well as inhalation and exhalation volumes. If a spirometer is
not available, a peak flow meter can be used to assess breathing, specifically, the ability to push air out of the
lungs.
A peak flow meter is a simple device that measures the rate at which air can be exhaled from the lungs. The
data obtained from this test is reported in liters per minute (L/min), and is largely dependent on the patient’s
understanding of the test and effort invested into their forced exhalation (which needs to last only one second
to capture data). Three trials should be performed for each volunteer, with the highest of the three values
used for peak expiratory flow rate (PEF).
PEF rates vary with age, height, and gender. Results from a peak flow meter test can be compared to normal
reference values in order to screen for difficulties in breathing. Abnormalities can indicate airway constriction,
but data from a peak flow meter test is unable to indicate the specific cause of the difficulty as a spirometer
would.
Materials
Peak Flow Meter *Participant should be in good health and able to

exercise for 5 - 10 minutes without adverse conse-
*Participant quence.**
Procedure
1. Assemble the peak flow meter by pulling the top, gray colored cover off the apparatus. Then, pull the
hinged portion of the cover down. Snap the two hinged pieces together to form a handle. (Figure 8)
Figure 8: Peak Flow Meter setup.

460
2. Before each trial, be certain the red indicator is at the bottom of the
numbered scale.
3. Ask the volunteer to sit up straight, and take a deep breath.
4. Put the mouthpiece into his/her mouth and ask the volunteer to
close his/her lips tightly around the mouthpiece.
5. Ask the volunteer to keep his/her tongue away from the mouth-
piece.
6. In a single breath, have the volunteer exhale as hard and quickly as

s/he can THROUGH THE MOUTH ONLY until there is no more air
to expel.
Note: The results depend on the strength of the volunteer’s ef-

fort, so exhale as hard and fast as possible.
Figure 9: Note the red indicator is po-
7. The force of the air causes the sliding arrow to move along the sitioned at the bottom of the meter.
numbered scale. Note the number in Table 3 under the “Normal”
column.
8. After a few seconds rest, repeat Steps 2 - 7 two more times for a final count of three trials. Similar read-
ings for all of the trials indicate the test is being performed correctly.
9. Use the highest of the three readings as the normal reading.
10. Ask the volunteer to exercise (run in place, perform jumping jacks, etc.) for five minutes, or until they feel
like their breathing is labored.
11. Repeat Steps 2 - 8 and record readings in Table 3 under the “Post-Exercise” column.
Table 3: Peak Flow Meter Data
Trial Normal Post-Exercise
Highest Reading
461
Post-Lab Questions
1. What changes were observed after the volunteer exercised?
2. Did the PEF increase or decrease after exercise? Explain why this change occurred; be sure to incorpo-
rate physiological reasoning in your explanation.
Experiment 6: Fetal Pig Dissection: The Respiratory System

Like many other systems, the respiratory system of the fetal pig provides a good representation of the anato-
my of the human respiratory system. The following experiment will guide you through an exploration of some
of the structures of this system.
Materials
Procedure
4. Peel back and pin down the flaps of the abdominal wall to expose the internal organs of the pig.
5. In the neck region, locate the larynx superior to the trachea (and slightly larger than the trachea).
6. Observe and palpate the C-shaped cartilaginous rings on the external surface of the trachea.
7. Using a scalpel, carefully make a longitudinal cut in the trachea. Observe the interior tissue.
8. Observe the external anatomy of the lungs. The fetal pig has six lobes of the lung, whereas humans have
462
five. Also note that the fetal pig lobes have also never been filled with air, because gas exchange in utero
occurs through the umbilical cord rather than the lungs (Figure 10).
Lung
Figure 10: Dissection of Lung Tissue
9. Identify the hilius of the lung on its medial border, and the visceral pleura that covers the lungs.
10. Trace the pulmonary veins and arteries between the lungs and the heart. Take note of how many vessels
are present near these organs.
11. If you have already studied the cardiovascular system, remove the heart and great vessels to provide bet-
ter access to the primary bronchi.
12. Follow the trachea laterally to the bifurcation into the lungs. Each branching tube is a bronchus that di-
vides into smaller and smaller branches within the lung. If you are unable to see these structures, palpate
them with a gloved hand.
13. Remove the lung tissue on the left lung to expose the left primary bronchus. Continue to dissect away tis-
sue until you can see the secondary bronchus.
463
14. Locate the diaphragm on the floor of the thoracic cavity. Note the position of this bell-shaped muscle in
relation to the lungs.
Note: The diaphragm is not used by fetal pigs because gas exchange occurs through the umbilical
cord.
with a rubber band, or place in the zip-seal bag provided in your kit.
16. Return the pig to a cool environment. Remember, the best place to store the pig is in a cool, dark place.
Post-Lab Questions
1. Describe the interior lining of the trachea.
2. What role do the rings of cartilage surrounding the trachea play?
3. Were there many or few vessels serving as conduits between the lungs and the heart? Why is this im-
portant?
4. Describe the function of the diaphragm during inhalation and exhalation.
464
Lab 14
The Urinary System
The Urinary System
Concepts to Explore
The Kidneys Ureters
The Cortex Urinary Bladder
The Medulla Urethra
Nephrons
Introduction
The organs, tubes, muscles, and nerves that work together to create, store, and carry urine are the urinary
system. The primary function of the urinary system is to maintain the volume and composition of body fluids.
Normal cell metabolism leads to the accumulation of waste products such as carbon dioxide and nitrogenous
wastes (ammonia, urea, etc.) throughout the body. The urinary system helps to remove these byproducts
from the body in order for normal function to continue. Because of this role, the urinary system is often re-
ferred to as the excretory system.
Diaphragm
Adrenal Gland
Renal Artery
Kidney
Renal Vein
Inferior Vena Cava
Abdominal
Aorta
Ureter
Bladder
Urethra
Figure 1: The urinary system consists of paired kidneys and

ureters, a urinary bladder, sphincter muscles and a urethra.
468
The Urinary System
The urinary system maintains the appropriate fluid volume in the body by regulating the amount of water that
is excreted in urine. In doing so, the concentrations of various electrolytes and normal pH of the blood are
also controlled. The major organs of the urinary system are the kidneys (2), ureters (2), urinary bladder,
sphincter muscles (2), and the urethra (Figure 1). Together, these components of the urinary system main-
tain the fluid homeostasis of the body.
The urinary system can be subdivided into two functional groups: kidneys and the excretory passage. The
kidney is the site of urine manufacture. Urine contains the waste products eliminated from the bloodstream
by the filtration processes that occur within these organs. The ureter, bladder, and urethra are structures for
collecting urine and transporting it from the body.
The Kidneys
The kidneys are bean-shaped, crimson colored organs in the abdomen, retroperitoneal to the organs of di-
gestions and around or just below the ribcage. The left kidney lies slightly superior to the right kidney (which
sits posterior and inferior to the liver), and is also slightly longer. Each kidney in the human body is roughly
the size of a fist, measuring 10 - 12 cm in length, 5 - 7 cm wide, and 2 - 5 cm thick. The blood supply, nerves
and lymphatic vessels enter and exit at the hilum (the indented medial region). Each kidney is surrounded by
the renal capsule, a layer of collagen fibers that covers the outer surface of the organ, and peri-nephratic fat
which stabilizes the organ. Adrenal glands cap the kidneys on the superior pole.
The Cortex and Medulla

The kidney itself is constructed of two layers. The cortex is the outer layer and the medulla is the inner layer
(Figure 3). The superficial cortex is lighter in color compared to the medulla. Within the medulla are a number
of conical structures called the medullary pyramids. The base of these triangular regions faces toward the
cortex while the papilla (apex) points inward. Renal columns segregate the pyramids.
Each pyramid of medullary tissue and the cortical tissue immediately above it is defined as a kidney lobe.
Medial to the hilum, the renal pelvis forms a basin-like structure with radial projections, called major calyces
which are further subdivided into the minor calyces, penetrate the medulla. This duct system collects urine
from the pyramids and drains the fluid into the ureters.
The main role of the kidneys is to filter water-soluble waste products, which result from bodily functions, from
the blood. Thus, each kidney is able to control the flux of ions out of the body and conserve (or eliminate) wa-
ter. The abdominal aorta supplies the renal arteries with blood, which enters at the hilum of each kidney. Ap-
proximately 1.25 liters of blood are delivered to the kidneys for purification every minute. In fact, nearly a
quarter of the body’s total blood flow is directed to the kidneys at any given time. The composition of blood is
adjusted by glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion. Urine is concentrated as the kid-
469
The Urinary System
ney excretes and reabsorbs water, electrolytes, amino acids, glucose, and other small molecules under the
influence of local and systemic hormones. Furthermore, the kidneys remove urea from the blood, which is a
nitrogenous waste resulting from the metabolism of amino acids. The filtrate emerges from the glomerular
capsule, and travels through the highly coiled and twisted tubules before reaching the nephron loop. The
nephron loop resembles the shape of a hairpin loop, and is comprised of a section of tubules in the kidney
called the loop of Henle. The filtrate then travels through more coiled and twisted loops before exiting through
a collection duct. The product of this process is urine, which is stored in the bladder before being excreted
from the body.
Interlobular artery Interlobular artery
Arcuate artery Afferent arteriole
Segmental artery Glomerulus
Efferent arteriole
Renal artery Nephron (cortical or juxtamedullary)
Medullary pyramid
Interlobular vein
Renal vein
Arcuate vein
Interlobular vein
Renal cortex
Fibrous Capsule
Figure 2: Blood flow through a kidney (black). Kidney structures (green).
Nephrons
The smallest functional unit of the kidney is the nephron. Each kidney contains approximately one million
nephrons, all acting together to facilitate filtration. Nephrons consist of a renal corpuscle and a tubule system
(Figure 3). The renal corpuscle includes the glomerular capsule, specifically the Bowman’s capsule, sur-
rounded by a tight twisted knot of capillaries called the glomerulus. The Bowman’s capsule is lined on the
470
The Urinary System
inside by visceral epithelial cells called podocytes. These cells have long processes that cling to the capillary
walls to establish size selectivity and offer a huge surface area for exchange between the blood vessel and
nephron. Most nephrons are located within the cortex, and are thus named cortical nephrons. However, oth-
ers called juxtamedullary nephrons, are positioned partially in the medulla. These nephrons have additional
capillaries called the vasa recta that facilitate both reabsorption and secretion.
Figure 3: Kidney anatomy.
471
The Urinary System
The tubule system of the nephron (Figure 3) carries plasma filtrate from the glomerular capsule to a collection
duct, and is the site of reabsorption and secretion. The tubular structure is lined by a single layer of simple,
squamous cells and surrounded by peritubular capillaries. These lining cells facilitate the reabsorption of wa-
ter and small molecules from the filtrate into the blood (through the capillaries), and the secretion of wastes
from the blood into the urine (the filtrate). This is the only place in the body where a capillary network is both
supplied (afferent artery) and drained by (efferent artery) an artery. These high-resistance vessels facilitate
the filtration process. The diameter of both arteries is regulated in order to control the blood hydrostatic pres-
sure in the glomerular capillaries, thus adjusting the filtration rate within the kidneys.
Depending on what substances are

needed by the body to maintain
proper pH and electrolyte concen-
tration, the reabsorption of filtrate
components will vary. Water is re-
absorbed by osmosis, but most
substances depend on active
transport to select what will re-enter
the bloodstream.
The highly vascularized renal cor-

tex and the pyramids together
make up the parenchyma. The me-
dullary pyramids appear striated,
due to the parallel alignment of the
loops of Henle and collecting tu-
bules. Collecting tubules are not
considered part of the nephron as
they are the duct system of the kid-
ney. The bulk of the medullary pyr-
amid is composed of collecting tu-
bules. The collecting tubules are
lined with simple cuboidal epitheli-
um. They meet at the apex, merg-
ing together to form large ducts,
called the ducts of Bellini, which
empty into the renal pelvis. From
here, the filtrate exits the kidney Figure 4: Basic steps in urine formation.
through the ureter and is collected
in the bladder awaiting urination.
472
The Urinary System
Adventitia
Epithelium (Mucosa)
Smooth muscle
Figure 5: The ureters descend from each kidney and transport the urine to the bladder.
Median umbilical ligament
Ureter
Peritoneum
Detrusor muscle
Ureteral openings
Trigone
Urethral sphincter Neck of bladder

(internal)
Urethra
Urethral sphincter (external)
Figure 6: The urinary bladder is a muscle that stores urine until it is excreted from the body.
473
The Urinary System
The Urethra
The urethra is the final passageway for urine before it exits the body. This thin-walled tube is composed of
smooth muscle, connective tissue, and is lined with a mucous membrane. In females, the urethra is short
(approximately three to four cm) and runs a straight, direct route from the neck of the bladder to the vulva to
exit the body. In males, the urethra is much longer (approximately 20 cm) and curves through the prostate
gland and the penis before exiting the body. The short length of the female urethra makes it more prone to
infection than the male urethra. The male urethra also transports semen from the reproductive organs to the
outside of the body.
Ureters
The ureters are muscular tubules that link the kidneys to the bladder (Figure 5). They measure about 30 cm
in length and 3 mm in diameter. This tubule is composed of an outer layer of fibrous connective tissue
(adventitia), a middle layer of smooth muscle cells, and an inner layer of epithelium (mucosa). There are
slight differences in the ureters of males and females to accommodate reproductive organs. Peristaltic action
is used to transport urine from the kidneys to the bladder.
The Urinary Bladder

The urinary bladder is composed of bands of three layers of interlaced smooth muscle, collectively called
the detrusor muscle (Figure 6). Emptying the bladder, also called micturition, is controlled by the internal ure-
thral sphincter and the external urethral sphincter. Stretch receptors in the bladder wall transmit signals to the
CNS when the bladder reaches a volume of roughly 200 mL. In response, the PNS produces reflex contrac-
tions in the bladder. Bladder contractions force the liquid past the involuntary internal sphincter muscle into
the superior part of the urethra. At this point, an individual feels the need to urinate. The bladder is emptied
when the voluntary external sphincter muscles are relaxed.
? Did You Know...

Kidney transplants are the most common transplant operation in the United
States. In part, this is due to the fact that humans are born with two kidneys,
but only require one kidney to function. This makes it possible for kidneys
to be donated from living individuals or cadavers, rather than only cadavers
like other organs. The number of living kidney donors has doubled since
1997. These kidneys are often donated by a relative, but they can also be
donated by someone completely unknown to the recipient. The bottom line
is to obtain a blood and tissue match between the host and the donor, which
is not always the case between family members.
Kidney transplants are relatively simple. They require a meager three hours
of surgery and about seven days for recovery. During surgery, the kidney is
transplanted from the host to the donor’s lower abdomen. The correspond-
ing donor blood vessels are connected to local veins and arteries, and the
donor ureter is connected to the host bladder. Typically, transplanted kid-
neys begin functioning almost immediately upon surgical completion.
474
The Urinary System
Experiment 1: Kidney Filtration
The kidneys function to filter the blood in the body by waste removal. In this experiment, the dialysis bag rep-
resents a part of the kidney. The solution containing the Congo Red, yellow food coloring, and water symbol-
izes blood as it enters the kidney through the renal artery. As the experiment progresses, notice the filtration
occurring with the kidney (dialysis tubing) and the resulting substances.
Materials
30 cm Dialysis Tubing (2) 250 mL Beakers
2 Small Rubber Bands 10 mL Graduated Cylinder
Pipette *Water
3 mL Congo Red
3 mL Yellow Food Coloring *You must provide
Procedure
1. Begin by placing the dialysis tubing in a beaker filled with 200 mL water. Submerge the tubing for 10
minutes.
2. Remove the tubing from the water after 10 minutes. Use your forefinger and thumb to rub the sides of the
dialysis tubing apart. This will create a tube-like shape. Refill the beaker to 200 mL if the volume has de-
creased.
3. Secure a small rubber band around the bottom of the dialysis tubing to seal it. Wrap the rubber band
around the dialysis tubing as many times as possible. Test that the dialysis tubing will not leak out of the
bottom by placing a few drops of water into the tubing. If water leaks out the bottom, the rubber band has
not been fastened tight enough. If water does not leak, pour the water out of the tubing into the sink. Set
the tubing aside.
4. Grab one 250 mL beaker and fill it with 200 mL of water. Set this aside for now.
5. Use the 10 mL graduated cylinder to measure 3 mL of Congo Red. Pour this into the empty 250 mL beak-
er. Rinse the graduated cylinder.
6. Use the 10 mL graduated cylinder to measure 3 mL of yellow food coloring. Pour this into the 250 mL
beaker with the Congo Red. Rinse the graduated cylinder.
7. Use the 10 mL graduated cylinder to measure 5 mL of water. Pour this into the 250 mL beaker with the
Congo Red and yellow food coloring.
475
The Urinary System
8. Take a pipette and mix the solutions in the 250 mL beaker. To do this, place the pipette in the solution
and squeeze and release the bulb of the pipette while moving the pipette throughout the solution.
9. Pipette 10 mL of the mixed solution into the dialysis tubing, and complete Table 1 by indicating which so-
lutions are present in each container.
10. When all 10 mL have been placed into the dialysis tubing, seal the top of the dialysis tubing by wrapping
place a second rubber band around the top of the dialysis tubing.
11. Place the sealed dialysis tubing into the 250 mL beaker with 200 mL of water.
12. Wait 60 minutes. Look for any diffusion that may have occurred through the dialysis tubing (inbound or
outbound). Indicate in Table 2 which solutions are present in each container.
Table 1: Solutions Present in Each Container Before 60 Minute Submersion
Solution Dialysis Tubing Beaker
Congo Red
Yellow Food Coloring
Table 2: Solutions Present in Each Container After 60 Minute Submersion
Solution Dialysis Tubing Beaker
Congo Red
Yellow Food Coloring
Post-Lab Questions
1. What specific part of the kidney does the dialysis tubing represent? What is this part’s function?
2. What does the yellow food coloring represent at the end of the experiment? What does the Congo Red
represent?
3. Why is it important that the kidney filters the blood?
476
The Urinary System
Experiment 2: Urinalysis
As was seen in Experiment 1, urine is the waste product filtered within the kidney. The urine is made up of
many waste products as well as excess water. Urine is also a very helpful tool for doctors when diagnosing
different conditions in patients. In this experiment, you will perform a urinalysis on four different samples of
urine, testing a variety of different components. When all components have been tested, you will determine
which of the urine samples are “abnormal” (use Table 3 for reference).
Materials
4 Glass Test Tubes 4 pH Test Strips
Test Tube Rack 15 mL Benedict’s Solution
25 mL Simulated Urine Sample A 10 mL 3% Hydrogen Peroxide, H2O2
25 mL Simulated Urine Sample B 10 mL Biuret Solution
25 mL Simulated Urine Sample C Stopwatch
25 mL Simulated Urine Sample D *Hot Water Bath (boiling water in a deep bowl)
100 mL Graduated Cylinder *Hot Pad or Towel
16 Pipettes
Permanent Marker *You must provide
Procedure
Testing pH
1. Use the permanent marker to label each test tube as A, B, C and D.
2. Place the test tubes in the test tube rack.
3. Use a pipette to add five mL of Simulated Urine Sample A to the corresponding test tube.
4. Repeat Step 3 with samples B, C, and D. Use a new pipette each time.
5. Dip the reaction pad on one pH test strip into Sample A for 5 - 10 seconds and remove. Wait approximate-
ly 30 seconds and compare the resulting color on the pad to the color key (color key provided with the pH
strips).
6. Record the pH of each of each sample in Table 4.
477
The Urinary System
Glucose Test
1. Wash test tubes A - D. Re-label the tubes if the letters wash off.
2. Replace the test tubes in the test tube rack.
5. Add three mL of Benedict’s Solution to each test tube. Gently swirl each tube to mix the solutions.
6. Create a boiling water bath by retrieving a deep, heat-safe bowl.
7. Pour enough water into a pot or microwaveable bowl to cover the solutions in the test tubes. For example,
if the solutions in the tubes are approximately 6.0 cm deep, fill the bowl with at least 6.1 cm of water.
8. Heat the water on a stove or in a microwave until boiling.
9. Use a hot pad or towel to carefully remove the water from the heat source, and place all four tubes into a
boiling water bath for three minutes. If you do not want to hold the test tubes vertical for this time, you may
place the test tubes in a container but monitor the apparatus to ensure that the tubes do not tip over.
10. Use a hot pad or towel to carefully remove the test tubes from the hot water. Place them in the test tube
rack. Record their color change in Table 5.
Note: A reducing sugar is present in the sample if a red, yellow or green precipitant forms.
Protein Test
5. Add 25 drops of Biuret solution to each test tube.
6. Take Test Tube A out of the test tube rack and gently swirl the solutions. Watch for a color change as you
swirl. Record any color changes in Table 6.
Yeast Test
478
The Urinary System
5. Add two mL of hydrogen peroxide to each test tube.
6. Observe the test tubes and record the presence or absence of bubbles in Table 7.
Ketone Test
5. Using a wafting motion (pull your hand over the tube without bringing the tube directly to your nose; see
Appendix for more guidance), notice the odor of each of the samples. Record your observations in Table
8.
Table 3: Urine Test
Test Normal Abnormal
4.5 - 7.5 Acidic Urine (below 4.5) - Diabetes, starvation, dehydration, respiratory aci-
dosis.
pH
Alkaline Urine (above 7.5) - Kidney disease, kidney failure, urinary tract in-
fection, respiratory alkalosis.
Glucose None Glucose present (red or green color after test); diabetes mellitus.
Protein None Protein present (violet color after test); kidney disease.
None Yeast present (bubbles form after test); yeast infection in urinary tract.
Yeast
Little or None Large amount of ketones present (sweet smell of urine); starvation, pro-
Ketones longed vomiting, diabetes, hyperthyroidism, an other metabolic disorders.
Table 4: Simulated Urine pH Test
Simulated Urine Sample pH
479
The Urinary System
Table 5: Simulated Urine Glucose Test
Simulated Urine Sample Color Before Hot Water Bath Color After Hot Water Bath
Table 6: Simulated Urine Protein Test
Simulated Urine Sample Color Before Biuret Solution Color After Biuret Solution
Table 7: Simulated Urine Yeast Test
Simulated Urine Sample Bubbles Before Hydrogen Bubbles After Hydrogen
Table 8: Simulated Urine Ketone Test
Simulated Urine Sample Odor Observation
480
The Urinary System
Post-Lab Questions
1. Fill in Tables 9 through 12. Refer to Table 3 to determine if each result was normal or abnormal. If abnor-
mal, include the data which indicates this (e.g., a pH of 3.2 means that glucose is present).
Table 9: Sample A
Test Test Results
pH
Glucose
Protein
Yeast
Ketones
Table 10: Sample B
Test Test Results
pH
Glucose
Protein
Yeast
Ketones
Table 11: Sample C
Test Test Results
pH
Glucose
Protein
Yeast
Ketones
481
The Urinary System
Table 12: Sample D
Test Test Results
pH
Glucose
Protein
Yeast
Ketones
2. Using the test results from each of the urine samples, along with the Table 3, diagnosis the condition(s), if
any, that each of the sample patients is experiencing.
3. If you were a doctor and a patient’s urinalysis came back with high level of glucose, ketones and an acid-
ic pH, what diagnosis would you immediately look into?
4. If you were a doctor and a patient’s urinalysis came back with an alkaline pH and high levels of protein,
what diagnosis would you immediately look into?
5. What other conditions can urine be used to test for?
482
The Urinary System
Experiment 3: Virtual Model - Urinary System Coloring Activity
The urinary system is responsible for liquid filtration. Through electrochemical activities, it must be able to dis-
cern between the waste products formed by the digestive tract, and the remaining chemicals which are re-
quired for life (such as sodium, potassium, etc.). The majority of the urinary system’s action occurs in the kid-
neys, where complex tubules (delineated in the Introduction) filter chemical components, but there are a few
other key organs involved which facilitate waste removal. In this experiment, you will use the Coloring Book
Activity in the Virtual Model on the Student Portal to identify these organs and better understand their posi-
tioning within the body.
Materials

*Computer Access
Procedure
model.
483
The Urinary System
spelled correctly.
etc.)
4. After you have familiarized yourself with the Virtual Model, select the Coloring Book option.
5. Select the urinary system images, and find the image titled “Urinary Sys-
tem: Anterior View” (Figure 7).
6. Using the paint tool, color the kidneys red and the ureters purple.
7. Take a screen shot of your image, title it as “Urinary System - Anterior

View”, and save it to your computer.
Note: This image should be submit to your teacher as part of the as-
signment. Be sure to remember where you save it.
Figure 7: Image reference for

coloring book activity.
484
The Urinary System
Experiment 4: Fetal Pig Dissection of the Urinary System
Like many other systems, the urinary system of the fetal pig provides a good representation of the anatomy of
the human urinary system. The following experiment will guide you through an exploration of some of the
structures of this system.
Materials
Procedure
the whole semester.
4. Peel back the flaps of the abdominal wall to expose the internal organs of the pig.
5. Gently push (do not remove) the intestines to one side. Leave a portion of the large intestine in place (this
will be used to locate the rectum).
6. Locate the kidneys. These look like small, bean shaped organs against the dorsal wall of the body.
7. Looking at the kidney, locate the adrenal gland. This sits near the superior surface of the kidney.
8. Locate the ureter (Figure 8). This stems from the medial surface of the kidney. Near the origination of the
ureter, notice the renal vein and the renal artery.
9. Follow the ureters posteriorly until you locate the urinary bladder and the urethra (Figure 9). Notice the
elongation of the urinary bladder in the fetal pig. This occurs because the urinary bladder is actually con-
nected to the umbilical cord in a fetus. If the urine generated by the fetus were to pass to the urethra as it
does in adults, the amniotic sac would become toxic to the fetus. Instead, the fetus transports waste di-
485
The Urinary System
rectly through the allantoic duct and through to the allantois, a small sac created specifically to handle
toxic waste in a fetus, which then passes the waste onto the umbilical blood vessels. At birth, this pro-
cess collapses and urine begins to flow from the urinary bladder into the urethra.
Kidney
Ureter
Figure 8: Close view of the kidney and ureter.
10. Return to the kidney. Carefully make a longitudinal incision along the side of the kidney, as if you were
cutting a bean in half. Gently lay the kidney open.
11. Inside, the kidney is made up of three different regions: the inner renal pelvis where the ureter begins.
The darker tissue extending from the renal pelvis is known as the middle medulla. Within the middle me-
dulla are the renal pyramids which look like triangular or cone-shaped masses. The outer portion of the
kidney is called the outer cortex. Locate these three regions within the kidney (Figure 10) .
12. Notice the process in which waste is removed from the body. The process begins with blood flowing in
from the renal arteries into the kidneys. As the blood flows through the kidneys, it passes through many
small vessels that remove waste, water and other ions. The cleansed blood then flows out of the kidney
486
The Urinary System
via the renal veins. The waste removed is collected and then passes through the inner renal pelvis into
the ureter, on its way to the urinary bladder. The waste again collects in the urinary bladder until it flows
down the urethra and is expelled from the body.
Urinary bladder
Figure 9: Close view of the urinary bladder.
13. Be sure that you can follow this process within the pig.
15. Replace the pig in a cool environment. Remember, the best place to store the pig is a cool, dark place.
487
The Urinary System
Ureter
orifice
Renal pelvis
Medulla
Cortex
Figure 10: Close view of the dissected kidney.
488
The Urinary System
Post-Lab Questions
1. Label the arrows in Figure 11.
A___________
B___________ D___________
E___________
F___________
C___________
Figure 11: Kidney (sagittal-view)
489
The Urinary System
2. What is the function of the urinary bladder?
3. Would you think the kidneys are highly vascularized? Why or why not?
4. What is the function of the adrenal glands?
5. Explain, in detail, the process by which urine is made.
490
Lab 15
Electrolytes, Water, Acids and Bases
Concepts to Explore
Intracellular and Extracellular Fluid Fluid Balance
The Balance Concept Water Sources
Water Acid-Base Balance
Electrolytes Buffer Systems
Introduction
The human body is approximately 60% body fluid by weight. Much of this fluid is classified as extracellular
fluid (ECF), which surrounds cells, and intracellular fluid (ICF) which resides within cells. ECF comprises
approximately 33% of this medium. This is primarily found as interstitial fluid or plasma; although, other liq-
uids such as cerebrospinal fluid, lymph, synovial fluid, fluids in the eyes and ears, and glomerular filtrate also
contribute to the ECF volume. The ICF comprises the remaining 67%.These fluids meet physical needs such
as structure and protection, but it also fulfills many electrochemical requirements such as homeostasis.
Drastic, and sometimes deadly, consequences such as cell lysis, toxic chemicals, or insufficient oxygen
delivery can result if homeostasis is not tightly regulated in body fluid.
The Balance Concept

To maintain homeostasis, input must equal output. This is referred to as the balance concept. A stable bal-
ance is achieved when input equals output. Output is regulated through multiple body systems, although the
urinary and respiratory systems perform the largest roles. The kidney, for example, is responsible for filtering
acids, bases, salts, and water into (or out of) urine. The lungs are used to adjust the rate of respiration;
which, consequently, adjusts the concentration of hydrogen (acidic) and bicarbonate (basic) ions present in
blood. Input can be monitored through increased (or decreased) metabolic functions which consume many
different chemicals found in the ECF. However, salts are not directly consumed through metabolic pathways.
Therefore, the endocrine system is also engaged to produce hormones which can control salt concentrations
in cooperation with the urinary system.
Water and Electrolytes

The distribution of water varies throughout the body by organ or fluid. For example, blood plasma typically
consists of 90% water, while bones integrate a scanty 22%. Depending on the organ or system function,
water may contain a complex mix of solutes. Among these solutes are electrolytes. An electrolyte is any sub-
stance that conducts electrical signals. They readily dissociate into ions, and are often referred to as salts.
Regulatory mechanisms throughout the body ensure homeostasis is maintained through electrolytic balance.
494
Electrolytes serve four main functions in the body:
• To control the osmosis of water between body compartments;
• To maintain the acid/base balance;
• To transmit an electric current necessary for action potential propagation and secretion of signaling
molecules;
• To serve as a cofactor for enzymes.
There are many important electrolytes in the body. A few key examples are:
• Sodium (Na+) is the most abundant extracellular ion. It is a critical mole-
cule for nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, and creates most
? Did You Know...
of the osmotic pressure of extracellular fluid (it attracts water into extracel- The discharge of sodi-
lular compartments). Kidneys control the flow of sodium from the body to um through urine is
maintain optimum levels. known as natriuresis.
• Chloride (Cl-) is another player in regulating the fluid movement between compartments, as well as
forming HCl in the stomach.
• Potassium (K+) is the most abundant cation found in intracellular fluid. This molecule is essential for
nerve impulse conduction, muscle contraction, regulating pH, and maintaining fluid volume, as it at-
tracts water into the cells. Aldosterone is a hormone that increases the reabsorption of sodium and
water as well as the secretion of potassium in the kidneys.
• Bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) are prominent in plasma. In addition to balancing electrolytes, this com-
pound is a major component of the acid/base buffer system, explained below. The kidney can excrete
or extract bicarbonate from blood to alter the pH.
• Calcium (Ca2+) is the most abundant ion in the body and is principally located in extracellular fluid. It
serves many functions in the body, such as: as a structural component in teeth and bones; functions
in blood coagulation, neurotransmitter release, maintenance of muscle tone, and excitability of nerv-
ous and muscle tissue. Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin regulate the level of calcium in blood
plasma.
• Magnesium (Mg2+) is primarily an intracellular ion, functioning to activate enzymes and is needed for
the operation of the sodium pump, neuromuscular activity, neural transmission, and myocardial func-
tion.
Fluid Balance
The volume of fluid found in each compartment is not static. In fact, body fluids are in constant motion. Se-
lectively permeable membranes separate body fluids into distinct compartments, and control the flux of water
495
into and out of the compartments. The plasma membrane of body cells encases
?
intracellular fluid, separating it from interstitial fluid. Endothelial cells found in ca- Did You Know...
pillary walls further isolate interstitial fluid from plasma. Osmosis is the primary
means by which water moves from one area, or compartment, to another. This Osmolarity is a measure
of the solute concentra-
movement is driven by electrolyte concentration on either side of the membrane,
tion, and is the number
called osmolarity. Electrolytes are a controlling factor for water movement, and of osmoles of solute per
are therefore included when the term fluid balance is mentioned. When the suita- liter of solution.
ble amount of water is present within the body and divided among the different
spaces properly, the body is said to be in fluid balance. Fluid gain normally equals fluid loss, so the body
maintains a constant volume.
The predominant source of this water is from ingested liquids and foods that have been absorbed into the
bloodstream through the process of digestion. This type of water is called preformed water, and equates to
nearly 2,300 mL/day. Normal metabolic processes that occur throughout the body produce water as a by-
product (metabolic water), measuring around 200 mL/day. This volume ultimately depends on the level of
aerobic respiration that the body requires to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Therefore, the total dai-
ly influx of water is about 2,500 mL/day.
The main way to regulate fluid balance is by altering the volume of fluid input. When water output is greater
than water input, dehydration may occur. As mentioned, the majority of water is excreted by the urinary sys-
tem, while other outputs such as sweating, exhalation, and feces also contribute. Fluid intake is partially reg-
ulated by thirst sensations, which is signaled by dehydration. This can be stimulated through a variety of
physiological changes in the body. Dehydration results in decreased saliva production, causing a dry mouth.
This activates tactile receptors in the oral mucosa that transmit nervous signals to the hypothalamus to stim-
ulate thirst. It also increases blood osmotic pressure, stimulating osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus to cre-
ate a thirst sensation. Moreover, decreased blood volume affects blood pressure and instigates the release
of renin from the kidneys, which leads to an increase in the formation of angiotensin II. Angiotensin II ulti-
mately causes an increase in blood pressure by vasoconstriction and stimulation of aldosterone release.
These reactions lead to the intake of fluids, which restore fluid balance when it is low. When there is an ex-
cess of water in the body, several hormones signal the release of body fluid through the excretion of urine.
Antidiuretic hormone and atrial natriuretic peptide are the key effectors of this change to prevent water intox-
ication.
The concentrations of solutions can be expressed in several units. Percent solution, milliosmoles per liter,
and milliequivalents (concentration of cations or anions in a solution) are the main terms used to describe
electrolyte concentration. These concentrations will vary between plasma and interstitial fluid, as well as be-
tween intracellular and extracellular fluids.
496
Acids and Bases
? Did You Know...
The balance of acids and bases in the body is directly related to hydrogen ion
Acids are chemical com-
concentration in body fluids. The concentration is expressed as pH and influences
pounds that release hy-
protein folding, enzyme activity and cell membrane permeability. A number of
drogen ions into a solu-
mechanisms are in place to regulate the body’s pH, maintained around 7.4 (a
tion. Bases are chemical
range of 7.35 - 7.45 is tolerated), as it is very sensitive to fluctuations in pH. Yet,
compounds that remove
hydrogen ions are released through various metabolic activities, resulting in hydrogen ions from a
changes in pH. How does the body account for these fluctuations? solution. A strong acid
releases many hydrogen
ions. A weak acid is one
The primary means by which the body regulates pH is through an acid/base buffer that releases only a few
hydrogen ions.
system (the brain’s respiratory center and the action of kidneys also contribute). A
buffer is a solution that prevents a drastic change in pH when an acid or base en-
ters a solution. A typical buffer system consists of a weak acid and a salt of that acid. These compounds re-
versibly bind hydrogen ions and prevent a shift in pH. Common extracellular buffers include bicarbonate and
ammonia, while inside the cell proteins and phosphate normalize pH.
? Did You Know...

Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood in two ways: bonding to hemoglobin
(carbamino hemoglobin); or, to a greater extent, as bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) in
Carbonic acid is produced plasma. The bicarbonate buffering system involves carbonic acid and bicar-
when CO2 and H2O com- bonate ions. Acids react with the bicarbonate ions, while bases react with car-
bine, which is an interme- bonic acid. This reaction is also a method for shifting carbon dioxide through car-
diate step in the process bonic acid to hydrogen ions and bicarbonate, as shown:
of respiration.
HCO-3 + H+  H2CO3  CO2+ H2O
Acid-base imbalances that cannot be controlled by the buffer system can be accommodated by changing the
rate of ventilation. This alters the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood, resulting in a change in pH of
blood (takes one to three minutes to effect a change). Carbon dioxide will form carbonic acid in the blood; by
breathing slower the body will retain carbon dioxide and the pH will decrease. In contrast, breathing faster will
eliminate more carbon dioxide and the pH will increase.
A more delayed response is mediated by the kidneys, which can control the excretion of acids or bases to
maintain blood pH. This process contributes greatly to the regulation of pH. The nephrons of the kidney pull
hydrogen ions out of the blood and excrete them in urine and excretes bicarbonate into the blood to neutral-
ize acids. If the pH is too low, the kidneys can excrete excess hydrogen ions and retain bicarbonate; if too
high, kidneys will retain hydrogen ions and excrete bicarbonate.
497
Pre-Lab Questions
1. How can eating a high-salt diet increase blood pressure?
2. Research the following disorders and write a definition for each:
a. Acidemia:
b. Alkalemia:
c. Acidosis:
d. Alkalosis:
3. Name three ways the body regulates the pH of blood.
498
Experiment 1: Breathing and Acid-Base Balance
The following experiment will demonstrate the usefulness of the bicarbonate buffer system in regulating car-
bon dioxide based acidity in the body.
Materials
(2) 250 mL Beakers 1 mL Phenol Red, C19H14O5S
(1) 100 mL Graduated Cylinder Straw
(1) 10 mL Graduated Cylinder Permanent Marker
5 mL Saturated (15%) Sodium Bicarbonate Solu- Stopwatch

tion, NaHCO3
*Distilled Water
5 mL Sodium Bicarbonate Buffer Solution, Na-
HCO3
*You must provide
Procedure
1. Use the permanent marker to label two 250 mL beakers as 1 and 2.
2. Use the 100 mL graduated cylinder to measure and pour 50 mL of distilled water into Beaker 1.
3. Use the 100 mL graduated cylinder to measure and pour 45 mL of distilled water into Beaker 2.
4. Use the 10 mL graduated cylinder to measure and pour one mL saturated sodium bicarbonate solution
into Beaker 1. Then add two drops phenol red to Beaker 1.
5. Use the straw to blow bubbles into Beaker 1. Start the stopwatch as soon as you starting blowing into the
straw.
Note: DO NOT breath in when your mouth is on the straw! Inhalations should only be taken with your
mouth removed from the straw!
6. Observe the color of the solution as you blow into the straw, and record how long it takes for the pH indi-
cator (phenol red) to change from pink/red (basic) to yellow (acidic).
8. Use the 10 mL graduated cylinder to measure and pour 1 mL saturated sodium bicarbonate solution into
Beaker 2. Rinse the cylinder and add five mL buffer solution to Beaker 2. Then add two drops of phenol
red to Beaker 2. Gently swirl to create a homogenous mixture.
499
9. Again, use the straw to blow bubbles into the solution in Beaker 2. Start the stopwatch as soon as you
starting blowing into the straw.
Note: DO NOT breath in when your mouth is on the straw! Inhalations should be taken with your
mouth removed from the straw!
10. Observe the color of the solution as you blow into the straw, and record how long it takes for the pH indi-
cator (phenol red) to change from pink/red (basic) to yellow (acidic).
Table 1: Color Change of Sodium Bicarbonate Solution With and Without the Addition of CO2
Beaker Starting Color Final Color Time to Change to Final Color
Post-Lab Questions
1. Was the time required to change the solution different for the two beakers? Why or why not?
500
Experiment 2: Urine pH
A simple urinalysis can determine the pH of fluid wastes from the body. Testing the pH of urine elucidates the
processes the body is utilizing to remove acid from the body and may point to system failures.
Materials
Urine Test Strip *Paper Towel
Specimen Cup
Gloves *You must provide
*Participant
Procedure
1. Allow volunteer to go to the restroom to deposit a urine specimen into specimen cup.
Note: The best sample is taken immediately after waking up in the morning.
2. Wash and dry hands to prevent cross infection. Glove hands.
3. Completely immerse the test strip into urine sample for approximately 5 seconds.
4. Remove the test strip. While removing the strip, touch the side of the strip against the rim of the specimen
cup to remove excess urine.
5. Blot the strip lengthwise against an absorbent paper towel.
6. Compare the color resulting on your test strip to the color chart (following page). Be sure to wait the ap-
propriate, respective amount of time for the results to occur per test. Indicate your results for each test in
the Results section.
Results
501
Leukocytes
2 minutes Negative Trace Small Moderate Large
0 15 70 125 500 (ca cell/µl)
Nitrate
60 sec
Negative Positive (any degree of pink color)
Urobilinogen
60 Sec.
3.2 16 32 64 128 (µmol/L)
Normal
Protein
60 Sec. Negative Trace 30 100 300 >2000 (mg/dl)
pH
60 Sec. 5.0 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5
Blood
60 Sec. Negative Non- Hemolyzed Small Moderate Large
hemolyzed trace 25 80 200 (ca cell/µl)
Specific Gravity
45 Sec.
1.000 1.005 1.010 1.015 1.020 1.025 1.030
Ketone
40 Sec.
Negative Trace Small Moderate Large Large
5 15 40 80 160 (mg/dl)
Bilirubin
30 Sec.
Negative Small Moderate Large
Glucose
30 Sec.
Negative 100 250 500 1000 >2000
Test Color Keys and Reading Times
502
Post-Lab Questions
1. What was the pH of the urine? Is this normal?
2. Describe two factors that can affect urine pH.
503
Lab 16
Concepts to Explore
Chemical Digestion Digestive Organs
Mechanical Digestion Digestive Enzymes
Introduction
The digestive system provides the body with the nu-
trients, water, and electrolytes essential for normal
body functions. It involves a complex process to
break down foods into usable energy for cells. Diges-
tion involves the movement of food through the diges-
tive tract, and the chemical reduction of larger mole-
cules into smaller molecules that can be absorbed
into the bloodstream for transport. This breakdown
utilizes a number of enzymes secreted from the
mouth, stomach, pancreas, intestines, and liver.
Chemical and Mechanical Digestion

In order for the intestines to extract any useful nutri-
ents from food, it must be broken down both mechan-
ically and chemically into molecules that can be ab-
sorbed into the bloodstream. This is a process called
digestion. The following terms are involved in nutri-
tional breakdown:
• Ingestion and mastication is the process of
eating and chewing foods. Figure 1: The digestive system
• Propulsion is the movement of food along

the digestive tract. The major means of propulsion is peristalsis, a rhythmic contraction of the smooth
muscle that lines the walls of the digestive tract.
• Secretion of digestive enzymes and other substances liquefy, adjust the pH of, and chemically break
down food.
• Mechanical digestion is the process of physically breaking down food into smaller pieces. This pro-
cess begins with the mastication of food and continues with the muscular churning of the stomach.
Further mechanical processing occurs in the small intestine by means of muscular constriction of the
intestinal wall (called segmentation).
506
• Chemical digestion is the process of chemically breaking down food into simpler molecules. The
process is carried out by enzymes mainly in the stomach and small intestines.
• Absorption is the movement of molecules from the digestive tract to blood and lymphatic vessels
and occurs by passive diffusion or active transport.
• Defecation is the process of eliminating undigested material through the anus.
Digestive Organs and Enzymes

The organs of the digestive system ingest, digest, and absorb food through the alimentary canal, and elimi-
nate undigested wastes as feces. The organs of this system are typically divided into two groups: the alimen-
tary canal (also called the gastrointestinal tract) and the accessory digestive organs. The alimentary canal
consists of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum, and anus. The ac-
cessory structures include the teeth, salivary glands, gallbladder, liver, and pancreas.
Organs in the alimentary canal consist of four structural layers: a mucous membrane, submucosa, muscu-
laris externa, and either serosa or adventitia. Each of these layers plays a specific role in the digestive pro-
cess. Enzymes are present throughout the digestive system, which help to break down molecules into sim-
pler molecules. Food can be broken down into four types of molecules: complex carbohydrates, lipids, pro-
teins, and nucleic acids. Table 1 provides a list of some common enzymes, the molecules they act on, and
the products of the interaction.
The mouth, or oral cavity, is where food enters the digestive tract and where digestion begins. Gums, teeth,
tongue, and opening of the ducts of the salivary glands (which secrete saliva) make up the oral cavity. The
lips protect the anterior opening of this chamber, while the cheeks form the lateral walls. The palate (anterior
is the hard palate; posterior is the soft palate) defines the upper boundary of the mouth. Three salivary
glands (sublingual, parotoid, and submandible) secrete saliva into the oral cavity. Saliva is 99% water, but
also contains digestive enzymes, enzymes that kill bacteria, proteins, antibodies, and various ions. It acts to
lubricate food during chewing, protects this orifice from pathogens, and begins the chemical digestion of
food. Teeth are embedded within the upper and lower jaw and are surrounded by gum (gingival). They func-
tion to mechanically break down food through mastication.
The pharynx, or throat, receives the food from the mouth after swallowing, when the tongue forces food to
the back of the mouth into the pharynx. It then passes into the esophagus, a long tube that descends into the
mediastinum and connects to the stomach. Two sphincter muscles (upper esophageal sphincter and cardiac
sphincter) prevent the backwards flow of food. The movement of food the esophagus occurs through peri-
stalsis. It then reaches the stomach, a bag-like organ that can expand to store food. The inner mucosa tunica
is specialized for the unique environment in the stomach, and protects it from the acidic environment and the
enzymes that break down proteins. Gastric ducts located in the surface of this layer supply digestive juices,
507
acids, and hormones that help to regulate digestion. These fluids mix with food and facilitate the chemical
digestion of food to produce a mixture called chyme. Hydrochloric acid is present, which denatures proteins
deconstructing them into smaller molecules, and also kills bacteria present in the ingested material. The
stomach also contains three layers of smooth muscle, oriented in differing directions, that aid in the physical
digestion of food. As it churns, it not only mixes digestive juices with food, but also helps to mechanically
break down the matter. The pyloric sphincter controls the exit of food from the stomach into the small intes-
tine.
Figure 2: The swallowing process.
The small intestine is divided into three sections: the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum. It aids in both
mechanical (via peristalsis) and chemical digestion, and is where absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream
begins. The mucosa tunica is modified to facilitate absorption. Plicae circulares, ridges that encircle the in-
side of the small intestine, force the chyme to spiral forward and mix with digestive juices. Also present are
tiny, finger-like projections called villi. These form a velvet-like surface that creates more surface area for
absorption and digestion. At the base of each villi are glands that secrete intestinal juices that continue the
chemical digestion of chyme. Each villus is covered with additional microvilli, which form the border brush of
the intestine. Carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, water, electrolytes, and lipid and water-soluble vitamins
are absorbed here by facilitated diffusion or active transport, and then passed into capillaries for transport
across the body.
508
Table 1: Common Enzymes Involved in Digestion
Enzyme Location Substrate Product(s)
Amylase Saliva, Pancreatic Juice Starches Maltose, oligosaccharides
Pepsin Gastric Juice of Stomach Proteins Peptides
Trypsin Pancreatic Juice Proteins Peptides
Chymotrypsin Pancreatic Juice Proteins Peptides
Carboxypep-
Pancreatic Juice Proteins Peptides, amino acids
sidase
Pancreatic
Pancreatic Juice Fats Fatty Acids, monoglycerides
Lipase
Nucleases Pancreatic Juice RNA & DNA Nucleotides
Small Intestine Brush

Dextrinase Oligosaccharides Glucose
Border

Maltase Maltose Glucose
Border

Sucrase Sucrose Glucose and Fructose
Border

Lactase Lactose Glucose and Galactose
Border
Aminopepti- Small Intestine Brush

Peptides Peptides, Amino Acids
dase Border

Dipeptidase Dipeptides Amino Acids
Border
Small Intestine Brush Nitrogen bases, ribose, deoxy-

Nucleosidases Nucleotides
Border ribose, and phosphates
Small Intestine Brush Nitrogen bases, ribose, deoxy-

Phosphatases Nucleotides
Border ribose, and phosphates
Similar to the small intestine, the large intestine aids in mechanical and chemical digestion, and absorption
of nutrients. It is also involved in the process of defecation, the removal of solid waste products from the
body. After leaving the small intestine, digestive wastes pass through the cecum. The appendix is a finger-
like projection from the cecum that contains lymphoid tissue and serves an immunity function. From the ce-
cum, chyme enters the ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colon. Glands secrete mucus to aid
in the passage of feces. The last segment of the colon is the rectum, which opens to the exterior of the
body at the anus. Involuntary and voluntary muscles control the release of feces through the anus.
509
Figure 3: Anatomy of the small and large intestines.
Enzymes produced in the pancreas mix with an alkaline solution (sodium bicarbonate-based) called pancre-
atic juices. The addition of sodium bicarbonate provides an optimal environment for pancreatic enzymes to
function in the acidic environment of the digestive tract. Clusters of endocrine cells called acini produce the-
se secretions. Pancreatic juice collects in small ducts that merge to form two large ducts. The main pancreat-
ic duct exits the pancreas and merges with the common bile duct from the liver and gallbladder. This com-
bined duct, called the hepatopancreatic ampulla, then enters the duodenum. A smaller, second duct that ex-
its the pancreas, the accessory pancreatic duct, joins the duodenum directly.
The liver produces bile, which is delivered to the duodenum to emulsify lipids. This increases the surface
area of the fats, so that digestive enzymes have a greater effect on them. Bile is not an enzyme, but does
510
help to neutralize pH of the HCl in the chyme. The liver is composed of numerous functions units called lob-
ules. Within each lobule, hepatocytes (a special type of epithelial cell) are arranged in layers that radiate out
from a central vein. Hepatic sinusoids are spaces that lie between groups of layers, while smaller channels
called bile canaliculi separate other layers. Each of six corners of the lobule are occupied by three vessels:
one bile duct and two blood vessels, forming a portal triad. The blood vessels are branches from the hepatic
artery and from the hepatic portal vein.
Figure 4: Anatomy of the liver, gallbladder, and biliary system.
Blood enters the liver through the hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein and is distributed to lobules. Blood
flows into each lobule by passing through the hepatic sinusoid and collecting in the central vein. The central
veins of all the lobules merge and exit the liver through the hepatic vein (different from the hepatic portal
vein).
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Hepatocytes that border the sinusoids also filter oxygen, nutrients, toxins, and waste materials from the in-
coming blood. From these substances, these cells produce bile. Bile is secreted into the bile canaliculi, emp-
ties into bile ducts and exits the liver through a single common hepatic duct. The common hepatic duct merg-
es with the cystic duct from the gallbladder to form the common bile duct, which, in turn, merges with the
pancreatic duct to form the hepatopancreatic ampulla. This last duct delivers the bile to the duodenum.
The gallbladder stores excess bile. When food is in the duodenum, bile flows readily from the liver and
gallbladder into the duodenum. When the duodenum is empty, a sphincter muscle closes the hepatopancre-
atic ampulla, and bile fills the gallbladder.
Big Picture...
The digestive system covers over 30 feet of tissues, muscles and organs. It is responsible for nutritional
breakdown, energy absorption, and waste removal. Here are a few highlights:
1) Food is mechanically and chemically broken down and

forms a bolus in the mouth.
2) The bolus travels down the esophagus with the help of

about 50 muscular pairs and a bounty of nerves and re-
flexes. Contrary to common belief, gravity is not re-
quired.
3) The lower esophageal sphincter (or, LES), opens up al-

lowing the bolus to move into the stomach. This valve
opens and closes every time you swallow food.
4) Bolus enters the stomach, a muscular organ which re-

leases a cocktail of enzymes, amino acids, and fatty ac-
ids which breakdown food and destroy pathogenic mi-
crobes. Hormones are also released by the stomach.
5) The bolus is now referred to as chyme, and it moves into

the small intestine; a 20 foot organ specialized for diges-
tion and absorption of nutrients.
6) Chyme enters the large intestine, a five foot organ which

incorporates the colon and is responsible for absorbing
electrolytes and water from the chyme. Numerous bacte-
ria normally reside in the large intestine. Dense fiber and
dead microbes remain at the end of this process, which
are ultimately excreted through the rectum.
512
Pre-Lab Questions
1. Explain the digestion that occurs in the oral cavity.
2. What is the function of the liver in digestion?
3. What role does the gall bladder play in digestion?
4. Why is the orientation of muscle of the stomach wall important? How does this contribute to its function?
513
Experiment 1: Microscopic Anatomy of the Digestive System
Visualizing the microscopic anatomy of the digestive system will aid in your understanding of its function.
Materials
Esophagus Digital Slide Image Stomach Digital Slide Image
Small Intestine Digital Slide Image
Procedure
1. Examine the esophagus digital slide images.
2. Draw your observations in the space below. Be sure to note what structural components of the esophagus
are visible.
3. Examine the small intestine digital slide images.
4. Draw your observations in the space below. Be sure to note what structural components of the small in-
testine are visible.
5. Examine the stomach digital slide images.
6. Draw your observations in the space below. Be sure to note what structural components of the stomach
are visible.
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Esophagus 40X. Non-keratinized, stratified, squamous epithelium (indicated as “epithelia” in the im-
age below) lines the lumen of the esophagus. The lamina propria, composed of connective tissue,
resides just below the epithelia. These two layers comprise the mucosa.
Submucosa
Epithelia Lamina propria
Lumen
Esophagus: 100X
515
Epithelia
Lamina propria
Esophagus 1000X. Esophageal glands are present within the lamina propria. These racemose glands
(glands formed through a cellular aggregation) are relatively small in size and function to lubricate food as
it travels down the esophagus.
516
Submucosa
Muscularis
interna
Mucosa
Mucosal
glands
Lumen
Small Intestine 100X. The mucosa of the small intestine is composed of simple, columnar epitheli-
um (enterocytes) which includes absorptive cells, goblet cells, and enteroendocrine cells.
Mucosal
glands
Mucosal
glands
Small Intestine 1000X. Mucosal glands, also called crypts of Lieberkühn, include paneth cells and
stem cells. Therefore, mitotic activity is often visible in these structures.
517
Submucosa
Gastric
pits
Stomach 40X. The stomach is characterized by a thick mucosal layer. This layer protects the
stomach from self-digestion. It contains some lamina propria, but is primarily composed of se-
cretory cells such as parietal cells and chief cells which lubricate the region.
Submucosa
Gastric
pits
Gastric
glands
Stomach 100X. Densely packed gastric pits line the epithelial surface of the stomach mucosa.
These pits extend inward and open in the mucosa, creating gastric glands (also known as fun-
dic glands). These glands are also densely packed, and are composed of cells which vary in
size, shape, and appearance.
518
Neck and parietal cells
Surface mucous
cells
Neck and parietal cells
Stomach 1000X. Surface mucous cells line the exterior of the gastric pit and secrete mucous and bi-
carbonate ions. Neck mucous cells are found near the parietal cells, and secrete additional mucous.
Parietal cells are found in the gastric gland, and appear pink. Chief cells are typically found near the
base of a gastric gland, and appear purple.
519
Post-Lab Questions
1. Label the items in the following slide pictures.
Esophagus 100X.
Small Intestine: 100X
2. What is unique about the small intestine mucosa?
520
Experiment 2: Virtual Model - Exploring the Digestive System
The previous experiment informed you of the microscopic anatomy of the digestive system. However, much
can be learned by reviewing the macroscopic anatomy of the digestive system as well. In this experiment, you
will use the Virtual Model to explore the different organs involved in the digestive system. Through this explo-
ration you will learn how the function of each organ is influenced by its location within the body.
Materials

*Computer Access
Procedure
model.
spelled correctly.
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etc.)
4. After you are comfortable with the Virtual Model program, return to the home page and select the Male
Full Body option.
5. You will need to clearly view the organs of the digestive system for this experi-
ment. To do this, click on the blue buttons to the left of the skeletal, muscular,
nervous, circulatory, and lymphatic systems to toggle their viewing into trans-
parent (one click) or invisible (two clicks; recommended) format.
Note: You can enable any of these systems by clicking on the blue buttons
next to the corresponding systems at any time. It is recommended to tog-
gle the viewing back into visibility at some point to view the different sys-
tems working together, but it is important to isolate the digestive system
organs for at least part of this experiment.
6. Click on the plus (+) symbol next to the Organs category. Then, click on the
blue buttons to the left of the Click on the plus (+) symbol next to the Organs
category. Then, click on the blue buttons to the left of the respiratory, urinary, Content hierarchy.
cardiovascular, reproductive, circulatory, and lymphatic systems, as well as
the right and left tonsils to toggle their viewing into transparent or invisible (recommended) format.
7. Click on the plus (+) symbol next to the Digestive System category, and work through the organs in this
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category; this includes the salivary glands, upper digestive system, tongue, epiglottis, esophagus, liver,
pancreas, vesica biliaris (gall bladder), stomach, small intestine, and the colon. Be sure to work through
the subcontent within the salivary glands.
Content hierarchy and isolated digestive system organs.
Hint: Review the Post-Lab Questions as you work through the digestive system organs to help guide
your exploration.
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Post-Lab Questions
1. Is the stomach dorsal or ventral to the pancreas?
2. Is the liver dorsal or ventral to the stomach?
3. Is the vesica biliaris superior or inferior to the esophagus?
4. Is the right parotid gland or the tongue more medial to the body?
5. Is the sublingual gland inferior or superior to the left parotid gland?
524
Experiment 3: Virtual Model - Digestive System Coloring Activity
The digestive system encompasses the entire digestive tract, starting at the mouth and concluding at the
anus. Valves, hormones, physiological state, etc. control the direction of food (in varying states of digestion),
but the system is continuous in its connectivity. In this experiment, you will use the Coloring Book Activity in
the Virtual Model on the Student Portal to identify some of the major organs included in this system.
Materials

*Computer Access
Procedure
4. Select the digestive system images, and find the image titled “Digestive
System: Anterior View” (Figure 5).
5. Using the paint tool, color the esophagus green and the stomach blue.
Then, color the liver purple, the colon yellow, and the small intestine
brown.
Note: You do not need to color the small piece of the small intestine
which appears to be located superior to the colon and inferior to the
stomach in this image.
6. Take a screen shot of your image, title it as “Digestive System - Anteri-

or View”, and save it to your computer.
Note: This image should be submit to your teacher as part of the

assignment. Be sure to remember where you save it. Figure 5: Coloring book image
reference.
7. Find the image titled “Digestive System: Posterior View”. Using the
paint tool, color the pancreas yellow and the vesica biliaris blue.
8. Take a screen shot of your image, title it as “Digestive System - Posterior View”, and save it to your com-
puter.
525
Experiment 4: Swallowing
Deglutition, the process of swallowing, is largely the result of skeletal muscle activity. There are two phases
involved with this action, beginning with a voluntary decision that is initiated by the tongue. The second phase
is involuntary, and utilizes peristaltic movements to move the substance through the pharynx and esophagus
until it reaches the stomach.
Materials
Stethoscope
*Glass of water
Procedure
1. Swallow a mouthful of water, and observe the movement of your tongue during the process.
2. Swallow another mouthful of water and note the movements in the throat. Note your observations at the
end of this procedure.
3. Position the earpieces of the stethoscope appropriately, and place the chestpiece one inch below the
xiphoid process (at the lower end of the breastbone).
4. Take a few sips of water, and listen for two “splashes”; one when water enters the esophagus, and the
second when water enters the stomach.
Observations
Post-Lab Questions
1. What did you notice about the movement of your tongue as you swallowed?
2. What did you notice about movement in the throat region when you swallowed? Be specific.
3. What sounds did you hear when you listened to water traveling to the stomach?
526
Experiment 5: Chemical Digestion of Food: The Role of Enzymes
Enzymes play a key role in the digestion of food. They work to chemically decompose large molecules into
smaller molecules that the body can readily use. This process begins in the mouth, where amylase in saliva
catalyses the reaction of turning starches into simple sugars. In the following experiment, you will use your
own saliva to monitor the effect of enzymes on a saltine cracker. As you may know, IKI solution is an indica-
tor that turns dark black-purple in the presence of starch. This will be used to determine to efficacy of the en-
zyme on the substrate.
Materials
4 Test Tubes 2 Pipettes
Test Tube Rack *Water
1 Saltine Cracker *Saliva
4 in Parafilm®
4 mL 1% Iodine-Potassium Iodide, IKI
Procedure
1. Use the permanent marker to label four test tubes as 1, 2, 3, and 4.
2. Deposit at least 6 mL of saliva into a Test Tube 1.
3. Open the saltine pouch. Divide each cracker into approximately equal quarters.
4. Take one quarter of one cracker and break into three equally-sized pieces. Place in Test Tube 1.
Note: You may wish to use a butter knife and gently apply pressure to break the quarter piece into
three smaller pieces. Small crumbling is okay, but be sure to collect the crumbs so that the total mass
of each piece is approximately the same.
5. Take a second quarter of one cracker and gently crush it into crumbs. Place the crumbs in Test Tube 2.
6. Repeat Step 5 with the third quarter of one cracker and place crumbs in Test Tube 3.
7. Take a fourth quarter of one cracker and chew in your mouth for 15 seconds. DO NOT SWALLOW THE
CRACKER. Spit the masticated cracker into Test Tube 4.
8. Using one pipette, drop 2 mL of the saliva you collected in Step 2 into Test Tubes 1, 2, and 4. Do not
pipette the saliva into Test Tube 3.
527
9. Pipette 2 mL of water into Test Tube 3.
10. Cover each of the test tubes with Parafilm®.
11. Shake all of the test tubes for 30 seconds. Try to shake all of the test tubes within a two minute time inter-
val.
12. Record the initial color of each solution in Table 2.
13. Wait 10 minutes, then add one mL of IKI Solution to each test tube.
14. Shake the test tubes for another 30 seconds, and note the color of each tube in Table 2.
Table 2: Color Observations
Test Tube Initial Color Final Color
Post-Lab Questions
1. What is the purpose of mechanical digestion?
2. Describe the color seen in each tube in terms of the amount of starch present. Explain why differences
may exist.
3. Why does amylase from saliva stop working in the stomach? What other organ produces amylase?
4. Why is it necessary to wait 10 minutes before adding IKI solution to the test tubes?
528
Experiment 6: Fetal Pig Dissection of the Digestive System
Like many other systems, the digestive system of the fetal pig provides a good representation of the anatomy
of the human digestive system. In this experiment, you will explore some of the structures of this system.
Materials
Procedure
4. Peel back the flaps of the abdominal wall to expose the

Cut to show
internal organs of the pig.
vasculature
5. Begin your observation of the digestive system by
opening the mouth of the fetal pig. With a gloved hand,
palpate the hard and soft palate, the teeth, and tongue.
You may need to use some force to overcome rigor
mortis.
6. Expose the neck region, and locate the esophagus pos-

terior to the trachea. Follow this tube to the stomach.
7. Directly inferior to the diaphragm is the liver. Trace the

four primary lobes of the liver (left lateral, left medial,
right medial, and right lateral). Trace the vessels enter-
ing and leaving the liver.
8. Using a scalpel, slice a small section of the liver and

observe the highly vascularized tissue (Figure 6).
Figure 6
529
9. Lying on the right lateral lobe you will see
a small organ. This is the gall bladder,
which produces bile delivered to the
small intestine through the hepatic duct.
10. Remove the liver from the fetal pig by

cutting the vessels leading to and from it
with a scalpel or dissecting scissors
(Figure 7).
11. Once the liver is removed, the large bean Liver

-shaped stomach will be visible on the
lateral end of the esophagus. The rugae
are the longitudinal ridges that line the
stomach (Figure 8).
Figure 7
12. The contents of the fetal pig stomach are
called meconium, a collection of debris deposited when the pig swallowed amniotic fluid.
Small Intestine
Spleen
Stomach
530
Figure 8
13. Follow the stomach caudally, to the point where it constricts and leads to the small intestine. The first 3.0 -
4.0 cm of the small intestine are the duodenum, followed by the ileum and jejunum.
14. At this point you will notice the large, white granular organ - the pancreas.
15. The red, elongated organ resembling a tongue that extends around the stomach is the spleen (Figure 7),
which helps destroy old erythrocytes.
16. Observe the mesentery holding the small intestine in place (Figure 7). Observe the vasculature in the
clear mesentery, which carry absorbed nutrients to the liver.
17. Trace the long, coiled small intestine to the large intestine, which appears as a larger but more compact
coil. Just below the junction of the small and large intestines, a small pouch-like structure called the cae-
cum may be visible (this is comparable to the appendix in humans). Using a scalpel, slice open the small
intestine to observe the interior tissue.
18. Follow the large intestine to the straighter rectum, in the dorsal wall of the abdominal cavity. The anus is
where digestive waste exits the body.
20. Place the big back into the cool environment you had previously stored it in. Remember, the best place to
Because you did not cut into the pig, there should not be any biological scraps. But always remember,
biological scraps should not be thrown into the garbage.
Post-Lab Questions
1. Briefly explain the process of digestion.
2. What did the interior of the small intestine look like? What is it, and why is this structure important to the
function of the small intestine?
531
Lab 17
Nutrition
Nutrition
Concepts to Explore
Nutrition Fiber
Carbohydrates Water
Fats Vitamins and Minerals
Proteins
Introduction
The body has a system devoted to processing food into us-
able molecules. These molecules are essential to cell func-
tion, and fueling the body’s metabolism. But what, exactly,
does the body need to complete these many tasks? The
nutrients used by animals include carbohydrates, lipids, nu-
cleic acids, proteins, minerals, and vitamins.
Nutrition
Nutrition is the provision of the materials necessary to sup-
port life. It is the process of consuming materials and the
utilization of them through a process of ingestion, digestion,
absorption, and circulation throughout the bloodstream.
Cells metabolize these raw materials and synthesize struc-
tural components, enzymes, energy-rich molecules, and
other biologically important substances. The diet of an or-
ganism is the foods that it eats, and has a large impact on
the health of an individual. Figure 1: The human body needs a balanced diet
in order to maintain the necessary nutrients for
function.
All elements and compounds that are taken into the body are called nutrients. Most nutrients enter the body
as preformed organic molecules. In order for the body to make these nutrients useful, they must be broken
down, or digested. There are macronutrients (carbohydrates, fats, fiber, protein, and water), which are need-
ed in large amounts, and micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) which are needed in smaller quantities. Mac-
ronutrients provide structural material and energy. The amount of energy a food can generate is represented
by Joules of kilocalories (or calories “c”). Carbohydrates provide approximately 4 kcal/gram, while fats (lipids)
provide 9 kcal/gram. Vitamins, fiber, minerals and water do not provide energy, but are required for other rea-
sons.
535
Nutrition
The following are the seven major classes of important nutrients essen-
tial to the human body:
? Did You Know...
Anemia, or iron deficiency, is a
1. Carbohydrates are the basic source of energy for the human
common diagnosis for women
body. About one-half to two-thirds of all calories every person (and men) who feel tired or lethar-
consumes daily come from carbohydrates. Glucose is the gic. But what does this really
carbohydrate most commonly used for energy. This mean? Four iron atoms are incor-
monosaccharide is metabolized during respiration and part of theporated into each hemoglobin mol-
ecule, and each atom can bind an
energy that is used to generate ATP. Other useful carbohydrates
oxygen molecule. Therefore, every
include maltose, lactose, sucrose, and starch. hemoglobin molecule can deliver
2. Fats are used to form cellular and organelle components, the four oxygen molecules anywhere
in the body. Further, one red blood
myelin sheath that surrounds nerve cells, and certain hormones.
cell can have approximately 250
In addition, fats are used as an energy source. billion hemoglobin molecules, re-
3. Proteins are the building blocks of the human body, forming sulting in approximately 1 trillion
oxygen molecules!
essential components of the cytoplasm, membranes, and
organelles, the major components of tendons, ligaments, and
muscle, and form the essential substance of enzymes. Proteins
are formed by combinations of some of the 20 amino acids in the
body. Many of these molecules can be produced by the body,
but many others must be obtained from ingested food (essential
amino acids). During digestion, proteins are broken into their
constituent amino acids, and absorbed by cells. Nucleic acids
are used to build DNA, RNA, and ATP. Human obtain these
Molecular model of a heme group.
nutrients from plant and animal cells, especially those that
Each hemoglobin molecule car-
contain a nucleus. During digestion, nucleic acids are broken ries four heme groups.
down into nucleotides, which are absorbed by cells.
One way the brain uses oxygen is
4. Dietary fiber is a complex carbohydrate that is incompletely to produce mood regulating neuro-
absorbed. The main component of dietary fiber is cellulose, transmitters. Therefore, iron defi-
which humans do not have an enzyme to break down. It provides ciency can contribute to irritability
bulk to the intestinal chyme and induces peristalsis. or fatigue. Iron deficiency tends to
be more prominent in women dur-
5. Water is the most abundant material in the body. To function ing menstruation. Iron levels can
properly and prevent dehydration, the human body requires 1 - 7 be bolstered by adding iron-rich
L per day. Normally, about 20% of this volume comes from food, food such as spinach, red meat, or
beans to a diet.
with the rest sourced in liquids imbibed.
6. Phosphorous, sulfur, magnesium, potassium, and zinc are minerals required by the human body,
and are usually obtains from the consumption of plants.
7. Vitamins are water or lipid-soluble organic compounds essential to health in trace amounts. Water
soluble vitamins must be consumed frequently, while fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the liver and
adipose tissue.
536
Nutrition
Figure 2: The USDA replaced the traditional food pyramid (left) image with an updated version
called “MyPlate” (right) in 2011. MyPlate Image complimentary of www.choosemyplate.gov
Adults require around 2,000 calories per day, but this number will fluctuate depending on an individual’s me-
tabolism. It is important to note that different foods make different nutritional contributions. Also, fruits, vege-
tables, grains, and legumes - foods high in complex carbohydrates, fiber, vitamins, and minerals, low in fat,
and free of cholesterol - should make up the bulk of the calories you consume. The rest should come from
low-fat dairy products, lean meat and poultry, and fish. Developing healthy eating habits is essential to a
healthy lifestyle.
? Did You Know...

Cholesterol often gets a bad reputation for atherosclerosis
(or, clogged arteries) and heart disease. But many people
don’t realize that cholesterol is a necessary biomolecule, and
some forms of cholesterol can even lead to better health.
High density lipoprotein, or HDL, is good cholesterol, while

low density lipoprotein, or LDL, is bad cholesterol. HDL helps
reduce the amount of LDL present, which can lead to a
healthier heart. Cholesterol ratios typically present the LDL
value first and then the HDL value. Lower LDL/HDL ratios im-
ply a lower risk for associated heart disease. Things such as
regular exercise and a healthy diet that is low in saturated
fats help contribute to a better cholesterol ratio. Try eating
foods such as beans and salmon and avoiding foods such as
red meat and whole milk dairy products.
Image to the right shows arterial plaques; top artery is

plaque free, middle artery shows moderate plaque, bottom
artery shows heavy plaque.
537
Nutrition
Pre-Lab Questions
1. How do the intake of nutrients and expenditure of energy relate to a metabolic level?
2. Do you think you take in more calories than you burn in a day?
Experiment 1: Tracking Your Nutrition

You will track the caloric intake and activity level for a three day period. And use a website tracker to help
analyze your dietary intake.
Materials
*Computer Access
*Pencil
Procedure
1. Go to https://www.choosemyplate.gov/SuperTracker/ and create a profile for yourself. The “Create Pro-
file” option appears in the upper right corner of the website.
2. Over a period of three days, use the Super Tracker program to track your nutritional intake and physical
activity.
3. After three days have passed, copy the results of your nutrient intake summary below.
4. Compose an analysis of your diet on the following pages. Include any changes that can be made to im-
prove your nutrition. Use scientific information to support your conclusions.
538
Nutrition
Summary:
Analysis:
539
Nutrition
Experiment 2: Testing for Reducing Sugars
Many of the foods we eat contain carbohydrates. Monosaccharides and short chains such as disaccharides
taste sweet due to certain aspects of their chemical structure. A structural characteristic of some sugars can
be identified using a chemical solution called Benedict’s reagent. When heated, the copper ions in Benedict’s
solution react with the free end of any reducing sugars, such as glucose molecules. Copper ions are reduced
by the sugars, producing an orange or red colored precipitate.
Materials
5 mL Benedict’s Solution Stopwatch
5 mL Unknown Solution *Tap Water
5 mL 1% Glucose Solution *Fork
5 Test Tubes *Knife
10 mL Graduated Cylinder *Potato
3 Pipettes *Onion
Ruler *Hot Water Bath (stovetop or microwave and a
deep, heat-safe bowl)
Permanent Marker
Spatula
Thermometer *You must provide
Note: Use great caution when handling a knife and/or cutting. Ask for assistance if you need help or are un-
comfortable with knife work.
Procedure
1. Label five test tubes as 1 - 5.
2. Prepare your testing samples as follows:
a. Cut a raw potato into a 1.0 cm x 1.0 cm x 1 cm cube. Cut this cube into smaller pieces, and mash
with a fork and approximately 5 - 10 drops of water. Place half of the mashed raw potato into Test
Tube 1. Use the 10 mL graduated cylinder to measure and pour 5 mL of water into Test Tube 1.
Do not discard the remaining mashed potato; you will use this in the proceeding experiment.
b. Cut a raw onion into a 1.0 cm x 1.0 cm x 1.0 cm cube. Cut this cube into smaller pieces, and finally
mash with a clean or new fork. Place half of the mashed raw onion into Test Tube 2. Use the 10
mL graduated cylinder to measure and pour 5 mL of water into Test Tube 2. Do not discard the
remaining mashed onion; you will use this in the proceeding experiment.
540
Nutrition
3. Pipette 5 mL of the 1% glucose solution into Test Tube 3.
4. Use the 10 mL graduated cylinder to measure and pour 5 mL of water into Test Tube 4.
5. Pipette 5 mL of the “Unknown” solution into Test Tube 5.
6. Record the initial color of each solution in Table 1.
7. Prepare a hot water bath using the following information:
a. Heat water to a temperature between 85 and 100 °C (not boiling) using a stovetop or microwave
safe container. Be sure to confirm this temperature using the thermometer just prior to use in Step
9. The hot water bath must be of appropriate size and shape to fit five glass test tubes in a vertical
orientation.
8. Pipette 10 drops of Benedict’s Solution to each test tube. Swirl each tube gently to mix.
9. Place the five test tubes into the hot water bath and let sit for three minutes. Remove the tubes from wa-
ter and place them in test tube rack to cool for five minutes.
10. Record the final color in Table 1.
Note: A reducing sugar is present in the sample if a red, yellow or green precipitant forms. Wash your
test tubes immediately after recording results to prevent permanent staining from the reaction prod-
ucts.
Table 1: Testing for Reducing Sugars Results
Sample Initial Color Final Color Reducing Sugar Present
1 - Potato
2 - Onion
3 - Glucose Solution
4 - Water
5 - Unknown
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Nutrition
Experiment 3: Testing for Starch
Many of the foods we eat contain polysaccharides such as starch. IKI and other iodine solutions contain spe-
cial tri-iodine ions that interact with the coiled structure of a starch polymer. In solution, iodine ions possess a
yellow-brown color. When these iodine ions bind into the coils of a starch molecule, the iodine changes struc-
ture and produces a dark blue-black color.
Materials
10 Drops 1% Iodine Potassium-Iodide, IKI Permanent Marker
5 mL Liquid Starch Solution, C6H10O5 Spatula
Unknown Solution *Tap Water
5 Test Tubes *Potato from Experiment 1
10 mL Graduated Cylinder *Onion from Experiment 1
3 Pipettes
Procedure
1. Label five test tubes 1 - 5.
a. Place the remaining half of the mashed raw potato from Experiment 1 into Test Tube 1. Use the 10
mL graduated cylinder to measure and pour 5 mL of water to Test Tube 1.
b. Place the remaining half of the mashed raw onion from Experiment 1 into Test Tube 2. Use the 10
mL graduated cylinder to measure and pour 5 mL of water to Test Tube 2.
3. Pipette 5 mL of the 1% starch solution into Test Tube 3.
4. Use the 10 mL graduated cylinder to measure and pour water into Test Tube 4.
6. Record the initial color of each sample in Table 2.
7. Pipette 10 drops of IKI to each test tube. Swirl each tube to mix.
8. Wait approximately 1 - 2 minutes. Record the final color in Table 2.
Note: Starch is present in the sample if a dark purple or black color is observed.
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Nutrition
Table 2: Testing for Starch Results
Sample Initial Color Final Color Starch Present
1 - Potato
2 - Onion
3 - Starch Solution
4 - Water
5 - Unknown
Experiment 4: Testing for Proteins

The protein molecules in many foods provide the amino acid building blocks required by our own cells to pro-
duce new proteins. To determine whether a sample contains protein, a reagent called Biuret solution is used.
Like Benedict’s reagent, Biuret solution also contains copper ions. However, the chemical state of the copper
ions in a Biuret solution causes them to form a chemical complex with the peptide bonds between amino ac-
ids (when present), changing the color of the solution. Biuret solution is normally blue. Biuret solution chang-
es to pink when short peptides are present and to violet when polypeptides are present.
Materials
5 Drops Biuret Solution Permanent Marker
5 mL 1% Glucose Solution, C6H12O6 (2) 250 mL Beakers
Unknown Solution *Tap Water
Knox® Gelatin Packet *Hot Water
5 Test Tubes *Egg White
10 mL Graduated Cylinder
100 mL Graduated Cylinder *You must provide
5 Pipettes
Procedure
1. Label five test tubes 1-5.
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Nutrition
a. Mix one egg white with 25 mL water in a 250 mL beaker to create an albumin solution. Pipette 5
mL of this solution into Test Tube 1.
b. Mix the packet of Knox® gelatin with 50 mL hot water in a second 250 mL beaker. Stir until dis-
solved. Pipette 5 mL of this solution into Test Tube 2.
3. Pipette 5 mL of the 1% glucose solution into Test Tube 3.
4. Use the 10 mL graduated cylinder to measure and pour 5 mL of water into Test Tube 4.
6. Record the initial color of each sample in Table 3.
7. Pipette five drops of Biuret solution to each test tube. Swirl each tube to mix.
8. Record the final color in Table 3.
Note: Protein is present in the sample if a light purple color is observed.
Table 3: Testing for Protein Results
Sample Initial Color Final Color Protein Present
1 - Albumin Solution
2 - Gelatin Solution
3 - Glucose Solution
4 - Water
5 - Unknown
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Nutrition
Post-Lab Questions
1. Write a statement to explain the molecular composition of the unknown solution based on the results ob-
tained during testing with each reagent.
2. What can you conclude about the molecular make-up of potatoes and onions based on the tests you per-
formed? Why might these foods contain these substances?
3. What results would you expect if you tested ribose, a monosaccharide, with Benedict’s solution? IKI?
4. Diet and nutrition are closely linked to the study of biomolecules. How should you monitor your food in-
take to insure the cells in your body have the materials necessary to function?
5. The molecule pictured below produced a blue color when tested with Benedict’s reagent, a yellow color
when tested with IKI, and a violet color when tested with Biuret reagent. Based on the structure shown
below and these chemical results, what kind of biomolecule is this?
545
Lab 18
Concepts to Explore
Reproduction Oogenesis
Male Reproductive Organs Conception
Female Reproductive Organs Hormone Regulation
Introduction
Most systems in the body are required for survival. However, the reproductive system is unique as it is not
mandatory for individual survival. In simplest terms, the reproductive system functions to propagate a spe-
cies. Reproduction involves the production of sperm and eggs, the processes leading to fertilization, and em-
bryonic development. The primary sex organs are called gonads - testes in males and ovaries in females.
These organs secrete hormones and produce gametes. Male gametes are termed spermatozoa (sperm),
and female gametes are termed ova (eggs). Accessory reproductive organs include ducts, glands, and ex-
ternal genitals. The reproductive role of the male is to produce sperm and deliver it to the female reproduc-
tive tract. The female produces eggs, which, when fertilized with the sperm, creates the first cell of a new in-
dividual. After fertilization occurs, the female uterus provides a nurturing, safe environment for an embryo to
develop into a fetus until birth.
Male Reproductive Organs

The penis is a cylindrical organ that provides an exit route for urine and sperm. Internally, the penis consists
of three cylindrical masses of tissue, each of which is surrounded by a thin (but tough) layer of fibrous con-
nective tissue called the tunic albuginea. During erection, parasympathetic neurons stimulate dilation of the
arteries within the penis, causing the penis to enlarge and stiffen. Similarly, ejaculation occurs when sympa-
thetic neurons stimulate the discharge of semen.
Two testis reside within the scrotum, a sac that hangs from the base of the penis. A vertical septum divides
the scrotum into left and right compartments, each of which encloses one testis. Optimal sperm production
occurs at a temperature of approximately 35 - 36 °C (which is 1 - 2 °C below the core body temperature).
This is one reason why the scrotum hangs outside the body.
The testes have both an endocrine function (testosterone production) and an exocrine function (sperm pro-
duction). The spermatic cord connects each testis to the body cavity. The coiled seminiferous tubules inside
each lobule unite to form a straight tube, called the tubulus rectus. Endocrine cells, called Leydig cells,
cluster along the seminiferous tubules, and secrete testosterone. Testosterone influences spermatogenesis
and some of the secondary male sex characteristics. For example, within the genital tract, testosterone pro-
548
motes the development and control of the duct system and associated glands.
Each testes transports sperm through a system of long, twisted tubes that comprise the bulk of the organ. A
two-layer outer membrane system called the tunica vaginalis surrounds each testis. The tunica albuginea,
which lies inside the tunica vaginalis, protrudes inward, divides each testis into lobules containing seminifer-
ous tubules where sperm production occurs. The epididymis is a comma-shaped organ that lies adjacent
to each testis. Each epididymis contains a tightly coiled tube called the ductus epididymis. Sperm are held
in this organ to complete their maturation here until ejaculation.
Figure 1: Male reproductive organs.
The remaining structures of the male reproductive system consist of the conduits and sources of secretions
that aid in the delivery of sperm to the body exterior or the female reproductive tract. Smooth muscle cells
surrounding the epididymis contract during ejaculation. This forces mature sperm into the next tube called
the ductus deferens (also called the vas deferens). The vas deferens is the tube through which sperm trav-
el when they leave the epididymis. Each tube loops around the bladder and joins the ejaculatory duct. The
ejaculatory ducts are short tubes that connect each vas deferens to the urethra. The urethra is the pas-
sageway for urine and semen. The urethra ends at the external urethral orifice.
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Accessory male sex glands secrete substances into the passageways that transport sperm. These substanc-
es contribute to the liquid portion of the semen, sperm and associated liquid. The seminal vesicles secrete an
alkaline fluid into the vas deferens, which neutralizes the acid in the vagina, fructose (which provides energy
for the sperm), and prostaglandins. The prostate gland also secretes a milky, slightly acidic fluid into the ure-
thra to further neutralize the female reproductive tract and make it a favorable environment for sperm.
Female Reproductive Organs

The ovary is the organ that produces eggs in the female reproductive system. Two ovaries are present in
each female and each is held in place by the mesovarium, the suspensory ligament, the broad ligament, and
the ovarian ligament. Each ovary is approximately the size of an almond. The ovary is covered by a layer of
epithelium and the tunica albuginea. The inside of the ovary is divided into two indistinct regions, the outer
cortex and the inner medulla. Ovarian follicles are embedded in the cortex. Each follicle contains a primary
oocyte surrounded by one or more layer of follicular cells that nourish the oocyte as it matures. The Fallopi-
an tubes (also called the oviducts or uterine tubes) transport the secondary oocytes away from the ovary and
toward the uterus during menstruation.
Figure 2: Female reproductive organs
The uterus is a hollow organ in which fetal development occurs. It is characterized by four regions. The up-
per region is called the fundus. The central region is called the body, the lower, narrow region is called the
550
isthmus, the cervix is a narrow region at the bottom of
the uterus that leads to the vagina. The uterus is held in
place by the broad ligaments, uterosacral ligaments,
round ligaments, and cardinal ligaments. The wall of the
uterus consists of the perimetrium, a serous membrane
that lines the outside of the uterus, and the myometrium
containing several layers of smooth muscle. The endo-
metrium is the highly vascularized mucosa that lines the
inside of the uterus.
The vagina serves both as the passageway for a new-

born, and the site for sperm deposition. The upper vagi-
na surrounds the cervix, and the lower vagina opens to
the outside at the vaginal orifice. The vulvae make up Figure 3: Anterior view of the Fallopian tubes and
the external genitalia - the mons pubis, labia major, labia ovaries (flanking), uterus (upper central), and the
minora, the versibule, and the clitoris. cervix (lower central).
The mammary glands are a type of sweat glands that specialize in milk production. The milk-producing se-
cretory cells form walls of bulb-shaped chambers called alveoli that join together with ducts to form clusters
called lobules. Groups of lobules assemble to form a lobe. Each breast contains a single mammary gland
consisting of 15 - 20 lobes. Lactiferous ducts lead away from the lobes and widen into lactiferous sinuses
that serve as temporary reservoirs for milk. The ducts narrow again as they lead through a protruding nipple.
The nipple is surrounded by a ring of pigmented skin called the areola. During pregnancy, estrogen and pro-
gesterone stimulate extensive development of the mammary glands and its associated ducts. After childbirth,
various hormones, namely prolactin, initiate lactation. When neurons are stimulated by the sucking of an in-
fant, nerve impulses activate the posterior pituitary to secrete oxytocin, stimulating contraction of the cells sur-
rounding the alveoli. Milk is then forced toward the nipple in what is called the letdown reflex.
Oogenisis
Oogenesis takes place in the ovaries refers to the meiotic cell divisions that lead to the production of female
gamete (eggs) production. Oogenesis is similar to spermatogenesis in that both procedures result in gamete
production, but oogenesis is a more complex process which relies on phased action and physical and chemi-
cal activity. To begin, diploid cells called oogonia replicate and divide to produce a primary oocytes. Prima-
ry oocytes are diploid cells, which proceed to enter the first round of meiosis. However. these oocytes are
unique from spermatocytes because they only proceed to prophase 1 of meiosis (rather than complete the full
cycle of meiosis). At prophase I, meiosis I halts and the primary oocyte remains dormant until puberty.
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Menstruation is a cycle which begins in females once puberty occurs. At this point, follicle stimulating hor-
mone is produced are a predictable period during each month which stimulates primary oocyte growth in
some oocytes. However, one primary oocyte grows faster than the others and will resume meiosis I to pro-
duce two daughter cells. Other primary oocytes which were stimulated degrade and do not resume meiosis I.
The primary oocyte which resumes meiosis, but will allocate the cytoplasm, organelles, and chromosomes
unequally amongst the daughter cells. Consequently, one daughter cell, referred to as the secondary oo-
cyte, receives the majority of the genetic content and nutrients; and, a second daughter cell, referred to as
the first polar body, is much smaller and contains few nutrients. This ensures that adequate nutrition, as well
as mitochondria, ribosomes, etc. will be available for a potential embryo. The first polar body contains little
cytoplasm and few, if any, organelles. The secondary oocyte and the first polar body enter meiosis II, but this
time the process halts at metaphase.
Fertilization
Ovulation occurs when a secondary oocyte and its first
polar body are released from their mature follicle in the
ovaries. This phase is regulated by luteinizing hormone,
which is released by the anterior pituitary. The cells are
swept up into the Fallopian tube and advance toward the
uterus. If a sperm cell enters the secondary oocyte
(referred to as fertilization), meiosis II resumes and pro-
duces a mature ovum and another polar body. The sec-
ondary oocyte will degrade if it is not fertilized. The first
polar body may also enter meiosis II and produce daugh-
ter polar bodies if a sperm cell enters. However, this polar
body (and all subsequent daughter polar bodies) eventu-
ally disintegrates. Thus, only one cell survives oogenesis, Figure 4: Spermatozoons traveling toward second-
compared to the four sperm cells which survive spermato- ary oocyte in the Fallopian tube.
genesis.
Gestation
A zygote is formed when a sperm and ovum fuse. The zygote undergoes rapid mitotic division during the first
three to four days after fertilization. This forms the morula, a ball of cells with an inner mass of fluid. The mor-
ula floats within the uterine cavity for six to seven days, allowing the endometrium time to accumulate suffi-
cient nutrients for the impending embryonic development. Additional nutrients and hormones such as proges-
terone and glycogen are delivered to the morula delivered by the corpus luteum to keep it alive until the pla-
centa is developed and can supply the embryo with nutrients. The fluid mass within the morula will eventually
develop into the fetus, while a thin outer layer called the trophoblast is responsible for endometrial implanta-
tion. The trophoblast accomplishes this by releasing enzymes that digest narrow alleys of endometrial cells,
allowing for a tight and deep implantation.
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Endometrium sheds (thins) Endometrium thickens
Thickness of
endometrium
(uterine lining)
Ovary: follicle
releases egg and
then collapses
Gonadotropic hormone
levels (LH and FSH)
Ovarian hormone levels

(estrogen and progesterone)
Body temperature (°C)

rises at ovulation
Menstruation starts
Menstruation ends Ovulation (egg released)
Figure 5: The female reproductive cycle is characterized by events in the ovary and the uterus. 553
A placenta develops within a few weeks of implantation to provide a nutrient supply to the growing fetus.
Placenta development is a consuming process which is typically accomplished within five weeks of the origi-
nal implantation. During this time, additional enzymes are secreted furthering the fetal lock on the endome-
trium. The placenta also serves as the embryo’s digestive, respiratory, and waste filtration systems. The pla-
centa is also necessary for the mother as it secretes a variety of proteins which aid in the pregnancy. These
include human chorionic gonadotropin, estrogen, and progesterone.
3 Weeks 4 Weeks 5 Weeks 7 Weeks 8 Weeks 9 Weeks
12 Weeks 16 Weeks 30 Weeks 38 Weeks
Figure 6: Anatomically correct digital rendition of embryogenesis
Hormone Regulation
The activities of the ovary and the uterus are coordinated by negative and positive feedback responses in-
volving gonadotropin releasing hormone from the hypothalamus, follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing
hormone from the anterior pituitary, and the hormones estrogen and progesterone from the follicle and cor-
pus luteum. In addition to influencing the reproductive cycle, estrogen stimulates the development of sec-
ondary sex characteristics in females. These include the distribution of adipose tissue, bone development
leading to a broadening of the pelvis, changes in voice quality, and growth of various body hair.
554
Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is a glycoprotein hormone produced by the developing placenta shortly
after fertilization occurs. hCG can be detected in urine and serum as early as 7 - 10 days after conception,
and continues to rise as the embryo develops. Thus, it is a good marker for the detection of pregnancy
through the utilization of antibodies to detect elevated levels of hCG in urine.
? Did You Know...

You may know that two kidneys develop in the
fetus during gestation. However, only one kidney
is required for human survival. As a result, kid-
ney transplants from living (and deceased) do-
nors are a common solution for patients experi-
encing kidney failure, kidney cancer, trauma vic-
tims, or those with congenital diseases. Kidney
transplants save lives every day, and may cause
you to wonder why the fetus doesn’t develop
multiple copies of other organs. In some species,
secondary organs provide backup support if a
primary organ fails, or may even work in concert
to provide a more robust physiological outcome.
Consider how many deaths could be prevented if
humans were born with a spare heart!
The hypothesis for having two kidneys is, ironically, two-fold! The first idea involves evolution. All vertebrates
– ranging from birds, fish, reptiles, and humans – develop with some degree of bilateral symmetry. This is
even true for some invertebrate species such as worms, clams, and flies. Thus, dual kidney development is
merely reflective of the phenotype which our early ancestors have been expressing for thousands of years.
The second concept considers the human developmental process. Early embryos develop a single midline
tube which runs between the mouth to the anus. Generally speaking, organs bud off of this tube. Some or-
gans bud on one side of the midline tube, such as the brain, but there are many organs which bud on both
sides (in pairs). For example, the ovaries, testicles both display midline symmetry. The kidneys are another
example of bilateral symmetry, even though humans do not require bilateral development for survival.
555
Experiment 1: Microscopic Anatomy of the Reproductive System
Visualizing the microscopic anatomy of the reproductive system will aid in your understanding of its function.
Materials
Penis (Cross-Section) Digital Slide Image Ovary Digital Slide Image
Testis (Cross-Section) Digital Slide Image Uterus Digital Slide Image
Sperm Digital Slide Image
Procedure
1. Examine each of the digital slide images.
2. Label the images provided at the end of the digital slide images.
Urethra
Corpus Spongiosum
Penis (Cross-Section) 100X. The urethra is lined with stratified, squamous epithelium near the
bottom of the tubule. The corpus spongiosum, which surrounds the urethra, includes blood si-
nuses which are often filled with blood. These sinuses are also lined with simple, squamous epi-
thelium. The corpus cavernosa (not pictured) is located just above the corpus spongiosa, and
contains erectile tissue. This tissue is filled with empty spaces which fill with arterial blood in a
process called tumescense.
556
Blood cells
Penis (Cross-Section) 1000X. Blood cells in the corpus spongiosum are visible in this image.
Septa
Seminiferous tubules
Septa
Septa
Testis (Cross-Section) 100X. Testes are dense with seminiferous tubules (approximately 800-
1600 tubules per testis; or, approximately 600 meters of tubules when added together). These
tubules are the site for spermatogenesis, and are lined with Sertoli cells. Septa reside between
these tubules, and are comprised of connective tissue.
557
Peritubular
Sertoli cells
capillary.
Meiotic activity
Spermatids
Testis (Cross-Section) 1000X. Sertoli cells are referred to as “nursery cells” because they help
create a healthy environment for spermatogenesis. These cells are directly atop the boundary
tissue which surrounds the seminiferous tubules, and are ovular in shape. Meiotic activity pro-
duces, primary spermatocytes, secondary spermatocytes, and spermatids. Spermatids are locat-
ed near the lumen within the tubules, and appear morphologically different based on their re-
spective phases of maturation. Young spermatids have elongated, tail-like structures while more
developed spermatids appear boxy and dense.
558
Flagella
Midpiece
Head
Sperm 1000X. Sperm cell anatomy includes a head, a midpiece, and a flagella. The head ap-
pears dense and includes the nucleus. The midpiece has a filamentous core with many mito-
chondrial organelles present on the outside. The flagella is used for motility.
559
Germinal epithelium
Tunica albuginea
Primary oocyte
Granulosa cells
Seco
ndary
o ocyte
Primary follicle
Zona
pe llucid
a
Interstitial
connective tissue Secondary follicle
Ovary 100X. The surface layer of the ovary is composed of a single layer of epithelium, referred to as
germinal epithelium. The tunica albuginea is directly below the germinal epithelium and creates a con-
nective tissue capsule surrounding the ovary. The outer layer of the ovary, shown above, is referred to
as the cortex and is where follicles reside. Ovaries contain different types of follicle cells referred to as
primordial follicles, primary follicles, secondary follicles, and tertiary follicles. A central medulla also
exists within the ovary.
560
Endometrium
Uterine glands
Myometrium
Uterus 100X. The endometrium is a mucosal layer used for egg implantation, and consists of sim-
ple columnar epithelium; this includes both ciliated and secretory cells. Note that the precise com-
position of the endometrium varies by physiological state. The myometrium is a fibromuscular
layer. Uterine glands are located in the endometrium
Ciliated columnar epithelium
Uterine gland
Uterus 1000X. Uterine glands are lined by ciliated columnar epithelium. They function to secrete
biochemical substances required for healthy embryonic development, and become enlarged
after impregnation occurs in the uterus. 561
Post-Lab Questions
1. Label the slide images
Penis (Cross-Section) 100X.
Testis (Cross-Section) 100X.
562
Sperm 1000X.
Uterus 100X.
563
2. What type of epithelium did you observe in the prepared slide of the penis?
3. Which layer of the uterus forms a new functional layer each month?
Experiment 2: Virtual Model - The Reproductive System

The reproductive system is unlike most other body systems because it is required for human reproduction,
rather than overall homeostasis or individual survival. The reproductive systems look and function very differ-
ently in males versus females because of this unique physiological purpose. In this experiment, you will use
the Virtual Model on the Student Portal to better understand the gross anatomy of the male reproductive sys-
tem.
Materials

*Computer Access
Procedure
the model.
564
spelled correctly.
etc.)
j. Click the “Reset View” button located in the lower left corner to
restore the model’s default positioning on the screen.
k. The model will automatically rotate to display dorsal features

when dorsally located terms are double clicked or searched for
in the search bar.
4. You will need to clearly view the male reproductive system for this ex-
periment, so click on the blue buttons to the left of the skeletal, muscu-
lar, nervous, circulatory, and lymphatic systems to toggle the viewing
into transparent (one click) or invisible (two clicks; recommended)
mode.
Note: You can enable these systems at any time by re-clicking on
Figure 7: Content hierarchy.
565
the blue buttons next to the respective categories. This is recommended to help view how all of the
systems work together, but it is important to isolate the reproductive system for clear visibility.
5. Click on the plus (+) symbol next to Organs from the left side panel.
6. You will also need to toggle the viewing mode into transparent or visibility mode for many of the subsys-
tems located within the Organs category. Click on the blue buttons to the left of the respiratory, digestive,
urinary, and cardiovascular systems and the right and left tonsils to toggle the viewing into transparent
(one click) or invisible (two clicks; recommended) mode.
7. Click through and identify the features included in the male reproductive system. This includes the vesica
urinaria (part of the urinary, not reproductive, system; included for spatial reference), the testes, prostate,
the glans penis, the corpus spongiosum, and the corpus cavernosum.
Figure 8: The prostate is the circular gland located near the posterior of the male reproductive tract. The tes-
tes refers to the two male gonads and is located near the center of the image above.
Hint: Review the Post-Lab Questions as you work through the male reproductive system to help guide
your exploration.
566
Post-Lab Questions
1. What female reproductive structure is functionally homologous to the glans penis?
2. What female reproductive structure is functionally homologous to the testes?
3. Identify two features (vessels, glands, cavities, etc.) which are not included in the Virtual Model. Describe
their respective functions.
4. Is the vesica urinaria superior or inferior to the prostate?
567
Experiment 3: Fetal Pig Dissection: The Reproductive System
Like many other systems, the reproductive system of the fetal pig provides a good representation of the anat-
omy of the human reproductive system. The following experiment will guide you through an exploration of
some of the structures of this system.
Materials
Procedure
General
the whole semester.
4. Peel back the flaps of the abdominal wall to expose the internal organs of the pig. You should have al-
ready sexed your pig; however, if you have not, you will need to do so before proceeding. To determine
the sex of the pig, first locate the anus (positioned between the umbilical cord and the tail). Once you have
identified the necessary region, look for the presence of either a scrotum (male; a sac of skin ventral to
the anus) or a labia (female; small folds on both sides of the urogenital opening). After you have identified
the sex, continue with the appropriate procedural steps.
Male Pig
1. Identify the male urogenital opening (located near the anus), from which the penis extends to deposit
sperm in the female’s vagina.
2. Ventral to the anus are the testes, housed in a sac of skin called the scrotum. The testes may or may not
have descended into the scrotum in the fetal pig.
3. Use a scalpel to make a midline incision into the scrotum. Remove one of the testis (Figure 9). Note the
tightly coiled epididymis that will help transport the sperm.
568
4. The slender elongated cord that emerges from each testis is the spermatic cord, consisting of the vas def-
erens, the spermatic nerve, and the spermatic artery and vein.
5. Expose the penis and its juncture with the urethra. Use a scalpel to carefully make an incision through the
muscle in the mid-ventral line between the hind limbs (the hind limbs should lie flat when this muscle is
completely severed).
6. Locate the seminal vesicles on the dorsal surface of the urethra.
7. Posterior to the seminal vesicles lies the prostate glands.
Testis
Figure 9
Female Pig
1. Examine the external urogenital opening of the female pig. This lies directly superior to the anus, and is
surrounded laterally by low folds called the labia, which come together to form the genital papilla.
2. The urethra is bound by connective tissue to the vagina within the lower abdominal cavity of the female
pig. Carefully separate these structures.
3. Trace the vagina superiorly to the cervix, which appears slightly constricted. Continue tracing this tube to
569
the uterine body. This organ branches anteriorly into two horns, which lead to the Fallopian tubes.
4. Locate the ovaries, small ovoid organs posterior to the kidneys that produce the ova as well as the female
sex hormones.
General
Biological scraps should not be thrown into the garbage.
4. Clean the area in which you worked with soap and water as well.
5. If this concludes your investigation of fetal pig anatomy, dispose of the specimen according to your local
waste management guidelines.
Post-Lab Questions
1. Describe any observations you made while dissecting the reproductive system of your pig.
2. What is meant by urogenital opening?
3. Why do most male mammals have testes in an external sac?
4. What is the vaginal orifice?
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Appendix
Good Lab Techniques
Good Lab Techniques
Good Laboratory Practices
Science labs, whether at universities or in your home, are places of adventure and discovery. One of the first
things scientists learn is how exciting experiments can be. However, they must also realize science can be
dangerous without some instruction on good laboratory practices.
• Read the protocol thoroughly before starting any new experiment.

You should be familiar with the action required every step of the
way.
• Keep all work spaces free from clutter and dirty dishes.
• Read the labels on all chemicals, and note the chemical safety rat-
ing on each container. Read all Material Safety Data Sheets
(MSDS) prior to each experiment. These are provided on
www.eScienceLabs.com.
• Thoroughly rinse labware (test tubes, beakers, etc.) between experi-

ments. To do so, wash with a soap and hot water solution using a
bottle brush to scrub. Rinse completely at least four times. Let air An underpad will prevent any
dry. spilled liquids from contaminat-
ing the surface you work on.
• Use a new pipette for each chemical dispensed.
• Wipe up any chemical spills immediately. Check MSDSs for special handling instructions (provided
on www.eScienceLabs.com).
A B C
Special measuring tools in make experimentation easier and more accurate in the
lab. A shows a beaker, B graduated cylinders, and C test tubes in a test tube rack.
574
Good Lab Techniques
• Use test tube caps or stoppers to cover test tubes when shak-
ing or mixing – not your finger!
• When preparing a solution, refer to a protocol for any specific

instructions on preparation. Weigh out the desired amount of
chemicals, and transfer to a beaker or graduated cylinder.
Add LESS than the required amount of water. Swirl or stir to
dissolve the chemical (you can also pour the solution back
and forth between two test tubes), and once dissolved, trans-
fer to a graduated cylinder and add the required amount of Disposable pipettes aid in accurate
measuring of small volumes of
liquid to achieve the final volume. liquids. It is important to use a new
pipet for each chemical to avoid
• A molar (M) solution is one in which one liter (L) of solution contamination.
contains the number of grams equal to its molecular
weight.
Ex: 1 M = 110 g CaCl ÷ 1 L
(The formula weight of CaCl is 110 g/mol)
• A percent solution can be prepared by percentage of weight of chemical to 100 mL of solvent (w/
v) , or volume of chemical in 100ml of solvent (v/v).
Ex: 20 g NaCl ÷ 80 mL H2O = 20% w/v NaCl solution
• Concentrated solutions, such as 10X, or ten times the normal strength, are diluted such that the
final concentration of the solution is 1X.
Ex: To make a 100 mL solution of 1X TBE from a 10X solution:
10 mL 10X TBE ÷ 90 mL water = 100 mL 1X TBE
• Always read the MSDS before disposing of a chemical to insure it does not require extra
measures. (provided on www.eScienceLabs.com)
• Don’t pour unused chemical back into the original bottle.
• Avoid prolonged exposure of chemicals to direct sunlight and extreme temperatures.
• .Immediately secure the lid of a chemical after use.
• Prepare a dilution using the following equation:
c1v1 = c2v2
575
Good Lab Techniques
Where c1 is the concentration of the original solution, v1 is the volume of the original solution, and
c2 and v2 are the corresponding concentration and volume of the final solution. Since you know c1,
c2, and v2, you solve or v1 to figure out how much of the original solution is needed to make a cer-
tain volume of a diluted concentration.
• If you are ever required to smell a chemical, always waft a gas toward you, as shown in the image
below. This means to wave your hand over the chemical towards you. Never directly smell a
chemical. Never smell a gas that is toxic or otherwise dangerous.
• Use only the chemicals needed for the activity.
• Keep lids closed when a chemical is not being used.
• When diluting an acid, always pour the acid into the water. Never pour water into an acid.
• Never return excess chemical back to the original bottle. This can contaminate the chemical sup-
ply.
• Be careful not to interchange lids between different chemical bottles.
• When pouring a chemical, always hold the lid of the chemical bottle between your fingers. Never
lay the lid down on a surface. This can contaminate the chemical supply.
• When using knives or blades, always cut away from yourself.
• Wash your hands after each experiment.
576
Credits
Credits
Text/Photography
Allen, C., & Harper, V. (2006). Laboratory manual for anatomy and physiology. (2nd ed.). United States:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Altieri, W., Battin, V., & Uhde, S. (2013). Histology image work. Denver: Johnson and Wales.
Berman, W. (1984). Exploring with probe and scalpel: how to dissect. (4th ed.). New York: Prentice Hall
Press.
Boron, W., & Boulpaep, E. (2005). Medical physiology. (Updated ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier.
Chiras, D. (2008). Human biology. (6th ed.). Mississauga: Jones and Bartlett Publishers Canada.
Cornely, K., & Pratt, C. (2004). Essential biochemistry. United States: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Lewis, R. (2007). Human genetics concepts and application. (7th ed.). New York: The McGraw-Hill Com-
panies, Inc.
Marieb, E. (1996). Human anatomy and physiology laboratoy manual. (4th ed.). Menlo Park: The Benja-
min/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc.
Marieb, E., & Mitchell, S. (2008). Human anatomy and physiology laboratoy manual. (9th ed., Vol. Cat).
San Francisco: Pearson Education, Inc.
Sarikas, S. (2007). Laboratory investigations in anatomy & physiology. San Francisco: Pearson Educa-
tion, Inc.
Sherwood, L. (1993). Human physiology: from cells to systems. (2nd ed.). St. Paul: West Publishing
Company.
578
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www.eScienceLabs.com - 888.375.5487

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Anatomy and Physiology Lab Manual

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Lab 1 Introduction to Science

Appendix: Good Lab Techniques

Lab 1 Introduction to Science

Lab 2 Cell Structure and Function

Lab 3 Mitosis and Meiosis

Lab 4 Diffusion and Osmosis

Lab 5 Tissues and Skin

Lab 6 The Skeletal System

Lab 8 The Nervous System

Lab 9 The Endocrine System

Lab 10 Blood and the Heart

Lab 11 The Circulatory System

Lab 12 The Lymphatic System

Lab 13 The Respiratory System

Lab 15 Electrolytes, Water, Acids, and Bases

Lab 16 The Digestive System

Lab 18 The Reproductive System

• Please thoroughly read the lab exercise before starting!

Double-check the manual instructions.

• Read and understand all labels on chemicals.

Proper Lab Attire

• When working with chemicals:

Never return unused chemicals to their original container to avoid contamination.

Never place chemicals in an unmarked container to avoid identification or proper

Never ingest chemicals. If this occurs, seek immediate help.

Call 911 or “Poison Control” 1-800-222-1222

• Never pipette anything by mouth.

• Never leave a heat source unattended.

If there is a fire, evacuate the room immediately and dial 911.

Lab Clean-up and Disposal

• If a spill occurs, consult the MSDS to determine how to clean it up.

Diffusion and Osmosis

Tissues and Skin

The Skeletal System

The Muscular System

The Endocrine System

Blood and the Heart

The Lymphatic System and Immunity

The Respiratory System

The Urinary System

Electrolytes, Water, Acids, and Bases

The Digestive System

The Reproductive System

Length Approximate Age (days)

30.0 cm 114 (birth)

Anatomical Position Vocabulary

Term Definition Example

Superior Higher The knee is superior to the foot

Inferior Lower The foot is inferior to the knee

Cephalic Head The neck is cephalic to the breastbone

Caudal Tail The breastbone is caudal to the neck

Posterior Back The spine is posterior to the navel

Ventral Belly The navel is ventral to the spine

Dorsal Back The spine is dorsal to the navel

Closer to the point of attachment

Sexing the Fetal Pig

Material Safety Data Sheets

• The Scientific Method • Calculations

• Observations • Data Collection

• Variables • Percent Error