Chapter – 3

Metals and Non Metals

Metals constitute the mineral wealth of the country, which is a measure of prosperity. Metals like
Titanium, zirconium Manganese and Chromium find application in the manufacture of defence
equipment because they are light, can withstand wear and tear and are not corroded even if kept in
open for a long time.
The metal uranium is probably the most, expensive, since it plays a major role in nuclear explosions
resulting in the release of enormous amount of energy.
These are called STRATEGIC metals.
1. Physical Properties (metals)
Metals in general are very hard and quite dense. Their atoms are tightly packed. They are
crystalline solids and the atoms are linked together by metallic bonds.
2. Metallic lustre
Metals in general have lustre. However surfaces of some metals become dull when
exposed to air for some time.
Al – grey – Al2O3
Cu – green – CuCO3.Cu(OH)2 or basic copper carbonate
Ag – Black – Ag2S
In some cases they regain their lustre when rubbed with sand paper or against a hard surface.
3. Hardness
Metals are usually very hard. The extent of hardness which a metal possesses depends upon
the strength of the metallic bond. However metals like Li, Na, K are so soft that they can be cut with
a knife.
4. Malleability
The ability of a metal to be beaten into sheets is called malleability. Metals are extremely
malleable. Ag & Au are the most malleable metals.
5. Ductility
The property due to which metals can be drawn into wires is called ductility Ag & Au are
the most ductile metals.
6. Electrical Conductivity
Metals are good conductors of electricity. Eg: Ag, Cu, Al are very good conductors.
7. Thermal Conductivity
Metals are good conductors of heat. The heat energy is conducted by the migration of
electrons within the metal. Eg: Ag, Cu, Au & Al are good conductors of heat. Pb & Hg are
poor conductors.
8. They have very high melting & boiling points except Caesium & Gallium.
9. Metals are sonorous that is they make sound when hit.
Physical properties (non – metals)
1. Non – metals are generally soft solids, liquids or gases.
2. Hardness
They are generally soft except for diamond which is the hardest naturally occurring substance.
3. Lustre
They have no lustre, except for Iodine which has a shiny surface.
4. Density.
Low density except for diamond
5. Melting and boiling points.
Non – metals have low melting and boiling points except for C, Si and B which have very high
melting and boiling points.
6. Malleability
They are non – malleable.
7. Ductility
They are non – ductile.
8. Electrical conductivity.
Bad conductors of electricity except for graphite
9. They are non – sonorous.
Chemical Properties (metals)
1. Reaction with oxygen:
Metals are highly reactive & they react with oxygen to form metal oxides.
Metal + oxygen  metal oxide. The order of reactivity of metals towards air or oxygen is linked
with their positions in the activity series.
 Potassium & sodium react with oxygen at room temperature to form their respective
oxides.
They react violently & the reaction is highly exothermic. Hence to avoid the contact between
metal & oxygen present in the air, they are stored in kerosene.
4 K + O2 � 2 K 2O
4 Na + O2 � 2 Na2O
 Calcium also reacts violently with oxygen & burns with a brick red flame. The reaction is an
exothermic reaction.
4Ca + O2 � 2CaO
 Magnesium burns with a dazzling white light & forms MgO.
2 Mg + O2 � 2 MgO
 Al, Zn & Pb react with oxygen & form oxides known as amphoteric oxides. Amphoteric oxides
are those oxides which act as acids towards the bases & bases towards the acids. (i.e.) They have
both acidic & basic properties.
4 Al + 3O2 � 2 Al2O3
2 Zn + O2 � 2ZnO
2 Pb + O2 � 2 PbO

Al2O3 + 6 HCl � 2 Al Cl3 + 3H 2O

Al2O3 + 2 NaOH � 2 NaAlO2 + H 2O (sodium aluminate)

ZnO + 2 NaOH � 2 Na2 ZnO2 + H 2O (sodium zixate)

ZnO + 2 HCl � ZnCl2 + H 2O
 Fe does not burn on heating but becomes red hot. Iron fillings however burn vigorously when
sprinkled in the flame of the burner.
 Cu does not burn but the hot metal is coated with a black coloured layer of copper (II) oxide.
 Silver & Gold & Platinum do not react with oxygen even at high temperatures.

Note: All metal oxides are bases. Oxides of K, Na, Ca dissolve in water to form the hydroxides which
are known as alkalies.

2. Reaction with water:

The reactivity of metals with water is linked with their positions in the activity series. The
metal placed higher in the series is more reactive than a metal which occupies the lower
position.
Metal + water � Metal oxide + H2
Metaloxide + water � Metal hydroxide.
 Metals like K & Na which are placed high in the activity series react violently with cold water
& forms metal hydroxide & H2 gas. The reaction is so violent & exothermic that the H2 gas
catches fire immediately.
2 K + 2 H 2 O � 2 K OH + H 2 + D
( s) ( l) ( aq ) ( g)
2 Na ( s ) + 2 H 2O ( l ) � 2 NaOH ( aq ) + H 2 ( g ) + D
 Calcium reacts less violently with cold water. The heat evolved is not sufficient for H 2 to catch
fire. Ca starts floating because the bubbles of H2 gas formed stick to the surface of the metal.
Ca + 2 H 2O � Ca ( OH ) 2 + H 2 + energy
 Mg does not react with cold water but reacts with hot water to form Mg(OH)2 & H2 gas. It
starts floating due to the bubbles of H2 gas sticking to its surface.
Mg + 2 H 2O � Mg ( OH ) 2 + H 2
( hot )
 Metals like Al, Zn & Fe react with steam to form the metal oxide & H2 gas.
2 Al ( s ) + 3H 2O ( g ) � Al2O3 ( s ) + 3H 2 ( g )
Zn ( s ) + H 2O ( g ) � ZnO ( s ) + H 2 ( g )
3Fe ( s ) + 4 H 2O ( g ) � Fe3O4 ( s ) + 4H 2 ( g )
 Metals like Pb, Cu, Ag & Au do not react with water at all.

REACTION WITH ACIDS

Metals usually react with dilute mineral acids like HCl & H2SO4 to form their respective salts & H2
gas.
Metal + Acid � Metal salt + H2
HCl � H + + Cl -
H + + 1e - � H
(from metal) (atom)
H + H � H2
1. Sodium & Potassium react violently with dilute HCl & H2SO4 to form the respective salt & H2
gas.
2 Na + 2 HCl � 2 NaCl + H 2
 2 K + 2 HCl � 2 KCl + H 2
2Na + H 2 SO4 � Na2 SO4 + H 2
2. Ca reacts less violently but forms a salt & H2 gas.
Ca + H 2 SO4 � CaSO4 + H 2
3. Mg reacts rapidly with dil HCl forming MgCl2 & H2.
4. Al metal reacts slowly with dil HCl due to the presence of a layer of Al2O3 on its surface. But
when their outer layer gets dissolved in the acid then Al is exposed which reacts rapidly with dil
HCl.
2Al + 6 HCl � 2 Al Cl3 + 3H2
5. Zn reacts with dil HCl to give ZnCl2 & H2.
Zn + 2 HCl � ZnCl2 + H 2
6. Fe reacts very slowly with cold dil HCl to give Fe (II) Cl2 & H2
Fe + 2 HCl � FeCl2 + H 2
7. Cu does not react with dil HCl or H2SO4 at all, as it is below H2 in the activity series. However it
reacts with dil HNO3 because Cu has greater redox potential when compared to HNO3.
8. Ag & Au do not react with dil acids.
When a metal reacts with dil HNO3, H2 gas is not evolved, as HNO3 is strong oxidizing agent,
oxidizes H2 to H2O, as soon as it is liberated & it itself will get reduced to any of the oxides of N2.
Very dil HNO3 will react with Mg & Mn to evolve H2 gas.
Mg + 2 HNO3 � Mg ( NO3 ) 2 + H 2
(very dil)
Aqua Regia is a freshly prepared mixture of Conc HCl & Conc HNO3 in the ratio 3: 1 which is used to
dissolve Ag, Au & Pt.

DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS:
A more reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal from its aq. salt solution.
Eg. When an iron nail is placed in a blue coloured solution of CuSO 4 & left alone for 20 mins, it will
be observed that the colour of the solution changes to green & there is a brown coloured, soft & dull
deposit on the nail.
Fe ( s ) + CuSO4 ( aq ) � FeSO4 ( aq ) + Cu ( s )
(bule) (green) (brown)
It can be seen that Fe being more reactive than Cu displaces Cu from CuSO 4.

On the contrary when Cu wire is placed in green coloured FeSO4 sol & left for 20 mins, no reaction
takes place.

Fe being more reactive than Cu could not be displaced from FeSO4 sol
Cu + Fe SO4 � no reaction.
REACTIVITY SERIES:
The arrangement of metals in the decreasing order of their activity is called reactivity series. Based on
their chemical reactivity metals are arranged in the decreasing order of their activity.
K
Na
Ba
Ca Most reactive
Mg
Al
Zn

Fe
Pb Medium reactivity
[H]
Cu
Hg
Ag Least reactivity
Au
Pt

Q. How do metals & non – metals react?

Metal are electropositive in nature. They have 1, 2 or 3 electrons in the outermost shell which they
tend to lose & form +ve ions & gain octet.
-
-1e - + - +
Na ��� � Na + Mg ��� -2 e
� Mg 2 Al ���-3e
� Al 3
Eg.
2,8,1 2,8 2,8, 2 2,8 2,8,3 2,8
Non – Metals have 5, 6 or 7 electrons in their outermost shell. They tend to gain electrons to complete
their octet & form –ve ions. Hence non-metals are electronegative in nature.
- - -
+1e +2 e +3e
Cl ��� � Cl - O ��� � O 2- N ��� � N 3-
Eg.
2,8, 7 2,8,8 2, 6 2,8 2,5 2,8
When metals & non – metals reacts with one another, metal loses electrons & non – metal gains
electrons, resulting in the formation of oppositely charged ions. These ions attract each other & are
held by strong electrostatic forces of attraction – resulting in the formation of a compound called Ionic
compound & the bond formed is Ionic bond.
Formation of NaCl
1. Sodium – atomic no = 11
Electronic configuration = 2, 8, 1 � has 1 e- in the outermost shell. It tends to lose this 1 e- to attain the
Na � Na +
stable electronic configuration like that of Neon (2, 8).
2,8,1 2,8
When Na & Cl react, Na loses 1 e- & Cl gains 1 e- resulting in the formation of a compound NaCl.
NaCl does not exist as a molecule but as aggregates of oppositely charged ions.

2. MgCl2
Mg – atomic no/ = 12
EC – 2, 8, 2
 has 1e- in the valance shell. It tends to gain 1e- & attain stable EC of that of Argon (2, 8, 8)
Cl � Cl -
2,8,7 2,8,8
When Mg & Cl react Mg loses 2e- & Cl gains 1e-. Mg reacts with 2 atoms of Cl so that 2e- are gained
bu Cl.

3. MgO
Mg – atomic no/ = 12
EC = 2, 8, 2.
� has 2e in the valence shell. It tends to lose these 2e- to attain stable EC like that of Ne (2, 8)
-

Mg � Mg 2 +
2,8, 2 2,8
O – atomic no/ = 8
EC = 2, 6
� has 6e- in the valence shell. It tends to gain 2e- to attain stable EC like that of O(2 6)
-
+2 e
O ��� � O 2-
2,6 2,8
When Mg & O react Mg loses 2e- & O gains 2e- resulting in the formation of MgO.

PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

1. Ionic compounds are solids & are somewhat hard due to strong electrostatic forces of
attraction between the + ve & the –ve ions.
These compounds are generally brittle & break into prices when pressure is applied.
2. Melting & Boiling points:
Ionic compounds have very high melting & boiling points hence considerable amount of
energy is needed to overcome these forces of attraction.
3. Solubility:
Ionic compounds are generally soluble in water & insoluble in solvents such as kerosene,
petrol etc. (non – polar solvents).
4. Conduction of electricity:
Ionic compounds conduct electricity only is the molten state or in the solution form, however
they cannot do so in the solid state as movement of ions is not possible due to the rigid structure.
In the molten state the strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the oppositely charged
ions are overcome due to heat. Hence the ions move freely & conduct electricity. A
solution of ionic compound contain ions which move to the opposite electrodes &
conduct electricity.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF NON – METALS:
1. Reaction with oxygen:
Non – metals react with oxygen to form acidic or neutral oxides. These acidic oxides dissolve in
water to form acids.
1) C + O2 � CO2
CO2 + H 2O � H 2CO3
2) S + O2 � SO2
2SO2 + O2 � 2SO3
SO3 + H 2O � H 2 SO4
N 2O5 + H 2O � 2 HNO3
3) 4 P + 5O2 � 2 P2O5
P2O5 + H 2O � 2 H 3 PO4
4) 2C + O2 � 2CO
5) N 2 + O2 � 2 NO
2. Reaction with water:
Non – metals do not react with water.
3. Reaction with dilute acids:
Non – metals do not react with dilute acids.
4. Reaction with salt solutions:
Non – metals are capable of displacing the other non – metals from their salt solutions.

METALLURGY:

EXTRACTION
Ore

Enrichment of the ore

High reactivity Medium reactivity Low reactivity

(oxides chlorides)

Na, K, Ca, Mg, Al Carbonate Sulphide Sulphide

Electrolysis of molten ore Calcination roasting roasting

Metal
refining
oxide of metal
 Pure metal
reduction

refining

pure metal
The three steps followed in the extraction of metals from their ore are:
 Enrichment of the ore
 Reduction
 Refining.

MINERAL: The inorganic compounds of metals that are available in the earth’s crust are known as
minerals. Eg: Al2O3 .2 H 2O, Fe2O3 , Fe3O4
ORE: A mineral that contains very high % of a metal & the metal can be profitably extracted is called
the ore of the metal.
Eg: Al2O3. 2H2O (Bauxite) for aluminium.

GANGUE:The sand, soil & other impurities present in the ore are called gangue.

Enrichment of the Ore:

The impurities must be removed from the ore prior to the extraction of the metals. The processes used
for removing the Gangue from the ore are based on the differences in physical & chemical properties
of the ore & gangue. Different concentration procedures such as hydraulic washing, froth floatation
process & magnetic separation are used.

Extraction of the metals (reduction) :

The extraction of the metals depends upon the position of the metal in the activity series.

Metals low in the activity series:

These metals are very unreactive. The ores of the metal in the form of sulphides can be converted into
metals by heating them strongly in air.
Eg: Cinnabar (HgS) is the ore of Hg. When the concentrated HgS is heated strongly the following
reactions take place with the formation of metal Hg.
2 HgS + 3O2 � 2 HgO + 2SO2
D
2 HgO �� � 2 Hg + O2
Cu2S is the ore of Cu. When the concentrated form of the ore is heated strongly in the presence of air
it forms Cu2O. Cu2O reacts with Cu2S to form Cu.
2Cu2O + 3O2 � 2Cu2O + 2SO2
Cu2 S + 2Cu2O � 6Cu + SO2

Medium reactivity:
The concentrated ores of these metals are usually in the form of their oxides or sulphides or
carbonates. Before their extraction of metals, these are subjected to the process of calcination or
Roasting as described below.
Calcination is the process of heating a carbonate ore strongly in the absence of excess of air, such that
it decomposes to form the metal oxide. Calcination removes excess moisture from the wet ore &
makes the ore porous & expels volatile impurities from the ore.
D
ZnCO3 �� � ZnO + CO2

Roasting: The process of heating the concentrated sulphide ore in the presence of excess of air such
that it changes to a metallic oxide is called roasting.
2 ZnS + 3O2 � 2ZnO + 2SO2
The conversion of metal oxide into metal is called reduction. The oxide ore is mixed with carbon or
carbon monoxide which acts as a reducing agent.
ZnO + C � Zn + CO
ZnO + CO � Zn + CO2
Sometimes, highly reactive metals such as Na, K, Ca, Al are also used as reducing agents because
they can easily displace metals of low reactivity from their compounds.
Mn is obtained from MnO2 by heating with Al powder. The reaction is highly exothermic in nature &
the metal is obtained in the liquid form.
3MnO2 + 2 Al � 2 Al2O3 + 3Mn ( l ) + D
In this reaction a mixture of iron (III) oxide and Al powder is placed in a small pot having a hole at
the base. The reaction takes place when the mixture is ignited & iron is given out in the liquid form
because of exothermic nature of the reaction. This reaction is used to fill the gaps in the railway tracks
or tracks in the machine parts.
Fe2O3 + 2 Al � Al2O3 + 2 Fe ( l ) + D

EXTRACTION OF METALS OF HIGH REACTIVITY:

Oxides & chlorides of highly active metals such as sodium K, Ca & Al cannot be reduced by carbon or
CO as these metals have more affinity for oxygen than for carbon or CO. Hence, these metals are
obtained by electrolysis of the molten ore.
Na, K, Ca, Mg are obtained from their molten chloride but Al is obtained from molten oxide.
Eg: when current is passed through fused NaCl in a specially designed electrolytic cell provided with
a graphite anode & steel cathode. The Na ions migrate towards cathode. The Na ions migrate towards
cathode & chloride ions migrate towards anode.
At anode: Cl- ions donate e- s & are oxidised to Cl atoms which unite to form Cl gas.
Cl - � Cl + 1e -
Cl + Cl � Cl2 �

At cathode: Na ions accept e- s & are reduced to Na metals.

 Na + + 1e - � Na
Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
Al2O3 � 2 Al 3+ 3O 2-
Anode:
3O 2 � 3O + 6e -
3O + 3O � 3O2 �
Cathode:
2 Al 3+ + 6e - � 2 Al
Electrolytic Refining:
Metals produced by self-reduction of the ores or reduction of ores with Carbon or CO are not in pure
state. They always contain impurities which must be reduced to obtain pure metals.

Electrolytic refining of metals is the process by which the metallic impurities are removed from the
metal by using electrolytic process.
 Electrolyte is made up of soluble ionic salts of the metal which is to be refined. An acid is
added to it to make it a better conductor.
 Anode consists of impure metal which needs refining.
 The cathode consists of strip or rod of pure metal.
 On passing electric current impure metal dissolves in the electrolyte in the form of its ions &
pure metal deposits on the cathode.
 The soluble impurities of the metal will dissolve in the electrolyte whereas the insoluble ones
will get collected at the base of the anode as Anode mud.
Electrolytic defining of copper:
It is the purification procedure for impure copper rod obtained after extraction of the metal.
 The electrolyte consists of an aq. Solution of CuSO4. It is acidified to make it a better conductor of
electricity & to prevent hydrolysis of CuSO4.
 The cathode consists of a thin strip of pure Cu metal connected to the – ve terminal of the
battery.
 Anode consists of impure cylindrical rod of Cu connected to the + ve terminal of battery when
current is passed the following reactions take place.
Anode: pure Cu atoms from impure Cu anode lose to e- s to become Cu ions which enter the
electrolyte.
Cu � Cu 2+ + 2e -
Electrolyte:
The electrolyte splits to form Cu2+ & SO42- ions. The Cu2+ ions from the electrolyte move towards the
cathode. The sulphate ions combine with Cu2+ ions from the anode to form CuSO4 again.
2-
CuSO4 � Cu 2+ + SO4
2-
Cu 2+ + SO4 � CuSO4
Cathode: The Cu2+ ions that have moved from the electrolyte accept the 2e- s & get reduced to Cu
atoms. Over a period of time, the anode becomes thinner whereas the cathode gets deposited with the
metal. The anode is replaced periodically. The soluble impurities go into the solution whereas the
insoluble ones get deposited below the anode as Anode mud.
Alloys:
An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of 2 or more metals or a metal & a non – metal. An alloy is
prepared by mixing various metals in molten state in required proportions & cooling the mixture to
room temperature. The properties of an alloy are different from its constituents.
 Alloys are stronger than the metals from which they are made.
 Alloys are resistant to corrosion.
 They have low melting point.
 They have lower electrical conductivity than their pure metals.
Eg: stainless steel – Iron + Nickel + Chromium
It is tough, strong & does not rust at all.
 Brass – Copper + Zinc.
It is more malleable & stronger than pure Cu. Colour is more golden. It is used to make nuts,
screws, wire, electrical fittings etc.
 Bronze – Copper + Tin
It is very tough, highly resistant to corrosion & is used for making statues, coins, medals,
cooking utensils etc.
 Solder – lead + Tin
Its melting point is less than that of pure metal. It is used for soldering electrical wires.
 Amalgam – Mercury + any other metal.
It reduces the chemical reactivity of the metal.
 Alloys of gold
Pure gold is 24 carat & it is very soft due to which it is not used for making jewellery. It is
generally alloyed with silver & copper to make it hard. This harder alloy of gold is suitable for
making ornaments. In India , we have 22 carat gold ie, 22 parts of pure gold with 2 parts of silver or
copper (18 carat gold is 18 parts of gold & 6 parts of silver or copper).

Question & Answers.

1. You are given a hammer, battery, bulb, wires & a switch.
a) How could you use them to distinguish between samples of metals & non – metals?
Ans. With the help of hammer convert metal & non – metal both into forms of sheet. Metals will
readily form sheets, since they are malleable. Non – metals being brittle will break when struck with
hammer. Set up a small circuit with a battery, bulb, wire & a switch. Leave a gap XY in the circuit in
the gap, first five a metal & allow the current to pass through. We see that the bulb glows. When we
set up a piece of non – metal in the gap of the same circuit the bulb does not glow.
b) Assess the usefulness of these tests in distinguishing between metals & non – metals.
Ans. From these observations we can conclude that metals are malleable while non – metals are not,
metals are good conductors of electricity while non –metals are not.
2. What are amphoteric oxides. Give 2 examples.
Ans. The oxides of metals which act as acids towards the bases & bases towards the acids. These
oxides of metals possess both acidic & basic properties.
Eg: Al2O3 , ZnO & PbO
 ZnO + HCl � ZnCl2 + H 2O
(s) (aq) (aq) (l)
(basic)
 ZnO ( s ) + NaOH ( aq ) � Na2 ZnO2 ( aq ) + H 2O ( l )
(acidic)
 Al2O3 ( s ) + 6 HCl ( aq ) � 2 AlCl3 ( aq ) + 3H 2O ( l )
Al2O3 ( s ) + 2 NaOH ( aq ) � 2 NaAlO2 ( aq ) + H 2O ( l )
3. Name 2 metals which will displace. Hydrogen from dilute acids & 2 metals which will not.
Ans. Mg & Zn displace Hydrogen from dilute acids as they are more reactive while Cu, Ag, Au do
not displace.
4. In the electrolytic refining of a metal M, what would you take as the anode, the cathode & the
electrolyte?
Ans. Impure metal rod of metal M is taken as anode. Thin strip of pure metal is taken as cathode.
Soluble salt of metal M is taken as an electrolyte.
5. Pratyush took sulphur powder on a spatula & heated it. He collected the gas evolved by inverting
a test tube over it.
a) What will be the action of gas on
i) dry litmus – no change in colour
ii) Moist litmus paper – blue litmus changes red.
b) Write balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
S + O2 � SO2
SO2 + H 2O � H 2 SO3
Sulphurous acid formed will turn blue litmus red.

6. State two ways to prevent rusting of iron.

Ans. Painting – Iron articles are painted so that the surface does not come in contact with air or water
& does not get rusted.
Galvanization – It is a process in which iron articles are coated with Zn metal so as to
prevent them from rusting. Zn is more reactive than iron, hence it loses electrons more
readily & prevents iron from rusting.

7. What type of oxides are formed when non – metals combine with oxygen?
Ans. Acidic oxides are formed when non – metals combine with oxygen
C + O2 � CO2
CO2 + H 2O � H 2CO3
8. Give reasons.
a) Platinum, gold & silver are used to make jewellery.
� Gold, silver & Platinum are used to make jewellery as they are highly lustrous, malleable
& ductile.
b) Sodium, Potassium & Lithium are stored under oil.
� This is because, these metals are highly reactive & catch fire readily when they come into
contact with oxygen & moisture.
c) Al is a highly reactive metal, yet it is used to make utensils for cooking.
� Al forms an oxide layer on its surface & protects it from getting corroded.
d) Carbonate & sulphide ores are usually concerted into oxides during the process of extraction.
� This is because it is easy to reduce an oxide as compared to carbonates & sulphides.

9. You must have seen tarnished copper vessels being cleaned with lemon or tamarind juice. Explain
why these sour substances are effective in cleaning the vessels.
Ans. CuCO3 formed on the Cu vessel is basic in nature & will react with acid present in lemon juice &
gets dissolved & removed.

10. Differentiate between metals & non – metals on the basis of their chemical properties.
METALS NON - METALS
� Metals can lose e s easily forming +ve ions � Non – metals can gain e- s easily forming –ve
-

ions.
� Metals form basic oxides. � Non – metals form acidic oxides.
� Metals can displace hydrogen from dilute � Non – metals cannot displace H2 from dilute
acids. acids.
� Reactive metals can displace H2 from water � Non – metals cannot displace H2 from water

11. A man went door to door posing as a goldsmith. He promised to bring back the glitter of old &
dull gold ornaments. An unsuspecting lady gave a set of gold bangles to him which he dipped in a
particular solution. The bangles sparkled like new but their weight was reduced drastically. The lady
was upset but after a futile argument the man beat a hasty retreat. Find the sol used.
Ans. The solution is aquaregia, which is a mixture of freshly prepared conc. Solution of HCl & HNO3
in the ratio 3 : 1. Gold got dissolved in it.
12. Give reasons why Cu is used to make hot water tanks & not steel (an alloy of iron).
Ans. Cu is a better conductor of heat than steel. Cu does not react with water.

Value Based Questions

1. Ritesh was asked to determine the melting point of a given organic solid. Foe this, he used a
bath containing conc. H2SO4. When he was looking at the thermometer, he lost his
concentration and became a little casual. The beaker containing boiling H 2SO4 fell on his
clothes. His clothes were burned and he got burns on hands. His friend saw this and he
immediately rushed him to doctor.

(a) Why did Ritesh meet with an accident?

(b) Why did he get severe burns on the hands?
(c) What precautions do you suggest which he should take in future?
(d) What values were displayed by his friend?

2. Ramu was asked to purify a sample of copper extracted by a suitable method. He constructed a
cell in which a rod of impure copper was made a cathode while that of pure copper was made
anode. The electrolyte was CuSO4 (aq) solution. On passing current nothing happened. His friend
looked at the apparatus set up and corrected his mistake and connected electrodes in the
reverse order. He was quite successful in his mission.

(a) What was his mistake?

(b) How did he rectify it?
(c) Write a chemical equation for the reaction.
(d) What values were displayed by Ramu’s friend?

3. A lady wanted to give a coating of white wash to her room. She purchase quicklime from the
market and dissolved it in water and immediately applied the same ion the wall. In this process,
she spoiled her hands and even suffered minor burns. Her friend advised her not to be in haste and
keep it over night before applying on the wall. She followed her advice and there was no problem.

(a) What mistake was committed by the lady?

(b) Why did she suffer from burns?
(c) How did the advice of her friend help her?
(d) What values were displayed by the friend?

Worksheet

1. State reasons for the following:

(a) Titanium is known as a strategic metal.
(b) Carbon is not used to reduce the oxide of Aluminium to get the metal.
(c) Non metals in general do not form positively charged ions.
(d) Germanium is known as a metalloid.
(e) In spite of high reactivity, aluminium can be used for making household utensils.
2. Explain how the following metals are obtained from their compounds by the reduction
process:
(a) Metal X which is low in reactivity series.
(b) Metal Y which is in the middle of the series
(c) Metals which is high up in the reactivity series.
3. A, B, and C are three elements which undergo chemical changes according to the following
equations:
(a) A2O3 + 2B B2O3 + 2A
(b) 2CSO4 + 2B B2SO4 + 3CO
(c) 3CO + 2A A2O3 + 3C
4. What would you observe when you put
(a) Some Zinc pieces into blue copper sulphate solution.
(b) Some copper pieces into green ferrous sulphate solution.
5. Na, K and Ca form hydrides by combination with H 2 gas. But most of the metals do not.
Explain?
6. An element ‘X’ on reacting with oxygen forms an oxide X2O. This oxide dissolves in water and
turns blue litmus red. State whether element X is a metal or non-metal.
7. A metal ‘X’ loses two electrons and a non metal gains one electron. Show the electron dot
structure of compound formed between them. Is it ionic or covalent? Does it have high melting
point or low? Will it conduct electricity in solid state or in aqueous solution and why? Will it be
soluble in water?
8. A yellow coloured powder ‘X’ is soluble in carbon di sulphide. It burns with a blue flame
forming suffocating odour which turns blue litmus red. Identify ‘X’ and give chemical
reaction. Identify whether it is a metal or non metal.
9. A student took Zn, Al, Cu, Fe, Mg, Na metals and put each metal in cold water and then hot
water and then with steam.
i) Name the metal which reacts with cold water.
ii) Which of the above metals react with steam.
iii) Name the metal which reacts with hot water.
iv) Arrange these metals in order of increasing reactivity.
10. An element E combines with O 2 and forms an oxide E2O , which is a good conductor of
electricity. Answer the following:
i) How many electrons will be present in the outer most shell of E.?
ii) Write the formula of the compound formed when it combines with chlorine.
11. No reaction takes place when granules of solid ‘A’ are mixed with a powder of solid’B’.
However, when the mixture is heated a reaction starts with evolution of heat. Product ‘C’ of
the reaction settles down as a liquid metal and solid product ‘D’ keeps floating over the liquid C.
This reaction is sometimes used for making metals for ready use in odd places.
(i) Based on this information, make assumptions about A and B and corresponding
deductions about C and D and write a balanced chemical reaction for the reaction and
also write the physical states of reactants and products.
(ii) Name two types of chemical reactions to which this reaction can belong.
12. A metal that exists as a liquid at room temperature is obtained by heating its sulphide in the
presence of air. Identify the metal and its ore and give the reaction involved.
13. A non metal X exists in two different forms Y and Z. Y is the hardest natural substance,
whereas Z is a good conductor of electricity. Identify X,Y and Z.
14. What are the constituents of solder alloy? Which property of solder makes it suitable for
welding electrical wires?
15. When a metal X is treated with cold water it gives a basic salt Y with molecular formula XOH
(molecular mass=40) and liberates a gas Z which easily catches fire. Identify X, Y and Z and also
write the reaction involved.
16. A metal X is found in the form of filings which burn vigorously when sprinkled on flame. When
these filings are heated with sulphur, a black coloured compound is formed which is not
attracted by magnet. X reacts with dil HCl to liberate HCl gas. X reacts with steam to form Z
along with Hydrogen gas. Identify X, Y and Z and write the chemical reactions involved.
17. A student was given Mn, Zn, Fe and Cu metals. Identify which of them
(i) Will not displace Hydrogen from dil HCl.
(ii) Will react only with steam to give hydrogen.
 (iii) Will give hydrogen with 5% HNO3.
(iv) Will be displaced from its salt solution by all other metals.

Chapter - 4
CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

Classification:
Hydrocarbon

Aliphatic Aromatic

Saturated single bond Unsaturated

Eg; Alkane
 CnH2n+2 double bond triple bond
Eg; Alkenes Alkynes
CnH2n CnH2n-2
Hydrocarbons:
A compound made up of hydrogen and carbon is called a hydrocarbon.
Eg; Methane, Ethane.
Hydrocarbons may be classified into two different types:
- Saturated hydrocarbons
- Unsaturated hydrocarbons
Saturated hydrocarbons:
If in a given hydrocarbon all the carbon atoms are linked to each other by
a single covalent bond, then such a hydrocarbon is called a saturated
hydrocarbon. Eg; 4 hydrogen atoms in methane are arranged in a tetra – hedral shape in which each
hydrogen lies at the corner of a regular tetra – hedron & the carbon atom is in the centre.

Alkane series:
The series of hydrocarbons with a single bond between carbon atoms are known as alkanes. The
general formula is CnH2n+2 (where ‘n’ is the no. of carbon atoms).
Hydrocarbons can be named as follows according to number of carbon atoms:
C1:Meth
C2:Eth
C3:Prop
C4:But
C5:Pent
C6:Hex
C7:Hept
C8:Oct
C9:Non
C10:Dec

Series of Alkanes – CnH2n+2.

Name Molecular form Structural form Condensed form

Methane CH4 H
I Eg: CH4
Ethane C2H6 Eg: H - C - H
I
Propane C3H8
H

Butane C4H10
Pentane C5H12
Hexane C6H14
Unsaturated hydrocarbons:
If in a given hydrocarbon one pair of carbon atoms are linked to each other by a double or a triple
covalent bond, then such a hydrocarbon is called an unsaturated hydrocarbon.
Eg; Ethene C = C
Ethyne C �C
Alkene series:
Alkenes are a homologous series of hydrocarbons characterized by a double covalent bond in a
straight chain of carbon atoms. The general formula is CnH2n. the name of the alkene can be obtained
by attaching ‘ene’ to the greek no. of carbon atoms in its molecule.

Series of Alkenes - CnH2n

Name Molecular form Structural form Condensed form
Ethene C2H4 H - C = C- H Eg: CH 2 = CH 2
Eg: I I
Propene C3H6 H H

Butene C4H8
Pentene C5H10
Hexene C6H12

Alkynes series are the homologous series of unsaturated hydrocarbons characterized by the presence
of a triple bond in the chain of carbon atoms. The general formula is CnH2n-2. The name of the given
carbon compound can be obtained by attaching ‘yne’ to the greek no. of carbon atoms in its molecule.

Name Molecular form Structural formula Condensed formula

Ethyne C2 H 2 Eg: H - C �C - H Eg: CH �CH

Propyne C3 H 4

Butyne C4 H 6

Pentyne
C5 H 8

Hexyne
C6 H10

Cyclic or Aromatic hydrocarbons:

If in a given hydrocarbon the carbon atoms are joined in such a way so as to form a closed ring, then
such a hydrocarbon is called cyclic or aromatic hydrocarbon.
Eg; Benzene (C6H6)
Homologous series:
A series of compounds in which the same functional group substitutes for Hydrogen in a carbon
chain is called a homologous series.
Each member of the series differs from the preceeding or succeeding member by a – CH 2 (methylene)
unit. As the molecular mass increases in any homologous, a gradation in the physical properties is
seen. The chemical properties which are determined by the functional group are similar.
Eg:
Alkanes Alkenes Alcohols
CH4 C2H4 CH 3OH
C2H6 C3H6 C2 H 5OH
C3H8 C4H8 C3 H 7OH
Functional Group:
The functional group in an organic compound is an atom or a group of atoms bonded together in
such a unique manner that it is usually the site of chemical reactivity in an organic molecule. When
elements like nitrogen, sulphur, oxygen & chlorine are present in an organic compound, they are
generally present as a part of functional group and are called heteroatoms.

Series Functional General Prefix/suffix Examples/typical members

Group formula
Alcohol -OH R - OH Suffix ‘ol’ CH3OH, C2H5OH, C3H7OH
Methanol, ethanol, propanol

=O =O
-C - H R - C -H
Aldehyde Suffix ‘al’ Methanal, Ethanal
HCHO, CH3 CHO

=O
Carboxylic Acid -C - OH Suffix ‘oic acid’ Methanoic acid, Ethanoic acid
=O
R - C - OH HCOOH , CH3 COOH

O
O
P P

-C - R-C - R
Ketone Suffix ‘one’ Propanone, Butanone
CH3-CO-CH3 C2H5-CO-CH3

-X
Halo Alkane (X= F,Cl, Prefix ‘Halo’ Chloromethane, Bromoethane
Br,I) R–X
CH3 Cl C2 H5 Br

Homologous series of alcohol (- OH)

Alkane Alcohol Structural formula

 Methane Methanol H
I

CH4 CH3OH Eg: H - C - O - H

I
H

Ethane Ethanol
C2H6 C2H5OH

Propane Propanol
C3H8 C3H7OH

Butane Butanol
C4H10 C4H9OH

Pentane Pentanol
C5H12 C5H11OH

Hexane Hexanol
C6H14 C6H13OH

Homologous series of Aldehyde (R – CHO)

Alkane Aldehyde Structural formula

Methane Methanal H
CH4 H CHO Eg: H – C
O
Ethane Ethanal
C2H6 CH3 CHO

Propane Propanal
C3H8 C2 H5 CHO

Butane Butanal
C4H10 C3 H7 CHO

Pentane Pentanal
C5H12 C4 H9 CHO

Hexane Hexanal
C6H14 C5 H11 CHO

Homologous series of carboxylic acid ( R - COOH)

 Alkane Carboxylic acid Structural formula
Methane Methanoic acid O
Eg: II
CH4 HCOOH H - C- O - H

Ethane Ethanoic acid

C2H6 CH3COOH

Propane Propanoic acid

C3H8 C2H5COOH

Butane Butanoic acid

C4H10 C3H7 COOH

Pentane Pentanoic acid

C5H12 C4H9 COOH

Hexane Hexanoic acid

C6H14 C5H11 COOH

Homologous series of Ketone ( R - CP - R1 )

Alkane Ketone Structural formula

Propane Propanone H
I
O
II
H
I

C3H8 CH3 COCH3 Eg: H - C - C - C - H

I I
H H

Butane Butanone
C4H10 C2H5 COCH3
Pentanone
Pentane C3H7 COCH3
C5H12
Hexanone
Hexane C4H8 COCH3
C6H14

IUPAC Nomenclature Rules:

- Select longest chain possible, as the parent carbon chain.
- In the following example the longest chain possible is the one with 5 carbon atoms.
 H H H H H
I I I I I
H - C - C - C - CI - C - H
I I I I
H H H HCH H
I
H

- For aliphatic hydrocarbons the no. of carbons in the parent compound is denoted by proper –
prefix
- Meth, eth, prop, buta, penta, hexa for 1,2,3,4,5,6 carbon atoms respectively. Then the suffix is
added to specify the bond between carbon atoms.
- Groups attached to the parent chain are indicated by their names & counting the no. of
carbon atoms on the parent chain to which they are attached are written as prefix.
- The counting of carbon atoms is done in such a manner that the substituent or functional
group gets the lowest possible no.
- When there are 2 or more functional groups in the same molecule then they are of the same
kind. Then they are named by putting the groups in the alphabetical order.

Draw the structures for the following:

2 – Chlorobutanal
1,1,2 – Tribromoethane
3 – Methylhexane
4,4 – Dimethyepentanol
1,2 – Dichlorobenzene
2, 2 – Dimethylpropane
5 – Ethyl – 2, 3 – dimethylheptane
Isomerism:
Organic compounds having same molecular formula but different structural formula & different
physical & chemical properties are called isomer.

Isomerism is a phenomena due to which there can exist 2 or more organic compounds with different
physical & chemical properties due to their structure but have same molecular formula.

Chemical properties of carbon compounds:

- Combustion
Carbon in all its allotropic forms burns in oxygen to give CO2 & heat & right. Most carbon
compounds also release a lot of amount of heat & light along with CO2 & H2O.
C + O2  CO2 + heat & light
CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2 H2O + heat & light
C2H5CH3 + O2 2CO2 + 3H2O + heat & light
Saturated hydrocarbons will generally give a clean blue flame when they undergo complete
combustion and in the limited supply of air, they result in incomplete combustion & produces a
yellow coloured sooty flame.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons will give only a yellow flame with lots of black smoke.
Oxidation:
Carbon compounds can be easily oxidized on combustion.
 al k KM nO4 + D
C2 H 5OH CH 3COOH
acidified K 2Cr2O7 + D
Substances which are capable of adding oxygen to others are known as oxidizing agents. In the above
reaction acidified K2Cr2O7 & Alkaline KMnO4 are acting as oxidizing agents.
Addition Reaction:
Organic compounds become unsaturated if their molecules contain at least one C = C or C �C .
In order to change unsaturated compounds into saturated ones they take part in addition reaction.
1R 1R 1R 1R
C = C + H 2 ���
Ni / Pd
�H - C- C- H
1 1 1 1
R R R R

The addition of hydrogen to unsaturated hydrocarbon in the presence of catalysts Nickel or

palladium is known as catalytic Hydrogenation.
C2 H 4 + H 2 ���
Ni / Pd
� C2 H 6
Hydrogenation is extremely useful in the hydrogenation of oils. Vegetable oils generally have long –
unsaturated carbon chains, while animal fats have saturated carbon chains. Upon passing H 2 gas
through vegetable oils in the presence of Nickel or palladium, unsaturated oil changes into solid fat.
(Vanaspati). This is the industrial application of hydrogenation.

Note: Unsaturated compounds only can undergo addition reaction.

Substitution Reaction:
Organic compounds particularly saturated hydrocarbons, one or more hydrogen atoms in the
molecule get substituted by other atoms.
For eg: Which Methane reacts with chlorine in the presence of sunlight, chlorine can replace the H 2
atoms one by one. A number of products are usually formed by higher homologues – of alkanes.
CH 4 + Cl2 ���
sunlight
� CH 3Cl + HCl
Note: Saturated compounds undergo substitution reactions.
Ethanol:
 It is a major constituent of all alcoholic beverages such as whisky, beer etc.
 It is a very useful solvent for organic compounds.
 It is used in medicines such as tincture of iodine, cough syrups & tonics.
 It is used as an antifreeze.
 Ethanol is soluble in water in any proportion.
 Intake of small quantity of pure ethanol or absolute alcohol can be lethal.
Physical properties:
 Ethanol is a colourless liquid with a characteristic smell, alcoholic smell.
 It boils at 351 K & melts at 156 K.
 It is neutral towards litmus.
 A solution containing 95% alcohol & 5% water is called rectified spirit.
 Ethanol is highly soluble in water.
Chemical properties:
 The chemical properties of alcohols are because of OH group.
Reaction with sodium metal:
 Ethanol reacts with sodium leading to the evolution of Hydrogen gas.
 2C2H5OH + 2Na  2C2H5ONa + H2
Sodium ethoxide
 Reaction with concentrated H2SO4 to give unsaturated hydrocarbon.
Ethanol reacts with concentrated H2SO4 at 443 K & it results in the dehydration of ethanol to give
rise to ethene.
Conc. H 2 SO4
C2 H 5OH CH 2 = CH 2 + H 2O
443 K
 Conc. H2SO4 acts as a dehydrating agent.
Denatured Alcohol:
Alcohol supplied to the industries is rendered unfit for human consumption by adding substances
such as CuSO4, methanol, pyridine & dyes. The colour of the alcohol is changed to blue so that is can
be identified easily. This is called denatured alcohol.
H O
I II
Ethanoic Acid: H - C - C - O - H
H

= O
Compounds containing C O- H
group attached to the carbon atom of the alkyl chain are called
carboxylic acids. Carboxylic acids are weak acids as they are not completely ionized when dissolved
in water. Ethanoic acid is a monobasic acid.
CH3 COOH  CH3 COO- + H+
CH3 COOH + H2O  CH3 COO- + H3O+
It has only one replacable hydrogen atom.

Physical Properties:
 It is miscible with water in all proportions & forms a homogenous mixture.
 It is a colourless liquid with sour taste and typical vinegar – like smell.
 Ethanoic acid boils at 391 K & freezes at 290 K.
 5 to 8% solution of ethanoic acid in water is called vinegar & is used as a preservative in
pickles.
 Pure ethanoic acid is called as glacial acetic acid.
 Ethanoic acid is also called glacial acetic acid as it freezes at 290 K & forms an icy mass which
looks like glaciers.
Chemical Properties:
Ethanoic acid reacts with absolute alcohol in the presence of an acid, to give ester
Ester are sweet – swelling substances that are used in making perfumes & flavouring agents.
C2H5OH + CH3 COOH �� acid
�� CH3 COOC2H5 + H2O
Ethanol Ethanoic acid Ethyl ethanoate (ester)
Ester Hydrolysis:
Esters react in the presence of an acid or a base to give back the alcohol & the carboxylic acid.
acid / NaOH
CH3 COOC2H5 ����
+ H 2O
� CH3COOH + C2H5OH

Reaction with a base: (Saponification)

Ethanoic acid reacts with a base such as NaOH to form salt & water. (sodium ethanoate)
 CH3 COOH + NaOH � CH3 COONa + H2O
Sodium ethanoate

Reaction with sodium carbonate & sodium Bicarbonate:

Ethanoic acid reacts with metal carbonate & bicarbonate with brick effervescence to form salts, water
& release CO2 gas. The gas is tested by passing it through lime water. Lime water turns milky.
2CH3 COOH + Na2CO3 � 2CH3 COONa + H2O + CO2
Sodium ethanoate
CH3 COOH + NaHCO3 � CH3 COONa + H2O + CO2
Sodium ethanoate
Ca ( OH ) 2 + CO2 � CaCO3 + H 2O
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 � Ca(HCO3)2
Soaps and detergents:
Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acids. The fatty acids are present in the
form of esters with glycerol. These esters called glycerides are present in fats & oils of animal &
vegetable origin.
Cleansing action of soap:
The molecules of soap are sodium or potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acids. The ionic end of
soap dissolves in water while the carbon chain dissolves in oil. The ionic end is hydrophilic as it
dissolves in water while the other end is hydrophobic as it dissolves in hydrocarbons.
When the soap is at the surface of water, the hydrophobic tail of soap will not be soluble in water, &
the soap will align along the surface of water with the ionic end in water & hydrocarbon tail
protruding out of water.
Inside water these molecules have a unique orientation that keeps the hydrocarbon portion out of the
water. This is achieved by forming clusters of molecules in which the hydrophobic tails are in the
interior of the cluster & the ionic ends are on the surface of the cluster. This formation is called
micelle.

hydrophilic/ carboxylic acid chain hydrophobic/

ionic end & non ionic end.

During cleaning, the hydrocarbon tail attaches itself to the oily dirt. When water is agitated the oily
dirt tends to lift off from the dirty surface & dissociates into fragments. This gives an opportunity to
the other tails to stick to oils.
Soap in the form of micelle will be able to clean since the oily dirt will be collected in the centre. The
micelle stay in the solution as a colloid & will not come together to precipitate because of ion – ion
repulsion. Thus the dirt suspended in the micelle is also rinsed away.
Detergents:
They are ammonium or sulphonate salts of long chain carboxylic acids. The cleansing action of
detergent is considered to be more effective than a soap. The charged ends of the detergent do not
form insoluble precipitates with calcium & magnesium ions in hard water. Hence they remain
affective in hard water. Detergents are generally used to make shampoos & products for cleaning
clothes.
Answer the following:
1. What would be the electron dot structure of Carbon dioxide.
Ans. Atomic number of carbon is 6. It has 4 valence electrons. In order to achieve octet & stable
electronic configuration like that of neon, it has to share 4 electrons.
Oxygen’s is atomic number is 8. It has 6 valence electrons. Needs 2 more to complete the octet
& attain a stable electronic configuration like that of Neon.
Carbon shares 2 electrons each with 2 atoms of oxygen in the formation of CO2.
O :: C :: O:
2. What would be the electron dot structure of sulphur which is made up of 8 atoms.
Ans.

Sulphur with atomic number 16 has 6 valence electrons. In order to achieve the nearest stable noble
gas configuration, each sulphur atom shares 2 electrons with 2 atoms of sulphur.
3. What are the 2 properties of carbon which lead to the huge number of carbon compounds we see
around us?
Ans. The properties of carbon are:-
 Catenation
 Tetravalency
Catenation:
Carbon has a unique ability to form bonds with the other atoms of carbon to form compounds having
long chains, branched chains or rings of carbon atoms.
Tetravalency:
Carbon has the capability to form bonds with 4 other atoms of carbon or atoms of some other
monovalent elements.
4. What will be the formula & electron dot structures of cyclo pentane?
Ans.

5. Why is the conversion of ethanol to ethanoic acid an oxidation reaction?

Ans. The conversion of ethanol to ethanoic acid is an oxidation reaction as oxygen is added &
hydrogen is removed.
 Alk KMnO4 + D
2C2H5OH CH3 COOH
Acidified K 2Cr = O7 + D
Ethanoic acid
6. A mixture of oxygen & ethyne is burnt for welding. Can you tell why a mixture of ethyne & air
is not used?
Ans. If a mixture of ethyne & air is used there may be an incomplete combustion of ethyne resulting
in a yellow flame with lots of black smoke. The temperature required for welding is quite high. A
yellow flame does not give the required temperature. Hence a mixture of ethyne & oxygen is used so
that there is a complete combustion.
7. How would you distinguish experimentally between an alcohol & a carboxylic acid?
Ans. Alcohol & carboxylic acid can be distinguished experimentally by using a saturated solution of
sodium hydrogen carbonate.
 Take about 2ml of saturated solution of NaHCO3 in 2 test tubes. Label them A & B.
 To Test tube A add a few drops of Alcohol. No reaction takes place in case of alcohol.
2C2H5OH + Na HCO3 � no reaction
 To Test tube add a few drops of ethanoic acid. A brisk reaction takes peace with evolution of
a colourless gas which when passed through lime water turns milky.
CH3 COOH + NaHCO3 � CH3 COONa + H2O + CO2 �
Result: CO2 is evolved by reaction between NaHCO3 & carboxylic acid but not between NaHCO3 &
alcohol.
8. What are oxidizing agents?
Ans. Substances which an reaction with a substance oxidises it by
adding oxygen or removing hydrogen are called oxidizing agents.
Eg: acidified K2CrO7 & alkaline KMnO4
9. Would you be able to check if water is hard by using a detergent?
Ans. We would not be able to check if water is hard by using a detergent because the charged ends of
detergents do not form insoluble precipitate with Ca2+ & Mg2+ ions present in hard water.
10. People use a variety of methods to wash clothes usually after adding the soap they ‘beat’ the
clothes on the stone or treat it with a paddle scrub it with a brush. Why is agitation necessary to get
clean clothes?
Ans. During the cleansing action of soaps & detergents the hydrocarbon tails of the soaps form an
interface between Greece or dirt on the surface of the cloth & water. The surface tension of water
decreases & a stable mixture of oil in water is formed. To wash away the loose end dirt particles from
the surface of the cloth it is agitated either mechanically or beaten with a store or paddle.
11. Explain the nature of covalent bond using the bond formation in CH 3Cl.
Ans.

Carbon has 4 valence e-. It shares its electrons with hydrogen & chlorine to acquire stability.
12. Write the electron dot structures of

a) ethanoic acid b) H2S

c) Propanone d) F2

13. What is homologous series? Explain with an example?

Ans. A series of compounds in which the same functional group substitutes for hydrogen in a carbon
chain is called a homologous series.
 Each member of the series differs from the preceeding or succeeding number by a - CH 2 unit
and a mass of 14 u.
 As the molecular mass increases in any homologous series a gradation in the physical
properties is seen.
 They have the same method of preparation.
 They have similar chemical properties & general formula.
Eg: Alkene, Alkane CH 3OH , C2 H 5OH
14. Why does micelle formation take place when soap is added to water? Will a micelle be
formed in other solvents like ethanol?

Ans. Soaps are molecules in which 2 ends have two different properties. One end is hydrophilic &
the other end is hydrophobic, when soap is added to water, the polar end dissolves in water where as
the non – polar end does not. Inside water these molecules have a unique orientation that keeps the
hydrocarbon portion out of water. This is achieved by forming clusters of molecules in which the
hydrophilic tail are in the interior of the cluster & the ionic end is on the surface. This formation is
called micelle.

In ethanol soap is soluble hence micelle is not formed.

15. Why are carbon & its compounds used as fuels for most applications?
Ans. Carbon & its compounds undergo combustion & release a lot of heat energy along
with evolution of CO2 & H2O. Hence used as fuels.
C + O2 � CO2 + heat & light
CH4 + O2 � CO2 + 2 H2O + heat & light
They are available in nature in large amounts at affordable prices.
16. What change will you observe if you test soap with litmus paper (red / blue)?
Ans. Incase of blue litmus paper it remains Red litmus paper turns blue as soap is basic in nature
because of presence of free / unreacted NaOH.
17. What is hydrogenation? What is its industrial application?
Ans. The addition of hydrogen to unsaturated hydrocarbon in presence of a catalyst like Nickel or
palladium to give saturated hydrocarbon is called hydrogenation.
 Vegetable oils generally have long unsaturated carbon chains while animal fats have
saturated carbon chains. This reaction is used for hydrogenation of liquid vegetable oil to get
vanaspathi or ghee.
Ni / Pd
��� �

18. Which of the following undergo addition reaction C2H6, C3H8, C3H6, C2H2, CH4?
Ans. Unsaturated hydrocarbonsa: alkenes & alkeynes show addition reaction & they have
general formula CnH2n & CnH2n – 2. Hence only C3H6 (propene) & C2H2 (ethyne) undergo
addition reaction.
1. Why does carbon form varieties of compounds? Explain with examples.
2. Differentiate between soaps & detergents.
3. What is allotropy? What are allotropic forms of carbon? Differentiate between the two.
Answers:
1. Carbon forms varieties of compounds due to two factors:
 Catenation:
Carbon has a unique ability to form bonds with the other atoms of carbon to form compounds
having long chains, branched chains or rings of carbon atoms.
 Tetravalency:
Carbon has the capability to form bonds with 4 other atoms of carbon or atoms of some other
monovalent elements.
 Small size:
This helps in the formation of strong bonds by carbon. It enables the nucleus to hold on to the
shared pairs of electrons strongly. The bonds formed by elements having larger atoms are much
weaker.
2. SOAPS DETERGENTS

Soaps are Na or K salts of long chain They are NH4 salts or sulphonate salts
carboxylic acid. of long chain carboxylic acid.
Ineffictive in hard water. Effective in hard water.
3. The property by which the element carbon occurs in different forms in nature with widely
varying physical properties is known as allotropy. Both diamond & graphite are formed by carbon
atoms.

DIAMOND GRAPHITE
It is the hardest known substance. It is smooth & slippery.
 It is a bad conductor of electricity. It is a good conducts of electricity.

Carbon and its compounds

HOTS
1. Give a chemical test to distinguish between :
a) Ethane and ethene
b) Ethanol and ethanoic acid
c) Soaps and detergents
2. a) A compound burns with a sooty flame. Is it saturated or unsaturated in nature?
b) With the help of suitable tests, distinguish between ethyl alcohol and acetic acid
experimentally.
3. An ester has molecular formula C4H8O2. Write its structural formula. What happens when this
ester is heated in the presence of sodium hydroxide solution? Write the balanced chemical
equation for the reaction and name the products. What is saponification reaction ?
4. The carbon compounds ‘A’ and ‘B’ have the molecular formula C 3H8 and C3H6 respectively. Which
one of the 2 is most likely to show addition reactions? Justify your answer. Explain with the help of a
chemical equation, how an addition reaction is useful in vegetable ghee industry.
5. a) When a compound ‘X’ reacts with another compound ‘Y’ in the presence of acid
catalyst , a sweet smelling compound ‘Z’ is produced . What are ‘X’ and ‘Y’? Write the
chemical equation for this reaction.
b) What happens when the compound ‘Z’ combines with an acid or a base?
6. School going children generally bring tiffins and they eat food during break. One category of
students marked ‘A’ bring parathas, pickels and butter while the other category marked ‘B’ bring
chapatties,vegetable,salad and fruits. Whereas students “A” donot like to share their food, students
“B” would like to share it.
 i) Which acid is present in pickles?
ii) Which group of students bring healthy food and why?
iii) Which group of students bring unhealthy food and why?
iv) Which group of students have better values and why?
7. Cough syrups generally contain alcohol. Some people are habitual in drinking alcohol.
Instead of drinking alcohol they have started using cough syrup which contains alcohol and
cause addiction. To solve this problem,government is planning to ban cough syrups.
i) What is an alcohol?
ii) Should production of cough syrups be banned?
iii) As a student what initiative would you take to make people aware of harmful effects
of taking cough syrups uneccesarily. Give 2 suggetions.
8. An organic compound X (C2H4O4) turns blue litmus red. When X is heated with ethanol and
concentrated H2SO4, a pleasant fruity odour is obtained. X can be prepared by the fermentation
of molasses. Identify X.
9. Write the structural formulae and IUPAC names of 2 organic compounds which have
different oxygen containing functional groups derived from methane.
10. an organic compound on heating with concentrated H2SO4forms a compound B which on
addition of 1 mole of H2 in the presence of Ni forms a compound C. 1 mole of compound C on
combustion forms 2 moles of CO2and 3 moles of H2O. Identify the compounds A,B,C. Write the
chemical equations involved.
11. A compound C reacts with (C2H4O2)Na metal to form a compound R and evolves a gas which
burns with a pop sound. Compound C on treatment with an alcohol A in the presence of an acid
forms a sweet smelling compound S (C3H4O2) on addition of NaOH to C it also gives R and
water. S on treatment with NaOH solution gives back R and A. Identify C,R,A,S and write down
the reactions involved.

12. A salt X is formed and a gas is evolved when ethanoic acid reacts with NaHCO3.Name the
salt X and gas evolved. Describe an activity and draw the diagram of the apparatus to prove that
the evolved gas is one which you have named. Also write the chemical equation for the reaction.
13. Write an activity to demonstrate the reaction between ethanol and ethanoic acid.
14. Write the name and molecular formula of an organic compound having its names suffixed with
‘ol’ and having two carbon atoms in the molecules. With the help of a balanced equation,
indicate what happens when it is heated with excess of concentrated H2SO4.
15. An ester has the molecular formula C4H8O2. Write its structural formula. What happens when
this ester is heated in the presence of NaOH solution? Write the balanced chemical equation for
the reaction and name the product. What is a saponification reaction?
16. Distinguish between saponification and esterification reactions of organic compound.
17. An organic compound ‘X’ is a liquid which often freezes during winter time in cold countries. It
has the molecular formula C2H4O2. On warming it with ethanol in the presence of few drops of
concentrated H2SO4 a compound ‘Y’ with a sweet smell is formed.
(a) Identify X and Y.
(b) Write a chemical equation for the reactions involved.
18. A compound ‘X’ has molecular formula C4H10. It undergoes substitution reaction rapidly than
addition reaction. It burns with a blue flame. It is present in LPG. Identify ‘X’ and give
balanced equation for its combustion and substitution reaction with Cl2 in the presence of
sunlight.

CARBON & COMPOUNDS WORKSHEET

1. What is meant by functional group in an organic compound? State in tabular form the
structural formula and the functional groups present in
i) ethanol and ii) ethanoic acid
2. Two carbon compounds P and Q have the molecular formula C3 H 6 and C3 H 8 respectively. Which
one of the two is most likely to show addition reaction? Justify your answer. Also give the chemical
equation to explain the process of addition reaction in this case.
3. What are functional groups? Write the formula of the functional group present in alcohols,
aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids.
4. Write the structural formula of ethanol and list its two physical properties. What happens
when it is heated with excess of conc. H 2 SO4 at 443 K? State the role of conc. H 2 SO4 in this
reaction.
5. Give reason why carbon neither forms C 4+ cations nor C 4- anions, but forms covalent
compounds which are bad conductor of electricity and have low melting and low boiling
points.
6. Why homologous series of carbon compounds are so called? Write chemical formula of two
consecutive members of a homologous series and state the part of these compounds that
determines their i) physical properties, and ii) chemical properties.
7. a) Differentiate between alkanes and alkenes. Name and draw the structure of one
member of each.
b) Alkanes generally burn with clean flame. Why?
8. What happens when:
a) ethanol is burnt in air,
b) ethanol is heated with excess conc. H 2 SO4 at 443 K,
 c) a piece of sodium is dropped into ethanol?
9. What is meant by isomers? “We cannot have isomers of first three members of alkane
series.” Give reason to justify this statement. Draw the structures of two isomers of pentane,
C5 H12 .
10. A carboxylic acid C2 H 4O2 reacts with an alcohol in the presence of H 2 SO4 to form a compound
‘X’. The alcohol on oxidation with alkaline KMnO4 followed by acidification gives the same
carboxylic acid, C2 H 4O2 . Write the name and structure of
i) carboxylic acid, ii) alcohol and iii) the compound ‘X’.
11. What are oxidizing agents? Write their role in the carboxylation to ethanol and give the
chemical equation.
12. Describe the structure of a soap molecule with the help of a diagram.
13. Write the equation for reaction when acetic acid and ethyl alcohol are warmed together in
the presence of conc. H 2 SO4 Name the reaction. Also write the reaction by which acetic acid
and ethyl alcohol can be obtained back from the product formed. Name this reaction also.
14. Why is scum formed only with hard water? Mention the disadvantages of the formation of
scum.
15. A compound ‘X’ is formed by the reaction of carboxylic acid C2 H 2O4 and an alcohol in the
presence of Conc. H 2 SO4 This alcohol on treating with alkaline KMnO4 gives the same carboxylic
acid used in the reaction. Give the name and structure of carboxylic acid, alcohol. Write the
reaction involving formation of ‘X’.
16. Complete the following equations:
NaOH
i) CH 3COOC2 H 5 ��� �
ii) CH 3COOH + NaHCO3 �
iii) CH 2 + Cl2 ����
Sunlight

17. What are isomers? Draw the structures of two isomers of butane, C4 H10 . Why can’t we have
isomers of first three members of alkane series?
18. Define homologous series of organic compounds. List its two characteristics. Write the name
and formula of the first member of the series of alkenes.
19. Complete the following equations:
i) CH 4 + O2 �
ii) C2 H 5 + OH ������
Hot Conc . H 2 SO4

iii) CH 3COOH + NaOH �

20. Name the oxidising agent used for the conversion of ethanol to ethanoic acid. Distinguish
between ethanol and ethanoic acid on the basis of
i) litmus test ii) reaction with sodium hydrogencarbonate.
21. How are esters most commonly prepared? Write the equation for the chemical reaction
involved. What are the two uses of esters?
22. Distinguish between esterification and saponification reactions of organic compounds with
the help of the chemical equation for each. What is the use of
i) esters and ii) saponification process?
23.Write one chemical equation to present each of the following types of reactions of organic
substances:
i) Esterification ii) Saponification iii) Substitution
24. What is an 'esterification' reaction? Describe an activity to show esterification.
25. Out of HCI and CH3COOH. Which one is a weak acid and why? Describe an activity to
support your answer.
26. Write chemical equations for what happens when
i) sodium metal is added to ethanoic acid
ii) solid sodium carbonate is added to ethanoic acid
iii)ethanoic acid reacts with a dilute solution of sodium hydroxide.
27. Write chemical equations to show what happens when
i) ethanol is heated with concentrated sulphuric acid at 443 K.
ii) ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid in the presence of an acid acting as a catalyst
iii) an ester reacts with a base
28. Describe two examples of different oxidations of ethanol. Name the products obtained in
each case.
29. a) What is a homologous series of compounds? List any two of its characteristics.
b) What is the next higher homologue of C3H7OH?
What is its formula and what is it called?
30. a)What are isomers? Draw the structures of two isomers of butane, C4H10.
b) Differentiate between alkenes and alkynes.
31. Write a chemical equation in each case to represent the following types of chemical
reactions of organic compounds.
i) Oxidation reactions ii) Addition reactions iii) Substitution reactions
32. Name the functional group of organic compounds that can be hydrogenated.
With the help of suitable example explain the process of hydrogenation mentioning the
conditions of the reaction and any one change in physical property with the formation of
the product. Name any one natural source of organic compounds that are hydrogenated.
33. An ester has the molecular formula C4H8O2. Write its structural formula. What happens when this
ester is heated in the presence of sodium hydroxide solution? Write the balanced chemical equation
for the reaction and name the products. What is a saponification reaction?
34. An organic compound 'A' is an essential constituent of wine and beer.
Oxidation of 'A' yields an organic acid 'A' and 'B' and write their structural formula.
What happens when 'A' and 'B' react in the presence of an acid catalyst? Write the
chemical equation for the reaction.
35. What is ethanol? State its two properties. What happens when it is heated with excess of
conc. H2SO4 at 443 K? What role does conc. H2SO4 play in this reaction? What chemical
equation of the reaction involved and the structural formula of the main product formed.
36. With the help of balanced chemical equations explain what happens when
ethanol is heated with
i) alkaline solution of potassium permanganate, ii) excess concentrated sulpharic acid at 443 K.
Mention any two uses of ethanol.
37. What is a homologous series? Write the molecular formula of the fourth and fifth
members of the homologous series of carbon compounds represented by the general
formula CnH2n+1OH. Mention any two characteristics of the compounds of a
homologous series.
38. Two carbon compounds A and B have the molecular formula C3H8 and C3H6
respectively. Which one of the two is most likely to show addition reaction? Justify your
answer. Explain with the help of a chemical equation, how an addition reaction is useful
in vegetable ghee industry.
39. Soap does not work well with hard water. Name the class of compounds which
can be used as cleansing agents in place of soap. Write the name of one such
compound. Explain in brief the mechanism of its cleansing action when used in hard
water.
40. a) What is meant by a functional group in an organic compound? Name the
functional group present in
i) CH3CH2OH ii) CH3COOH
b) State one point of difference between soap and synthenic detergent.
41. What is ethanol? Draw the structure of ethanol molecule. How does ethanol behave with the
following:
a) Sodium b) Excess of conc. Sulphuric acid at 443 K?
42.What is ethanoic acid? Write the formula of the functional group present in this acid.
What special name is given to its 5 – 8 % solution in water? How does ethanoic acid react with
sodium carbonate? Write chemical equation of the reaction and common name of
the salt produced.
43.Give reasons for the following observations:
a) The element carbon forms a very large number of compounds.
b) Air holes of a gas burner have to be adjusted when the heated vessels get
blackened by the flame.
c) Use of synthetic detergents causes pollution of water.
44.a)Give a chemical test to distinguish between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons.
b) i) Name the products formed when ethanol burns in air.
ii) What two forms of energy are liberated on burning alcohol?
c) Why is the reaction between methane and chlorine considered a substitution reaction?
45.a) Why are covalent compounds generally poor conductors of electricity?
b) Name the following compound.
H H

H C C C H
P
H O H
c) Name the gas evolved when ethanoic acid is added to sodium carbonate.
How would you prove the presence of this gas?
46. Complete the following reactions:
i) CH 3COOH + NaOH �
 ii) R R
C=C + H 2 ��
Ni
�
R R
iii) CH 2 = CH 2 + Br2 �
iv) CH 3COOC2 H 5 + NaOH �
v) CH 2 = CH 2 + H 2O ���
H 2 SO4
�
47. i) Why do we add ethanol to petrol in these days?
ii) Give one use of ethanol in medicines.
iii) Why is vinegar used in pickles?
48. How would you name the following compounds?
H H H H H

i) CH 3CH 2 Br ii) H – C = O iii) H C �C C C C C H

H H H H

CHAPTER 5: PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS

Dobereiners Law of Triads
 According to him when elements are arranged in the order of increasing atomic masses in groups
of 3 elements (triads), having similar chemical properties are obtained
 the atomic mass of the middle element of the triad being equal to the arithmetic mean of the
atomic mass of the other two elements. For ex: alkali metal group of – Li, Na, K have similar chemical
properties and can form a triad.
39 + 7 46
Li 7  =
2 2
Na 23
K 39 =23u
Alkaline earth metals – Ca, Sr & Ba have similar chemical properties and can also form triad
40.1 + 137.3 177.4
Ca 40.1 =
2 2
Sr 87.6
Ba 137.3 =88.7u
Halogen group of – Cl, Br & I
35.5 + 127 162.5
Cl 35.5 = =
2 2
Br 85
I 127 =81.25u
Limitations of Law of triad
 Dobereiner could identify only 3 triads from the elements known at that time.
 He failed to arrange all the then known element in the form of triads of elements having similar
chemical of properties.

H Li Be B C N O
F Na Mg Al Si P S
Cl K Ca Cr Ti Mn Fe
Co&Ni

Newlands Law of Octaves.

 According to Newland when the elements are arranged in the increasing order of their atomic
masses the properties of the eighth element (starting from a given element) are repetition of the
properties of the first element.

Limitations of Law of octaves.

It was found that the law of octaves was applicable to the classification of elements only upto calcium
as after calcium, every eighth element did not possess properties similar to that of the first one.
 it was assumed by New land that only 56 elements existed in nature and no more would
be discovered in future. But later on several new elements were discovered. Whose
properties did not fit into New lands law of octaves.
 in order to fit the elements into the table newland adjusted even 2 elements together in
one slot and that too in the column of unlike elements, having very different properties
for ex: Cobalt, Nickel put together in the slot in the column of F, C l , Br
 Iron that resembles cobalt, Nickel in properties were placed far away from these elements.
 New lands law of octaves worked well only with lighter elements.
Mendeleev’s periodic table
 Mendeleev found that when elements are arranged in the increasing order of their atomic
masses the elements with similar properties occur at regular intervals .
 Mendeleev periodic law states that ‘the properties of elements are a periodic function of
their atomic masses’
 Among the chemical properties Mendeleev concentrated on all the compounds formed
with oxygen and hydrogen as they reacted and formed compounds with most elements.
 The general formula of hydrides and oxides formed by the elements treated as one of the
basic properties of elements for its classification.
 He arranged all the then known 63 elements in the order of increasing atomic masses in
the horizontal rows, but in such a way that elements having similar chemical properties
are directly under on another in the same vertical column or group.
 There are 6 periods & 8 groups. Out of the 8 groups first 7 are of normal elements and the
eight group is transition elements. There were no noble gases so no separate position
was given to them in his table.
Merits of Mendeleev classification
 Mendeleev periodic law predicted the existence of some elements that have not been discovered at
that time and left proper gaps for elements like gallium, scandium & germanium.
 EKA – Aluminium – Gallium
 Eka – Boron – Scandium
 Eka – Silicon – Germanium
 Mendeleev’s periodic table could accommodate noble gases when they were discovered
without disturbing the original arrangement of the table & the gases were placed in a
separate group because they are chemically unreactive.
 They were few instances were Mendeleev had to place an element with slightly higher
atomic mass before an element slightly lower atomic mass. The sequence was inverted so
that elements with similar properties could grouped together For ex: cobalt( 58.9)
appeared before Nickle (58.7)
 Atoms masses of few elements were corrected by Mendeleev.
Limitations / drawbacks/ Anomalies
 position of hydrogen
Electronic configuration of hydrogen resembles that of alkali metals .and like alkali metals it
combines with halogens to form compounds having similar formula. And the other hand just like
halogens, hydrogen also exists as a diatomic molecule and it combines with metals & non – metals to
form covalent compounds. The position of hydrogen could not be justified by Mendeleev.

 position of Isotopes
Position of isotopes could not be explained as isotopes are atoms of same element having similar
chemical properties but different atomic masses. If the elements are arranged according to their
atomic masses then isotopes would be placed in different groups of the table. The occurrence of
isotopes posed a threat to the Mendeleev classification.
 Atomic masses do not increase in a regular manner in going one element to the next. So, it was
not possible to predict how many elements could be discover between the 2
elements.
 Cobalt with atomic mass 58.936u was placed before Nickel with atomic mass 58.71u
Tellurium was also placed before Iodine.
Activity 5.3
1. How were the positions of cobalt & nickel resolved in the modern periodic table?
A: Cobalt has atomic number 27 & Nickel has atomic number 28. as a basis for classification in
modern periodic table is atomic number- Cobalt with atomic number 27 has to be placed before
Nickel with atomic no 28.
2. How were the positions of isotopes of various elements decided in the modern periodic
table?
A: Isotopes are atoms of the same element having same atomic no. but different mass no. since the
atomic no. is the same, they need not be given separate position in the modern periodic table.
3. Is it possible to have an element with atomic number 1.5 placed between H & He?
A: Atomic number is the number of proton a whole no. & it increases in regular order. Hence, it is not
possible to have an element with atomic number 1.5 placed between H2 & He
I period H 1
He 2
II period Li 2, 1
 Be 2, 2
B 2, 3
C 2, 4
N 2, 5
O 2, 6
F 2, 7
Ne 2, 8

III period Na 2, 8, 1
Mg 2, 8, 2
Al 2, 8, 3
Ci 2, 8, 4
P 2, 8, 5
S 2, 8, 6
Cl 2, 8 7
Ar 2, 8, 8
IV period K 2. 8, 8, 1
Ca 2, 8 8 2
Activity 5.4
1. Look at the group 1 of the modern periodic table & name the elements present in it.
A: H, Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr
2. Write down EC of the first three elements of group one.
A: H - 1
Li - 2, 1
Na - 2, 8, 1
3. What similarity do you find in their EC?
A: All the elements have 1 electron in their valence shell?
1. How many valence electrons are present in these 3 elements?
A: 1
Activity 5.5
1. Write down the EC of Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F, Ne
A: Li - 2, 1
Be - 2, 2
B - 2, 3
C - 2, 4
M - 2, 5
O - 2, 6
F - 2, 7
Ne - 2, 8
2. Do these elements contain the same number of valence e-?
A; No
2. Do they contain same no. of shells?
A. Yes (2 shells)
 Activity 5.6
1. Li Be B C N O F Ne
+1 +2 +3 +4 -3 -2 -1 0
 The valence increases to 4 & then decreases to zero. (period)
2. group 1  the valency remains same while going down in a group
Li 2, 1
Na 2, 8, 1
K 2, 8, 8, 1
Activity 5.7
1. Period II elements B Be O N Li C
Atomic radii (pm) 88 111 66 74 152 77
 Li Be B C N O
152 111 88 77 74 66
2. the largest atom is lithium & the smallest atom is oxygen.
3. the atomic size decreases while going across in a period.
Activity 5.8
1. Li Na K Rb Ci
152 186 231 244 262
2. Largest atom – Cs & smallest atom – Li
3. the atomic size increases as we do down in a group. Because the number of shells are increasing
Activity 5.9
1. Classify the elements of third period as metals & non metals.
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Metal: Na, Mg, Al Non- Metals: Si, P,S,Cl inert gas: Ar
Metals are found on the left side & non – metals are found on the right side.
ACTIVITY 5.10
1.How does tendency to lose electrons change in a group & a period?
A: The tendency to lose electrons will
 increase in a group
 decrease in a period
ACTIVITY 5.11
1. How would the tendency to gain electrons change as you go from left to right across a
periods?
A: Increases in a period
2. How would tendency to gain electrons change in a group?
A: Tendency to lose electrons decreases in the group of non – metals.
Modern Periodic Table.
In the modern periodic table the elements are arranged in the order of increasing atomic no. in the
horizontal rows called periods.
Elements with the same no. of valence electrons have been placed one below the other so that all the
elements having the same no. of valence electrons come in the same vertical column or group.
Modern periodic Law
The law states that the properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic no.
Atomic no. given us the no. of protons in the nucleus of an atom & this no. increases by 1 in going
from one element to the next. Prediction of properties of elements could be made with more
precision when the elements are arranged on the basis of increasing atomic no.
Explanation of the Anomalies of Mendeleev’s classification.
 explanation for the position of isotopes. Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the
same atomic no. as the atomic no. is the same they can be put an one place in the same number of the
periodic table.
 Explanation for the position for cobalt & Nickel. The atomic no. of cobalt is 27 & that of Nickel
is 28. since the elements are arranged in the increasing order of atomic no. cobalt of lower atomic no.
should come first & Nickel of atom no.28 as to come later, even if their atomic masses are in the
wrong order.
 Explanation for position of hydrogen. Hydrogen has been placed at the top of group 1 above
the alkali metals because the electronic configuration of hydrogen is similar to those of the alkali
metals. However many properties of hydrogen are different from those of the alkali metals and
similar to those of halogens. Therefore while discussing the properties of group I hydrogen is never
included. In some periodic tables hydrogen is treated as a very special element & is placed alone in
the beginning of the periodic table.

Salient features of Modern periodic table.

 The horizontal rows of elements in a periodic table are called periods. The first period the shortest
& contains only 2 elements & is a second period contains 8 elements is a short period. The third
period contains 8 elements & is also a short period . the fourth & the fifth periods contains 18
elements and are called long periods. The sixth period contains 32 elements & is called a very long
period. The seventh period contains the rest of the elements & is incomplete.

 The number of elements in a period is fixed by the maximum no. of electrons which can be
accommodated in the various shells of an atom . All the elements of agiven period have different
number of valence electrons in their atoms.
 The vertical columns in a periodic table are called groups. There are 18 groups. There are 18
groups in the long form of periodic table.- The elements in a group do not have same atomic no.
groups one to two & 13 to 17 contain normal elements. In the normal elements all the inner shells are
completely filled with electrons. Only the outermost shell is incomplete groups 3 to 12 contain
transition elements. In these elements the outermost shells as well as the penultimate shells are
incomplete & are in the process of being filled with electrons.
Answer the following.
1. Name two elements that would show chemical reactions similar to Mg. What is the
basis of your choice?
A: Two elements that would show chemical reactions similar to magnesium are calcium & barium as
they belong to the same group & have same number of valence electrons.
2. Name.
a) 3 elements having a single electron in their outermost shell
 sodium, potassium & lithium
b) 2 elements having 2 electrons in their outermost shell
 beryllium & magnesium
c) 3 elements with filled outermost shell
 helium, neon, argon
3) a) Lithium, sodium, potassium are all metals that react with water to liberate H2 gas. Is there any
similarity in the atoms of these elements?
 Li, Na, K lose electrons easily & hence are all highly reactive.
b) Helium is an un reactive gas & neon is a gas of extremely low reactivity. What if anything, do their
atoms have in common?
 Both He & Ne have completely filled outermost shell.
4) In the modern periodic table, what are the metals among the first 10 elements.
A: among H, He, Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F, Ne  Li, Be & B are metals
5. Which of these have maximum. metallic properties
Ga, Ge, As, Se, Be
A: Ga followed by Be, Ge, As, Se as metallic properties increase in a group & decrease in a
period.elements with atomic no. 57 to 71 are called lanthanoid series because their first element is
lanthanum.
Elements with atomic no. 89 to 103 are called actinoid series because their first element is actinium.
There are 2 series of elements having similar properties & they have been placed in 2 rows at the
bottom of the periodic table so that the period table can fit into one page.
In the modern periodic table the elements are roughly divided into metals & non-metals. The
elements on the left side are metals right side are they are separated non-metals some elements called
metalloids, which are placed diagonally in the periodic table. They are boron, silicon , germanium,

Le, Po & Sb. The properties of metalloids are an intermediate between metals & non metals. The
noble gases are placed on the extreme right side of the periodic table.(group 18).
Periodicity of properties down a group:
1. Valence electrons – all the elements of a groups of periodic table have the sence no. of valence
electrons.
for eg: group I group II
Li 2,1 F 2, 7
Na 2, 8, 1 Cl 2, 8, 7
K 2, 8, 8, 1 Br 2, 8, 18, 7
2. Valency – as the no. of valence electrons in a group are the same, all the elements in a group have
same valency.
For eg:- group I – ( Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs) have 1 valence e-. hence their valency is +1.
group 17- (F, C l , Br, I) have 7 electrons & exhibit a valency of -1
3. Atomic size : on going down in a group the size of the atom increases as atomic radius increases.
The smallest atomic size will be found at the top of the group & largest atomic size will be found at
the bottom of the group.

Li the size increases as new shell are being added as we go down the
Na Group. This increases the distances between the nucleas & the outer
K most electron. So that the atomic size increases, inspite of increase in
Rb the nuclear charge.
Cs
Fr Size increases

4. Metallic character – as we go down in a group of periodic table the metallic character of element
increases. The size of atom increases. The size of atom increases as we go down in a group. Due to
this the valence electrons become more & more far away from the nucleus. Hence the attraction of the
nucleus on the outermost electrons decreases. Due to this the atom can lose electrons easily & form
+ve ions. Electropositive character increases as we go down in a group.

On going down in a group of non – metals in a periodic table, the non – metallic character decreases.
This decreases in the electronegative character of elements on going down in a group of periodic
table can be explained on the basis of increase in the size of the atom. As the size of the atom
increases, the attraction of the nucleus for the incoming electron decreases due to which the atom
cannot form negative ions easily. Hence electronegative character decreases. The tendency of an atom
to gain electrons decreases on going down in a group.

5. Chemical reactivity – the chemical reactivity of metals increases on going down in a group for eg:
In group I, the chemical reactivity increases from Li to Fr. The tendency of their atoms to lose
electrons increases & hence their chemical reactivity also increases.
The chemical reactivity of non – metals decreases on going down in a group. For eg: group 17, the
chemical reactivity decreases from F to I, as we go down the tendency of their atoms to gain electrons
creases hence their chemical reactivity also decreases.
6. Nature of oxides – on going down in a group of periodic table there is no change in the nature of
oxides of elements.

Periodicity of Properties Along a Period:

1. Valence electrons – A period is a horizontal row in which the elements are arranged in the
increasing order of their atomic no. Hence, they do not have same no. of valence electrons.
Valency – The elements present in a period have different valencies. For ex. The valency of element in
3rd period ar as follows:
Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Ec 2,8,1 2,8,2 2,8,3 2,8,4 2,8,5 2,8,6 2,8,7 2,8,8
Valence e- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Valency +1 +2 +3 +4 -3 -2 -1 0

2. Atomic size- Atomic radius is the distance from the centre of the nucleus of an isolated atom from
the outer most shell containing the e-s. The atomic size decreases from left to right in a period. In a
period as we move from one from left to right the electrons are being gradually added in the same
shell which is the valence shell. As the nuclear charge increases the electrons experience more
attraction towards the nucleus. As a result the atomic radii of the element decreases from left to right
in a period.
3. Metallic and Non-metallic properties.
The metallic character decreases because the ability of an element to loose e- decreases from left to
right in a period. Hence metals are present on the right side.
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Metals Non metals
The non-metallic character increases across the period because the tendency of gain e- increases due
to their decreased size.
4. Nature of the oxides
Along a period the basic character of the oxides of the element decreases while their acidic character
increases.
Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P2O5 SO2 Cl2O7
Strongly Basic amphoteric Weakly acidic Strongly very
Acidic acidic strongly
acidic

Question and answers:

1. Did Dobereiners traids also exists in the columns of Newland’s octaves
Ans- Yes (Li, Na, K) (Ca, Sr, Ba) (Cl, Br, I)
2. Write the limitations of Dobereiners classification
A: He was able to locate only 3 triads out of all the elements in the nature.
3. Use Mendeleev,s periodic table to predict the formula for the oxides of:
A: K – K2O, C – Co2, Al – Al2O3, Si-SiO2, Ba- Bao
4. Besides Ga, which other elements were predicted by Mendeleev?
A: Germanium & Scandium
5. What is the criteria used by Mendeleev?
A: Increasing order atomic mass and similarity in chemical property on
reaction with H2 & O2
6. Why do you think the noble gasses are placed in a separate group?
A: These elements were discovered later as they are very inert & did not react with O2 & H2 they
were present in extremely low concentrations.
7. An element x forms a chloride XCl2. X would likely be in the same group as – (b) Mg.
8. Which element has
a) two shells completely filled – Neon
b) The Electronic Configuration of = 2, 8, 2 – Magnesium
c) a total of 3 shells, with 4 valence e- – Silicon
d) a total of 2 shells, with 3 valence e- - Boron
e) Twice as many electrons in its second shell as in its first shell – Carbon
9. What property do all elements in the same column of the periodic table as Boron have in common?
They all have 3 valence e- is they have the same valency.
b) What property do all elements in the same column as Huorine have in common?
They all have the same valence e- of Fluorine Fe- in their valence shell & valency -1.
10) An atom has EC – 2, 8, 7
a) What is its atomic no.-? 17
b) To which of the following elements would it be chemically similar?
N(7) They have 7 valence electrons.
11. The position of 3 elements A, B & C in the P. table are shown.
Group 16 Group 17
___ ___
___ A
___ ___
B C
a) State whether A is a metal or non – metal a) Non metal.
b) State whether C is more or less reactive than /A ( Less)
size decreases as we move forward in a period
c) Will C be larger / smaller in size than B /( smaller)
d) Which type of ion, cation/ anion will be formed by A a) Anion
12. Nitrogen (at.No=7) & Phosphorus (at no.15) belong to group 15 of the periodic table. Write the EC
of these 2 elements. Which of these will be more electronegative ? why?
A: Nitrogen  2, 5; Phosphorus  2, 8, 5
As we go down in a group the electronegative of an element decreases as size increases. Therefore
Nitrogen is more electronegative than Phosphorus
13. How does the Electronic Configuration of an atom relate to its position in the Modern periodic
table?
A: When we write the Electronic Configuration, we get the valence e- the no. of valence electrons
represents the group no & the no. of shells represents the period no.
Eg: Si – 2, 8, 4
No. of valence electrons = 4  group no.=14
No . of shells = 3  period no – 3
14. In the modern periodic table Ca (at no=20) is surrounded by elements with at . no’s 12, 19, 21 & 38,
which of these have physical & chemical properties resembling Ca?
12 & 38 because of the same valence electrons.
15. Compare & contrast the arrangement of elements in Mendellev’s periodic table& Modern periodic
table
A: COMPARISION
1. Horizontal rows are called periods & vertical columns are called groups.
2. periodicity in properties observed in elements.

CONTRAST

MENDELEEV MODERN
1. An creasing order of atomic masses was 1.Increasing order of atomic no. was taken as

taken as a basis for classification a basis for classification

2. Position of Isotopes could not be justified. 2. position of isotopes could be justified

3. The group no.is decide by the similarity in 3. group no. is decided by the number of

the formula of oxide & hydride of the element valence electrons.

4. Inert gases were not included 4. Inert gases have been given a separate

5. Hydrogen’s position is not justified. group

5. Hydrogen’s position (18)is justified.

HOTS
1. In the following table are given eight elements A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H of the modern
periodic table with the atomic numbers of the elements in parenthesis.
Period Group-1 Group-2
2 A (3) E(4)
3 B(11) F(12)
4 C(19) G(20)
5 D(37) H(38)

(a) What is the electronic configuration of F?

(b) Why did she suffer from burns?
(c) Write the size of the atoms of E, F, G, and H in the decreasing order?
(d) What is the number of shells in the atom of F?
(e) State whether F is a metal or non metal.
(f) Out of the three elements B, E and F which one has the biggest atomic size?
2. Atomic number is considered to be more appropriate parameter than atomic mass
for classification of elements in a periodic table. Why? How does metallic character of
elements vary on moving from?
(a) Left to right in a periodic table
 (b) From top to bottom in a group
3. An element has electronic configuration 2, 8, 7.
a) To which group and period of the long form of periodic table does it belong?
(b) What is atomic ----------------------- of this element?
(c) Is it metallic or non metallic and Why?
(d) Identify the element.
(e) Name an element chemically similar to this element.

4. Two elements X and Y belong to groups 1 and 2 respectively in the same period.
Compare them with respect to
a) The number of valance electrons
(b) Valency
(c) Metallic character
(d) Size of the atom.
(e) Formulae of their oxides and chlorides

Value Based Questions

1. A patient was suffering from high BP and cholesterol. He went to the specialist. He enquired
about his eating habits.The patient told the doctor that he consumes Dalda and Desi Ghee and also
drinks milk with full fat. The doctor asked him to immediately stop these and instead use
vegetable oil and also drink fat free milk.
(a) What was wrong with the eating habits of the patient?
(b) How did the doctor help him?
2. One category of students in a class marked ‘A’ carry paranthas, butter and pickles while the
other category of students marked ‘B’ bring chapattis, vegetables, salad and fruits, for lunch.
Whereas students ‘A ’do not like to share their food, students ‘B’ would like to share it.
(a) Which acid is present in pickles?
(b) Which group of students bring healthy food and why?
(c) Which group of students bring unhealthy food and why?
(d) Which group of students have better value system and why?
3. Teacher asked Hema to perform test for unsaturation in the laboratory for Ethylene gas. She
took some chlorine water in a tube and passed the vapours of the gas. Nothing happened. Teacher
asked her to pass the vapours of the gas into bromine water. The yellow colour of bromine
immediately discharged.
 (a) What was the mistake committed by Hema?
(b) How did teacher help her?
(c) Write the chemical equation for the reaction?

Periodic Classification Of Elements

1. Two elements X and Y belong to group 1 and 2 respectively in the same period. Compare
them with respect to
a) the number of valence electrons
b) valency
c) metallic character
d) size of the atoms
e) formulae of their oxides and chlorides.
2. A metal M forms an oxide having the formula M2O3. It belongs to the third period in the
modern periodic table. Write the atomic number and valency of the metal.
3. Two elements X and Y have atomic number 12 and 16 respectively. Write the electronic
configuration for these elements. To which period of the modern periodic table do these two
elements belong? What type of bond will be formed between them and Why?
4. An element X (2, 8,2) combines separately with (NO3 ) ( SO4) and (PO4)3− radical.
− 2−
Write the
formulae of the 3 compounds so formed. To which group of the periodic table do these elements X
belong? Will it form covalent or ionic compounds? Why?
5. a) What is meant by Periodicity in properties of elements with reference to the periodic
table?
b) Why do all the elements of the same group have similar properties?
c) How will the tendency to gain electrons change as we go from left to right across a
period? Why?
6. a) Name the element present in the third period and classify them into metals and
Non-metals.
b) On which side of the table do you find the metals?
c) On which side of the table do you find the non metals?
7. Name the elements present in second period and write their electronic configuration. Do these
elements contain the same number of valence electrons? Do they contain same number of shells?
8. Name the elements present in the group 1 of the modern periodic table. Write the electronic
configuration of the first 3 elements. What similarities are seen in their electronic configuration?
How many valence electrons are present in these 3 elements?
9. Calcium is an element with atomic number 20.
a) Is it a metal or non metal
b) Will its size be more or smaller than that of Potassium?
c) Write the formula of its chloride

10. How were the positions of different isotopes divided in the modern periodic table?
11. On the basis of periodic classification, identify each set belonging to either a group or a
period?
a) Na, Mg, Al b)Na, K, Rb c)B, C, N d)Al, Ne, Ar

12. In the following table are given eight elements A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H of the modern
periodic table with the atomic numbers of the elements in parenthesis.
Period Group-1 Group-2
2 A (3) E(4)
3 B(11) F(12)
4 C(19) G(20)
5 D(37) H(38)
(a) What is the electronic configuration of F?
(b) Why did she suffer from burns?
(c) Write the size of the atoms of E, F, G, and H in the decreasing order?
(d) What is the number of shells in the atom of F?
(e) State whether F is a metal or non metal.
(f) Out of the three elements B, E and F which one has the biggest atomic size?
13. Atomic number is considered to be more appropriate parameter than atomic mass for
classification of elements in a periodic table. Why? How does metallic character of elements
vary on moving from?
(a) Left to right in a periodic table
(b) From top to bottom in a group
14. An element has electronic configuration 2, 8, 7.
 a) To which group and period of the long form of periodic table does it belong?
(b) What is atomic number of this element?
(c) Is it metallic or non metallic and Why?
(d) Identify the element.
(e) Name an element chemically similar to this element.
15. Two elements X and Y belong to groups 1 and 2 respectively in the same period. Compare
them with respect to
(a) The number of valance electrons
(b) Valency
(c) Metallic character
(d) Size of the atom.
(e) Formulae of their oxides and chlorides

CHAPTER 6: LIFE PROCESSES

The basic functions performed by living organisms to maintain their life on this earth are called
life processes.
Basic life processes common to all living organisms are:
Basic life Function
processes
Nutrition Taking of food inside the body and converting it into smaller molecules which can be
absorbed by the body.
Respiration The process which releases energy from the food absorbed by the body.
Transport The process in which a substance absorbed or made in one part of the body is moved
to other parts of the body.
Excretion The process in which the waste materials produced in the cells of the body are
removed from the body.
Control and A process which helps the living organisms to survive in the changing environment
coordination around them
Growth The process involves the changes from a smaller organism to a big organism.
Movement The organism either moves from one place to another or moves its body parts.
Reproduction The process involves the making of more organisms form the existing once.

Nutrition in plants:
 Green plants are autotrophic and synthesize their own food by the process of photosynthesis.
 The process, by which green plants make their own food from carbon dioxide and water by
using sunlight energy in the presence of chlorophyll, is called photosynthesis.
 Oxygen is released during photosynthesis.
The process of photosynthesis can be represented as:

 The process of photosynthesis takes place in the green leaves of a plant.

 The food is prepared by the green leaves of a plant in the form of a simple sugar called
glucose.
 The extra glucose is changed into another food called starch. This starch is stored in the leaves
of the plant.
 The green plants convert sunlight energy into chemical energy by making carbohydrates.

The photosynthesis takes place in the following three steps:

 Absorption of sunlight energy by chlorophyll.
 Conversion of light energy into chemical energy, and splitting of water into hydrogen and
oxygen by light energy.
 Reduction of carbon dioxide by hydrogen to form carbohydrate like glucose by utilizing the
chemical energy.
Conditions necessary for photosynthesis:
The conditions necessary for photosynthesis to take place are:
 Sunlight
  Chlorophyll
 Carbon dioxide
 water
Green leaves make starch as food. Starch gives a blue black color with iodine solution.

Raw materials for photosynthesis:

The raw materials for photosynthesis are:
Carbon dioxide
Water
How the plants obtain carbon dioxide?
 There are a large number of tiny pores called stomata on the surface of the leaves of plants.
 The carbon dioxide gas enters the leaves of the plant through the stomata present on their
surface.
 Each stomatal pore is surrounded by a pair of guard cells. The opening and closing of stomatal
pores is controlled by the guard cells.
 When water flows into the guard cells, they swell, become curved and cause the pore to open.
 On the other hand, when guard cells lose water, they shrink, become straight and close the
stomatal pores.
How do the plants obtain water for photosynthesis:
 The water required by the plants for photosynthesis is absorbed by the root of the plants from
the soil through the process of osmosis.
 The water absorbed by the roots of the plants is transported upward through the xylem vessels
to the leaves where it reaches the photosynthetic cells.
 The plants also need other raw materials such as nitrogen, phosphorus, iron and magnesium,
etc., for building their body.
 The plants take these materials from the soil.
 Nitrogen is essential element used by the plants to make proteins and other compound.
Site of photosynthesis: Chloroplasts
 The site of photosynthesis in a cell of the leaf is chloroplasts which contain chlorophyll.
 Chloroplasts are present in the photosynthetic cells (mesophyll cells) of green plants. These
cells contain more chlorophyll than other plant cells.

Experiments:
The experiments on photosynthesis depend on the fact that green leaves make starch as food and
the starch gives a blue –black colour with iodine solution.

Experiment to show that Sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis:

  Take a potted plant with green leaves and place it in a dark place for about three days to
destarch its leaves.
 Take a thin strip of aluminum foil or black paper and wrap it in the centre of one leaf on the
both sides so that sunlight may not fall on this covered part of the leaf.
 The remaining part of the leaf remains uncovered and exposed to sunlight.
 Now keep the plant in sunshine for about six hours.
 Pluck the partially covered leaf from the plant and remove its aluminum foil or black paper.
 Boil the leaf in water for 10 minutes to break cell wall
 Remove its green color chlorophyll by boiling the leaf in alcohol with the help of water bath.
 Wash the decolorized leaf with water to remove any chlorophyll which may be sticking in it.
 Pour iodine solution over the colorless leaf and observe the change in colour of the leaf.
Observation:
 On adding iodine solution, Covered part of the leaf does not turn blue-black showing that no
starch is present in this middle part of the leaf.
 The uncovered part of the leaf which received light turns blue-black showing that starch is
present in this part of the leaf.
Inference: Since the part of the leaf which was covered and hidden from sunlight does not contain
starch and the part of the leaf which was exposed to sunlight contains starch. Therefore, sunlight is
necessary for photosynthesis.
Nutrition in Animals
Animals are heterotrophs and hence they depend on other organisms (plants and other animals) for
their food.
All the animals can be divided into three groups on the basis of their food habits. These are:
Herbivores
Carnivores
Omnivores
Herbivores: Those animals which eat only plants are called herbivores. Examples are Goat, Cow, and
Deer etc.
Carnivores: Those animals which eat only other animals as food are called carnivores. Examples are
Lion, Tiger, and Lizard etc.
Omnivores: Those animals which eat both, plants and animals are called omnivores. Examples are
Man, Dog and Crow etc.
It is the energy of sun which provides food for plants, and animals.
Different steps in the process of nutrition in animals
There are five steps in the process of nutrition in animals.
Ingestion: The process of taking food into the body is called ingestion.
Digestion: the process in which the food containing large, insoluble molecules is broken down into
small, water soluble molecules is called digestion.
Absorption: The process in which the digested food passes through the intestinal wall into blood
stream is called absorption.
Assimilation: The process in which the absorbed food is taken in by the body cells and used for
energy, growth and repair is called assimilation.
Egestion: The process in which the undigested food is removed from the body is called egestion.
Nutrition in Simple Animals:
Amoeba and paramecium are two very simple unicellular animals. In unicellular animals, all the
processes of nutrition are performed by the single cell.
Nutrition in Amoeba:
 Amoeba engulfs tiny plants (phytoplanktons) and animals (zooplanktons) as food which floats
in water in which it lives.
 The mode of nutrition in Amoeba is holozoic.
 The process of obtaining food by Amoeba is called phagocytosis.
 Steps involved in the nutrition of Amoeba:
Ingestion:
 Amoeba ingests food by forming temporary finger-like projections called pseudopodia around
it.
 The food is engulfed with a little surrounding water to form a food vacuole (‘temporary
stomach’) inside the Amoeba.
Digestion:
In Amoeba, food is digested in the food vacuole by digestive enzymes which break down the food
into small and soluble molecules by chemical reactions.
Absorption: The digested simple and soluble substances pass out of food vacuole into the
surrounding environment.
Assimilation:
The absorbed food materials are used to obtain energy through respiration and make the parts of
Amoeba cell which leads to the growth of Amoeba.
Egestion:
The remaining undigested material is moved to the surface of the cell and thrown out of the body of
Amoeba.
Nutrition in Paramecium:
Paramecium is also a tiny unicellular animal which lives in water.
Ingestion:
 Paramecium uses its hair like structures called cilia to sweep the food particles from water and
put them into mouth.
 Ingestion is followed by other steps such as digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion.
(as written in Amoeba)
Nutrition in Human Beings (Complex Multicellular Animal):
  The various organs of the human digestive system in sequence are: Mouth, Oesophagus (Food
pipe), Stomach, Small intestine and Large intestine.
 The glands which are associated with the human digestive system are: Salivary glands, Liver
and Pancreas.

The various steps of nutrition in human beings are as follows:

Ingestion:
In human beings, food is ingested through the mouth. The food is put into the mouth with the help of
hands.
Digestion:
The digestion of food begins in the mouth itself.
The teeth cut the food into small pieces, chew and grind it. (Physical digestion)
The salivary glands in our mouth produce saliva (watery liquid) which contains an enzyme salivary
amylase(Ptyalin) which digests the starch (carbohydrate) present in the food into sugar. (Chemical
digestion)
Our tongue (muscular organ) helps in mixing this saliva with food.
The digestion of food remains incomplete in mouth.
Oesophagus:
The slightly digested food in the mouth is swallowed by the tongue and goes down the food pipe
called oesophagus.
When the slightly digested food enters the food pipe, the walls of food pipe start contraction and
expansion movements called as peristaltic movement.
This peristaltic movement of food pipe pushes the slightly digested into the stomach.
Stomach:
The stomach is a J-shaped organ present on the left side of the abdomen.
The stomach walls contain s three tubular glands in it walls which secrete gastric juice.
The gastric juice contains three substances: Hydrochloric acid, the enzyme pepsin and mucus.
The hydrochloric creates an acidic medium which facilitates the action of the enzyme pepsin i.e.
partial digestion of protein.
The mucus helps to protect the stomach wall from its own secretions of hydrochloric acid.
The partially digested food (Chyme) then goes from the stomach into the small intestine.
Small intestine:
From the stomach, the partially digested food enters the small intestine.
The small intestine is the largest part (about 6.5m) of the alimentary canal.
The small intestine is very narrow and arranged in the form of a coil in our belly.
The small intestine in human beings is the site of complete digestion of food (like carbohydrates,
proteins and fats)
The small intestine receives the secretion of two glands: Liver and Pancreas.
Liver secretes bile (greenish yellow liquid made in the liver and stored in gall bladder).
Bile performs two functions: Makes the acidic food coming from the stomach into alkaline so that
pancreatic enzymes can act on it.
Bile salts break the fats present in the food into small globules making it easy for the enzymes to act
and digest them(Emulsification of fats).
The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which contains enzymes like pancreatic amylase for breaking
down starch, trypsin for digesting proteins and lipase for breaking down emulsified fats.
The walls of the small intestine contain glands which secretes intestinal juice. The enzymes present in
it finally convert the proteins into amino acids, complex carbohydrates into glucose and fats into fatty
acids and glycerol.
In this way the process of digestion converts the large and insoluble food molecules into small water
soluble molecules.
Absorption:
The small intestine is the main region for the absorption of digested food.
The inner surface of the small intestine has numerous finger-like projections called villi which
increase the surface area for rapid absorption of digested food.
The digested food which is absorbed through the walls of the small intestine goes into our blood.
Assimilation:
The blood carries digested and dissolved food to all the parts of the body where it becomes
assimilated as part of the cells and is utilised for obtaining energy, building up new tissues and the
repair of old tissues.
Egestion:
The unabsorbed food is sent into the large intestine where more villi absorb water from this material.
The rest of the material is removed from the body via the anus.
The exit of this waste material is regulated by the anal sphincter.
Respiration
The process of releasing energy from food is called respiration.
The process of respiration involves taking in oxygen (of air) into the cells, using it for releasing
energy by burning food, and then eliminating the waste products (carbon dioxide and water) from
the body.

The process of respiration which releases energy takes place inside the cells of the body. So, it is also
known as cellular respiration.
Respiration is essential for life because it provide energy for carrying out all the life processes which
are necessary to keep the organism alive.
Breathing and Respiration:

Breathing Respiration

The mechanism by which organisms obtain Respiration includes breathing as well as the
oxygen from the air and release carbon dioxide is oxidation of food in the cells of the organism to
called breathing. release energy.
Breathing is a physical process. Respiration includes physical as well as
biochemical process of oxidation of food.
The process of breathing involves the lungs of the The process of respiration involves the lungs and
organism. mitochondria of the cells.

How Energy Released during Respiration is Stored:

The energy produced during respiration is stored in the form of ATP molecules in the cells of the
body and used by the organism as when required.
ADP (Adenosine Di-Phosphate, low energy content), Inorganic Phosphate (Pi) and ATP (Adenosine
Tri-Phosphate, high energy content) are the substances present inside a cell.
The energy released during respiration is used to make ATP molecules form ADP and inorganic
phosphate.

Thus, energy is stored in the form of ATP.

When the cell needs energy, then ATP can be broken down using water to release energy. Thus:
The energy equivalent to 30.5KJ/mole is released in this process.
ATP is known as energy currency of cells.
Types of Respiration:
In most of the cases, the organisms carry out respiration by using oxygen. There are, however some
organisms which carry out respiration without using oxygen. Based on this, we have two types
respiration:
Aerobic respiration, Anaerobic respiration
Aerobic Respiration: The respiration which uses oxygen is called aerobic respiration.
In aerobic respiration, the glucose food is completely broken down into carbon dioxide and water by
oxidation.
Aerobic respiration produces a considerable amount of energy for use by the organism which gets
stored in the ATP molecules.

Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration in the cells. Thus, the breakdown of pyruvate to give
carbon dioxide, water and energy takes place in mitochondria.
Anaerobic Respiration:
The respiration which takes place without oxygen is called anaerobic respiration.
The microscopic organisms like yeast and some bacteria obtain energy by anaerobic respiration
(which is called fermentation).
In anaerobic respiration, the microorganisms like yeast break down glucose (food) into ethanol and
carbon dioxide, and release energy.
Anaerobic respiration produces much less energy which gets stored in the ATP molecules.
Sometimes, when there is lack of oxygen in our muscle cells, another pathway for the breakdown of
pyruvate is taken. Here the pyruvate is converted into lactic acid (which is also a three-carbon
molecule) with the release of small amount of energy.

Respiration in Plants

Like animals, plants also need energy. The plants get this energy by the process of respiration. Plants
also use oxygen of air for respiration and release carbon dioxide.
The respiration in plants differs from the animals in three respects:
Respiration in plants Respiration in animals

All the parts of a plant (like root, stem and leaves) An animal performs respiration as a single unit.
perform respiration individually.
During respiration in plants, there is a little Respiratory gases are usually transported over
transport of respiratory gases from one part of long distance inside an animal during respiration.
the plant to the other.
The respiration in plants occurs at a slow rate. The respiration in animals occurs at a much faster
rate.
Plants get Oxygen by Diffusion:
Plants have a branching shape, so they have quite a large surface area in comparison to their volume.
Therefore, diffusion alone can supply all the cells of the plants with as much oxygen as they need for
respiration.
Diffusion occurs in the rots, stems and leaves of plants.
Respiration in Roots:
Air occurs in soil interspaces. Root hairs of the roots are in direct contact with them.
Oxygen of the soil air diffuses through root hair and reaches all internal cells of the root for
respiration.
Carbon dioxide produced by root cells diffuses in the opposite direction.
In water-logged conditions, soil air becomes deficient. In the absence of oxygen, metabolic activity of
the root declines and the plant may wither.
Respiration in Stems:
The stems of herbaceous plants have stomata. The oxygen from air diffuses into the stem of a
herbaceous plant through stomata and reaches all the cells for respiration.
The carbon dioxide gas produced during respiration diffuses out into the air through the same
stomata.
In woody stems, the bark has lenticels for gaseous exchange.
Respiration in Leaves:
The leaves of a plant have tiny pores called stomata. The exchange of respiratory gases in the leaves
takes place by the process of diffusion through stomata.
Net gaseous exchange in the leaves of the plant:
During day time, when photosynthesis occurs, oxygen is produced. The leaves use some of this
oxygen for respiration and rest of the oxygen diffuses out into air.
Again, during the day time, carbon dioxide produced by respiration is all used up in photosynthesis
by leaves. Even more carbon dioxide is taken in from air.
Thus, net gas exchange in leaves during day time is: O2 diffuses out ; CO2 diffuses in.
At night time, when no photosynthesis occurs and hence no oxygen is produced, oxygen from air
diffuses into leaves to carry out respiration. And carbon dioxide produced by respiration diffuses out
into air.
Thus, net gas exchange in leaves at night is: O2 diffuses in; CO2 diffuses out.
Respiration in Animals
All the respiratory organs have three common features:
All the respiratory organs have a large surface area to get enough oxygen.
All the respiratory organs have thin walls for easy diffusion and exchange of respiratory gases.
All the respiratory organs like skin gills, and lungs have a rich blood supply for transporting
respiratory gases.
Terrestrial animals can breathe the oxygen in the atmosphere, but animals that live in water (aquatic
animals) need to use the oxygen dissolved in water.
Since the amount of dissolved oxygen is fairly low compared to the amount of oxygen in the air, the
rate of breathing in aquatic organisms is much faster than that seen in terrestrial organisms.
Respiration in Amoeba:
 Amoeba is single-celled animal. Amoeba depends on simple diffusion of gases from breathing.
 The exchange of gases in Amoeba takes place through its cell membrane.
 Amoeba lives in water. This water has oxygen dissolved in it. The oxygen from water diffuses
into the body of Amoeba through its cell membrane.
 Since the amoeba is very small in size, so the oxygen spreads quickly into the whole body of
Amoeba.
 This oxygen is used for respiration inside the Amoeba cell. The process of respiration produces
carbon dioxide gas continuously. This carbon dioxide gas diffuses out through the membrane
of amoeba into the surrounding water.
Respiratory system in Humans
 In human beings, many organs take part in the process of respiration. These organs are called
organs of respiratory system.
 The main organs of human respiratory system are: Nose, Nasal passage, Trachea (wind pipe),
Bronchi, Lungs and Diaphragm.
 The human respiratory system begins from the nose. The air then goes into nasal passage. The
nasal passage is lined is lined with fine hair and mucus.
 When air passes through the nasal passage, the dust particles and other impurities present in it
are trapped by nasal hair and mucus so that clean air goes into lungs.
 The part of throat between the mouth and wind pipe is called pharynx.
 From the nasal passage, air enters into pharynx and then goes into the wind pipe. Trachea
does not collapse even when there is no air in it because it is supported by rings of soft bones
called cartilage.
 The trachea runs down the neck and divides into two smaller tubes called bronchi at its lower
end.
 The bronchi are connected to the two lungs. The lungs lie in the chest cavity or thoracic cavity
which is separated from abdominal cavity by a muscular partition called diaphragm.
 Each bronchus divides in the lungs to form a large number of still smaller tubes called
‘bronchioles’.
 The pouch-like air sacs at the ends of the smallest bronchioles are called alveoli.
 The walls of alveoli are very thin and they are surrounded by very thin blood capillaries.
 It is in the alveoli that gaseous exchange takes place.
Mechanism of Respiration:
 When we breathe in, we lift our ribs and flatten our diaphragm. And the chest cavity becomes
larger as a result. Because of this, air is sucked into the lungs and fills the expanded alveoli.
 The alveoli are surrounded by thin blood vessels called capillaries carrying blood in them. So.
The oxygen of air diffuses out from the alveoli walls into the blood.
 The oxygen is carried by blood to all the parts of the body. As the blood passes through the
tissues of the body, the oxygen present in it diffuses into the cells.
 The oxygen combines with the digested food present in the cells to release energy.
 Carbon dioxide gas is produced as a waste product during respiration in the cells of the body
tissues. This carbon dioxide diffuses into the blood.
 Blood carries the CO2 back to the lungs where it diffuses into the alveoli.
 When we breathe out air. The diaphragm and muscles attached to the ribs relax due to which
our chest cavity contracts and becomes smaller. This contraction movement of the chest pushes
out CO2 from the alveoli of lungs into the trachea, nostrils then out of the body into air.
 Note: During the breathing cycle, when air is taken in and let out, the lungs always contain a
residual volume of air so that there is sufficient time for oxygen to be absorbed and for the
carbon dioxide to be released.
 Carbon dioxide is more soluble in water than oxygen is and hence is mostly transported in the
dissolved form in our blood.
Rate of breathing:
 The process of breathing pumps in oxygen into our body (and removes CO2).
 Breathing occurs involuntarily but the rate of breathing is controlled by the respiratory system
of brain.
 The average breathing rate in an adult man at rest is about 15 to 18 times per minute. This
breathing rate increases with increased physical activity.
 Oxygen required for breathing and respiration is carried by haemoglobin pigment present in
our blood. The normal range of haemoglobin in the blood of a healthy adult person is from 12
to 18 grams per deciliter of blood.
 The deficiency of haemoglobin in the blood of a person reduces the oxygen carrying capacity
of blood resulting in breathing problems, tiredness and lack of energy.
HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
 The human circulatory systems consist of the heart, arteries, and veins. The lungs also form an
important component of the circulatory system. It has been discussed previously in our article
on human respiration.
 The heart, a muscular organ is the centre of the human circulatory system. The heart is located
in the chest, towards the left side. It contains four chambers- the right atrium, the right
ventricle, the left atrium and left ventricle. The left atrium and ventricle are connected in series
and form the left side of the heart. The left heart receives blood (oxygenated) from the lungs
and pumps it to various parts of the body. The pulmonary veins, four in number, ?bring
oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium. The outflow from the left heart goes into a
large blood vessel (in fact, the biggest blood vessel in the body) – the aorta. The aorta has many
branches at different levels that supply blood to the various organs.

 The right side of the human circulatory system consists of the right atrium and ventricle that
are connected in series. The right heart receives deoxygenated blood from the various parts of
the body and pumps it through the pulmonary artery into the lungs. Within the lungs, by the
process of simple diffusion, oxygen is taken in by the haemoglobin present in red cells, and the
carbon dioxide is excreted out into the air. This entire process is called respiration.

 The heart pumps blood through the body continuously. It never stops during a person’s
lifetime. The pumping action of the heart is finely co-ordinate. The atria relax to receive the
blood. Once it is filled up, the atria contract, pushing the blood into the ventricles. During this
process, the ventricles are in a relaxed state. Once the ventricles fill up with blood, they
contract, pumping the blood into the blood vessels. The pumping action of the heart is
noticeable in many ways. We can feel the heart pumping if we put our hands over the left side
of the chest. The heart produces sounds while pumping blood. The heart sounds are of two
 types- lub and dub. These sounds are heard by placing a stethoscope on our chest. A doctor is
trying to listen to the heart sounds when (s) he is listening to your chest.

 The function of the heart can also be felt by feeling the pulse. When the heart pumps blood, it
does so in waves. These waves are palpable be putting our finger on any artery. The
commonest way to palpate a pulse is by placing a finger on the wrist where the radial artery is
palpable.

 Thus, to summarize, the human circulatory system is a system consisting of a central pump
(the heart) that is connected to a network of tubes (the blood vessels). It functions to transport
nutrients, oxygen and waste products through the body.

EXCRETORY SYSTEM:
As a result of various metabolic activities taking place in the body, various waste substances are
produced. If these waste substances accumulate in the body, it would poison body cells and this
would result in the death of the organism. Hence it is important for our body to get rid of these
toxic waste products.
The elimination of metabolic wastes, excess of salts and water from the body is called
EXCRETION.
The organs concerned with the process of excretion are called excretory organs. The major
excretory organ in man is the kidney. Other organs such as the liver, lungs, skin and large
intestine also eliminate wastes besides performing their normal functions. They are called the
additional excretory organs.
The excretory system in human beings consists of:-
A pair of kidneys
A pair of ureters
Urinary bladder
Urethra
Kidneys :-
 A pair of reddish brown, bean shaped structures which lie along the posterior
abdominal wall one on either side of the vertebral column.
 The right kidney is placed slightly lower than the left kidney as the right kidney is
pushed down by the large liver.
 The outer margin of the kidney is convex and the inner margin is concave.
 On the inner concave side of the kidney is present a notch called hilum. This leads to
space called the renal sinus.
 The renal artery, renal vein, ureters, enter or leave the kidney from the hilum.
Ureters :- They arise from within the renal sinus of the kidneys at the hilum. The anterior part of each
ureter is a funnel shaped structure, the pelvis.
The ureters transport urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder.
Each ureter opens into the urinary bladder by an aperture.
Valves at the openings of the ureter prevent the back flow of urine.
Urinary Bladder:-
This is a muscular sac like structure which temporarily stores urine.
It is situated in the lower end of the abdomen.
The neck of the urinary bladder is surrounded by sphincter muscles which remain closed till the
time of urination.
Urethra :-
It is a short muscular tube which arises from the neck of the urinary bladder and leads to the outside
The opening of the urethra is also guarded by a ring of sphincter muscle. It relaxes during urination.
Renal artery:-
This is a branch of the Aorta which enters the kidney at the hilum. It brings with it oxygenated blood
containing nitrogenous waste.
On entering the kidney, the renal artery divides repeatedly to form thin vessels called afferent
arterioles.
Renal vein :-
It is formed by the union of the renal venules in the kidney.
The renal vein leaves the kidney at the hilum carrying with it deoxygenated blood, free from all toxic
waste products.
The renal vein returns blood to the inferior vena cava.
Structure of the Nephron
Each kidney has about 1.25 million highly coiled tubules called uriniferous tubules or nephrons.
The nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney.
Each nephron is differentiated into two parts-
1. Malpighian corpuscle or renal capsule
2. Renal tubule
1. Malpighian corpuscle : it lies in the cortex of the kidney. It is further differentiated into two parts
a. Bowman’s capsule
b. Glomerulus
a. Bowman’s capsule :It is a double walled, cup shaped structure made of thin semi-permeable
squamous epithelial cells.It forms the dilated blind end of a nephron.
b. Glomerulus :It is a knot of capillaries present in the cup of the Bowman’s capsule. The afferent
arteriole( incoming blood vessel)enters the Bowman’s capsule and branches to form a network of
capillaries. This network is called glomerulus .These capillaries reunite to form the efferent arteriole
(outgoing blood vessel).
2. Renal tubule or nephric tubule: The Bowman’s capsule leads into a coiled part of the nephron
called Renal tubule. It can be divided into three major regions:-
a. Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
b. Loop of Henle
c. Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
a. Proximal convoluted tubule: It is the initial highly coiled tubular part that lies in the cortex. The
cells lining this part are made of columnar epithelium and have microvilli on their free surface which
appears like a brush border. This increases surface area for absorption.
b. Loop of Henle: it is a ‘U’ shaped part of the renal tubule. It consists of a descending limb, hair pin
loop and ascendinglimb. It is found in the medulla of the kidney. The descending limb is lined with
squamous epithelial cells, while the ascending limb is lined with cuboidal epithelium.
c. Distal convoluted tubule : It is again highly coiled part found in the cortex of the kidney. It is lined
by cuboidal epithelium . It opens into the collecting tubule.
The open ends of so many nephrons open into a wider tube called collecting tubule. These tubules
open into a larger tube called the collecting duct. They extend from the cortex to the medulla. They
are present in groups called pyramids. The collecting duct receives the contents of many renal
tubules and pours it as urine in the pelvis, which leads into the ureter.
MECHANISM OF URINE FORMATION
As result of deamination in the liver, nitrogenous waste products are formed. Ammonia is one of the
main nitrogenous wastes. As this is very toxic, urea is formed from ammonia and carbon di oxide in
the liver cells. Urea is less toxic and highly soluble in water. This is then transported by the blood to
the kidneys along with small amounts of uric acid, excess of water, mineral salts, bile pigments etc.,
for elimination in the form of urine.
The formation of urine is accomplished in the following three steps:-
A. ULTRAFILTRATION :
Definition : The filtration of blood under tremendous hydrostatic pressure in the malpighian
corpuscle is called ultrafiltration.
 When blood passes from the afferent arteriole having a larger diameter to the efferent arteriole
having a smaller diameter, a pressure is built up in the capillaries of the glomerulus.
 Due to this hydrostatic pressure, all the substances in the blood that can pass through the
capillary walls get filtered out and enter into the Bowman’s capsule.
 This occurs because the walls of these capillaries have fine pores and most of the substances in
the blood are small enough to pass through these pores, into the Bowman’s capsule.
 As blood cells, fat droplets and proteins are too large to pass through, they remain in the
blood. Hence, the blood in the efferent arteriole is thicker than the blood in the afferent
arteriole.
 The fluid filtered into the Bowman’s capsule is called glomerular filtrate or nephric filtrate or
primary urine. It consists of useful substances such as glucose, salts, various elements and a large
amount of water. It also contains nitrogenous waste products such as urea, uric acid, ammonia etc.
 In man about 180 litres of glomerular filtrate is formed each day.

B. TUBULAR REABSORPTION :
Definition : Selective tubular reabsorption is the process of absorption of all useful substances from
the glomerular filtrate into the blood running through the secondary network of capillaries.
 The glomerular filtrate entering the renal tubule contains several useful substances such as
glucose, amino acids, certain salts (esp. of Na+ and K+ ) and water.
 All these substances have to be reabsorbed in to the blood so that the normal concentration
and fluidity of the blood is restored.
 The process of reabsorption is brought about by two processes – simple diffusion and active
transport.
 In the PCT , 65-80% of water, glucose, amino acids, and minerals like Na, Ca and K is
reabsorbed In the descending limb, 5% water is reabsorbed by the process of osmosis, as it is
permeable to water.
 In the ascending limb, only minerals, mainly-Na+ , Cl are reabsorbed by active transport.(It is
the movement of molecules against a concentration gradient which requires energy). This part
of the limb is impermeable to water.
 In the DCT and collecting ducts, Na+ is reabsorbed under the influence of hormone
Aldosterone. Water is reabsorbed under the influence of the hormone ADH (anti-diuretic
hormone or vasopressin)
C. TUBULAR SECRETION:
Definition : The secretion of harmful substances from the blood into the filtrate through the walls of
the DCT is called tubular secretion.
 This process is the converse of tubular reabsorption. While tubular reabsorption removes
substances from the filtrate into the blood, tubular secretion adds materials to the filtrate from
the blood.
 The tubules secrete specific enzymes that mediate active transport of substances like creatinine
and elements like K+ and H+ from the blood into the filtrate.
 Certain drugs like penicillin and other antibiotics are also removed from the blood in this
manner.
 Thus, this process helps rid the body of certain toxic substances and also helps in maintaining
the acid-base balance(PH) of the body.
 The filtrate left after tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion is called urine.
 At the end of the process 180 litres of glomerular filtrate changes to 1.0-1.5 litres of urine per
day.
OSMOREGULATION
The process of maintaining the water and salt contents constant in the body is called osmoregulation.
The kidneys along with certain hormones is responsible for maintaining osmoregulation in our body.
ARTIFICIAL KIDNEY
When one kidney is damaged or removed for some reason, a person can still survive with one
kidney.
But if both kidneys fail, it would lead to death. In such cases an artificial kidney or a dialysis machine
is used, which filters the blood of a patient. The patient is said to be put on dialysis and the process of
purifying blood by an artificial kidney is called haemodialysis . Here the patient’s blood is led from
the Radial artery in the arm into the machine where the urea and excess salts are removed and the
purified blood is returned to a vein in the same arm.
Life Processes
1. Which chemical reactions are necessary to produce energy rich compounds?
 Oxidation-reduction reactions are the most common reactions which cause breakdown of food
to produce energy rich compounds.
 Oxygen obtained from outside the body is used for such reactions.
2. Why do unicellular organisms not require specific organs for taking in food, exchange of gases,
and transport of substances and, removal of wastes?
 Since, the entire surface of unicellular organisms remains in contact with the environment;
specific organs for these functions are not required.
 Their general body, surface helps in procurement of food, exchange of gases and removal of
waste.
3. Which process helps in producing carbon-based food? Which source of energy is utilised to
produce food? Name the organisms which are involved in the process.
 The process is known as photosynthesis.
 Solar energy is utilised in converting CO2 and water into the form of carbon-based food like
carbohydrates by green plants, i.e., autotrophs.
4. Do all organisms fulfill requirement of food in the same way?
 Plants use inorganic substances like carbon dioxide and water to produce food and other
substances.
 Other organisms like animals take complex food molecules from plants or animal sources and
break them into simpler substances so that they are absorbed easily.
5. Why are processes like intake of food,, exchange of gases, removal of wastes not possible
through the general surface when the body size increases and, becomes more complex?
 Multicellular bodies are more complex as they are made up of a large number of cells.
 Complexity increases with the increase in the size of the body.
 Cells are organised in groups called tissues.
  All the cells can not be in direct contact with outside environment, and through diffusion, it
will take a long time for a molecule to reach its place of action.
 Therefore, such processes require a definite organised system.
6. How do multicellular organisms accomplish the various life processes?
In multicellular organisms, there are various body parts or organs which are specific in their
functions.
 These organs have specialised tissues which are suitable for specific functions.
 Intake of food and oxygen from outside is also the function of specialised tissues.
 Intake of food and digestion occurs in the alimentary canal while the intake of oxygen occurs
through the lungs.
7. What are maintenance processes?
Maintenance processes are the processes to perform various functions in the living organisms.
 These are (i) nutrition, (ii) respiration, (iii) transportation and (iv) excretion.
For this, organisms need energy, which is made available from the food obtained through the process
of nutrition.
 Oxygen is taken in and the food is oxidised to provide energy.
 Oxidation-reduction processes help in producing essential molecules needed for the- growth
and development of the body.
 Transport of the molecules fulfills the needs of the actively growing cells of the body"
 Unwanted substances are excreted outside the body.
8. Why is the process of nutrition necessary for living organisms?
Nutrition is necessary for living organisms because of the following reasons:
 It provides substances which release energy needed to do work. . It helps in the growth and
development of the body.
 It provides materials to repair worn out cells of the body.
 It provides substances to the body which help to fight diseases.
 It provides substances which regulate different body processes and maintains life"
 Essential cellular products, such as enzymes, and other important substances like hormones
are produced from the food molecules.
9. Why the leaf is considered the most suitable plant organ for photosynthesis?
 Leaves are the site of photosynthesis.
 The palisade tissue present below the upper epidermis is made up of cells having chloroplasts.
 These cells obtain carbon dioxide through stomata and water through xylem of the veins.
 Sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll pigments of the chloroplasts.
 The solar energy is used to combine carbon dioxide and water in the chloroplasts, with the
help of enzymes, to produce Glucose.
 Glucose is stored in the form of starch.
 Oxygen produced during photosynthesis is released through stomata into the atmosphere.
10. How do plants obtain food? Give the equation for photosynthesis.
 Green plants are autotrophs and synthesise their own food by the process of photosynthesis. It
means synthesis of food in the presence of sunlight.
 It is a process in which plants use sunlight, chlorophyll, carbon dioxide and water to
synthesise food.

6CO2+12H2O → C6H12O6+6O2↑ + 6H2O

Carbon dioxide+ Water → Glucose + Oxygen+ Water
11. Answer the following:
(i) Which is the first simple molecule produced by photosynthesis?
(ii) What happens to these simple molecules in the leaves later?
(i) Glucose is the first simple molecule produced during photosynthesis"
(ii) Glucose molecules combine to produce starch, which is stored in various parts of the plant.
12. How is intermediate compound produced during night in desert plants? How is it changed to
food during day?
 Desert plants absorb CO2 during night and fix it in an intermediate compound known as malic
acid.
 During day, the solar energy absorbed by chlorophyll molecules helps in changing the
intermediate compound into food.

13. How is oxygen produced during photosynthesis? What happens to the oxygen thus produced?
 Water splits during photosynthesis into hydrogen and oxygen.
 While hydrogen is needed for reducing carbon dioxide, oxygen escapes into the atmosphere to
be utilised by the living organisms to produce energy.
14. Why do plants require minerals like nitrogen, phosphorus, iron and, magnesium?
 These are required to produce proteins and other chemical substances needed by plants.
 These are components of cells and enzymes.
15. Why do heterotrophic organisms depend for food on autotrophs?
 Heterotrophic organisms cannot prepare their own food and thus they depend on autotrophs,
which are also known as producers.
 The only food available to herbivores is plants and plant parts.
 The carnivores, in turn, feed on herbivores and other carnivores for their food.
16. Why are variegated leaves chosen to prove that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis?
Variegated leaves show two regions, one green region containing chlorophyll, and the other non
green region that does not contain chlorophyll.
17. Answer the following questions based on experiments on photosynthesis:
(i) Why are the leaves boiled in alcohol while testing for starch?
(ii) Why is the plant kept in dark for about three days while performing an experiment to show
that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis?
(iii) Why should the leaves be kept in boiling water for a few minutes before putting them in
alcohol for testing for starch?
(i) Leaves are boiled in alcohol so that chlorophyll from the leaves leaches out into alcohol.
(ii) The plant should be kept in the dark for three days to destarch the leaves.
(iii) Leaves are boiled in water so that the enzymes are destroyed and they do not show further
activity.
18. If a green plant is placed in air, free of oxygen, would it live longer in light or in darkness?
Why?
 The green plant would live longer in 1ight even without oxygen in air as it can use carbon
dioxide and water during photosynthesis and evolve oxygen in the air.
 This will be utilised during respiration to release carbon dioxide and energy.
 But in the dark, there will be no photosynthesis and no evolution of oxygen.
 Since oxygen is not present in air, the plant will not undergo respiration.
 Energy will not be made available for various activities and the plant will die after some time.
19. Which events occur during the process of photosynthesis? What happens to excess of
carbohydrates which are not utilised by plants and animals?
The following events occur during the process of photosynthesis:
 Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll molecules.
 Conversion of light energy into chemical energy and splitting of water molecules into
hydrogen and oxygen.
 Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates and release of oxygen into tire atmosphere.
 Excess carbohydrates, which are not used by plants, are stored as starch in the storage organs
of the plants.
 Excess carbohydrates in animals are stored as glycogen
20. During an experiment to demonstrate that chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis, why
were the following steps taken:
(i) Why was a potted plant with variegated leaves taken?
(ii) Why was the plant kept in dark for three days?
(iii) Why was the potted, plant kept in sunlight for six hours?
(iv) Why were the experimental leaves boiled in alcohol?
(v) Why were these leaves treated, with iodine?
(i) Variegated leaves have some green areas containing chlorophyll and some non-green areas which
are without chlorophyll
(ii) Since the potted plant was actively photosynthesising, it was kept in dark for three days to
destarch the leaves.
(iii) After destarching, the potted plant was kept in sunlight for six hours so that starch could be
produced by photosynthesis.
(iv) Experimental leaves were boiled in alcohol to dissolve chlorophyll from them.
(v) These leaves were treated with iodine to show the presence of starch in green areas of the leaves.
Blue-black colour appears in the chlorophyll containing parts of the leaves.
21.Describe an experiment to prove that carbon dioxide is essential for photosynthesis.
(i) Take two potted plants, nearly of the same size.
(ii) Keep them in the dark for three days to destarch them.
(iii) Take two separate glass plates and put one potted plant on each of them.
(iv) Put a Petri dish or watch glass containing potassium hydroxide on one of theglass plates along
with the potted plant, as seen in the experimental setup A.
(v) Cover both plants separately with bell jars.
(vi) Apply Vaseline to seal the bottom of the bell jar to avoid leakage of the carbon dioxide produced.
(vii) The experimental setups should be kept for about two hours in sunlight"
(viii) Pluck one leaf each from the two plants and test for the presence of starch by boiling first in
water, then in alcohol and finally, treating it with iodine.
(ix) A leaf from experimental setup B showed blue-black colour.
(x) The leaf from experimental setup A, containing potassium hydroxide, did not show any blue-
black colour potassium hydroxide absorbs CO2, which was not available for photosynthesis, proving
that carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis.
22. Why is photosynthesis regarded, as the sole mechanism for the conversion of solar energy into
other suitable forms of energy?
 This is the only process where the chlorophyll molecules present in the leaves can convert
solar energy to chemical energy which is stored in the food molecules.
 The food thus produced is utilised by all organisms in one way or the other. No other
organism can perform this process as they do not contain chlorophyll.
23. What is the importance of photosynthesis?
 Photosynthesis is the process of food production by green plants. They are known as primary
producers, as they provide food to alt living organisms.
 Solar energy is trapped as chemical energy, which is stored in food molecules only try the
process of photosynthesis. This energy is then distributed to all living organisms to sustain life.
 Photosynthesis is the only natural process during which carbon dioxide is taken in and life
sustaining oxygen is released.. This helps in balancing the concentrations of both the gases.
24. Describe the process of digestion of food in man.
(i) Mouth (buccal cavity): Three pairs of salivary glands present in the buccal cavity secrete salivary
juice which mixes with food.
Salivary amylase present in saliva digests starch into sugar.
(ii) Stomach: Food enters the stomach through the oesophagus"
  The gastric glands present in the wall of the stomach secrete gastric juice containing HCl,
which provides acidic medium for the action of pepsin.
 Pepsin breaks down proteins into smaller molecules. (Partially digest proteins).
 Mucus protects the lining of stomach from the action of HCI. Partially digested food- Chyme
now enters small intestine.(duodenum)"
(iii) Small intestine:
 Pancreatic juice contains trypsin, which breaks proteins into smaller molecules' amylase,
which digests starch into sugar, and lipase, which changes fats, emulsified by bile salts, into
fatty acid and glycerol.
 The bile salts secreted by the liver make the medium alkaline for the action of pancreatic
enzymes.
 The intestinal juice secreted in the small intestine, completes the digestion of proteins into
amino acids, carbohydrates into glucose -and fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
 The digested food is absorbed by blood vessels present in the finger-like projections known as
vil1i.
(iv) Large intestine:
 Excess water and minerals, from the unabsorbed and undigested food is absorbed by the walls
of the large intestine.
 Undigested food is removed through anus.
25. Explain the following:
(i) Emulsification of fats.
(ii) Gall bladder.
(iii) Function of the large intestine.
(iv) Peristaltic movements.
(v) Use of muscular sphincter in the stomach.
(i) Bile salts break large fat globules in the small intestine into smaller molecules for better action of
the enzymes" This process is called emulsification of fats.
(ii) Gall bladder is a sac-like structure present in the liver. It stores bile juice.
(iii) Large intestine is meant for absorption of water from the undigested food and making it more
solid. This waste is then excreted through the anus.
(iv) Walls of the organs of the alimentary canal are provided with muscles which contract
rhythmically causing peristaltic movements which push the food forward.
(v) Muscular sphincter, located at the end of stomach, regulates the movement of small amounts of
food into the intestine -for its proper digestion.
26. Describe the process of nutrition in Amoeba.
Amoeba engulfs food in solid form.
Following are the steps in the process of nutrition by Amoeba:
INGESTION: Amoeba captures its prey by means of the pseudopodia (false feet). It forms two
pseudopodia encircling the prey. The two pseudopodia fuse completely, forming a bag like structure
containing the food particle or prey. This is called the food vacuole. And the process of engulfing
food particle is known as ingestion.
DIGESTION: The enzymes present in the food vacuole digest the food, the process is known as
digestion.
ABSORPTION AND ASSIMILATION: The digested material diffuses or absorbed into the
cytoplasm by a process known as absorption, where it is assimilated to form new protoplasm.
EGESTION: The food vacuole also known as residual vacuole containing undigested waste is
brought to any point on the surface of the cell and then it is released outside by a process known as
EGESTION.

27. What are the different modes of heterotrophic nutrition? Describe them.
Heterotrophic nutrition: Organisms which derive food from the other organisms show heterotrophic
nutrition. Such organisms are called heterotrophs. All animals, including man, are examples of
heterotrophs.
Heterotrophic nutrition is of the following types:
(i) Parasitic nutrition: In this type of nutrition, the organisms (called parasites) depend on the body of
other living organisms (called their host) for getting their food. Many viruses, bacteria, fungi and
animals have this mode of nutrition.
The organisms which depend on other living organisms (host) for food are called as parasites.
Parasites of two types:
a) Ecto parasites b) Endo parasites

Ecto parasites: Ecto parasites are those parasites which obtain their food from their host by remaining
outside the body of their host. For example, mosquitoes, ticks, lice and bed bug.
Endo parasites: Endo parasites are those parasites which obtain their food from their host by
remaining inside the body of their host. For example, Ascaris, plasmodium vivax and tape worm.
(ii) Saprophytic nutrition: In saprophytic nutrition, the living organisms thrive on dead and
decaying organic matter of plant and animal origin. This type of nutrition is seen in fungi, such as
bread moulds, mushrooms and yeast.
(iii) Holozoic nutrition: Some animals eat whole plants, whole animals or their parts and digest
them. The digested material is subsequently absorbed and utilised. Holozoic nutrition is seen in most
of the animals like Amoeba, cockroach, man, etc.
28. Describe an experiment to demonstrate that salivary amylase digests starch.
(i) Take two test tubes A and B and take 1 ml of starch solution in each test tube.
(ii) In test tube A, add 1 ml, of saliva. Keep the two test tubes undisturbed at room temperature for
20to 30 minutes.
(iii) Add a few drops of iodine in each test tube.
(iv) Blue-black colour will appear only in test tube B. There will be no colour in test tube A.
(v) This shows that salivary amylase from saliva in test tube A has acted on starch and changed it to
sugar. Hence, there is no colour.
29. How is dental caries caused? What precautions should you observe to avoid dental caries?
What will happen if plaque formation is not removed?
Bacteriaacting on sugars produce acids that soften or de-mineralise the enamel. Bacterial cells
together with food particles stick to the teeth to form dental plaque. Saliva cannot reach the tooth
surface to neutralize the acid as plaque covers the teeth. As a result dental caries or tooth decay
occurs. Brushing the teeth after eating removes the plaque. If plaque formation is not removed,
microorganisms may invade the pulp causing inflammation or infection.
30. How is Respiration different from breathing?
Breathing is the physical process of respiratory gaseous exchange between the organism and the
environment by diffusion. It takes place in the lungs. On the other hand, respiration involves
oxidation of food and release of energy which takes place in the cells along with respiratory gaseous
exchange.
31. Breathing and Respiration in humans
Respiration may be divided into two steps.
• Breathing involves inhalation of air containing oxygen and exhalation of carbondioxide.
• Cellular respiration is responsible for release of energy by oxidation of food(glucose), and its
conversion into ATP (adenosine triphosphate)—The energy module.
32. Name the parts of human respiratory system.
Respiratory system of human beings has the following parts
• External nares or nostrils.
• Nasal cavities inside the nose.
• Internal nostrils opening into pharynx.
• Pharynx that leads into the wind pipe or trachea.
• Trachea divides into two bronchi (one bronchus) which lead into the two lungs.
The opening of the pharynx into the trachea is called glottis. Trachea is thin walled but its walls do
not collapse even when there is not enough air in it as it is supported by rings of cartilage. Trachea
bifurcates into bronchi.
Lungs enclose within them branches of bronchi called bronchioles which branch further and end in
very thin walled sac-like structures called air sacs or alveoli (sing. alveolus).
The voice box or larynx is present on the trachea
33. Explain the Mechanism of breathing or ventilation of lungs.
Lungs are located in the chest cavity or the thoracic cavity. Below the chest cavity is the abdominal
cavity. These two cavities are separated from each other by a dome-shaped (upwardly arched)
muscular sheet called diaphragm
The movement of diaphragm helps in breathing. Breathing, also called ventilation involves two
processes:
(i) Inhalation (drawing the air inwards) is the result of increase in the volume of the thoracic cavity.
This increase is caused by the changes that take place in the position of diaphragm and ribs.
• Diaphragm straightens out due to contraction of its muscles.
• Ribs are raised upward and outward and volume of chest cavity enlarges by contraction of rib
muscles. As the volume of chest increases pressure of air in it decreases.
• Atmospheric air rushes in and reaches the alveoli. It brings in oxygen which diffuses into the
capillaries from the alveoli.
(ii) Exhalation is the result of decrease in the volume of the thoracic cavity.
This decrease in the volume is caused when:
• Diaphragm relaxes and resumes its dome shape, arching upwards.
• Ribs are lowered downwards and inwards.
• Thoracic cavity is compressed and the pressure inside the lungs is increased.
• The alveolar carbon dioxide diffuses out and is pushed out through the trachea and nose.
• This breathing out of carbon dioxide laden air is called exhalation.
34. Exchange of gases between blood and tissues:
Inhalation fills in the alveoli of lungs with oxygenated air. This oxygen has to reach the various
tissues of the body. Thus as the first step, blood capillaries on alveoli pick up oxygen from alveoli and
carbon dioxide brought by the capillaries from the tissues is exchanged for oxygen. Oxygen diffuses
into alveoli.
In the tissues, oxygen gets used up and carbon dioxide is accumulated which is now exchanged for
oxygen in blood. The carbon dioxide picked up by blood from tissues is carried to the heart by veins.
35. What path is taken by air when it travels from the nostrils to the lungs in the human beings?
Air from the nostrils reaches the alveoli in lungs by taking the following path through the various
organs:
Nostrils→Pharynx→Larynx→Trachea→Bronchi→Bronchioles→Alveoli
36. How is oxygen carried, to the-tissues, considering that diffusion pressure is not sufficient to
carry oxygen to different parts of the body?
Diffusion pressure is not sufficient to carry oxygen to different parts of the body. The respiratory
pigment, haemoglobin, is efficient to carry oxygen to the different parts of the body.
37. Why does aerobic respiration produce more energy than anaerobic respiration?
During aerobic respiration, there is complete oxidation of glucose molecules Therefore, large amount
of energy is released whereas in anaerobic respiration, glucose is only partially oxidised, releasing
little amount of energy.
38. What are the respiratory structures and, their role in flowering plant?
The main respiratory structures in a flowering plant are stomata present on the leaves. Stomata are
small openings, present on both the surfaces of the leaves. Oxygen moves into stomata by diffusion.
This oxygen is absorbed by the leaf cells. Carbon dioxide has more concentration in tissue-spaces
than the surroundings. When no photosynthesis occurs, carbon dioxide diffuses out through the
stomata.
39. What is the advantage of nose breathing over mouth breathing?
The air passes directly from the-mouth to the pharynx during mouth breathing while, during nose
breathing, the air passes through nasal passages and gets filtered, warmed up and moistened because
of the presence of mucus which traps dirt and foreign objects.
40. Food and oxygen, both are necessary for life. Will man be able to survive without food and
oxygen? Why?
Man can survive without food for a few days as the stored food molecules can be oxidised to give
energy. But without oxygen, energy rich compound ATP cannot be produced and energy will not be
available to carry on the life processes.
41. What will happen to aquatic animals if there is oil spilt in the ocean?
Oil spill spreads on the surface of water in the ocean, which does not allow oxygen to enter and get
dissolved in water. Aquatic animals will die in such conditions as no oxygen will be available to
them.
42. Name the organ of respiration in fishes. How does it help in the process of respiration?
Gills are the respiratory organs of fishes. The water enters through the mouth and spreads over the
gills, which are richly supplied with blood capillaries. Oxygen dissolved in water diffuses into the
blood. The blood contains carbondioxide, brought from the various parts of the body. This carbon
dioxide diffuses out in water" Water containing carbon dioxide is expelled out of the gills through the
gill slits.
43. Mention three differences between aquatic and terrestrial respiration.
i) Aquatic respiration occurs through organs like gills, as in fishes. In terrestrial respiration, lungs are
the respiratory organs.
ii) Very little oxygen is dissolved in water as compared to the oxygen present in the atmosphere.
Thus, the rate of breathing is much higher in aquatic organisms as compared to in terrestrial
organisms.
iii) Gills, which are the organs for aquatic respiration, are exposed to the outside but are covered with
operculum. Lungs, which are the organs for terrestrial respiration, are placed inside the organism
and are protected by the chest cavity.
44. What should be the characteristics of a gaseous exchange surface?
i) It should be a thin, delicate surface and should allow exchange of gases.
ii) It should have a large surface area.
iii) It should be richly supplied with blood vessels for easy transport of gases.
45. What is respiration? Mention the two types of respiration, occurring in living organisms'
describe briefly the two types of respirations. Write the equations for both the processes.
Respiration is a biochemical process which results in the production of energy, there are two types of
respirations occurring in living organisms. These are: (i) aerobic respiration and (ii) anaerobic
respiration.
(.i,) Aerobic respiration: Aerobic respiration occurs when food (glucose) is completely oxidised by
oxygen into carbon dioxide and water with release of lot of energy stored in ATP (Adenosine tri-
phosphate) molecules. This process occurs in mitochondria.
Equation for aerobic respiration:

(ii) Anaerobic respiration: The process occurring in the cytoplasm, without utilising oxygen is known
as anaerobic respiration. Food is partially oxidised into either ethyl alcohol or lactic acid. Bacteria and
yeast undergo fermentation, producing ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide, as shown in the equation.
46. What is pyruvate? How is it produced? What is its function in a cell?
Pyruvate is a three carbon molecule. It is produced by the breakdown of glucose molecules in the
cytoplasm
Function: Pyruvate, during aerobic respiration, enters into mitochondria, where it is oxidised by
oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water, accompanied by release of a large amount of energy.

During anaerobic respiration, in the yeast cell, pyruvate produces ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide
and, in our muscles, pyruvate is converted into lactic acid. A little amount of energy is released
during anaerobic respiration.
47. 'Respiration is the vital function of the body. 'Justify.
The process of respiration is the vital function of the body because;
i) It provides oxygen which is vital for life. Air, rich in oxygen, enters our body through the process of
breathing, which is an essential step of respiration.
ii) Oxygen oxidises food (glucose) in the cells, resulting in the production of large amount of energy,
which is vital to perform the various body activities.
iii) Oxidation of food results in production of large amount of carbon dioxide, a highly toxic gas,
which is expelled out by the process of breathing.
iv) During excessive need of energy, the rate of respiration increases to meet the extra demand.
v) Vital organs like the heart and the brain require oxygen, which is provided by respiration.
48. Mention the functions of blood.
The following functions are performed by the blood:
(i) Transportation: Blood transports various substances to different parts of the body such as:
(a) The digested food and other nutrients from the intestine are absorbed by the blood and
transported to all parts ofthe body.
(b) After the air enters the lungs, the oxygen from alveoli diffuses into the blood capillaries. It is then
transported by the blood to every cell of the body. Carbon dioxide, produced in the tissues due to
metabolic activities, is brought to the lungs so that it can be released outside.
(ii) Waste products like urea are produced in the various tissues of the body due to metabolism of
proteins. These are brought to the kidneys by the blood so that they can be expelled out.
(iii) Blood regulates body temperature.
(iv) It prevents loss of blood by coagulating it during an injury.

49. Explain the following:

(i) Why d.oes an artery divide into smaller and smaller vessels on entering a tissue?
(ii) How is backward flow of blood from the ventricles to the auricles prevented?
(iii)How is double circulation beneficial to us?
(iv) Why does our transport system require a heart and a network of blood vessels?
(v) Why are the veins thin-walled and why do they possess valves?
Arteries divide into smaller and smaller vessels so that blood comes in close contact with the cells of
the tissue for efficient exchange of materials.
Backward flow of blood from the ventricles to the auricles is prevented by valves present between
them"
During double circulation, oxygenated and deoxygenated blood circulates separately. This allows
efficient supply of oxygen to meet the demand for high energy required to maintain the body
temperature and for various other activities of the body.
Heart is required to pump the blood into a network of blood vessels which are required for
distribution and collection of blood, to and from different parts of the body, and for efficient
exchange of gases and materials.
Blood pressure reduces considerably in the veins so they do not have thick walls. The valves present
at intervals in the veins allow movement of blood only in one direction.
50. Which animals show double circulation of blood and why?
Birds and mammals show double circulation of blood.
The blood flows twice from the heart.
Left atrium receives blood from the lungs, which is pushed into the left ventricle.
From the left ventricle, blood enters aorta, a big vessel, which distributes the blood to different parts
of the body"
Front the body, blood is collected by two big veins and they pour the blood into the right atrium.
Thus, blood enters and leaves the heart twice.
51. Describe blood circulation in fishes.
Fishes have-only a two chambered heart-one atrium, one ventricle. The blood is pumped tothe gills
for oxygenation. Water carrying dissolved oxygen passes over the gills. Here, blood takes up oxygen
and releases carbon dioxide. Along with water, carbon dioxide is removed through the gill slits.
Blood enters the heart only once during one cycle of passage through the body.
52. Explain gaseous exchange between tissues and blood in humans.
Tissues are in constant need of oxygen for the oxidation of stored food to get energy. The cells of the
tissues have low concentration of oxygen than the blood capillaries, which are rich in oxygen. So,
oxygen diffuses into tissues, leaving the blood. In exchange of this, the carbon dioxide, from its
higher concentration in tissues, diffuses into blood having lower carbon dioxide concentration.
53. Define blood pressure. How is it measured?
It is the force with which blood pushes against the walls of the arteries.
It is generally measured in terms of how high it can push a column of mercury. When ventricles
contract, pressure of blood inside the arteries is highest. In a healthy young human being, it is about
120 millimetres of mercury (120 mm Hg). When the ventricles relax, pressure of blood inside the
arteries is comparatively less Itis about 80 millimetres of Hg (80 mm Hg) in a healthy young man.
Thus, a healthy young man has a normal blood pressure of 120 / 80 mm of Hg. The instrument used
to measure blood pressure is called sphygmomanometer.
54. What is pulse rate?
The systemic contraction of the heart can be felt as a jerk in certain arteries like the radial artery in the
wrist and neck artery below the jaw which are superficial in position. This is called arterial pulse.
55. What is Lymph and what is its role in the body?
Lymph is also a circulatory fluid and flows in the lymph vessels.
• It is light yellow in colour.
• It always flows only in one direction from tissues to heart.
• Cells called lymphocytes present in lymph engulf germs and prevent body from infections.
• It returns proteins and fluids from circulation to tissues.
56. What are the components of Human Circulatory system?
Human circulatory system consists of
(i) Centrally located muscular pump called heart, and
(ii) Blood vessels, which are tube-like structures, connected to the heart
Blood vessels are of three kinds:
• Arteries: Carry blood from heart to various parts of body.
• Veins: Bring blood from various parts of body to the heart.
• Capillaries: Thin vessels between the artery and the vein.
The capillaries allow the exchange of materials between blood and tissues.
(iii) Circulating fluid—blood, tissue fluid and lymph
57. What would be the consequences of a deficiency of haemoglobin in our bodies?
Haemoglobin is the respiratory pigment that transports oxygen to the body cells for cellular
respiration. Therefore, deficiency of haemoglobin in blood can affect the oxygen supplying capacity
of blood. This can lead to deficiency of oxygen in the body cells. It can also lead to a disease called
anemia.
58. What are the components of the transport system in highly organised plants?
In highly organised plants, there are two different types of conducting tissues − xylem and phloem.
Xylem conducts water and minerals obtained from the soil (via roots) to the rest of the plant. Phloem
transports food materials from the leaves to different parts of the plant body.
59. How are water and minerals transported in plants?
The components of xylem tissue (tracheids and vessels) of roots, stems, and leaves are interconnected
to form a continuous system of water-conducting channels that reaches all parts of the plant.
Transpiration creates a suction pressure, as a result of which water is forced into the xylem cells of the
roots. Then there is a steady movement of water from the root xylem to all the plant parts through the
interconnected water-conducting channels.
60. How is food transported in plants?
Answer: Phloem transports food materials from the leaves to different parts of the plant body. The
transportation of food in phloem is achieved by utilizing energy from ATP. As a result of this, the
osmotic pressure in the tissue increases causing water to move into it. This pressure moves the
material in the phloem to the tissues which have less pressure. This is helpful in moving materials
according to the needs of the plant. For example, the food material, such as sucrose, is transported
into the phloem tissue using ATP energy.
61. Describe the structure and functioning of nephrons.

Nephrons are the basic filtering units of kidneys. Each kidney possesses large number of nephrons,
approximately 1-1.5 million. The main components of the nephron are glomerulus, Bowman’s
capsule, and a long renal tubule.
Functioning of a nephron:
• The blood enters the kidney through the renal artery, which branches into many capillaries
associated with glomerulus.
• The water and solute are transferred to the nephron at Bowman’s capsule.
• In the proximal tubule, some substances such as amino acids, glucose, and salts are selectively
reabsorbed and unwanted molecules are added in the urine.
• The filtrate then moves down into the loop of Henle, where more water is absorbed.
• From here, the filtrate moves upwards into the distal tubule and finally to the collecting duct.
Collecting duct collects urine from many nephrons.
• The urine formed in each kidney enters a long tube called ureter. From ureter, it gets transported to
the urinary bladder and then into the urethra.
62. How is it beneficial to have large number of highly coiled nephrons in our kidneys?
* A large number of nephrons in the kidneys help in increasing the surface area for proper filtration.
* Highly coiled nephrons further increase the surface area which helps in proper reabsorption of,
useful substances.
* Filtration becomes more effective and fast.

63. What are the different waste products produced by plants?

Plants produce many substances like gum, rubber and resin, which are considered as waste products.
Oxygen may be taken as a waste product produced during photosynthesis.
Carbon dioxide produced during respiration is also a waste product.
Excess water, which is not utilised by plants, is taken as a waste product"
Loss of leaves periodically may be considered as loss of waste parts.
64. How is the process of excretion different from that of Egestion?
Excretion is the removal of nitrogenous waste products produced by biochemical reactions occurring
in the body. These waste products are removed by excretory organs known as kidneys. Egestion is
the removal of undigested food from the body through the anus. The faecal matter is not produced by
metabolic activity in the body.
Definitions
1) Life processes - The vital processes carried out by living organisms in order to maintain and
sustain life.
2) Nutrition - The process of obtaining and utilizing the nutrients necessary to sustain life.
3) Autotrophic nutrition - Nutrition characterized by the ability to use simple inorganic substances
for the synthesis of more complex organic compounds, as in green plants and some bacteria
4) Autotroph - An organism capable of synthesizing its own food from simple inorganic substances,
using light or chemical energy.
5) Heterotrophic nutrition – A type of nutrition in which energy is derived from the intake and
digestion of organic substances, normally plant or animal tissues
6) Heterotrophs – An organism that cannot synthesize its own food and is dependent on complex
organic substances for nutrition
7) Photosynthesis – The process by which plants and other organisms generate carbohydrates and
oxygen from carbon dioxide and water using light energy, with the help of chlorophyll.
8) Stomata – The minute pores present in the epidermis of a leaf or stem through which gaseous
exchange and transpiration occur.
9) Alimentary canal – A long tube extending from the mouth to the anus that has regions specialized
for ingestion, digestion, absorption, and egestion.
10) Enzymes – The biological catalysts which speed up the rate of biochemical reactions in the body.
11) Peristalsis – The process of wave-like contractions and relaxations of the alimentary tract that
propels the food forward through the tract.
12) Gastric glands – The glands present in the wall of the stomach that release HCl, pepsin and
mucus.
13) Pepsin – A digestive enzyme found in gastric juice that catalyzes the breakdown of proteins to
peptides.
14) Emulsification of fat – A process in which bile salts emulsifies fat globules, i.e. increases the
surface area of the oil–water interface, which promotes the breakdown of fats by pancreatic lipase.
15) Bile – A digestive juice secreted by the liver, stored in the gallbladder and aids in the digestion of
fats.
16) Pancreatic juice - A clear alkaline secretion of the pancreas containing enzymes that aid in the
digestion of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats.
17) Trypsin – A pancreatic enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of proteins into smaller units.
18) Lipase – An enzyme that catalyze the breakdown of fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
19) Intestinal juice – The digestive fluid secreted by the glands lining the walls of the small intestine.
20) Villi – The numerous projections arising from the inner lining of the small intestine, which
increase the surface area for absorption.
21) Egestion – The elimination of the waste and undigested matter from the digestive tract through
the anus.
22) Respiration – The process by which food is burned by living cells to release energy in the form of
ATP, for various body purposes.
23) Aerobic respiration – The metabolic process that uses oxygen to break down food and produce
carbon dioxide and water, along with the release of energy.
24) Anaerobic respiration – The metabolic process by which nutrients are broken down in the
absence of oxygen to release energy.
25) Alveoli – The tiny air sacs of the lungs where gas exchange occurs with the circulatory system.
26) Trachea – A thin walled tube of the respiratory system with cartilaginous rings that conveys
inhaled air from the larynx to the bronchi.
27) Bronchus – Either of the two main branches of the trachea, which delivers air to the lungs from
trachea.
28) Haemoglobin – The respiratory pigment present in the red blood cells of vertebrates, which
transports oxygen from lungs to the tissues.
29) Blood plasma – The fluid portion of the blood in which the blood cells are normally suspended.
30) Atria – The two upper chambers in the heart, which receive blood from the veins and push it into
the ventricles.
31) Ventricles – The two lower chambers of the heart, which receive blood from the atria and pump it
into the arteries.
32) Double circulation – A type of circulation in which the blood flows through the heart twice,
during each cycle of passage through the body.
33) Arteries – The blood vessels which carry blood away from the heart to various organs of the body.
34) Veins – The blood vessels which collect blood from different organs of the body and bring it back
to the heart.
35) Blood clotting – The process by which the blood coagulates to form solid masses, or clots so as to
prevent blood loss during injury.
36) Blood clot - A semisolid gelatinous mass of coagulated blood that consists of red blood cells,
white blood cells, and platelets entrapped in a fibrin network.
37) Root pressure – Pressure exerted in the roots of plants as the result of osmosis that causes sap to
rise through a plant stem to the leaves.
38) Transpiration – The loss of water vapour from the aerial parts of the plant.
39) Translocation – The transport of soluble products of photosynthesis from leaves or storage
organs to other parts of the plant through phloem.
40) Excretion – The biological process by which the harmful metabolic wastes are removed from the
body.
41) Kidney – Either of the two bean-shaped excretory organs that filter wastes (especially urea) from
the blood and excrete them out as urine.
42) Nephron – The basic filtration unit in the kidneys, which removes waste products from the blood
and forms urine.

REVISION QUESTIONS (WORKSHEET)

1. Name the product and by product of photosynthesis.
2. In which biochemical form the photosynthate moves in phloem tissue?
3. What are the raw materials of photosynthesis?
4. What is the similarity between chlorophyll and hemoglobin?
5. Name the products of photolysis of water.
6. What are the end products of light dependant reaction?
7. Which cell organelle is the site of photosynthesis?
8. What is the difference between digestion of heterotrophs and saprotrophs?
9. Give example of two plants and two animal parasites.
10. Name the enzyme present in saliva, what is its role in digestion?
11. Which chemical is used to test for starch? Which colour shows the presence of starch?
12. Give the term- rhythmic contraction of alimentary canal muscle to propel food.
13. Name the three secretions of gastric glands.
14. What is the function of mucus in gastric gland?
15. Name the sphincter which regulates the exit of food from the stomach.
16. Give the functions of hydrochloric acid for the body.
17. What is the role of pepsin in stomach?
18. Why pancreas is called mixed gland?
19. Give two functions of bile juice, from which organ it is released?
20. Name the largest gland of our body.
21. Name any three important enzymes of pancreas and the food component on which they act.
22. Where from intestinal juice come to the small intestine?
23. What is the function of intestinal juice?
24. What are the simplest digestive product of carbohydrate, fats and protein?
25. Name the finger like projections of small intestine and what is the necessity of such type of
projections in digestive system?
26. Why are intestinal villi highly vascular?
27. What is the function of anal sphincter?
28. Name the site of anaerobic and aerobic respiration in a cell.
29. A three carbon compound is the common product of both aerobic and anaerobic pathway. What is
that?
30. Why do we get muscle cramp after vigorous exercise?
31. Distinguish between lactic acid and alcoholic fermentation?
32. Name the energy currency molecule of cell?
33. The breathing rate of aquatic animals is high, why?
34. What is the function of mucus and fine hair in nostrils?
35. Give the function of network of capillaries on alveoli.
36. Name the main carrier of oxygen and carbon dioxide in man.
37. Why does haemoglobin molecule act as efficient carrier of oxygen than diffusion process?
38. Give example of any three substances transported by plasma.
39. Name the organ that- (a) pushes blood around body (b) make blood to reach to tissues.
40. Name the blood vessel that carries blood from heart to lungs and from lungs to heart.
41. How many heart chambers are there in (a) fish (b) frog (c) lizard (d) crocodile (e) birds (f) man?
42. Name the device that measures blood pressure.
43. What is the normal blood pressure of man?
44. Why capillaries are thin walled?
45. Which cell of blood help in wound healing?
46. What is the other name of lymph?
47. Give two function of lymph.
48. What is the direction of flow of water in xylem and food in phloem?
49. Why do plants need less energy than animals?
50. Which process acts as suction to pull water from xylem cells of roots.
51. Mention two functions of transpiration.
52. What are the two substances transported through phloem tissue?
53. Name the food component whose digestion produce nitrogenous waste?
54. Which is the functional unit of kidney?
55. What is the cup shaped structure of nephron called?

VALUE BASED QUESTIONS:

1Q. Eating junk food results in several health problems including obesity and heart problems. Still lot
of children prefer to eat junk food. What suggestion you will give to avoid eating junk food.

2Q-. Regular physical exercise for 45 minutes is advisable for normal functioning of human body.
Comment upon the advantages of this statement/practice in daily life.

3 Q-. Rahul wants to build up his body very quickly without following right exercise regime and
balanced diet. Instead he started eating readymade food supplement. i). In your opinion was the step
taken by Rahul is right. Justify your answer. ii). What are the harmful effects of taking artificial health
supplement without consulting a physician.
4Q-. Om, Rohit and Kishore always remain in a hurry. One day, during lunch hour they all quickly
gulped food and went out to play. (i). Om suddenly developed stomach ache while playing. What
according to you might have gone wrong with him.

5Q-. Meena who is studying in Class-X gets tired very soon and her skin colour is turning pale, her
haemoglobin content in the blood is also low She is really confused about this situation. i). Which
disease is she suffering from. ii). What kind of diet should she take to overcome this problem.

6Q-. Sohan went to his town Agra 200 Km away from Delhi with his father in a car. On the way there
was lot of traffic jam. Sohan while reaching his town felt nausea and headache. He had inhaled lots of
toxic polluted gases. i). Which system/part of his body gets affected. ii). What steps could be taken to
reduce air pollution.

Ans 1. (i). Prefer and enjoy eating fruits and vegetables. (ii). Choose a diet that provide enough
calcium and iron and proteins to meet their growing body‟s requirements. iii. Add fresh vegetables
to pizzas, burger, if you can’t avoid eating them.
Associated Value : The learners will go for healthy food habit once they understand the harms of
taking Fast and junkfood.
Ans2. (i). A good, regular exercise keep diabetes under check. (ii). Exercise is also crucial to those who
are obese or overweight. (iii). Weight traning exercises increases uptake of calcium In the bones and
help in preventing osteoporosis (Bone disease). iv. Regular exercise also reduces bad cholesterol in
our body and helps in improving the function of the heart.
Associated Value : The learners will be motivated to take up sports activities more regularly to keep
them healthy.
Ans-3. (i). No the steps taken by Rahul was not right. (ii). It can lead to addiction and can affect the
health adversely.
Associated Value : The learners will be discouraged to get influenced trom other of taking any food
supplements that harm their health
Ans4.Om developed Stomach ache as he had not chewed his food properly. Chewing food properly
helps in proper breakdown of food and mixing it with saliva . Large food pieces if enter the stomach
might cause damage.
Associated Value : The learners will start chewing their food properly for healthy digestion.
Ans5. i. Meena is suffering from Anaemia. ii. She should take fruits and vegetables (Spinach) which is
rich in iron. Iron is an essential component of hemoglobin and is required for its proper functioning.
Associated Value : The learners will be motivated to take the balanced diet especially rich with
protein & Iron to keep their Haemoglobin level in the required range.
Ans6.(i). Respiratory system/lungs will get affected. (ii). a. Factories should treat harmful waste &
filter it before releasing it in the environment. b. Less polluting fuels like CNG should be used in
vehicles. c. Regular pollution check and proper service and maintenance should be done for private
vehicles. Associated Value : The learners will start taking up more eco-friendly transit system like
metro to travel besides advocating car pool among others.

EXPERIMENT: 1 TO PREPARE A TEMPORARY MOUNT OF A PEEL TO SHOW STOMATA

1. Loss of water from leaves will be less if stomata are
(a) only' on lower surface b) only on upper surface (c)on both the surfaces (d) scattered

2. Guard cells differ from epidermal cells in

(a) vacuoles (b) nucleus (c) mitochondria (d) chloroplasts

3. Transpiration occurs from

(a) stomata (b) cuticle (c) both of these (d) none of these

4. In which of the following groups of plants,

(a) Epiphytes (b) Succulents (c) Mangrooves (d) Hydrophytes

5. Which of the following forces of water absorption is affected by opening and closing of stomata?
(a) Root pressure (b) Transpiration pull (c) Both of these (d) None of these

6. While preparing a temporary mount of a leaf put to show stomata, which stain is generally used?
(a) Safranin (b) Hematoxylin (c) Acetocarmine (d) Eosin

7. The principal transpiring organ of a plant is

(a) root (b) stem (c) flower (d) leaf

8. For temporary preparation of a leaf peel, which mounting material is used?

(a)Water (b) Glycerine (c) Wax (d)'None of these

9. To prepare a temporary mount of a leaf peel to show stomata, which type of leaf should be
selected?
(a) Turgid (b) Flaccid (c) Turbid (d) Flattened

10. Opening of stomata is influenced more by

(a) red light (b) green light (c) indigo light (d) blue light

11.The correct sequence, out of the following options. for focusing a slide of epidermal peel of a leaf
under a microscope to show the stomatal apparatus is
I. Observe under low Power II. Adjust mirror to get maximum light III. Place the slide on the stage IV.
Focus under high Power
(a) II, III, I, IV (b) I, II, III, IV (c) III, II, I, IV (d) III, II, IV, I

12.A student wanted to decolourise a leaf. He should boil the leaf in

(a) alcohol (b) water (c) KOH solution (d) glycerine

13. The diagrams of stomata shown below were drawn by four different students and the organelles
marked A and B were labelled as chloroplast and nucleus respectively.

The correct diagram with correct labels is

(a) I (b) II (c) III (d) IV
(b)
14.Which of the following precautions should be kept in mind while preparing a temporary slide of
an epidermal peel of a leaf?
I. Wash off extra stain with distilled water
II. Clean slide and cover slip before use
III. Put only a drop of glycerine on the cover slip
IV. Pull out a thin leaf peel
V. Use filter paper to wipe the stained peel
(a) I, II, III (b) I, II, IV (c) III, IV, V (d) II, IV, V

15.Students observed the epidermal peel of a leaf under the high power of a microscope. The
following are the sketches made by them.

The correct sketch is (a)A

(b) B (c) C (d) D

16. A student focused the leaf epidermal peel under the low power of microscope but could not see
all the parts. He should
(a) use the coarse adjustment knob again to focus the slide
(b) use the fine adjustment knob to increase magnification
(c) focus under high power using coarse adjustment knob
(d) focus under high power using fine adjustment knob

17. A well-stained leaf peel mount when observed under the high power of a microscope shows
nuclei in
(a) only epidermal cells (b) only guard cells (c) guard cells and epidermal cells (d) guards cells,
epidermal cells and stoma

18. To prepare a good temporary mount of the petunia leaf peel showing many stomata, the student
has to get the peel from the
(a) tip of the leaf (&) upper surface of the leaf (c) lower surface of the leaf (d) point of attachment of
the leaf to its petiole
19. While preparing good temporary mount of leaf peel to observe stomata, care should be taken to
avoid
(a) adding glycerine to the slide (b) staining the peel with safranin
(c) having air bubbles in the slide (d) using water to wash the slide

20. Stomata plays an important role in

(a) respiration (b) photosynthesis (c ) transpiration (d) all of the above

EXPERIMENT: 2 TO SHOW THAT LIGHT IS NECESSARY FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

1. Which of the following is correct for boiling leaf in alcohol kept in water bath?
(a)Alcohol catches fire on heating directly (b) Alcohol is volatile (c) Alcohol leaves fumes (d) None of
these

2. Before removing chlorophyll, the leaf is boiled in which one of the following solvent
(a)formalin (b) water (C) alcohol (d) glycerine

3. Which of the following solutions is added to the leaf, after boiling it in alcohol and then washing it
with water?
(a)Benedict's solution (b) Brine solution (c) 1M sucrose solution (d) Iodine solution

4. We test for starch and not glucose to prove that photosynthesis has taken place because:
(a) Glucose is not produced during photosynthesis in variegated leaves.
(b) Glucose formed during photosynthesis gets stored as sucrose.
(c) Glucose formed during photosynthesis gets stored as starch.
(d) Glucose is a stable product and cannot be tested.

5. The leaves of a potted plant can be de-starched by keeping it in

(a) light for 2-3 days (b) light for 2-3 hours (c)darkness for 2-3 days (d) darkness for 2-3 hours

6. The figure which does not illustrate any of the steps of the experiment to show that light necessary
for photosynthesis is
(a) I (b) III (c) I and III (d) I, II and IV
7. A student covered a leaf from a de-starched plant with a black paper strip and kept it in the garden
outside his house in fresh air. In the evening, he tested the covered portion of the leaf for presence of
starch. The student was trying to show that
(a) CO2 is given out during respiration (b) CO2 is necessary for photosynthesis
(c) chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis (d) light is necessary for photosynthesis
8. The figures given below illustrate boiling of leaf to remove chlorophyll. This is one of the steps in
the experiment to show that light is necessary for photosynthesis.

The correct method is (a) I (b) II (c) III (d) IV

9. A student performed the starch test on a leaf. Some steps involved are shown below.

The correct sequence of steps should be

(a) IV; III; II; I (b) I; II;III;IV (c) II; III; IV; I (d) I: III: IV; II
10. A part of de-starched leaf of a potted plant was covered with black paper strips on both sides and
the plant was kept in sunlight for 8 hours. The leaf was then tested with iodine after boiling it in
alcohol. Only the uncovered part of the leaf turned blue-black. The inference is that
(a) CO2 is necessary for photosynthesis (b) light is necessary for photosynthesis
(c) chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis (d) water is necessary for photosynthesis
11. A leaf from a de-starched plant is covered with black paper strip as shown in the figure . The
starch test is done on the leaf after 8 hours.

The results will be as shown in diagram

(a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D
12. Which one of the following is the combination of relevant materials required for setting up an
experiment to show that light is necessary for photosynthesis?
(a) De-starched leaves, strips of black paper, starch solution and iodine crystals
(b) A potted plant, strips of coloured paper, starch solution, iodine and potassium iodide
(c) De-starched leaves, strips of black paper, starch solution and potassium iodide
(d)De-starched leaves, strips of black paper and iodine solution.
13. A portion of de-starched leaf of a potted plant was covered with a black strip of paper. The plant
was exposed to sunlight for 6 hours and then tested for starch. It was observed that
(a) both covered and uncovered parts turned blue-black.
(b) both covered and uncovered parts turned yellowish brown.
(c) only the uncovered part turned blue-black.
(d) only the covered part turned blue-black.
14. The steps, necessary for setting up the experiment. To demonstrate that light is necessary for
photosynthesis are not given here in proper sequence.
I. Keep the potted plant in sunlight for 3 to4 hours. II. Keep the potted plant in darkness for about 48
hours.

III. Cover a leaf of the plant with a strip of black paper IV. Pluck the leaf and test it for starch.
The correct sequence of steps is:
(a) I, III, IV, II (b) I, IV, III, II (c) II, IV, III, I (d) II, III, I, IV
15. Under the high power objective of a microscope, an epidermal peel of a leaf shows
(a) stomata surrounding many guard cells.
(6) stomata surrounded by a pair of guard cells each.
(c) stomata surrounded by several epidermal cells.
(d) stomata surrounded by several guard cells each.
EXPERIMENT: 2 TO SHOW THAT CO2 IS RELEASED DURING RESPIRATION
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
1. Cell organelle in which respiration occurs is
(a) Chloroplast (b) Mitochondria (c) Golgi body (d) Lysosome
2. Given below to the diagram of the experiment set-up to show carbon dioxide is given out during
respiration. The part which is incorrectly labelled is

(a) KOH pellets (&) delivery tube (c) germinating seeds (d) lime water
3. The small test tube suspended inside the flask during experiment contains
(a) water (b) lime water (c) brine water (d) concentrated KOH solution
4. A student while setting up the experiment to show that CO2 is evolved during respiration,
committed some errors shown in the figure: what changes should be made in the set-up to get the
desired results?

(a) KOH solution should be taken in the small test tube inside the flask and germinating seeds in the
beaker.
(b) water should be taken in the beaker and KOH solution in the flask.
(c) KOH solution should be taken in the small test tube inside the flask and water should be taken in
the beaker
(d) water should be taken in the flask and KOH solution in the small test tube.
5. An apparatus was set-up to show that germinating seeds release carbon dioxide during
respiration. Which observation out of the following should be made to get correct results?
(a) Carefully observe if there is any change in the size of germinating seeds.
(b) See if the KOH in the test tube has absorbed CO2 released by germinating seeds.
(c) Check the change in the level of water present in the beaker.
(d) Check if CO2 is coming into the delivery tube.
6. The seeds used in the experiment to show that CO2 is given out during respiration are
(a) dry seeds (b) boiled seeds (c) crushed seeds (d) germinating seeds
7. Given below are four different set ups to show that CO2 is released during respiration.

The set-up that will give the desired result is

(a) A (b) B (c) c (d) D
8. In this experiment, the water level rises in the bent tube because
(a) the germinating seeds consume all the oxygen and carbon dioxide.
(b) the germinating seeds consume oxygen and give out carbon dioxide which is absorbed by KOH.
(c) carbon dioxide is given our by the germinating seeds.
(d) seeds need water for germination.
9. After performing the experiment to show that germinating seeds
give out carbon dioxide during respiration, students drew the
following diagrams.

The correct labelled diagram is (a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D

10. A student sets up the apparatus for the experiment to show that CO2 is released during
respiration. After 2 hours, he would observe
(a) KOH turning milky.
(b) water level rising in the bent tube in the beaker.
(c) water level decreasing in the bent tube in the beaker.
(d) water turning turbid in the beaker.
11. The following experiment \was set up to show that a gas is given out during respiration. But
there was no rise in the level of water. This was because
(a) germinating seeds have not been kept under water in the flask
(b) water is kept in the beaker instead of lime water
(c) the cork on the flask is made of rubber
(d) no substance is kept in the flask to absorb the gas given out by the seeds

12. Which one of the following is the correct set of three precautions for setting up the experiment to
demonstrate that carbon dioxide is evolved during respiration?
(a) Alright set-up; delivery tube dips in water in beaker; flask has seeds which have just germinated.
(b) Thread holding KOH test tube; airtight flask; delivery tube above surface of water in the beaker.
(c) Germinated seeds under water in the flask; experimental set-up not airtight; delivery tube above
water level.
(d) Delivery tube touching bottom of water; KOH test tube held by a thick wire; seeds covered by
water.

13. Before setting up an experiment to show that seeds release carbon dioxide during respiration, the
seeds should be
(a) dried completely (b) boiled to make them soft
(c) soaked in vinegar (d) kept moist till they germinate

14. In the experiment to show that CO2 is given out during respiration, in plants the student uses:
(a) lime water (b) alcohol (c) KOH solution (d) iodine solution

15. To demonstrate that CO2 is released during respiration the plant material that is taken is
(a) germinating seeds (b) detached green leaves (c) a plant with variegated leaves (d)a potted
plant with green leaves
 CHAPTER 7: CONTROL AND COORDINATION

Living organisms respond and react to various stimuli like heat, light, cold, touch, pressure etc. Plants
and animals both respond to stimuli but in different manner.
Example : withdrawl of hand on touching a hot object.
Control and Coordination in Animals
It is brought about in all animals with the help of two main systems
a) Nervous System b) Endocrine System
Nervous System :
Functions
i) To receive the information from environment
ii) To receive the information from various
body parts. (Stimuli Response)
iii) To act accordingly through muscles and glands.
Stimulus : Any change in environment or within that bring about the reaction eg: touching a hot
plate.
Response : The reaction of our body to these changes. eg. withdrawal of our hand
How do we detect that we are touching a hot object?
Receptors : Are specialised tips of some nerve cells that detect the information from the environment
Neuron : Structural and functional unit of nervous system.

Synapse : The point of contact between the terminal branches of axon of one neuron with the
dendrite of another neuron is called synapse.
Reflex Action
A quick, sudden, immediate response of the body to the certain stimuli that involves Spinal cord. eg.
(not brain) withdrawal of hand, knee jerk etc.
Reflex arc :The pathway through which impulses pass is called reflex arc.
Response
Responses are of three main types
Voluntary : Controlled by fore brain eg. Talking, Writing
Involuntary :Controlled by mid and hind brain eg. Heart beat, vomiting, regulation of heartbeat
Reflex action : controlled by spinal cord eg. Withdrawl of hand on touching a hot object.

Human Brain
Human brain has three major parts or regions
a) Forebrain b) Mid Brain c) Hind Brain
FOREBRAIN
Most complex/specialized part of the brain is CEREBRUM
FUNCTIONS :
1. Thinking part of the brain
2. Control the voluntary actions.
3. Store information (Memory)
4. Centre associated with HUNGER
5. Receives sensory impulses from various body parts and integrates it

PROTECTION OF BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD

Brain : Brain is protected by a fluid filled balloon which acts as shock absorber and enclosed in
cranium (Brain Box)
Spinal Cord : Spinal Cord is enclosed in Vertebral column.
Plant hormones / Phyto hormones:
Are chemical compounds which help to coordinate growth, development and responses to the
environment.
Plant hormones : Main plant hormones are :
a) Auxin :[Synthesized at shoot tip]
Function : – Helps in growth
Phototropism : more growth of cells towards light.
b) Gibberellin : Helps in the growth of the stem
c) Cytokinins : Promotes cell division
d) Abscisic acid :Inhibits growth, cause witting of leaves.
(Stress hormone)
Hormones in Animals
Hormones :These are the chemical messengers secreted in very small amounts by specialised tissues
called ductless glands. They act on target tissues/organs usually away from their source.
Endocrine System helps in control and coordination through chemical compounds called
HORMONES
IODISED SALTIS NECESSARY BECAUSE :
Iodine mineral is essential part of thyroxine hormone so it is important that we must consume iodised
salt as in turn it is essential for thyroid gland as it controls carbohydrate, proteins and fat metabolism
for best balance of growth deficiency of iodine might cause disease called goitre
Diabetes :
Cause : It is due to deficiency of Insulin hormone secreted by Pancreas(Islets of Langerhans) that is
responsible to lower/control the blood sugar levels.
Treatment : Patients have to internally administer injections of insulin hormone which helps in
regulating blood-sugar level.
Feedback Mechanism makes sure that hormones should be secreted in precise quantities and at right
time, which is regulated by feedback mechanism.
 Control and Coordination
1. What is nervous system and what are the divisions or components of it?
The organ system in an animal that serves to coordinate and control the functioning of all other organ
systems in the body is known as nervous system.
Nervous system works with the endocrine system to communicate, integrate and coordinate the
functions of various organs and systems in our body and helps the body to respond to the external
stimuli. In humans, the nervous system has two main divisions:
• The central nervous system (CNS)
• The peripheral nervous system (PNS)
The central nervous system consists of brain and spinal cord. It is regarded as the ‘thinker’ or
‘information processor’ in the body.
The peripheral nervous system includes the sensory and motor nerves and connects the central
nervous system with the sense organs, muscles and glands of the body. The peripheral nervous
system is regarded as ‘actor’ or ‘performer’ in the body

2. What is the basic unit of nervous tissue?

A neuron is the basic unit of nervous tissue. Our nervous system contains about 10billion nerve cells,
which communicate with each other in a specific manner.
3. Describe the structure of a nerve cell or neuron.
Each neuron has a central area called the cell body or cyton.
The cell body has a large central nucleus and cytoplasm. Several short, threadlike branches called
dendrites arise from the cell body. One branch arising out of the cell body is very long in comparison
to others. This branch is called axon or nerve fibre. Axon may or may not be covered by a fatty sheath
called myelin sheath. This covering is missing at intervals. These gaps on the sheath are known as
nodes of Ranvier.
4. What are the various types of neurons?
Types of neurons
i.Sensory neurons, which transmit impulse from receptor (sense organ) to coordinator(brain or
spinal cord).
ii. Motor neurons, which transmit impulse from modulator to effectors (muscle or glands).
iii. Connecting neurons, which connect sensory and motor neurons, found in the grey matter.
5. What are nerves and name the various kinds of nerves.
Nerves are thread like structures, which emerge from brain and spinal cord and branch out to almost
all parts of the body. The nerves are composed of axons or nerve fibres bundled together like the
strands of an electric cable
Kinds of nerves
There are three kinds of nerves. These are:
i. Sensory nerves: These nerves contain sensory fibres. Sensory nerves bringimpulse from sense
organs to the brain or the spinal cord.
ii. Motor nerves: These nerves contain motor fibres. Motor nerves carry impulse from brain or spinal
cord to the effector organ like muscle or glands.
iii. Mixed nerves: These nerves contain both sensory and motor nerve fibres and perform a mixed
function.
6. What is a Synapse and What does a synapse do?
The axon of one neuron is close to the dendrites of cell body of the next neuron.This junction of two
neurons is called synapse. There is a space at the synapse between the end of axon of first neuron and
cell body or dendrite of the next neuron. This is called synaptic cleft.
• It allows the information to pass from one neuron to another.
• It ensures the passage of nerve impulse in one direction only.
• It helps in information processing by combining the effects of all impulses received.
• It filters out low-level stimuli.
7. What is Cerebrum and state its functions.
The cerebrum is the largest and most prominent part of the brain. Among all vertebrates cerebrum of
humans is most highly developed. It is divided into left and right hemispheres by a deep median
longitudinal groove. Each hemisphere contains two regions - the outer region and the inner region.
The outer region of cerebrum contains grey matter, which contains cell bodies of the neuron. The
inner region of cerebrum contains white matter, which contains nerve fibres or axons of the neurons.
The cerebrum performs the following functions:
i. It governs our mental abilities like thinking, reasoning, learning, memorizing and intelligence.
ii. It controls our will, emotions and speech.
iii. It controls feeling of love, admiration and hatred.
iv. It controls all involuntary functions.
8.What is Cerebellum and state its functions.
It is a small area of brain lying below the mid-brain which is under the large cerebrum. Like
cerebrum, it also has grey matter in its outer region and white matter in the inner region.
The cerebellum performs the following functions:
i. It maintains equilibrium (balance) of the body.
ii. It controls posture of the body.
iii. It coordinates muscular movement.
9. State the functions of medulla oblongata.
The medulla oblongata performs the following functions:
i. It controls the internal organs like movement of lungs, heart etc., by regulating breathing and heart-
beat.
ii. It controls vital reflex centres such as cardiac centre, respiratory centre and centres for swallowing,
sneezing, coughing and vomiting
10. State the functions of Spinal cord.
The spinal cord performs the following functions:
i. It controls the reflexes below the neck region.
ii. It conducts sensory impulses from the skin and muscles to the brain.
iii. It conducts motor response from brain to the muscles of trunk and limbs.
11. What are Reflex actions? Explain it with an example.
There are many actions in our body which are spontaneous and do not require any processing by
brain. These responses are called reflex actions. Reflex actions are controlled by spinal cord. For
example, we blink our eyes in response to high beam of light that falls on our eyes. Similarly we
withdraw our hand immediately if we prick our finger or touch a hot object.
A reflex action may be defined as a spontaneous, autonomic and mechanical response to a stimulus
controlled by the spinal cord without the involvement of brain.
12. Define Reflex arc and state the components of it.
A reflex arc is a neural pathway that controls a reflex action
A reflex arc has the following components:
i. a receptor or sensory neuron which perceives the stimulus,
ii. a sensory nerve which carries the message from sensory neuron to spinal cord,
iii. a relay or intermediate neuron of spinal cord which transmits the impulse from sensory to motor
neuron, and
iv. Motor nerve which carries the message from spinal cord to effector organ muscle or gland.
13. What is the Sequence of events in a reflex arc?
Stimulus received by the sensory receptors in the sensory organ
↓
Impulse generated and carried along by the sensory neuron toward the spinal cord
↓
Impulse arrives at the nerve endings of sensory neuron in the greymatterof spinal cord
↓
Neurotransmitter released at nerve endings
↓
Impulses pass across the relay neuron to motor neuron
↓
Impulse travels away from spinal cord along motor neuron
↓
The nerve endings of motor neuron connect effector organ like muscle
↓
Response produced by effector organ
14. What is the function of receptors in our body? Think of situations where receptors do not work
properly. What problems are likely to arise?
Receptors are sensory structures (organs/tissues or cells) present all over the body. The receptors are
either grouped in case of eye or ear, or scattered in case of skin.
Functions of receptors:
(i)They sense the external stimuli such as heat or pain.
(ii) They also trigger an impulse in the sensory neuron which sends message to the spinal cord. When
the receptors are damaged, the external stimuli transferring signals to the brain are not felt. For
example, in the case of damaged receptors, if we accidentally touch any hot object, then our hands
might get burnt as damaged receptors cannot perceive the external stimuli of heat and pain.
15.What is the difference between a reflex action and walking?
A reflex action is a rapid, automatic response to a stimulus. It does not involve any thinking. For
example, we close our eyes immediately when the bright light is focused. Walking, on the other hand,
is a voluntary action. It is under our conscious control.
16.How do we detect the smell of an agarbatti(incense stick)?
The thinking part of our brain is the forebrain. It has separate areas that are specialized for hearing,
smelling, sight, taste, touch, etc. The forebrain also has regions that collect information or impulses
from the various receptors. When the smell of an incense stick reaches us, our forebrain detects it.
Then, the forebrain interprets it by putting it together with the information received from other
receptors and also with the information already stored in the brain.
17. Are the movements like running, playing and, chewing of cud by the buffaloes different from
the movement shown by a seed, growing into a seedling?
The two types of movements are different. Growth movements occur due to cell enlargement in the
seedling, but the movements like running, playing and chewing are due to the stimulus generated in
the environment.
18. Mention the receptors for taste and smell in animals.
Gustatory receptors for taste. Olfactory receptors for smell.
19. Why does impulse move in one direction in a nerve?
The ends of dendrites of a neuron receive the impulse from the receptor and pass it to the cell body
and then it reaches the axon. Axon passes the impulse to the dendrites of the next neuron through
synapse, thus making the movement of the impulse unidirectional.
20. Name the constituent parts of the peripheral nervous system.
(i) Cranial nerves (12 pairs) from the brain.(ii) Spinal nerves (31 pairs) from the spinal cord.
21. What happens to the information, generated due to change in the environment, once it is
received at the ends of the dendritic tips?
The dendritic tips receive the information through receptors which causes the generation of an
electrical impulse, which is carried to the cell body and then to the nerve endi.ngs of the axon. It is
finally passed on to the next neuron ultimately; the information will reach the respective centre in the
brain.
22. Where is cerebellum situated in the brain? What function does it perform?
Cerebellum is situated posterior to the cerebrum and is a part of the hindbrain it maintains the
posture and equilibrium of the body during movements.
23 Where is pons present in the brain? Which activity it controls?
Pons is situated below the cerebellum and above the medulla oblongata in the hindbrain.
It is responsible for regulating the respiratory activity.
24. Differentiate between sensory nerve and motor nerve.
Sensory Nerve Motor Nerve
(l) Carries the impulse from the receptor to the Carries the impulse from the central nervous
central nervous system system to the effectors.
(ii) Sensory area present in the central nervous Motor nerve receives the impulse from the motor
system receives the impulse through sensory area of the central nervous system.
nerve.
25. Do you think animals need, organ systems to bring about a correct and coordinated movement
in response to a stimulus? Name the systems involved.
Animals need organ systems to bring about the correct and coordinated movements in response to a
stimulus. The two systems involved are:
(i) Nervous system and (ii) Muscular system.
26. What is the function of receptors in our body? Think of situations where receptors do not work
properly. What problems are likely to arise?
Receptors are sensory structures (organs/tissues or cells) present all over the body. The receptors are
either grouped in case of eye or ear, or scattered in case of skin.
Functions of receptors:
(i) They sense the external stimuli such as heat or pain.
(ii) They also trigger an impulse in the sensory neuron which sends message to the spinal cord. When
the receptors are damaged, the external stimuli transferring signals to the brain are not felt. For
example, in the case of damaged receptors, if we accidentally touch any hot object, then our hands
might get burnt as damaged receptors cannot perceive the external stimuli of heat and pain.
27. Which signals will get disrupted in case of a spinal cord injury?
The reflex arc connections between the input and output nerves meet in a bundle in the spinal cord.
In fact, nerves from all over the body meet in a bundle in the spinal cord on their way to the brain. In
case of any injury to the spinal cord, the signals coming from the nerves as well as the signals coming
to the receptors will be disrupted.
28. How does the sensory tissue or thinking tissue send, its message to muscles or glands to elicit
a, response, which it interprets according to the signals received?
The sensory tissue or thinking tissue sends its message through nerves to the muscles or glands, so
that a proper response is given by the organs. For example, when we take food in the mouth, the
salivary glands release more saliva or a child raises his hands to catch a ball in the air.
29. How are involuntary actions and reflex actions different from each other?
Involuntary actions cannot be consciously controlled. For example, we cannot consciously control the
movement of food in the alimentary canal. These actions are however directly under the control of
the brain. On the other hand, the reflex actions such as closing of eyes immediately when bright light
is focused show sudden response and do not involve any thinking. This means that unlike
involuntary actions, the reflex actions are not under the control of brain.
30. Why is there a need for chemical communication?
Electrical impulses generated in the nervous tissue are very fast, but their effect is seen only in those
cells which are connected to the nerves which are stimulated. So, response is in limited area.
Moreover, second impulse cannot be generated as it takes time for the nerve fibre to recover from the
first impulse. Cells cannot generate electric impulse continuously. For widespread, long-tasting
response, chemical communication is needed.
31. Mention the different types of receptors found in human body and the sensations they
perceive.
The different types of receptors are:
(i) Photoreceptors: Perceive light, e.g., eyes.
(ii) Phonoreceptors: Perceive sound waves. e.g.' ears'
(iii) Olfactory receptors Perceive sense of smell, e.g', nose'
(iv) Gustatory receptors.' Perceive sense of taste, e.g', tongue'
(v) Skin: Sense of hotness, coldness, pressure and touch'
32. Mention five characteristics of hormones.
The five characteristics of hormones are:
(i) They are produced by endocrine or ductless glands'
(ii) They are organic compounds of various types'
(iii) Being specific in nature, they act on specific target organs or tissues.
(iv)They are produced in very minute quantities and are poured directly into the venous blood.
(v)They bring about control and coordination of the body activities such as growth and development.
33. What are plant hormones? Mention the functions regulated by them in the plants.
Plant hormones are the chemical messengers of diverse nature, produced naturally by the parts of the
plant and they regulate many functions in plants, such as:
 growth of roots, stem and leaves, and flowering in plants.
 phototropism exhibited by the shoots and geotropism exhibited by the roots.
 nastic movements and stomatal opening and closing.
34. Mention the functions of the following plant hormones: (i) Gibberellins, (ii) Cytokinins and
(iii) Abscisic acid.
(i) Gibberellins : Promote growth of the stem.
(ii) Cytokinins Promote cell division and are found in concentrated amounts where active cell
division is occurring, such as in young fruits and seeds.
(iii) Abscisic acid: Since plants need to stop certain activities of growth, abscisic acid is the hormone
which inhibits growth. It also causes
35. How: do auxins cause bending of plants towards light?
 Shoot apex produce, hormones known as auxins which help in the enlargement of cells
Auxins move downwards in the shoot.
 When the plant is exposed to unilateral light, auxins diffuse from the lighter side to the side of
the stem which is not exposed to light.
 On the darkened side of the shoot, cells elongate, whereas on the lighter side elongation of
cells does not occur, as no auxins are present" This makes the shoot bend towards light.
36. Name the phenomenon, occurring in, plants which are under the control of light, Earth’s
gravity, water and chemicals.
Phototropism: Bending of plants (Shoot) towards light.
Geotropism: Movement of roots towards soil.
Hydrotropism: Movement of plant parts i.e. roots towards water
Chemotropism: Movement of plant parts in response to a chemical as seen in germinating pollen
tube moving towards egg in the ovule of a flower.
37. How is the movement of leaves of the sensitive plant different from the movement of a shoot
towards light?
The movement of leaves of the sensitive plant, Mimosa pudicaor “touch me not”, occurs in response to
touch or contact stimuli. This movement is independent of growth. The movement of shoot towards
light is known as phototropism. This type of movement is directional and is growth dependent.
38. How do auxins promote the growth of a tendril around a support?
Auxin is synthesized at the shoot tip. It helps the cell grow longer. When a tendril comes in contact
with a support, auxin stimulates faster growth of the cells on the opposite side, so that the tendril
forms a coil around the support. This makes the tendrils appear as a watch spring.
39. How does chemical coordination occur in plants?
In animals, control and coordination occur with the help of nervous system. However, plants do not
have a nervous system. Plants respond to stimuli by showing movements. The growth, development,
and responses to the environment in plants is controlled and coordinated by a special class of
chemical substances known as hormones. These hormones are produced in one part of the plant body
and are translocated to other needy parts. For example, a hormone produced in roots is translocated
to other parts when required. The five major types of phytohormone are auxins, gibberellins,
cytokinins, abscisic acid, and ethylene. These phytohormones are either growth promoters (such as
auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, and ethylene) or growth inhibitors such as abscisic acid.
40. Compare and contrast nervous and hormonal mechanisms for control and coordination in
animals.
Nervous system mechanism Hormonal system mechanism
The information is conveyed in the form of The information is conveyed in the form of
electric impulse. chemical messengers.
The axons and dendrites transmit the The information is transmitted or transported
information through a coordinated effort. through blood.
The flow of information is rapid and The information travels slowly and the
theresponse is quick. response is slow.
Its effects are short lived. It has prolonged effects.
41. What is the difference between the manner in which movement takes place in a sensitive plant and the movement in
our legs?
Movement in sensitive plants Movement in our legs
The movement that takes place in a sensitive plant Movement in our legs is an example of
such as Mimosa pudica occurs in response to touch voluntary actions.
(stimulus).
For this movement, the information is transmitted The signal or messages for these actions
from cell to cell by electrochemical signals as are passed to the brain and hence are
plants do not have any specialised tissue for consciously controlled.
conduction of impulses.
For this movement to occur, the plant cells In animal muscle cells, some proteins
change shape by changing the amount of water in are found which allow the movement to
them. occur.
42. Explain the following:
How does insulin lower the blood, glucose level?
Why do body changes occur in boys and girls at puberty?
How is the level of hormones maintained in the blood?
What is the best way of taking iodine in the diet?
How does pituitary gland, affect the growth of a child?
Excess of glucose is controlled by insulin as it changes excess glucose into glycogen.
Testosterone released by testes in boys and oestrogen released by ovaries in girls bring about body
changes at puberty.
If the amount of a hormone is more or less in the blood, the feedback mechanism makes the gland
secrete less or more hormone in the blood.
Best way of taking iodine in the diet is in form of iodised salt.
Pituitary gland produces the growth hormone which causes controlled growth. If the hormone is
produced in less quantity in childhood, then the growth is retarded and the child grows into a dwarf
and, if produced in large quantity, a child grows into a giant.
43. What are the effects of adrenaline on our body organs, so as to meet the emergency situation?
Adrenaline is directly secreted into the blood stream and then carried to different parts of the body
and regulates the effects.
 it acts on the various target organs such as heart, which beats faster to give more oxygen to
the muscles.
 the blood supply to the skin and the digestive system is reduced due to the contraction of
muscles around the small arteries in these organs.
 More blood is made available, which is diverted to the skeletal muscles.
 Rib muscles and muscles of the diaphragm also contract, which cause the breathing rate to
increase.
All these responses are brought about together to meet the emergency situation.
44. Name a hormone secreted by: a) pancreas b)pituitary c)thyroid. State one function of each of
the hormone.
Insulin (secreted by pancreas)
The pancreas secretes a hormone called insulin, which regulates the blood sugar level in the human
body.
It increases the permeability of the cell membrane for glucose and accelerates the passage of glucose
into the cells from the bloodstream.
Growth hormone (GH) (secreted by the pituitary gland)
Growth hormone (GH) is involved in the growth and development of the human body. The secretion
of this hormone should be properly maintained in the body. Over secretion of this hormone results in
abnormal growth of the body known as gigantism. On the other hand, its low secretion results in
dwarfism.

Thyroxin (secreted by thyroid gland)

The hormone called thyroxin helps in coordinated growth. It regulates carbohydrate, fat, and protein
metabolism in our body. The deficiency of this hormone results in the enlargement of the thyroid
gland or goitre.
Definitions:
1) Receptors – Specialized structures at the ends of the nerve fibres that collect the information to be
conducted by the nerves, and are located in the sense organs.
2) Gustatory receptors – Receptors present in tongue and capable of detecting taste.
3) Olfactory receptors – Receptors present in nose and capable of detecting smell.
4) Synapse – A specialized junction between two neurons, across which nerve impulse passes.
5) Neuromuscular junction – The junction between a nerve fiber and the muscle cell it supplies.
6) Nerve impulse – An electrochemical signal that travels through a neuron in response to a stimulus.
7) Effectors – A muscle, gland, or organ capable of responding to a stimulus, especially a nerve
impulse.
8) Sensory neuron – A neuron that conducts impulses from a receptor organ to the central nervous
system.
9) Motor neuron – A neuron that conducts impulses from the central nervous system to muscle or
gland.
10) Relay neuron – A neuron which connects sensory neurons with motor neurons in neural
pathways.
11) Reflex action - An automatic, rapid, involuntary and immediate reaction to a stimulus.
12) Reflex arc – The neural pathway that mediates a reflex action.
13) Cranial nerves – Nerves arising from the brain
14) Spinal nerves – Nerves arising from the spinal cord.
15) Tropic movements – The directional movements shown by plants in response to environmental
factors.
16) Hormone – The secretion of an endocrine gland that is transmitted by blood to specific tissues in
the body.
17) Phototropism – The movement of a plant towards or away from light.
18) Hydrotropism – The movement of a plant either towards or away from water.
19) Geotropism – The directional movements shown by plants in response to gravity.
20) Chemotropism – Movement or growth of an organism or part of an organism in response to a
chemical stimulus.
VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (1 Mark)
1. Mention one example of chemotropism.
2. Mention the function of hind brain in humans.
3. Name and explain the function of the hormone secreted by the pituitary gland in humans.
4. State the main function of abscisic acid in plants.
5. Name the hormone the secretion of which is responsible for dramatic change in appearance in girls
when they approach 10-12 years of age.
VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (2 Mark)
6. What are the end products formed during fermentation in yeast. Under what condition a similar
process takes place in our body that leads to muscle cramps?
7. Differentiate between tropic and nastic movements in plants. Give one example of each.
8. Draw the diagram of a nerve cell and label the following on it:
(a) Nucleus (b) Dendrites
9. Write the name and the functions of any two parts of the hind brain.
10. How does our body maintain blood sugar level?
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (3 Marks)
11. A compound of iodine is compulsorily added to common salt in small quantity.
(a) Why is it important for us to have iodised salt in our diet.
(b) Name the disease caused by its deficiency.
(c) Write our symptoms of the disease.
12. What is reflex action? Describe the steps involved in reflex action.
13. What is ‘hydrotropism’? Describe an experiment to demonstrate ‘hydrotropism’?
14. What is ‘phototropism’? How does it occur in plants? Describe an activity to demonstrate
phototropism.
15. What are ‘hormones’? State one function of each of the following hormones:
(i) Thyroxin (ii) Insulin
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (5 Marks)
16. (a) Name two hormones secreted by pancreas. Write one function of each hormone.
(b) How does our body respond when alternative is secreted into the blood.
(c) Write an example to explain feedback mechanism for regulation of hormonal secretion.
17. (a) Draw the structure of a neuron and label the following on it.
Nucleus, Dendrite, Cell body and Axon (b) Name the part of neuron: (i) where information is
acquired.
(ii) through which information travels as an electrical impulse.
Value based questions
Mayank’s father never bothered to check the brand/contents of the salt he had purchased from the
market. Mayank noticed that her sister had developed swollen neck. The doctor advised her to eat
Iodised Salt.
i). Name the disease from which Mayank’s sister suffered.
ii). Why the doctor has advised her to eat Iodised Salt?

Injections are given to the cattle for the production of milk.

(i). Do you think it is a right practice.
(ii). What harm is this practice causing us?
Often the road accidents victims faced really a tough time due to the shortage of blood in the
hospital. Give suggestion to avoid shortage of blood in the blood bank.

A person is taking the insulin injection every day.

(i). Name the disease he is suffering from.
(ii). How does healthy life style help this patient to control this disease?

Most of students suffer from exam stress and anxiety during exam days.
Suggest three good habits which students should adopt to tackle this problem.

Generally some of teenagers readily come under bad influences under peer group pressure.
(i). Why does teenagers readily come under this influence.
(ii). Suggest methods to overcome such problems

CHAPTER 8: HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?

– Reproduction is the process by which living organisms produce new individuals similar to
themselves.
– Reproduction ensured continuity of life on earth.
– Reproduction - Abridge to hereditary transmission.
– It involves continuation of characters from the parents to daughter cells by Copying of DNA
(Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid) molecules present in the chromosomes of the cell.
– Copying of DNAs is also not a foolproof exercise, even minute changes bring about Variation in the
blue print of the offsprings.
– The useful variations are retained while the harmful one does not go beyond.
– Actually variations help the species to withstand drastic environmental changes, thus save the
species from becoming extinct and promotes its survival for a longer time.
– This inbuilt tendency of variation is the "fuel" for Evolution.
REPRODUCTION
Asexual Reproduction
1. A single parent is involved
2. Gametes not formed
3. Progeny is Identical to parent eg. Fission in Amoeba
Sexual Reproduction
1. Both Parents involved
2. Gametes are formed
3. Progeny is only genetically similar to the parent.
Asexual Reproduction is extremely useful as a mean of rapid multiplication.
It is common in lower plants and animals.
– Different form of Asexual Reproduction.
1. FISSION : the parent cell divides/splits into two daughter cell-Binary Fission; splits into many
cells-multiple Fission
2. BUDDING : A new organism is produced as an outgrowth of the parent body part.
3. SPORE FORMATION : Spores are small, bulb like structure develops at the top of the erect
hyphae of the fungus plant, released into the air and germinate , into new individuals after landing
into food or soil.
4. FRAGMENTATION : It is the accidental process when the broken pieces of an organism
(fragments) grows into a complete organism.
5. REGENERATION : When the simple animals like Hydra Planaria develop a new individual from
their broken older part it is known as regeneration. It is carried out by specialised cells which grow
large numbers of cells.
VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION : A mode of reproduction in which part like the stem, root, leaves
develop into new plant under favourable conditions.
Benefits
1. Plants can bear flowers, fruits earlier than those produced from seeds.
2. Growing Banana, orange, rose, jasmine that have lost the capacity to produce seeds.
3. Genetical similarity is maintained in the plants. eg. Sugarcane, rose, grapes by layering or grafting.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
When reproduction takes place as a result of fusion between two gametes, one from each parent, it is
called sexual reproduction.
– This process of fusion between two gametes is called fertilization.
– The formation of gametes involves exchange of chromosomal (genetic) fragments between
homologous chromosomes causing genetic recombination which leads to variation.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

It occurs mostly in flowering plants. In fact flowers are the reproductive organ of plants.

FLOWERS
Bisexual Flowers Both male and female reproductive part i.e., stamen & carpel present.
Eg. Hibiscus, mustard
Unisexual Flowers
Either male or female reproductive part is present. Eg. Papaya, Watermelon
A typical flower consists of four main whorls namely calyx (sepals), Corolla (Petals), Androecium
(Stamens) and Gynoecium (Carpels).
Pollen grains of a flower transfer to stigma of the carpel of the same flower (Self-Pollination) or to the
carpel of the another flower (Cross-Pollination).
– This transfer of pollens is achieved by agent like wind, water or animals.
– After Pollination, the pollen grains reach to the egg cell in the form of a pollen tube.
Fertilization : The fusion between the pollen grain and female egg cell. It occurs inside the ovary.
Zygote is produced in this process.
Zygote divides several times to form an embryo within the ovule. The ovule
develops a tough coat and is converted into a seed.
– Ovary grows rapidly and ripens to forms a fruit, while the seed contains the
future plant or embryo which develops into a seedling under suitable
condition. This process is known as Germination.
REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEINGS
– Humans use a Sexual Mode of reproduction.
– It needs sexual maturation which includes creation of the germ cells ie, egg (ova) in the female and
sperm in the male partner & this period of sexual maturation is called Puberty.
– Human beings have a well developed male and female reproductive system.
– The formation of male germ cell (sperms) takes place in the testes (male reproductive organ)
– Actually a pair of testes is located inside scrotum situated outside the abdominal cavity. It is meant
to keep relatively a low temperature needed for the production of sperms by testes.
– Moreover testes release a male sex hormone called testosterone whose function is to:
1. Regulate the production of sperm
2. Brings about changes in appearance seen in boys at the time of puberty.

The sperms along with the secretion of prostate gland and seminal vesicle together constitute semen,
which is released and made to enter into the female genital tract during Copulation.
 The female germ cells or eggs are made in the ovaries, a pair of which is located in both side of
abdomen.
 When a girl is born, the ovaries already contain thousands of immature eggs.
 At the puberty, some of these Eggs start maturing. One egg is produced every month by one of
the ovaries.
 The Egg is carried from the ovary to the womb through a fallopian tube. These two fallopian
tube unite into an elastic bag like structure known as Uterus.
 The Uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix. Fertilization occurs in the fallopian tube
of female genital tract.
 The fertilized egg also called zygote (2n) gets implanted in the lining of the Uterus, and start
dividing. Actually uterus is richly supplied with blood to nourish the growing embryo. If
zygote is not formed, the inner wall of uterus breaks which causes bleeding through vagina.
This process is called MENSTRUATION. It occurs at a regular interval of 28 days.
 The Embryo gets nutrition from the mother's blood with the help of a special tissue called
PLACENTA. It provides a large surface area for glucose and oxygen to pass from the mother
to the embryo. Similarly the wastes from developing embryo are removed to mother's blood
through placenta.
 The child is born as a result of rhythmic contractions of the muscles in the uterus. After Nine
months (36 weeks) of development inside mother's womb. It is also called Gestation Period.
 The sexual cycle in a woman continues up to the age of 45 to 50 years. After that the ovary
does not release egg. This stage is called Menopause. It a also marks the end of menstruation
in the woman.
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
Reproductive Health means a total well-being in all aspects of reproductive, ie., physical emotional,
social and behavioural.
Contraception : It is the avoidance of pregnancy. It can be achieved by various methods such as
Physical barriers, IUCD’s, Surgical methods, Chemical methods and natural method.
Healthy society needs a balanced sex ratio that can be achieved by educating the people to avoid
malpractices like female foeticide & pre-natal sex determination.
Sexually Transmitted Disease (STDs)
VIRAL STDs-----Eg. H.I.V. – AIDS, Genital Warts
Bacterial STDs----- Eg. Syphilis & Gonorrhoea
STDs are communicated during unsafe sexual contact.
1. What is the importance of DNA copying in reproduction?
Complete information of protein formation, responsible for making the body design, is kept in the
DNA molecule. The cells divide to produce gametes during reproduction. These newly formed cells
must receive its DNA molecule. This is made possible by making a copy of DNA from the original
DNA. These newly formed copies of DNA are similar to the original DNA molecule and are
responsible for carrying the features of the parents to the offspring, thus keeping the species alive.
2. Why are variations beneficial to the species but not necessarily for the individual? Illustrate
with, the help of an example.
A population lives in a particular niche which is suitable for it. If the conditions in a niche change
drastically, then most members of a population may not be able to survive. Only those members who
have suitable variations will be able to survive.
For example, many bacteria of a population living in temperate water may not be able to live in warm
water. Only a few of these bacteria will be able to survive due to the suitable variations they possess.
3. How does binary fission differ from multiple fission?
During binary fission, the nucleus and the body cell split only once. Each part grows into a mature
organism. In multiple fission, the nucleus and the body cell splits into many parts and each part then
grows into a mature organism.
4. Why is DNA copying an essential part of the process of reproduction? /
 At the time of gamete formation, the germ cell along with its organelles divides into two cells.
Each cell receives its DNA which is obtained by making a copy of the original DNA.
 Making the DNA copy is not absolutely accurate. This results in slight changes in the DNA
copy which would be similar but not identical This causes variations.
 The coming together of two similar but not identical DNA molecules, from two different
individuals, helps in accumulating variations.
 If variations are drastic, the individual will die along with the changed DNA because the new
DNA will not be able to work with the cellular apparatus.
 If variations are not drastic, then they will accumulate helping in the survival of a species.

5. How are modes of reproduction different in unicellular organisms and, multicellular organisms?
Reproduction in Reproduction in
Unicellular Organisms multicellular Organisms
(i) Unicellular organisms mainly reproduce by Multicellular organisms mainly reproduce by
asexual mode of reproduction such as binary sexual reproduction.
fission, multiple fission, budding and spore
formation"
Single cell acts as the parent cell to reproduce Two parents. a male and a female parent, are
new organisms. involved in producing new organisms.
Gametes are not produced and reduction in Multicellular organisms produce two types of
chromosome number does not occur. gametes which have half the number of
chromosomes.
The offspring’s are exactly similar to each other Offspring produced are different from each other
and also to the parent cell. It does not help in and also from the parents, as variations have
evolution of species. occurred which may lead to evolution of the
species.
A large number of offspring’s are produced Usually one offspring is produced.

6. Why does reproduction help in providing stability to the population of a species?

During reproduction, DNA copies are made where the copying mechanism is not absolutely
accurate. This causes variations.
 Many of the variations are useful and are accepted in the niche in which '"he individuals of a
population live.
 Sexual reproduction allows for greater variations in the offspring as two different individuals
in a population will have quite different patterns of accumulated variations.
 These variations may allow a few individuals to survive if a drastic change occurs in the
niche. These useful variations in a few individuals will create very combinations through the
copying mechanism of the DNA.
 Thus, reproduction through DNA copying mechanism is important because it helps in the
maintenance of the body design and allows the organisms to live in a particular niche and,
therefore, will bring stability to the population of a species.

7. What is the need, for reproduction?

Continuity of life on earth is maintained by members of a species which produce offspring’s of their
own kind.

8. What is asexual reproduction?

In asexual reproduction, a single parent, without the involvement of the second parent, produces
offspring’s exactly similar to it.
9. Define sexual reproduction.
Sexual reproduction is a process where there is an involvement of two parents, a male and a female,
producing two different types of gametes, a male and a female gamete. These gametes fuse to form a
zygote, from which an individual develops.
10. Which molecule contains the blue print of individuals of a species for the next generation?
Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA.
11. How are the specific characteristics of a species maintained by the DNA molecule?
DNA contains all the information for making proteins, responsible for producing the specific
characteristics of a species.
12. What do you think is the basic event of reproduction?
The basic event of reproduction is creating the DNA copy.
13. How does the cell produce a copy of the original DNA?
The cell is equipped with the chemical machinery needed for producing a copy of the original DNA.
14. Where does the formation of DNA copy occurs?
The DNA copy is formed in the nucleus when it divides during cell division.
15. What is the fate of the two newly formed cells?
The two newly formed cells produced by the division of the parental cell receive one copy of the
DNA each.
16. How does the second, cell at the time of cell division receive the cellular apparatus for various
activities?
At the time of cell division, the components of the cellular apparatus also duplicate. So, the second
cell also receives its cellular apparatus.
17. Are the two newly formed cells exactly identical to each other?
No biochemical process is absolutely correct and some change may occur leading to a variation in the
cells.
18. What will happen if a drastic variation is produced?
In such case, the new DNA may not be able to work with the cellular apparatus inherited by it.
19. Why does the individual reproduce and waste a lot of energy on a process which might not
help him to stay alive?
Even though a lot of energy is required for the process of reproduction, the individuals reproduce to
maintain the continuity of the species.
20. Explain how multiple fission occurs in an organism. Name one organism which exhibits this
type of reproduction.
During multiple fission, the nucleus divides repeatedly to produce a large number of nuclei.
Cytoplasm also divides many times and surrounds each nucleus. This results in the formation of
many daughter cells. On liberation, each daughter cell grows into an adult organism. This type of
reproduction is exhibited by Plasmodium
21. Describe different types of asexual reproduction in living organisms
Asexual reproduction involves only one parent. Gametes following types:
(i) Fission: The cell divides to form two daughter cells. This process is known as binary fission as it
occurs in Amoeba and Paramecium or the cell may divide to form many daughter cells, as it occurs in
multiple fission in Plasmodium.
(ii) Budding. Some organisms like yeast and. Hydra produce outgrowths called buds on lateral sides
which later detach from the parent plant and develop into new individuals.
(iii) Spore formation: Some organisms like fungi produce spores in the sporangia.
Each spore germinates into a new individual. An example of this is Rhizopus.
(iv) Fragmentation': Organisms like Spirogyra divide into fragments. Each fragment develops i.nto a
new individual.
(v) Regeneration: When organisms like Hydra and Planaria cut into many parts, each part grows by
the regenerative mass of ceils which divide into more cells.
These cells then differentiate into different tissues, forming the new individual.
(vi) Vegetative propagation: Many higher plants propagate by plant parts like stem, roots, leaves,
bulbs and develop into new plants. Commercially, plants are propagated by artificial methods like
cutting, layering and grafting.
22. Describe the salient features of sexual reproduction in organisms.
Sexual reproduction involves two individuals, a male and a female. In human beings and most of the
animals, the male and female sex organs are present indifferent individuals. Such organisms are
called unisexual organisms.
In simple animals and most of the plants, the single individual bears both types of sex organs. Such
organisms are called bisexual organisms.
In animals, the gonads or sex organs of male are known as testes, which produce the male gametes,
the sperms while in females, the sex organs are known as ovaries which produce the female gametes
known as eggs or ova.
During sexual reproduction, the male and the female gametes fuse to form a zygote. The process of
fusion of male and female gametes is known as fertilisation. The zygote develops into an individual.
Sexual reproduction is considered as more evolved than asexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction
causes variations at the time of formation of gametes and also due to random fusion of gametes. It
increases the chances of variations in the organisms.
23. What is vegetative propagation? What is its significance?
Vegetative propagation is a method of producing a new plant from a part of the parent plant, such as
stem, root, leaf or even the scale of a bulb.
Significances of vegetative propagation are:
It helps in propagation of those plants which have lost their capacity to produce viable seeds.
It is rapid and easier.
All plants produced by vegetative propagation are similar to the parent plant in all the characteristics.
It is used in propagating new plants for agricultural purposes by layering or by grafting as in
sugarcanes, roses and grapes.
Plants raised by vegetative propagation can bear flowers and fruits earlier than those produced by
seeds.
24. Reproduction is essential for the survival, of the species and not for the survival of individuals.
Justify the statement"
Individuals producing many individuals of their own kind utilize a vast amount of energy. Following
are the reasons for producing members of its own kind:
Reproduction is the process by which individuals of the same kind are produced, thus increasing and
maintaining the population of the individuals
The germ cells produced during reproduction pass the genetic material from the parents to the
offspring, thus maintaining the characteristics of the species.
DNA copying is the most basic function of reproduction and carries the blueprint of the body design.
Reproduction also brings variations, more suitable lo the organism in the existing environment.
Though the individual dies, the species continues to survive through the process of reproduction.
25. What is tissue culture?
Tissue culture is a method of producing new plants. The steps involved are:
Cells or tissues are taken from the growing tips of the plant.
These are placed in an artificial medium. The cells divide rapidly and. form a group of cells called
callus.
Callus is then transferred to another medium which contains hormones for growth and
differentiation.
Plantlets start forming. These are separated and put in the soil where they grow into young plants.
This method produces a large number of plants from few cells, under disease-free conditions. This
method is mainly used to grow ornamental plants.
26. How will an organism be benefitted if it reproduces through spores?
Spores are produced in large numbers, as in Rhizopus. Spores usually have thick walls which protect
them from adverse conditions. When the spores fall on suitable substratum, they germinate to
produce a large number of new individuals.
27. Can you think of reasons why complex organisms cannot give rise to individuals through
regeneration?
More complex organisms like human beings cannot be cut into pieces and then be expected that each
part should grow into an individual. Moreover, these pieces do not have regenerative cells to produce
a complete organism. Most multicellular organisms reproduce only by sexual reproduction. These
organisms produce male and female gametes, which fuse to form the zygote. Zygote is the only cell
which can grow into a complex multicellular organism.
28. Why is vegetative propagation practiced, for growing some plants?
Some plants are propagated by vegetative propagation for the following reasons:
 Plants which do not produce viable seeds are propagated vegetatively.
 To obtain genetically similar plants of the parent, plants are propagated vegetatively.
 Plants raised by vegetative propagation can bear flowers and fruits, earlier than those
produced from seeds
29. What is vegetative propagation?
When new plants are produced from the vegetative parts of a plant like the roots, stems or leaves, it is
known as vegetative propagation.
30. How does Rhizopus multiply by spores?
The erect hyphae of Rhizopus produce spherical, blob-like structures, known as sporangia containing
spores. The spores are covered by a thick wall for their protection. The sporangia release spores
which on falling on a suitable substratum start germinating and a complete fungal body is produced.
31. Explain the terms fission and regeneration in relation to reproduction.
The process by which the parent cell divides repeatedly by mitotic divisions, to produce large
number of individuals, is known as fission. Regeneration is the ability of an organism to replace lost
body parts through specialised cells. These cells produce more cells by mitotic divisions and
differentiate into tissues, forming the organism.
32. How does Hydra reproduce by budding?
In Hydra, a bud is formed by the repeated divisions of the regenerative cells. The bud develops into
tiny individual and when it is fully mature it separates from the parent cell to become an
independent individual.
33. Describe fragmentation in Spirogyra.
Spirogyra filament breaks into many fragments, each fragment having a few cells. Each cell of the
fragment divides mitotically to produce more cells, resulting in the formation of a complete new
filament.
34. Name the methods of vegetative propagation by which the following flowering plants are
propagated: (i) Rose, (ii) Jasmine, (iii) Banana, and (iv) Sugarcane.
(i) Rose is propagated by grafting.
(ii) Jasmine is propagated by layering.
(iii) Banana is propagated through suckers that grow from the underground stem.
(iv) Sugarcane is propagated by stem cutting (nodal propagation).
35. Compare and contrast the ways in which yeast and Rhizopus reproduce.
The nucleus of the yeast cell divides into two; It produces a small protuberance. One nucleus
migrates into it and forms the bud. It may produce another bud or it may get separated to grow
independently.
In Rhizopus, the sporangium bears many spores. When the sporangium opens, many spores are
liberated. When a spore falls on a suitable medium, it germinates to form a new fungal body.
36. Describe the process of fertilisation in plants.
 Pollen grains are deposited on the stigma and start germinating. A pollen tube is produced by
the pollen grain, which grows into the style, carrying the male germ cell at its tip. The pollen
tube reaches the ovule present in the ovary.
 The ovule bears an egg. The pollen tube normally enters through the small opening of the
ovule.
 On reaching the egg, the pollen tube releases the male germ cell, which fuses with the egg to
form the zygote.
  After fertilisation, the ovary grows rapidly and ripens into a fruit. At the same time, the zygote
divides several times to form an embryo inside the ovule" The ovule develops a tough coat
and develops into a seed and contains the future plant.
 Sepals, petals, stamens, style and stigma usually shrivel and fall off.
37. Mention the functions of the parts of the embryo.
(i) Cotyledons: These store food needed for the germination of the seed.
(ii) Axis consists of leafy part, known as plumule which gives rise to the shoot and a pointed part of
the axis, known as radicle, which gives rise to the roots.
38. Draw a labelled diagram of the longitudinal section of a flower.

39. Mention the characters which develop at the time of puberty in a boy and a girl.
Characters which develop at the time of puberty in a boy are:
 Development of facial hair as beard and moustache, thick hair under the armpits and the
genital area between the thighs.
 Voice begins to crack.
 Penis becomes enlarged and erect.
Secondary sexual characters that develop in a girl at puberty are:
 Growth of hair under the armpits and around the genital area. . Breasts start to enlarge with
darkening of nipples.
 Setting in of menstruation.
40. Describe the reproductive system of a human female
The following organs form the reproductive system of a human female:
(i) A pair of ovaries, (ii) a pair of oviducts or fallopian tubes (iii) uterus(iv) vagina and (v) urethra.
(i) Ovaries:
 Two ovaries are the female sex organs located in the lower abdominal cavity.
 A girl child carries thousands of immature eggs from birth.
 One of the eggs, from one of the ovaries, starts maturing every month at the onset of puberty.
 Estrogen is a hormone produced in a female at puberty which facilitates reproduction and
maintenance of pregnancy.
(ii) Fallopian tubes: Overhanging on the posterior end of each ovary is a funnel shaped structure
leading into a long convoluted fallopian tube or oviduct.
(iii) Uterus: The fallopian tubes from both the sides join into the muscular sac-like structure called the
uterus or the womb"
(iv) Vagina: Uterus opens into a tubular vagina through a narrow structure called the cervix. Vagina
opens to the outside through an opening called vaginal opening.
(v) Urethra: Urethra is a tubular structure and leads into the urinary opening, which is separate from
the vaginal opening.
41. Explain the menstrual cycle in a human female.
 When a girl is born, she contains thousands of immature eggs in the ovaries.
 As the girl reaches puberty, the ovaries of the girl start producing estrogen, which stimulates
the development of the egg (ovum).
 One egg usually matures every month in either of the ovaries.
 Oestrogen also stimulates the uterus to prepare itself to receive the developing embryo. It
becomes thick to nourish the embryo
 The process of ovulation, i.e., release of ovum occurs" If fertilisation does not occur, the thick
lining of the uterus along with the blood capillaries starts breaking slowly and comes out of
the vagina in the form of blood and mucus.
This is known as menstruation and it lasts for about two to eight days.
These cyclic events occur every month and form the menstrual cycle.
42. Explain the process of fertilization and implantation of embryo in human beings.
 In human beings, fertilisation is internal. The sperms produced in the testes of the male are
introduced into the vagina of the female during the sexual intercourse.
 A large number of mobile sperms are deposited in the vagina of the female. The sperms move
up through the cervix and then move into the uterus. One of the sperms fertilises the egg or
the ovum in the fallopian tube.
 The product of fertilisation, the zygote, immediately starts developing into an embryo in the
fallopian tube
 The developing embryo gets attached to the uterus by a disc shaped tissue called placenta.
The process is called implantation. The embryo fulfils its nutritional and respiratory needs
from the mother's body through the placenta.
 The waste substances produced during embryo development are removed by transferring
these to mother's blood.

43. Describe the events which occur during the development of the embryo in the uterus of the
human female till the birth of the child.
 The zygote from the fallopian tube moves down into the uterus, gets attached tothe developed
uterine lining and makes a close contact with it. This process is called implantation.
 Implantation stimulates the development of a special tissue between the uterine wall and the
embryo, known as placenta.
 Placenta is a disc-shaped tissue, and is embedded in the uterine lining.
 On the embryonal side, villi which remain surrounded by the mother's bloodpresent in the
spaces are produced.
 The embryo meets its nutritional needs, such as glucose, and respiratory needs like oxygen,
through the placenta. The waste products produced during the development of the embryo
are removed by releasing them into the mother's blood through the placenta.
 The development of the embryo is completed in about nine months.

44. Which diseases are transmitted through sexual act?

Bacterial STD’s(i) Gonorrhea, (ii) Syphilis,
Viral STD’s (iii) AIDS, and (iv) Genital Warts.
45. What could be the reasons for adopting contraceptive methods?
 Contraceptive methods are adopted to avoid pregnancies so that the birth of child may be
planned according to needs, such as the number of children a couple should raise and the
time gap required between two children.
 Pregnancy demands development and growth not only physically but mentally as well. If a
woman is not ready for bearing a child, her health may be affected.
 These methods must be used for safe sex to avoid infection from sexually transmitted
diseases, i.e., STDs.

46. What are the different methods of contraception?

Three different methods of contraception are:
 Physical barriers: The devices used are condom, fitted on the penis, and similar devices like
diaphragm and cervical caps are worn in the vagina.
 An Intrauterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD) is a device which is inserted into the uterus
(womb) to prevent pregnancy. There are many types of IUCDs and they come in different
shapes and sizes. Commonly used types are IUCDs containing copper. *IUCD is also
commonly known as “IUD”
 Chemical methods: The devices used are oral pills which are hormonal pills and vaginal pills.
 Surgical methods: The male ducts, vas deferens, and female ducts, the fallopian tubes, are
blocked and ligated. In males" this process is known as vasectomy and" in females, it is known
as tubectomy.
 Natural method: It involves avoiding the chances of meeting of sperms and ovum. In this
method, the sexual act is avoided from day 10th to 17th of the menstrual cycle because during
this period, ovulation is expected and therefore, the chances of fertilization are very high.
47. If a woman is using a copper−T, will it help in protecting her from sexually transmitted
diseases?
No. Using a copper-T will not provide a protection from sexually transmitted diseases, as it does not
prevent the entry of semen. It only prevents the implantation of the embryo in the uterus.
48. What is the role of seminal vesicles and prostate gland?
A single prostate gland and a pair of seminal vesicles open into the vas deferens and pour their
secretions into them, so that the sperms remain in a fluid medium for easier and smooth transport
and also get nutrition.
Differentiate between fragmentation and regeneration.
Fragmentation Regeneration
1. Regeneration occurs in fully differentiated
1. Fragmentation occurs in multi-cellular multi-cellular organisms with complex body
organisms with simple body organisation. organization.
2. In fragmentation, an organism breaks into 2. In regeneration organisms if breaks into
pieces and each piece develops into new pieces, each piece may or may not develop
individual. into new individual.
3. No specialised cells are involved in 3. In regeneration, specialised cells
 proliferate and form a mass of cells. The cells
from the mass differentiate to form different
fragmentation. cells types and tissues.
Example: Regeneration of blood cells in
Example: Spirogyra mammals.

VALUE BASED QUESTIONS:

49. We hear and read about female foeticide, which is really is a wrong practice. In some families,
be it rural or urban, females are tortured for giving birth to a girl child. They do not seem to
understand the scientific reason behind the birth of a boy or a girl. In your opinion,the approach
of the society towards mother in this regard is correct or not? Explain the scientific reason.
Approach of society is baseless. Sex of child is determined by type of chromosome present in sperm
(X or Y) that fuses with ovum at time of fertilization.
Associated Value : The learner will be able to improve their mindsets that help them to discontinue
various social malaise viz gender inequality, female foeticide etc.
50. Mr. R. Sharma was suffering from various types of diseases presently. He went for thorough
health checkups and was diagnosed as HIV+ve. Soon this news spread in his neighborhood and
on account of this, he faced social isolation. Comment upon:-i. Do you think people‟s indifference
towards HIV+ve people is justifiable? What kind of approach should we have towards the persons
suffering from AIDS. ii. How can one protect oneself from these diseases?
1. Absolutely not. Human approach/behavior One should be aware about the mode of transmission
of disease, danger of sharing needles etc.
Associated Value : The learners will understand that only a generous and improved mindset of
society can help the people to fight HIV/AIDS related problems.
51. It is a well known fact that pregnant woman’s health is a backbone of every family, society and
thus nation i). Which tissue is responsible for providing nutrition from mother to growing
embryo? ii). According to you, what can be the likely measures to maintain woman health during
pregnancy.
(i) Placenta.
(i) Would be mother should eat healthy balanced nutritious diet, should be stress free. (ii) She should
not take any medicine without proper doctor’s advice.
Associated Value: The learner will appreciate the idea that it is very important for all of us to help in
maintaining good health of the pregnant lady.
52. How can one justify this statement that “Like physical mental and social fitness, human beings
need fitness of reproductive life i.e. Reproductive Health.
This will prevent himself from contracting various STD‟s as well as spreading of diseases.
Associated Value : The learner will be motivated to maintain a good reproductive health as well.
53. Arjun and Ram are students of Class-IX. Both were initially good in studies. After some time
academic performance of Arjun started declining and he became irritable. This change was noticed
by his class teacher the teacher, while interacting with Arjun found out that he had six siblings
and whole family lived in a single room. Mother was not able to devote much attention to him and
resources were not sufficient. (i) After going through the situation, what are the factors, which you
think, are responsible for change in behaviour and his poor performance in studies
Big families can be one of the reasons/advantages of having short family.
Associated Value : The learner will understand the fact that only small family gets good health and
education unlike that of a large family.
54. Argha is a 14 years old girl born in a poor family of 6members. She is the eldest of the 4 children
of her parents. Finding it difficult to feed a family of six, Argha's father has arranged Argha's
marriage with a boy in a nearby village. Argha however does not want to get married at such an
young age. She goes to the village headman and requests him to save her from the problem. The
village headman knows the financial condition of Argha's parents and at the same time he knows that
14 years is too young age to get married.
(a) What should the headman do to solve Argha's problem?
(b) What do the young couples learn from Argha’s story ?
55. A newspaper has recently published a survey result which says that number of AIDS patients in
the country is increasing every day. The report also says that awareness among people about AIDS is
still very poor. You discussed the newspaper report with your friend and both of you decided to help
people to fight against this deadly disease.
(a) What problem do you anticipate if both of you try to educate the people of your village?
(b) How will you overcome that problem?
56. Reena was not keeping well. Her doctor after examination told her that she was suffering from
dysentery. The doctor gave her medicines and advised her to take lots of fluids.
(a) What advice will you give to the people to protect them against dysentery?
(b) Why did the doctor advise Reena to drink lots liquid?
(c) What action should government take to stop spreading of diseases like dysentery?
57. Riyan brought a male and a female dog from a cold city of Switzerland to his home in Delhi.
During summer, the dogs appeared very tired and Riyan had to switch on the fan occasionally. The
dogs were allowed to reproduce and Riyan noticed that few 3'd generation dogs were very
comfortable in Delhi summer.
(a) How can you explain adaptability of the dogs to Delhi summer?
(b) How did Riyan help the dogs adapt to the changed environment? What value does the act
convey?
(c) What will happen if the 3'd generation heat resistant dogs are shifted to the cold city of
Switzerland?
58. Due to heavy rise in demand for tea in international market and simultaneous incentive given by
Government on tea plantation, a tea company wants to go for a large scale expansion of its tea
plantation in Assam. To implement the project, the company need a large numbers of saplings and
a huge motivated work force. The problem of saplings was overcome by the company by introducing
tissue culture.
(a) What are the minimum facilities that the company should provide to its workers?
(b) What additional step can the company take to motivate the workers to put extra effort for
successful expansion of the plantation?
(c) How can the company arrange fund to implement the project?
59. Explain Human male reproductive system.
Testis: There is a pair of testes; which lie in a skin pouch; called scrotum. Scrotum is suspended
outside the body; below the abdominal cavity. This helps in maintaining the temperature of testes
below the body temperature. This is necessary for optimum sperm production. Testis primarily
serves the function of sperm production. Sperms are the male gametes. Apart from that, testis also
produces testosterone. Testosterone is also called the male hormone, as it is responsible for
developing certain secondary sexual characters in boys.
Vas Deferens: Vas deferens is the tube which carries sperms to the seminal vesicle.
Seminal Vesicle: This is the place where sperms are stored. Secretions from the seminal vesicle and
prostate gland add up to make the semen.
Penis: It is a muscular organ which serves the genitor-urinary functions. The urethra works as the
common passage for urine as well as for sperms.
Definitions
1) Reproduction - The biological process by which new individuals of the same parental kind are
produced.
2) Variation – The differences found among individuals of a group or species, caused either by
genetic differences or by the effect of environment on genes.
3) Asexual reproduction – Reproduction in which new generations are created from a single
individual.
4) Fission – A type of asexual reproduction in which the unicellular parent organism divides into two
or more parts, each developing into genetically identical individuals.
5) Binary fission – Fission in which the parent cell divides to form two similar daughter cells.
6) Multiple fission – Fission in which the parent cell divides to produce more than two daughter
cells.
7) Fragmentation – The reproductive method in which certain multi-cellular organisms, on
maturation, break up into smaller fragments, each of which develops into new individual.
8) Budding – The reproductive method in which an organism produces an outgrowth on its body
surface, which then matures and develops into a new individual.
9) Vegetative propagation – The reproductive method in which new plants are produced asexually
from roots, stems or leaves of the parent plant.
10) Spore - A small, usually single-celled reproductive body produced by certain fungi, bacteria,
algae, and non flowering plants, which is highly resistant to desiccation and heat and is capable of
growing into a new organism.
11) Sexual reproduction - Mode of reproduction in which new individuals are produced by fusion of
a male and a female gamete.
12) Pollination – Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.
13) Self-pollination – Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower.
14) Cross-pollination – Transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the stigma of
another flower.
15) Fertilization – Fusion of male and female gametes to form zygote, which eventually develops into
an embryo.
16) Germination – The process in which a seed develops into a seedling under appropriate
conditions.
17) Puberty - The period during adolescence when a child's body becomes sexually mature and
develops into adult form.
18) Sperm – The male reproductive cell or gamete produced in the testes.
19) Ova – The female reproductive cell or gamete produced in the ovary.
20) Ovulation – The periodic release of an ovum from the ovary.
21) Menstruation - The monthly discharge of blood and shed mucous lining of the uterus through the
vagina of non-pregnant women from puberty to menopause.
22) Contraception – The prevention of conception by the use of birth control devices or pills or
surgery.
 CHAPTER 9: HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION

1. The transmission of characters from parent to their off springs is known as heredity.
 The study of heredity and variations is known as genetics.
 Clones are those organisms which are the carbon copies of one another.
 Variation in sexually reproducing organisms are caused due to the following factors like
environment, crossing over and recombination of genes and mutation.
 The first study of inheritance was done by Gregor Mendel on garden pea.
 Paired condition of chromosomes is known as diploid.
 Unpaired condition of chromosomes is known as haploid.
 DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid), RNA (Ribose Nucleic Acid) is the genetic material in all
organisms.
2. Mendel’s laws of inheritance are
(i) Law of Dominance
(ii) Law of Segregation (Law of purjty of gametes)
(iii) Law of Independent Assortment
3. Genotype is the composition of genes present in an organism and the characteristic which is visible
in an organism is called its phenotype.
4. When two parents cross (or breed) to produce progeny (or offsprings), then their progeny is called
F1-generation (First Filial Generation) and when the first generation progeny cross among themselves
to produce second progeny, then this progeny is called F2-generation or second Filial Generation.
 Mendel conducted his famous experiments on garden pea (Pisum sativum).
 He used a number of contrasting characters like round / wrinkled seeds, tall/ short plants,
white/ violet flowers and so on.
5. During Monohybrid Cross
 When tall pea plants are crossed with short pea plants then in Fi generation only tall plants
were obtained.
 F2 progeny of F1 tall plants are not all tall but one quarter of them are short indicating that
both tallness and shortness traits were inherited in F1 but only tallness trait was expressed due
to dominance.
 In dihybrid cross two pairs of contrasting characters were considered. Tall plant with round
seeds were crossed with short plant with wrinkled seeds. In Fi tall plants with round seeds
were obtained. On selfing these F, plants with F2 produced tall plants with round seeds, short
plant with wrinkled seeds and some new combinations (tall plant with wrinkled seeds and
short plant with rounds seeds) were also obtained. The tall/short trait and round wrinkled
traits are independently inherited.
 The expression of a particular trait is controlled by gene.
6. DNA is the source of making protein in a cell.
The section of DNA that provides information for one protein is called gene.
7. Physical and Chemical Basis of Heredity
Mendel (1866) said that heredity was controlled by particles, called germinal units, or factors.
8 Sex determination is the process by which the sex of a person is determined.
All human chromosomes are not paired. 22 pairs are called autosomes. Women have a perfect pair of
sex chromosomes XX. But men have a mismatched pair XY.
9. Evolution
It is the sequence of gradual changes which take place in the primitive organisms over millions of
years in which new species are produced.
A. The evidences of evolution are :
i. Homologous organs,
ii. Analogous organs, and
Fossils
B. Theories of Evolution
Jean Baptiste Lamarck gave the first theory of evolution.
Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882) explained the evolutionary principle in his famous book
“The origin of species”. The theory proposed by him is popularly known as theory of natural
selection or Darwinsim.
The main features of the theory of natural selection are as follows:
(i) Over production
(ii) Limited food and space
(iii) Struggle for Existence
(iv) Variations
(v) Natural Selection or Survival of the Fittest
10. Speciation : The process by which new species develop from the existing species is known
as speciation.
The factors which leads to speciation are :
 Geographical isolation
 Genetic drift and
 Variations
11. Classification
Evolutions are of three types :-
(i) Convergent Evolution
(ii) Divergent Evolution, and
(iii) Parallel Evolution.
12. Fossils : The remains of dead plants or animals that lived in the remote past are known as fossils.
Various kinds of fossils are : Ammonite, Trilobite and Dinosaur.
13. Evolution by Stages : Evolution of complex organs have taken place bit-by-bit
over generations.
For example eye, feathers of birds have evolved because of survival advantage of intermediate stages.
Thus changes in DNA during reproduction are the main cause of evolution.
14. Human Evolution: All have beings belong to single speceis Homo sapiens, although there were
many races of humans.
They have originated in Africa, some ancestors left Africa and migrated to West Asia,
Central Asia, Eurasia South Asia, East Asia, Indonesia, Australia, America, while others stayed there.
Excavating, time-dating, studying fossils, determining DNA Sequences have been used for studying
human evolution.
1. How does the inheritance of traits depend, upon contribution by both mother and father? Or
How is the equal genetic contribution of male and female parents ensured in the progeny?
Both mother and father contribute exactly equal amount of genetic material to the offspring. This
means that in the offspring, each trait will be represented by a pair of genes. DNA from the paternal
and maternal parents can influence the traits in the offspring.
2. Do offspring’s look different from each other and, also from their parents?
Variations exist among the offspring’s and so they look different from each other and also from their
parents.
3. How do variations arise in asexually reproducing organisms like bacteria?
The variations in asexually reproducing organisms, such as bacteria, arise due to minor or small
inaccuracies in DNA copying.
4. Is greater diversity generated by sexual reproduction?
Yes, sexual reproduction provides greater diversity in variations as these are inherited from both the
parents.
5. Do all the variations which have occurred in a species possess equal chances of survival?
Only some variations survive which allow the organism to survive in the changed environment.
Some variations which do not cause any harm to the organism maybe able to survive.
6. How do variations occur in asexually reproducing organisms and, self-fertilizing organisms?
Variations occur due to inaccuracies during the DNA copying mechanism in asexually reproduci.ng
organisms and self-fertilising organisms.
7. What is the modern molecular concept of a gene?
A gene is a hereditary unit and is a segment of a DNA molecule. It determines aspecific biological
function by the production of protein.
8. What is understood by similarities and dissimilarities of traits?
In an organism such as a child, all basic features similar to that of a human being are present but the
organism may differ in certain featu.res like the ear lobes-attached or free, or, difference in
complexion, height, etc.
9. On what rule inheritance is based?
Inheritance is based on the fact that both the parents contribute equal amounts of genetic material to
the offsprings.
10. Name the plant on which Mendel performed his experiments.
Mendel performed his experiments on the pea plant (Pisum sativum).
11. Which contrasting characters of pea plant were chosen by Mendel for his study of inheritance?
He had chosen contrasting characters like tall dwarf plants, round/wrinkled seeds,
White/violet flowers, yellow green seeds, etc.
12. What is the name given, to the first generation obtained from the cross between two true
breeding organisms with contrasting characters?
First generation is known as F, (filial) generation or F, progeny.
13. Were the tall plants of F1 progeny exactly same as the parental tall plants?
All the tall plants of F1progeny were exactly as tall as the parental tall plants.
14. How did Mendel's experiments prove that all tall plants of F1 generation were truly tall plants?
The F1 generation was allowed to reproduce by self-pollination.
15. What was the result of F2 generation?
F2 generation showed a phenotypic ratio of 3: 1 where tall plants formed three parts and dwarf plants
formed only one part.
16. What conclusion was derived after obtaining F2 generation?
In F2 generation, all tall plants of F, generation did not produce only tall plants; one-fourth plants
were dwarf.
17. What did the reappearance of dwarf plants in F2 generation indicate?
It showed that the factors for both tallness and dwarfness were inherited in F1 generation and
therefore two copies of the trait must be inherited by the sexually reproducing organisms.
18. Will the two traits inherited be identical or different?
The two traits can be identical or different, i.e., in F2 generation, tallness may be represented as TT or
Tt and dwarfness may be represented as tt.
19. How were tallness and dwarfness depicted in the crosses made by Mendel?
Tallness was depicted by a capital letter 'T' and dwarfness by a small letter ’t’.
20. What is a mono hybrid cross?
When one pair of contrasting characters is considered in a cross, it is known asa monohybrid cross.
21. A population of red, beetles, living in green bushes, is being eaten by the crows. During sexual
reproduction, a green beetle is found, in the progeny. What will be the fate of the new trait? Will it
be able to survive in the habitat?
The red beetles live in green bushes and are eaten by crows as they are easily visible to them. Among
the progeny, when a green beetle was found, it probably had escaped the attack of crows as it
camouflaged with the green colour of the bushes.
This new trait could be passed on to the next progeny" Gradually, the green beetles increased in
number and the number of red beetles decreased. So the new trait willbe able to survive in the
habitat.
22. Differentiate between homologous organs and, analogous organs.
Homologous organs Analogous organs
Homologous organs have the same basic Analogous organs do not have the same basic
structure. structure.
These organs are inherited by different organisms These organs have a different origin.
from the same ancestor.
The wings of birds and forelimbs of man have the In case of wings of birds and wings of insects,
same origin and structure, but in birds they are their origin and structure is different but their
used for flying and in humans they are used for function is the same.
picking things and hold things
23. How can, Mendel's experiment be proved, based, on the inheritance of genes? Explain by
depicting a cross.
According to Mendel's experiment, both the parents should contribute two factors, i.e', equal amount
of DNA or two genes, to the progeny during sexual reproduction.
To determine the trait, both the parents should contribute one gene each. This means' the germ cells
must receive only one gene or factor. When the two germ cells fuse, the offspring will receive both the
genes. Applying this, the germ cell from the tall parent will have gene T and gene t from the dwarf
parent. When these come together, the progeny will have Tt combination.
(i) Out of the two traits, tall and dwarf, tall is dominant as seen in F1 generation.
(ii) In F, generation, dwarf plants do not appear.
(iii) In F, generation, dwarf plants reappear, though in small ratio.
24. Mention the characteristics of a gene.
(i) Gene is a unit of inheritance.
(ii) It is a segment of the DNA molecule. The segments of DNA are different indifferent genes.
(iii) Gene is the unit of a specific biological function and usually expresses itself by producing a
specific enzyme or protein.
(iv) It can undergo inheritable changes due to inaccuracies occurring at the time of formation of
copies of the DNA.
25. What relationship occurs between genes and chromosomes? How does the behavior of
chromosomes help in proving inheritance of characters as proposed by Mendel?
(l) Each gene set is present, not as a single long thread of DNA, but as separate pieces each called a
chromosome. All the genes in an organism are present on chromosomes. Factors of Mendel are now
known as genes.
(ii) Each cell has two copies of each gene or two copies of similar chromosomes which bear pairs of
genes or factors, i,.e",TT or tt or Tt.
(iii) Each germ cell receives one gene or one chromosome from a pair during meiosis and so does a
factor, as depicted by Mendel either: as T or t. The chromosome and therefore gene or factor may be
either maternal or paternal in origin.
(iv) When the two germ cells combine, the paired chromosomes are restored and so are the two genes
or factors like TT" Tt or tt.
(v) Two characteristics, represented. by two pairs of genes or factors, such as RRrr (round, wrinkled
seeds) or YYyy (yellow, green seeds) are present on separate pairs of chromosomes and hence are
inherited independently.
26. What is the concept of evolution?
The concept of evolution is based on the following:
(i) Appearance of genetic variations in a population is due to' migration of members from one
subgroup to another subgroup.
Genetic drift which is elimination of some genes from a population due tonatural calamity or due to
drifting of the members of the population"
Change in chromosome number in a few members of a population change in genes due to
inaccuracies occurring during DNA copying mechanism.
Recombination of genes during sexual reproduction.
(ii) The variations spread in the subgroup of a population and as they help in survival in the
prevailing environmental condition, these get selected by the nature"
(iii.) If the two subgroups get separated further b5, some physical barrier, like a river, more variations
in subgroups will develop.
(iv) The accumulation of these variations in successive generations makes the two subgroups
sufficiently different in function and structure and they may not be able to reproduce among
themselves, causing reproductive isolation.
27. How does natural selection help in speciation? Explain with the help of an example.
A In a population, the two subgroups having variations get separated due to formation of a river or a
mountain or any other physical barrier. This causes geographical isolation. The level of gene flow
from one subgroup to another subgroup decreases considerably.
Nature selects the members with suitable variations which enable them to survive in the prevailing
environmental conditions. The members are able to grow and reprod.uce, thus passing the variations
to the next generation.
Natural selection also affects the two subgroups differently in the two geographically different
locations. For example, the subgroups of red and green beetles are geographically isolated. In the
territory of one subgroup, crows get eliminated by eagles. This means that green beetles are not
favoured or selected. In the territory of the other subgroup, crows were plenty in number and they
fed on red beetles, as they were clearly visible, giving a better chance of survival to the green beetles.
So, the green beetles reproduce profusely and survive by passing on the character to the successive
generation. This means that nature selected the green beetles. In due course of time, green beetles will
fail to reproduce with red beetles and a new species will be formed.
28. Can certain features acquired in the lifetime of an individual be passed on to the next
generation? Explain with the help of examples.
Any change which occurs in the non-reproductive tissues of an individual cannot be passed on to the
next generation as it is not incorporated in the DNA of the germ cells. Therefore, certain experiences
or change of features acquired in the lifetime of an individual cannot be passed on to the next
generation. For example, if we cut the tails of male and female mice and interbreed them, the new
generation will have tails. For the next few generations, the tails are again cut, but even after of
generations the mice produced will have tails. Another example is a person who gets less food to eat
and hence has low weight. This will not change the DNA of the germ cells. His next generation may
weigh less due to scarcity of food. But this trait cannot be inherited by the next generation.

29. How do fossils form layer by layer?

During the formation of the rocks, due to some reason (atmospheric or otherwise), animals got buried
in them and fossils were formed.
(l) About 100 million years ago, some invertebrates living on the sea-bed died and got buried in the
sand. Due to accumulation of sand, sandstones were formed under pressure.
(ii) Millions of years later, dinosaurs living in the area, died and their bodies got buried in the mud.
This mud in due course of time got compressed into the rock, forming a layer above the fossilised
invertebrates.
(iii) Millions of years later, another layer of dead bodies of horses got buried, which in due course got
fossilised" These were formed above the previous layers of rocks.
(iv) Much later, erosion of rocks occurred due to alternate hot or cold waves or due to flow of water.
As a result, the fossilised layer of horses got exposed. Further digging into the deeper layers of rocks
led to the exposure of other fossilized organisms.
30. Explain the following:
(i) Geographical isolation (ii) Reproductive isolation (iii) Genetic drift (iv) Inaccuracies during
DNA copying mechanism (v) Natural selection
(i) Due to intervention of some physical barrier like sea, river or mountain, the already partly
separated subgroups get further separated.. The gene flow between the subgroups decreases. This is
known as geographical isolation.
(ii) Due to genetic drift or natural selection, the geographically isolated subgroups of a population
become so different from each other that the members of the two subgroups fail to reprod.uce with
each other. This results in reproductive isolation, causing the formation of a new species.
(iii) A section of a population gets eliminated by chance either due to migration or sudden death of
the members. This causes traits or genes to be eliminated or added in a population, thus exhibiting
genetic drift.
(iv) At the time of gamete formation, DNA makes its own copy. Inaccuracies may occur during
copying mechanism which causes sudden inheritable changes known as mutations.
(v) Natural selection is the process by which the members of a population, with new suitable traits,
are selected to live in-the prevailing environment. These members grow up and reproduce to pass on
the newly acquired characters to the next generation, thus helping in evolution.
31. What do you understand by molecular phylogeny?
At the time of cell division, changes occur in the DNA which may result in the production of different
proteins. This causes variations in the organisms. Such changes accumulate in the successive
generations. If a study is made between the distantly related organisms, it is found that their DNAs
show some similarities. If the DNAs of the two closely related species are studied, there will be lesser
differences in the two DNAs. Evolutionary relationship can be traced back by such studies. We can
trace relationship between different groups of organisms, i.e., plants and animals. It has been found
that the relationship shown by the molecular phylogeny matches the present day classification of
plants and animals.
32. Can evolution be equated, with progress?
(i) A species does not get eliminated to give rise to a new species. While the new species survives, the
old species continues to live in the prevailing environment. The survival of the new and old species
will depend on the environment.
(ii) The newly generated species may not be necessarily better than the old one
(iii) More and more complex body designs are being produced which may be taken as progress but
the older body designs may also be equally efficient. The simple and o1d life forms like bacteria are
able to live in the most inhospitable habitats like hot springs, deep sea thermal vents and ice in the
Antarctica
(iv) Human beings are not the pinnacle of evolution but simply a species during the process of
evolution.
33. How have eyes evolved in different animals? What advantage do they provide to the animal in
which, they are found? Explain with examples.
(i) Evolution of eyes depict evolution by stages' over many generations.
(ii) Eyes being a complicated organ, must have evolved by multiple changes in the DNA and not by a
single change in DNA.
(iii) Rudimentary eyes in Planaria are the first ones to be evolved" These are' eyespots' and can only
perceive light" These rudimentary eyes have advantage for the survival of the organism.
(iv) From the basic design, more and more complex eyes must have evolved in various animals such
as invertebrates like insects, octopus, etc.
(v) The structure of eye is different in different organisms and must have evolved on different
evolutionary lines.

34. How have feathers evolved? Explain.

(i) An evolutionary change occurred in organisms for a particular function may have evolved to
perform another particular vital function in the organisms.
(ii) Feathers of birds got evolved to provide insulation to the body, but later on became useful in
flying.
(iii) Fossil records show that dinosaurs had such feathers but those were not used for flying.
(iv) Feathers in the birds evolved and changed to function, i.e., flying.
(v) This exhibits a close resemblance between birds and dinosaurs. Dinosaurs are reptiles, hence birds
are closely related to reptiles.
35. Will geographical isolation be a major factor in the speciation of an organism that reproduces
asexually? Why or why not?
Geographical isolation prevents gene flow between populations of a species whereas asexual
reproduction generally involves only one individual. In an asexually reproducing organism,
variations can occur only when the copying of DNA is not accurate. Therefore, geographical isolation
cannot prevent the formation of new species in an asexually reproducing organism.
36. Will geographical isolation be a major factor in the speciation of a self-pollinating plant
species? Why or why not?
Geographical isolation can prevent the transfer of pollens among different plants. However, since the
plants are self-pollinating, which means that the pollens are transferred from the anther of one flower
to the stigma of the same flower or of another flower of the same plant, geographical isolation cannot
prevent speciation in this case.
37. Why are human beings who look so different from each other in terms of size, colour and looks
said to belong to the same species?
A species is a group of organisms that are capable of interbreeding to produce a fertile offspring. Skin
colour, looks, and size are all variety of features present in human beings. These features are
generally environmentally controlled. Various human races are formed based on these features.
However, there is no biological basis to this conceptof races. Therefore, all human beings are a single
species as humans of different colour, size, and looks are capable of reproduction and can produce a
fertile offspring.
38. In evolutionary terms, can we say which among bacteria, spiders, fish and chimpanzees have a
‘better’ body design? Why or why not?
Evolution cannot always be equated with progress or better body designs. Evolution simply creates
more complex body designs. However, this does not mean that the simple body designs are
inefficient. In fact, bacteria having a simple body design are still the most cosmopolitan organisms
found on earth. They can survive hot springs, deep sea, and even freezing environment. Therefore,
bacteria, spiders, fish, and chimpanzees are all different branches of evolution.
39. How are the areas of study − evolution and classification − interlinked?
Classification involves grouping of organism into a formal system based on similarities in internal
and external structure or evolutionary history. Two species are more closely related if they have more
characteristics in common. And if two species are more closely related, then it means they have a
more recent ancestor.
For example, in a family, a brother and sister are closely related and they have a recent common
ancestor i.e., their parents. A brother and his cousin are also related but less than the sister and her
brother. This is because the brother and his cousin have a common ancestor i.e., their grandparents in
the second generation whereas the parents were from the first generation. With subsequent
generations, the variations make organisms more different than their ancestors. This discussion
clearly proves that we classify organisms according to their resemblance which is similar to creating
an evolutionary tree
40. What evidence do we have for the origin of life from inanimate matter?
A British scientist, J.B.S. Haldane, suggested that life originated from simple inorganic molecules. He
believed that when the earth was formed, it was a hot gaseous mass containing elements such as
nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, etc. These elements combined to form molecules like water
(H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3), etc. After the formation of water,
slowly the earth surface cooled and the inorganic molecules interacted with one another in water to
form simple organic molecules such as sugars, fatty acids, amino acids, etc. The energy for these
reactions was provided by solar radiations, lightning, volcanic eruptions, etc. This was proved by the
experiment of Stanley L. Miller and Harold C. Urey in 1953. They took a mixture of water (H2O),
methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3), and hydrogen gas (H2) in a chamber and sparks were passed
through this mixture using two electrodes.
After one week, 15% of the carbon from methane was converted into amino acids, sugars, etc. These
organic molecules are polymerized and assembled to form protein molecules that gave rise to life on
earth.
41. Why are the small numbers of surviving tigers a cause of worry from the point of view of
genetics?
A limited number of surviving tigers means that a small gene pool of tiger is left. The chances of
variation are reduced by smaller population. A time may come when lack of useful variation may
result in extinction of tigers.
42. Describe briefly 4 ways in which individuals with a particular trait may increase in a
population.
The four ways are
1. Sexual reproduction results in increase in population.
2. The individuals with special traits survive the attack of their predetors and multiply while the
others will perish.
3. Genetic drift provides diversity without any adaptations.
4. Variation in the species may lead to increased survival of the individual with a particular trait.
43. List three factors that provide evidences in favour of evolution in organisms and state the role
of each in brief.
The three factors are:
1. Homologous organs: Eg Forelimb of human and forelimb of bird. They have same structural
design and origin but different function. They help us understand that the organism has evolved
from a common ancestor. The more common characteristics the two species have, the more closely
related they are.
2. Analogous organs: They have same basic structural design and development origin but have
similar appearance and function. E.g. Wings of bat and bird. They have a common function of flying
but their origins are not common. So birds and bat are not closely related.
3. Fossils: Fossils and their studies are helpful in knowing about the species which is no longer alive.
They provide evidence and missing links between two classes. They are helpful in forming a
sequence of organism in the pathway of evolution. Archeopteryx is a fossil reptile. It had feathers,
fused bones, and beak which are exclusively bird structures. It also had some features which are
found in reptiles. E.g. Teeth in jaw, Claws in free fingers and a long tail. This fossil provides a clue
that birds have evolved from reptiles.
44. What is the process of evolution by natural selection?
Natural selection is the gradual process by which heritable biological traits become either more or
less common in a population as a function of the effect of inherited traits on the differential
reproductive success of organisms interacting with their environment. It is a key mechanism of
evolution.
45. What is the process of natural selection?
Natural selection. The process in nature by which, according to Darwin's theory of evolution, only the
organisms best adapted to their environment tend to survive and transmit their genetic characters in
increasing numbers to succeeding generations while those less adapted tend to be eliminated.
46. How does a fossil give information about changes over time?
Fossils prove that ancient life forms were different from those alive today. They are laid down in
layers of rocks, each layer older than the one above. Since evolution is the gradual change in living
things over time, fossil layers provide a historical record of the different stages in the evolution of life.
47. How can the fossil record be used as evidence for evolution?
Evidence for Evolution. Fossils provide solid evidence that organisms from the past are not the same
as those found today; fossils show a progression of evolution. Fossils, along with the comparative
anatomy of present-day organisms, constitute the morphological, or anatomical, record.
SEX DETERMINATION
Note:
Allopatric speciation (from the ancient Greek allos, meaning "other", and patris, meaning
"fatherland") or geographic speciation is speciation that occurs when biological populations of the
same species become variant, or isolated from each other to an extent that prevents or interferes with
genetic interchange.
Peripatric speciation is a mode of speciation in which a new species is formed from an isolated
peripheral population. Since peripatry resembles allopatric speciation, in that populations are
isolated and prevented from exchanging genes, it can often be difficult to distinguish between them.
Parapatric speciation is extremely rare. It occurs when populations are separated not by a
geographical barrier, such as a body of water, but by an extreme change in habitat. While populations
in these areas may interbreed, they often develop distinct characteristics and lifestyles.
Sympatric speciation is the process through which new species evolve from a single ancestral species
while inhabiting the same geographic region.
A second process called genetic drift describes random fluctuations in allele frequencies in
populations, which can eventually cause a population of organisms to be genetically distinct from its
original population and result in the formation of a new species.
IMPORTANT HOTS QUESTIONS:
1. Explain the mechanism of sex determination in humans.
2. A blue colour flower plant denoted by BB is crossed with a white colour flower plant denoted by
ww.
A) State the color of the flower we would expect in their F1 progeny.
B) Write the percentage of plants bearing white flower in F2 generation when the flowers of F1 plants
were selfed.
C) State the expected ratio of the genotype BB and Bw in the F2 progeny.
3. Explain with the help of suitable examples why certain traits cannot be passed on to the next
generation. What are such traits called?
4. What is meant by the term speciation? List four factors which could lead to speciation.
5. A blue colour flower plant denoted by BB is crossbred with that of white colour flower plant
denoted by bb.
(a) State the colour of flower you would expect in theirF1 generation plants.
(b) What must be the percentage of white flower plants inF2 generation if flowers ofF1 plants are self-
pollinated?
(c) State the expected ratio of the genotypes BB and Bb in the F2 progeny.
6. If we cross pure-bred tall (dominant) pea plant with pure bred dwarf (recessive) pea plant we will
get pea plants of F1 generation. If we now self-cross the pea plant ofF1 generation, then we obtain pea
plants of F2 generation.
(a) What do the plants of F1 generation look like?
(b) State the ratio of tall plants to dwarf plants in F1 generation.
(c) State the type of plants not found in F1 generation but appeared in F2 generation, mentioning the
reason for the same
7. With the help of a flow chart explain in brief how the sex of a newborn is genetically determined in
human beings. Which of the two parents, the mother or the father, is responsible for determination of
sex of a child
8. Distinguish between homologous organs and analogous organs. In which category would you
place wings of a bird and wings of a bat? Justify your answer giving a suitable reason.
9. State and describe in brief any three main factors responsible for the rise of a new species.
10 Define the term 'evolution'. "Evolution cannot be equated with progress". Justify this statement.
11. How are fossils formed? Describe. in brief two methods of determining the age of fossils.
12. State the meaning of inherited traits and acquired traits. Which of the two is not passed on to the
next generation? Explain with the help of an example.
13. "An individual cannot pass on to its progeny the experiences of its life-time." Justify the statement
with the help of an example and also give reason for the same.
14. i) We see eyes in planaria, insects, octopus and vertebrates. Can eyes be grouped together in case
of the above mentioned animals to establish a common evolutionary origin? Why?
(ii) State one evidence to prove that birds have evolved from reptiles.
15. List three roles of fossils in tracing evolutionary relationships.
16. Describe any three ways in which individuals with a particular trait may increase in population.
17. What are fossils? What do they tell us about the process of evolution?
18. " Give an example of body characteristics used to determine how close two species are in terms of
evolution and explain it.
19. What are homologous organs? Can the wing of a butterfly and the wing of a bat be regarded as
homologous? Why?
20. Explain how evolutionary relationships can be traced by the study of homologous organs.
21. Name two homologous structures in vertebrates. Why are they so called? How do such organs
help in understanding an evolutionary relationship?
22. With the help of suitable examples explain natural selection.
23. A group of grasshoppers - some green and some brown lived in a grassland having dry bushes
and dry grass.
(a) Which one would normally be picked up by predator, birds and why?
(b) Population of which grasshopper will increase?
(c) Name this phenomenon.
24. Distinguish between acquired and inherited traits by giving one example of each. Why are traits
acquired during the lifetime of an individual not inherited?
25. The human beings who look so different from each other in terms of colour, size and looks are
said to belong to the same species. Why? Justify your answer.
26. Explain analogous organs and homologous organs. Identify the analogous and homologous
organs amongst the following: Wings of an insect, wings of a bat, forelimbs of frog, and forelimbs of a
human.
27. Define 'evolution'. Describe Darwin's theory of evolution.
28. What is the significance of homologous and analogous organs in the process of evolution? 29.
'Nonliving material must have given rise to life'. Describe with an example.
30. Why do mice whose tails were surgically removed just after birth for generations , continue to
produce mice with tails.

VALUE BASED QUESTIONS:

1. Satyam is a ten-year old boy in perfect health. However a recent genetic test has revealed that he
has a gene which makes him vulnerable to a heart disease. He does not take regular medicine to
protect himself from the heart disease. The insurance company who has been doing Satyam's medical
insurance for last nine years has now denied renewing his health insurance. The insurance company
argues that since the gene is present from birth which is pre-existing medical condition, Satyam's
insurance cannot be renewed.
(a) Is it correct for the insurance company to deny medical insurance to Satyam? Support your
answer with proper reasons.
(b) Should genetic tests be banned?
(c) What steps can the government take to stop such situations in future?
2. Rahul's father got Rahul admitted in Class V of a city school. Rahul was very excited to attend his
new school. However, after attending the school for two days, Rahul refused to go to the school from
the third day. When his mother forced him to go to school, he only cried. Later on, Rahul told his
mother that few students of his class tease him as 'black' one to his skin colour. You also study in the
same school and you do not want Rahul to leave the school.
(a) Is it ethical to call someone based on his skin colour? (b) What will you do to make Rahul
comfortable in the class? (c) What should the school do to avoid such incidents in future?
3. Mrs. Kumar is pregnant for last three months and she goes for regular check-up to her doctor.
During her last visit, the doctor asked Mrs. Kumar to get an ultra sound done. Both Mr. and Mrs.
Kumar went to a radiologist and got the ultrasound done. Once the ultrasound is over, Mr.Kumar
asked the doctor whether the baby in the womb is a boy or a girl.
(a) What should the doctor reply to the couple? (b) Is it ethical to determine the sex of a child?
(c) What should government do to discourage sex determination?
4. Darwin's theory of 'Survival of the fittest' states that only the fittest will survive.
(a) How will you relate the Darwin's theory to your day-to-day life?
(b) How will you make yourself fit for a particular work?
5. While playing near a sugarcane field, Mohan noticed that the plants are almost similar to one
another. At the same time, he noticed the mango trees in the next plot of land which are not similar to
one another. Mohan's brother told Mohan that sugarcane reproduces asexually, hence there is little
variation, Mango reproduces sexually, and hence there is larger variation.
(a) Why sugarcane cannot reproduce sexually?
(b) Can mango reproduce asexually? (c) If a person wants to have a flower garden, what type of
plants should he grow?

REPRODUCTION AND HEREDITY

1. Budding is observed in
(a) Hydra and yeast (b)Hydra and paramecium (c)Plasmodium and hydra (d)Rhizopus and
amoeba
2. Binary fission does not takes place in
(a) Amoeba (b)Euglena (c)Paramecium (d)Hydra
3. Amoeba reproduces by
a) Binary fission (b)Sporulation (c)Regeneration (d)All of these methods
4. Sexual reproduction is completely lacking in
(a) Amoeba (b)Yeast (c)Hydra (d)Rhizopus
5. In budding
(a) Cell divides transversely (b)Cell divides longitudinally
(b) A small protuberance develops followed by nuclear division
 (c) Nucleus divides followed by development of protuberance
6. In amoeba, a sexual reproduction by multiple fission
(a) never takes place (b)sometimes takes place
(c)takes place when amoeba wishes
(b) takes place during unfavourable environmental conditions.
7. Which one of the following is depicted in the sketch of a slide shown below.
(a) Binary fission in yeast (b)Budding in yeast
c)Binary fission in amoeba (d)Budding in amoeba
8. Identify the mistake in the following sketch of budding in yeast.
(a) Bud is shown to be smaller than parent cell
(b) Nuclei are present in both bud and parental cell
(c) Both parent and bud are shown as single cells.
(d) Bud is wrongly labeled.
9. Following diagrams were drawn by four different students on having seen a prepared slide of
budding in yeast.

The correct diagram is

(a) I (b)II (c)I and III (d)II and IV
10. Which one of the following diagrams most appropriately illustrates binary fission in amoeba?
(a) I (b) II (c) III (d)IV

11. A slide showing several Amoeba was given to a student and was asked to focus the amoeba
undergoing binary fission. What will the student look for to correctly focus on a dividing
Amoeba?
(a) An amoeba with many pseudopodia and a small nucleus
(b) A rounded amoeba with rounded nucleus
(c) An amoeba covered by a cyst and many nuclei
(d) An amoeba with elongated nucleus and a construction in the middle.
12. Which one out of the following diagrams correctly depicts an amoeba undergoing binary
fission?

(a) I (b)II (c)III (iv)IV

13. The budding in yeast is illustrated by the diagram.
 (a) A (b)B (c)C (d)D
14. A student is given a permanent slide showing binary fission in amoeba. The following are the
steps focusing the object under the microscope.
(i) Place the slide on the stage; look through the eyepiece and adjust the mirror and
diaphragm to get even illumination
(ii) Look through the eyepiece and raise the objective using coarse adjustment until the object
is focused.
(iii) Make the focus sharp with the help of fine adjustment.
(iv) Look through the eyepiece and move the slide until the object is visible.
(a) (i), (iii), (iv), (ii) (b)(ii), (iii), (iv), (i) (c)(iv), (iii), (ii), (i) (d)(i), (iv), (ii), (iii)
15. The following figures illustrate binary fission in amoeba in an incorrect sequence.

The correct sequence is

(a) (I), (III), (IV),(II) (b)(II),(III),(IV), (I) (c)(IV), (III),(II), (I) (d)(III),(IV),(II),(I)
16. The following are the sketches made by some students.

The sketch not illustrative of budding in yeast is

(a) A
(b) B
(c) C
(d) D
17. The process represented in the diagram below is the

(a) Formation of spores in Amoeba

(b) Formation of bud taking place in Amoeba
(c) Identical gametes being formed in Amoeba
 (d) Formation of daughter cells In Amoeba
18. The figure given below illustrates the step leading to

(a) Binary fission in Amoeba (b)Longitudinal binary fission in paramoecium.

c)Transverse binary fission in euglena (d)Transverse binary fission in paramecium
19. Two of the following four figures that illustrates budding are

(a) I and II
(b) I and III
(c) I and IV
(d) II and IV
20. Given below are some structural organs of animals

Which structures are analogous?

a) 1 and III
b) I and II
c) II and IV
d) III and IV
21. Given below are some plant structures.

Which structures are homologous?

a) I and IV (b) I and II (c)III and IV (d) I and II
22. Homologous and analogy are helpful in studying and interpreting
 a) Commercial uses of structures (b)Structure relationship (c)Functional relationship
d)Evolutionary relationship
23. Homology refers to similarity in
a) Morphology (b)Size (c)Function (d) Colour
24. Analogy refers to similarity in
a) Morphology (b)Origin (c)Function (d)Size
25. Which of the plants do not have dicot seeds?
a) Beans
b) Pea
c) Cucurbita
d) Rice
26. Which part of the embryo develops into shoot?
a) Plumule
b) Radicle
c) Cotyledon
d) Seed leaves
27. Four students were asked to label the embryo of a dicot seed. Their labellings were as follows:
Which student labeled the seed correctly?

a) I
b) II
c) III
d) IV
28. The organs which have different basic structure but perform similar function are called:
a) Homologous organs
b) Analogous organs
c) Vestigial organs
d) None of the above
29. The organs which have same basic structure but perform different functions are called
a) Homologous organs
b) Analogous organs
c) Vestigial organs
d) None of the above
30. The wings of insect and the wings of bird are known as:
a) Homologous organs
b) Analogous organs
c) Vestigial organs
d) None of the above
 CHAPTER 10: LIGHT – REFLECTION AND REFRACTION
Light: “Light is a form of energy which produces the sensation of sight”.
Optics: Optics is a branch of physics which deals with light and its properties.
Reflection of light: The process of returning the light to the same medium after striking a surface is
called reflection of light.
Laws of reflection:
1. The angle of incidence and the angle of reflection are equal.
2. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the surface at the point of incidence are in
the same plane.
Note: These laws of reflection are applicable for both plane and spherical mirror surfaces.
Image:
Image is an optical appearance produced when light rays coming from an object are reflected from a
mirror (or refracted through a lens).
Images are of two types: Real and Virtual images.
Differences between real and virtual images:
Real image Virtual image
1. When rays of light after reflection meet 1. When rays of light after reflection do not
at a point, real image is formed. meet at a point but appears to meet at a
point, virtual image is formed.
2. Real image is always inverted. 2. Virtual image is always erect.
3. Real image is formed in front of a mirror. 3. Virtual image is formed behind the mirror.
4. Real image can be obtained on a screen. 4. Virtual image cannot be obtained on a
screen.
Properties of the image formed by a plane mirror:
1. A plane mirror forms a virtual and erect image.
2. The image is formed as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.
3. The size of the image formed by a plane mirror is equal to that of the object.
4. The image is laterally inverted.
Note:
The ratio of the height of image to the height of object is known as linear magnification (m).
h1
m=
h
h1
The magnification produced by a plane mirror is +1. m = = 1 or h1 = h .
h
Linear magnification has no units.
Spherical or curved mirrors:
A mirror whose reflecting surface is curved or spherical is called a spherical mirror.
Types of spherical mirrors:
i) Concave mirror: Concave mirror is the part of a hollow sphere whose outer surface is silvered and
the inner surface acts as reflecting surface. Concave mirror converges a parallel beam of light falling
on it, so concave mirror is also known as convergent mirror.
ii) Convex mirror: Convex mirror is the part of a hollow sphere whose inner surface is silvered and
the outer surface acts as reflecting surface. Convex mirror diverges a parallel beam of light falling on
it, so convex mirror is also known as divergent mirror.

Key Terms:
1. Pole (P) . The centre of the reflecting surface of a spherical mirror is called the pole. It is
represented by ‘P’.
2. Centre of curvature (C) and Radius of Curvature (R): The centre of the sphere of which the
spherical mirror is a part is called the centre of curvature. The radius of this sphere is called the
radius of curvature.
3. Principal axis: The line joining the pole and the centre of curvature is called the principal axis of
the mirror.
4. Principal Focus (F): A point on the principal axis of a spherical mirror where the rays of light
parallel to the principal axis meet or appear to meet after reflection from the spherical mirror is called
principal focus.
5. Focal length (f): The distance of the focus from the pole is called the focal length of the spherical
mirror.
6. Normal: The line joining centre of curvature and the point of incidence is treated as normal in
spherical mirror.
Sign conventions for reflection by spherical mirrors:
1. The object is always placed to the left of the mirror. This implies that the light from the object falls
on the mirror from the left hand side.
2. All distances parallel to the principal axis are measured from the pole of the mirror.
3. Distance measured in the direction of incident rays are taken as positive, while distances
measured in a direction opposite to the direction of the incident light are taken as negative.
4. The upward distances perpendicular to the principal axis are taken as positive, while the down
ward distances perpendicular to the principal axis are taken as negative.

Image formation by a concave mirror:

Position of the Position of the

Size of the image Nature of the image
object image
At infinity At F Highly diminished, point sized Real and inverted
Beyond C Between F and C Diminished Real and inverted
At C At C Same size Real and inverted
Between C and F Beyond C Enlarged Real and inverted
At F At infinity Highly enlarged Real and inverted
Between P and F Behind the mirror Enlarged Virtual and erect
Uses of concave mirrors:
1. Concave mirrors are used as reflectors in torches, vehicle head – lights and search lights to get
powerful beams of light.
2. Concave mirrors are used as shaving mirrors to see a large image of the face.
3. Concave mirrors are used by dentists to see the large images of the teeth of patients.
4. Large concave mirrors are used in the field of solar energy to focus sun’s rays for heating solar
furnaces.
5. Concave mirrors are also used by doctors to focus light on certain parts of the body such as the
inside of the ear, inside the mouth, etc.

Images formation by a convex mirror:

Position of the object Position of the image Size of the image Nature of the image
At infinity At the focus, behind the Highly diminished, Virtual and erect
mirror point sized
Between infinity and the Between P and F, behind Diminished Virtual and erect
pole of the mirror the mirror

Uses of convex mirrors:

1. Rear – view mirrors of automobiles are convex mirrors. They enable the driver to see
through a wider vision field without turning around.
2. Convex mirror is used in street lights to diverge light over a large area.
3. Convex mirrors are used in big shopping stores to watch the activities of the customers.
4. At hairpin bends on hilly roads convex mirrors are installed for motorists to see the traffic on the
other side of the bend.

Mirror formula:
The relation between object distance (u), image distance (v) and focal length (f) of a spherical mirror
is known as mirror formula. It is given by, 1 1 1
= +
f v u
h1 -v
Linear magnification produced by a spherical mirror: m= =
h u
If ‘m’ is positive, then the image is virtual and erect.
If ‘m’ is negative, then the image is real and inverted.
If m = 1, then the size of image is equal to the size of object.
If m < 1, then the image is diminished.
If m > 1, then the image is enlarged.

How to distinguish between a plane mirror a concave mirror and a convex mirror without touching
them:
When we bring our face close to each mirror;
i) A plane mirror will produce an image of the same size.
ii) A concave mirror will produce a magnified image.
iii) A convex mirror will produce a diminished image.
Refraction of light:
The phenomenon of bending of light at the surface separating two media is known as refraction of
light.
In the refraction of light, the angle of refraction is usually not equal to the angle of incidence.
The refraction of light is due to the change in the speed of light on going from one medium to
another.
When a ray of light goes from a rarer medium to a denser medium, it bends towards the
normal.
When a ray of light goes from a denser medium to a rarer medium, it bends away from the
normal.
Some phenomena due to the refraction of light:
1. A stick held obliquely and partly immersed in water appears to be bent at the water surface.
2. A coin at the bottom of a bucket filled with water appears to be raised.
3. A pool of water appears to be less deep than it actually is.
4. When a thick glass slap is placed over some printed matter, the letters appear raised when
viewed from the top.
5. An egg or lemon placed in a glass filled with water appears to be bigger than its actual size when
seen from the sides of the glass.
Laws of refraction:
1. The incident ray the refracted ray and the normal to the surface separating the two media all
lie in the same plane.
2. The ratio of sine of angle of incidence (i) to the sine of angle of refraction (r) is a constant, for
the light of a given colour and for the given pair of media. This law is also known as Snell’s law of
refraction.
Sin i
= constant
Sin r
This constant is known as the refractive index of the medium.

Refractive index:
The amount of change in the speed of light in a medium depends upon the property of the medium.
This property is known as refractive index of the medium.
Absolute Refractive index (n):
 Absolute Refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum or
C
air (c) to the speed of light in the medium (v). n=
v
where C = 3 X 108 m/s.
 It is a pure number. It has no unit.

Relative Refractive Index:

Relative refractive index of medium 2 with respect to medium 1 is defined as the ratio of absolute
refractive index of medium 2 to the absolute refractive index of medium 1.
n
n2 1 = 2 � ( 1)
n1
 v1
n2 1 = � ( 2)
v2
Sin i
Also n2 1 = � ( 3)
Sin r
n2 Sin i
From (1), (3); n1
=
Sin r

 n1Sin i = n2 Sin r � ( 3)
1
Note: 1.) n21 = n
12

2.) Absolute refractive index of a medium is always greater than 1; because c > v.
However, relative refractive index of a medium may be less than 1.
Factors on which the refractive index of a medium depends:
i) Nature of the material of the medium
ii) Density of the medium
iii) Colour or wave length of the light.
Refraction through a glass slab:
On passing through a transparent slab with parallel faces, a ray is displaced parallel to itself.
The perpendicular distance between the original path of incident ray and the emergent ray coming
out of a glass slab is called lateral shift or lateral displacement of the emergent ray of light.
It depends on i) thickness of glass slab ii) incident angle ,iii) refractive index of glass slab,
iv) wavelength of incident light
In refraction through a glass slab, i > r and i = e

Refraction by spherical lenses:

Lens is a transparent medium bounded by two refracting surfaces out of these two refracting
surfaces, at least one is spherical. Thus, a lens may have two spherical surfaces or one spherical
and other plane.
Lenses are of two types.
i) convex lens or converging lens
ii) concave lens or diverging lens.
A lens that is thicker at the middle than at the edges is called a convex lens, while a lens is
thicker at the edges is called a concave lens.

Key Terminologies:
1. Optical Centre (O): The centre point of a lens is known as its optical centre.
2.Principal axis: A line joining the centre of curvatures of two spherical surfaces forming a lens is
called principal axis.
3. Principal Focus (F): A point on the principal axis of a lens where all rays of light parallel to the
principal axis meet or appear to meet after passing through the lens is called principal focus of the
lens.
Focal length (f): The distance between the principal focus (F) and optical centre (O) of a lens is
known as focal length of the lens.
Note:
i) A lens has two foci. The two foci of a lens are at equal distances from the optical centre, one on
either side of the lens (F1 & F2).
ii) A convex lens has real focus.
iii) A concave lens has a virtual focus.
iv) First and second focal lengths are equal. That is , f1 = f 2
Sign conventions for refraction:
For lenses, we follow sign conventions, similar to the one used for spherical mirrors. We apply the
rules for signs of distances, except that all measurements are taken from the optical centre of the lens.
According to the convention, the focal length of a convex lens is positive and that of a concave lens is
negative.

Rules for ray diagrams of lenses:

1. A ray of light from the object, parallel to the principal axis, after refraction from a convex lens,
passes through the focus on the other side of the lens. In case of a concave lens, the ray appears to
diverge from the focus located on the same side of the lens.
2. A ray of light passing through a principal focus, after refraction from a convex lens will emerge
parallel to the principal axis. A ray of light appearing to meet at the principal focus of a concave lens,
after refraction, will emerge parallel to the principal axis.
3. A ray of light passing through the optical centre of a lens will emerge without any deviation.

Image formation due to convex lens:

Position of the object Position of the image Relative size of the image Nature of the image
Highly diminished, point
At infinity At focus F2 Real and inverted
sized
Beyond 2 F1 Between F2 and 2 F2 Diminished Real and inverted
At 2 F1 At 2 F2 Same size Real and inverted
Between F1 and 2 F1 Beyond 2 F2 Enlarged Real and inverted
Infinitely large or highly
At focus F1 At infinity Real and inverted
enlarged
Between focus F1 and On the same side of
Enlarged Virtual and erect
optical centre O. the lens as the object

Image formation due to concave lens:

Relative size of the
Position of the object Position of the image Nature of the image
image
At infinity At focus F1 Highly diminished, Virtual and erect
point-sized
Between infinity and Between focus F1 and Diminished Virtual and erect
optical centre O of the optical centre O
lens
Applications of lenses: Lenses are used in cameras, telescopes, cinema projectors, search lights,
microscopes and corrective lenses for defects of human eye.
Lens formula: The relation between object distance (u), image distance (v) and focal length (f) of a
1 1 1
lens is called lens formula. It is given by, f
= -
v u
Magnification produced by a lens:
h1 v
Magnification: m=
h
=
u
Note:
1. ‘m’ is positive, when the image produced by a lens is virtual.
2. Magnification produced by a concave lens is always positive as it always forms a virtual image.
3. Magnification produced by a convex lens is positive when it forms a virtual image but
magnification produced by a convex lens is negative when it forms a real image
Power of a lens (P):
Power of a lens is the ability of the lens to converge or diverge the rays of light falling on it.
Power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of the focal length of the lens (expressed in metres).
1
P=
f
100
When ‘ f ’ is expressed in centimetres; P = f .
Unit of power of a lens is dioptre (D). Power of a lens is 1 dioptre if its focal length is 1 metre.
Power of convex lens is positive because its focal length is positive. Power of concave lens is
negative because its focal length is negative.

Focal length and power of a combination of two lenses in contact:

When two lenses of focal lengths f1 and f 2 are in contact, the combination behaves as a single lens of
1 1 1
focal length F. This equivalent focal length is given by, F = f + f
1 2

The power of the combination of two lenses is given by P = P1 + P2

1 P= 1 1
Where, P = , 1 f and P2 = f
F 1 2

For number of lenses; P = P1 + P2 + P3 + .........

How to distinguish between a convex lens and a concave lens without touching them:
We keep the lens close to the page of a book and see the image of the writing of the book through it. If
the letters of the book appear enlarged, then it is a convex lens; and if the letters appear diminished,
then it is a concave lens.

Worksheet 1
1. Calculate the focal length of a concave mirror whose radius of curvature is 32 cm.
2. An object of 5 cm in size is placed at a distance of 20 cm from a concave mirror of focal length
15 cm. At what distance from the mirror, should a screen be placed to get the sharp image? Also
calculate size of the image.
3. A convex mirror used in a bus has radius of curvature 3.5 m. If the driver of the bus locates a car
at 10 m behind the bus, find the position, nature and size of the image of the car.
4. The radius of curvature of a convex mirror used on a moving auto mobile is 2m. A truck is
coming behind it at a distance of 3.5 m. Calculate the position, the size of the image relative
to the size of the truck and what will be the nature of the image?
5. A concave mirror produces three times enlarged image of an object placed at 10 cm in front
of it. Calculate the radius of curvature of the mirror.
6. Where should an object be placed in front of a concave mirror of focal length 20 cm so as to obtain
real image two times magnified?
7. An object 5 cm tall was placed in front of a spherical mirror at 20 cm distance from the
mirror. If a virtual image of 10 cm tall was formed behind the mirror, find the focal length of
the mirror and the position of the image. Name the type of mirror used.
8. The speed of light in air is 3 X 108 m/s and the speed of light in water is 2.26 X 108 m/s. Find the
refractive index of water.
9. Find the refractive index of a material if angle of incidence of ray of light is 45 0 and angle of
refraction in the material is 300.
10. A 4 cm tall object is placed perpendicular to the principal axis of a convex lens of focal length
20 cm. If the distance of the object is 30 cm from the lens, find the position, nature and size of
the image. Also find the magnification.
11. The image of an object formed by a convex lens is of the same size as that of the object. If the
image is formed at a distance of 50 cm from the lens, at what distance from the lens is the object
placed? Find the focal length and the power of the lens used.
12. What is the power of a convex lens of focal length 40 cm?
13. A concave lens has focal length of 20 cm. At what distance from the lens, a 5 cm tall object be
placed so that it formed an image at 15 cm from the lens? Also calculate the size of the image
formed.
14. A needle placed 45 cm from a lens forms an image on a screen placed 90 cm on the other side of
the lens. Identify the type of lens. Determine its focal length and the power. What is the size of
the image if needle is 5 cm in height?
15. A convex lens forms a real image 4 times magnified at a distance of 60 cm from the lens.
Calculate the focal length and the power of the lens.
Work sheet 2
1. A rear view mirror used in a bus has a radius of curvature 3.5 m. If the driver of the bus
locates a car at 10.0 m behind the bus, find the position, nature and size of the image of the car.
2. What is the focal length of a plane mirror?
3. An object 4 cm high is placed at a distance of 6 cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length
12 cm. Find the position, nature and size of the image formed.
4. How far an object should be placed from the pole of a concave mirror of focal length 20 cm to
1
form a real image whose size is the size of the object.
5
5. What is diffused reflection?
6. State the laws of reflection .
7. State the laws of refraction.
8. Why a convex mirror is used as the rear view mirror of a vehicle and not a plane mirror?
9. Define power of a lens. What is its unit? Define it.
10. A concave mirror is kept in water. Will there be any change in its focal length as compared to that
in air?
11. What kind of a wave is light?
12. Define refractive index of a medium.
13. What is the minimum value of refractive index possible?
14. Light enters from air into glass plate which has a refractive index of 1.5. Calculate the speed
of light in glass.
15. A convex lens has a focal length of 40 cm. Calculate its power.
16. List the physical quantities which remain constant when light travels from one medium to
another.
17. An object 50 cm tall is placed on the principal axis of a convex lens. Its 20 cm tall image is
formed on the screen placed at a distance of 10 cm from the lens. Calculate the focal length of the
lens.
18. A concave lens has focal length 20 cm. At what distance from the lens a 5 cm tall object be placed
so that it forms an image at 15 cm from the lens? Also calculate the size of the image formed.
19. An object 2.0 cm in size is placed 20.0 cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length 10.0 cm.
Find the distance from the mirror at which a screen should be placed in order to obtain a sharp
image. What will be the size and nature of the image formed?
20. A convex lens has a focal length of 30 cm. Calculate at what distance should the object be placed
from the lens so that it forms an image at 60 cm on the other side of the lens. Find the
magnification produced by the lens in this case.
21. The radius of curvature of a convex mirror used on a moving automobile is 2.0 m. A truck is
coming behind it at a constant distance of 3.5 m. Calculate (i) the position and (ii) the size of
the image relative to the size of the truck. What will be the nature of the image?
22. Find the position of an object which when placed in front of a concave mirror of focal length 20 cm
produces a virtual image, which is twice the size of the object.
23. A doctor has prescribed a corrective lens of power + 1.2 D. Find the focal length of the lens to be
used. Is the lens converging or diverging? What would be the defect of the eye?
24. A small candle 2.5 cm in size is placed 27 cm in front of a concave mirror of radius of
curvature 0.36 m. At what distance from the mirror should a screen be placed in order to
receive a sharp image? Describe the nature and size of the image. If the candle is moved closer
to the mirror, how would the screen have to be moved to obtain sharp image?
25. A concave mirror of focal length 20 cm forms a real, inverted image of same size as that of the
object. Where is the object placed with respect to the mirror? Draw a diagram to show the image
formation?
CHAPTER 11: THE HUMAN EYE AND THE COLOURFUL WORLD

The Human Eye:

The human eye is the most important organ of human body and is the natural optical instrument.
The important parts of the eye and their functions:
i) Cornea: The transparent spherical membrane covering
the front of the eye. The light coming from
the objects enters the eye through cornea.
ii) Iris: The coloured diaphragm between the cornea and eye
lens is called Iris. It has muscles and coloured pigments.
It adds colour to the eye ball.
iii) Pupil: The small hole in the iris is called pupil. Pupil controls and
regulates the light entering the eye. The size of the pupil is controlled by iris.
iv) Eye lens: The eye lens is a convex lens made of a transparent, soft and flexible material like a jelly
made of proteins.
v) Ciliary muscles: The eye lens is held in position by ciliary muscles. The focal length of eye lens
can be changed by changing its shape by the action of ciliary muscles.
vi) Retina: The screen on which the image is formed in the eye is called retina. The retina is behind
the eye-lens and at the back part of the eye. The retina of an eye is just like the film in a camera.

The retina is a delicate membrane having a large number of light sensitive cells called ‘rods’ and
‘cones’ which respond to the ‘intensity of light’ and ‘colour of objects’ respectively, by generating
electrical signals.
vii)Blind spot: The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye is blind spot. An image formed at
this point is not sent to the brain.
viii)Aqueous humour: A clear liquid region between the cornea and the lens is called aqueous
humour. It protects eye from the internal injuries.
ix) Vitreous humour: The space between eye lens and retina is filled with a liquid called vitreous
humour.
x) Optic nerve: Optic nerve is formed by the nerve fibres coming from the retina. It carries nerve or
electrical impulses or signals to the brain. The brain finally interprets the signal.
Working of human eye: The light coming from an object enters the eye through cornea and pupil.
The eye lens converges these light rays to form a real, inverted and diminished image on the retina.
The light sensitive cells of the retina gets activated with the incidence of light and generate electric
signals. These electric signals are sent to the brain by the optic nerve and the brain interprets the
electrical signals in such a way that we see an image which is erect and of the same size as the object.
Accommodation of the eye: The ability of an eye to focus the distant objects as well as the nearby
objects on the retina by changing the focal length of its lens is called accommodation.
Power of Accommodation: A normal eye has a power of accommodation which enables objects as far
as infinity and as close as 25 cm to be focused on the retina. It can be defined as the maximum
variation in the power of the eye lens. For a normal eye, the power of accommodation is about 4
dioptre.
Near point: The nearest point up to which the eye can see an object clearly without any strain, is
called the ‘near point’ of the eye. The near point of a normal human eye is at a distance of 25
centimetres from the eye. This distance is called the least distance of distinct vision.
Far point: The farthest point from the eye at which an object can be seen clearly is known as the ‘far
point’ of the eye. The far point of a normal human eye is at infinity.
Range of vision: The distance between the near point and far point of an eye is known as range of
vision. For a normal eye, the range of vision is 25 cm to infinity.
Persistence of vision: The image of an object seen persists on the retina for 1/16 second even after the
removal of the object. This continuance of sensation of eye for some timed is called persistence of
vision.
Colour Blindness: It is said to occur when a person cannot distinguish between different colours.
How does an eye focus objects at varying distances: To focus on distant objects the ciliary muscles
relax making the eye lens thin. As a result the focal length of the eye lens increases and we see the
distant objects.
But to focus on nearby objects the ciliary muscles contract making the eye lens thick. As a result the
focal length of the eye lens decreases and we see the nearby objects.
Note: Focal length of an eye lens cannot be decreased below a certain limit.
Defects of vision and their correction:
1. Myopia (short-sightedness or near sightedness):
Mypia is that defect of vision due to which a person cannot see the distant objects clearly (Though
he can see the nearby objects clearly). The far point of an eye suffering from myopia is less than
infinity.
Causes of Myopia:
i) excessive curvature of the eye lens (or) ii) elongation of the eye ball(short focal length of eye
lens).
Correction of Mypia:

To correct a myopic eye, the person has to wear spectacle with a concave lens of suitable focal length.
To correct myopia, a parallel beam is made divergent before it enters the eye, by putting a concave
lens infront of the eye. The focal length of the concave lens is so chosen that divergent rays entering
the eye focus on the retina, and they appear to come from the far point of the myopic eye. That
means, the focal length of concave lens used should be equal to the distance of the far point of the
myopic eye. The whole purpose of using a concave lens here is to reduce the converging power of the
eye-lens.
2. Hyper metropia (Long – sightedness (or) Far-sightedness):
Hypermetropia is that defect of vision due to which a person cannot see the nearby objects clearly
(though he can see the distant objects clearly). The near point of a hyper metropic eye is more than 25
centimetres away.
Causes of hyper metropia:
i) The focal length of eye lens is too long (or) ii) The eye ball has become too small.
Correction of hypermetropia: To correct a hypermetropic eye, the person has to wear spectacle with
a convex lens of suitable focal length. The convex lens of spectacles reduces the divergence of rays of
light entering the eye. Hence this lens makes the rays of light appear to come from the near point of
the defective eye. The whole purpose of using a convex lens here is to increase the converging power

of the eye-lens.

3. Presbyopia:
 In old age, the ciliary muscles become weak and not able to contract enough to decrease the
focal length adequately. In this case also, objects at the normal near point are not focused on
the retina. When far-sightedness occurs due to this reason, it is called presbyopia.
 Presbyopia defect is corrected in the same way as hypermetropia by using spectacles having
convex lenses.
 It is also possible that the same person has both the defects of vision-myopia as well as
hypermetropia. A person suffering from myopia as well as hypermetropia uses spectacles
having bifocal lenses in which upper part consists of a concave lens ( to correct myopia) used
for distant vision and the lower part consists of a convex lens (to correct hypermetropia) used
for reading purposes.
4. Cataract:
 Cataract is caused due to the formation of an opaque membrane over the eye lens.
 This problem arises in old age.
 This membrane reduces the intensity of light falling on the eye lens.
 As opaque membrane’s thickness increases, no light falls on the eye lens and hence eye cannot
see anything.
 Normal vision can be restored only after the affected eye lens is removed by surgery and an
artificial lens is planted in that place.
5. A stigmatism
 The defect by which the person is notable to differentiate horizontal and vertical position, is called
astigmatism. It can be rectified by using cylindrical lenses.
Note: Reasons for having two eyes are,
i) It gives a wider field of view. A human being has a horizontal field of view of about 150 0
with one eye and of about 1800 with two eyes.
ii) Having two eyes enables us to judge distances more accurately.
Refraction of light through a prism:
 Prism is a homogeneous transparent refracting medium bounded by at least two non-
parallel surfaces inclined at some angle.
 The angle between two non-parallel refracting surfaces is called angle of prism (A).
 In refraction through a glass slab, the emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray but in
refraction through a glass prism, the emergent ray is not parallel to the incident ray.
 This is because, the opposite faces of the glass prism (where refraction takes place) are not
parallel to one another.
 When a ray of light passes through a prism, it bends towards the base of the prism.
 The angle between incident ray and emergent ray is called angle of deviation.
Dispersion of light by a prism:
 The phenomenon of splitting of light into its component colours is called dispersion.
 The band of seven colours (VIBGYOR) formed on a white screen, when a beam of white light
is passed through a glass prism, is called spectrum of white light.
 All colours of white light move with same speed in air.
 All colours of white light move with different speed in glass prism.
 The dispersion of white light occurs because the angle of refraction of light of different
colours is different when passing through the glass prism.
 The red colour is deviated least, violet colour is deviated the maximum.

Newton’s experiment on re-combination of

spectrum colours to give white light:

Newton was the first to use a glass prism to obtain the spectrum of sun light. He tried to split the
colours of the spectrum of white light further by using another similar prism. However, he could not
get any more colours. He then placed a second identical prism in an inverted position with respect to
the first prism. This allowed all the colours of the spectrum to pass through the second prism. He
found a beam of white light emerging from the other side of the second prism. This observation gave
Newton the idea that the sunlight is made up of seven colours. Any light that gives a spectrum
similar to that of sunlight is often referred to as white light.
Dispersion of light in Nature:
Rainbow:

When sunlight falls on a water drop refracted. The refracted sunlight dispersed into its constituent
colours. Thus, water drop suspended in air behaves as a glass prism. Now, each colour suffers
internal reflection (when light travels from denser to rarer medium incident on the interface
separating two media at an angle larger than a particular angle called critical angle, which is a
constant for a given pair of media; will be totally reflected back into the denser medium). The
reflected colours on reaching the lower surface of water drop are refracted again into the air. Thus,
we get a spectrum of seven colours, which is known as a rainbow.
Note: Rainbow is due to refraction, dispersion and internal reflection of light. Rainbow is observed
during a rainfall or after the rain fall or when we look at a water fountain provided the sun is at the
back of the observer.
Atmospheric Refraction: In the same atmosphere we have air layers having different optical densities
due to the difference in their temperature. The refraction of light caused by the earth’s atmosphere is
called atmosphere refraction.
Some optical phenomena in nature which occur due to the atmospheric refraction:
1. Twinkling of stars: The continuously changing atmosphere refracts the light from the stars by
different amounts from one moment to the next when the atmosphere refracts more star light
towards us, the star appears to be bright and when the atmosphere refracts less star light, then the
star appears to be dim. In this way, the star light reaching our eyes increases and decreases
continuously due to atmospheric refraction. And the star appears to twinkle at night. So, twinkling of
stars is due to atmospheric refraction of light by different layers of varying refractive indices.
Note:
Planets do not twinkle: Plants are nearer to us compared to the starts and therefore they are more
like extended objects. Light from different parts of the planet form an extended image at the eye, and
we are unable to detect the random shifts in the smaller portions of this image.
2. The stars seem higher than they actually are:
Consider an oblique ray from a heavenly body such as

the sun or a star. While travelling through the atmosphere,

it continuously moves into regions of higher refractive index.
So, it continuously bends towards the normal, resulting in
a path similar to that shown in figure. Since we see an object
in the direction of the ray incident on the eye, the heavenly
body appears higher than its actual position.

3. Early sunrise and late sunset:

Actual sunsets when it is below the horizon in the evening. The rays of light from the sun below
the horizon reach our eyes because of refraction of light. These rays appears to come from the
apparent position of the sun which is above the horizon. Hence we can see the sun for few minutes
(about 2 minutes) even after it has actually set. Similarly, the sun can be seen about 2 minutes before
it actually rises. Thus, we gain about 4 minutes of additional day light each day.

4. The sun appears oval (or flattened) at sunset and sunrise but appears circular at noon:
At sunset and sunrise, the sun is near the horizon. The rays of light from the upper and lower
edge of the sun bend unequally while travelling through the atmosphere. As a result of this
phenomenon, the sun appears oval.
 At noon, the sun is overhead. The rays of light from the sun enter the atmosphere normally and
hence they do not bend at all while passing through the atmosphere. Therefore, the sun appears
circular at noon.
Scattering of light: The phenomenon in which a part of the light incident on a particle is redirected in
different directions is called scattering of light.
Applications of scattering of light in daily life:
1. The colour of clear sky is blue: The scattering of blue component of the white sunlight by air
molecules present in the atmosphere causes the blue colour of the sky.
Note: i) Bluish colour of water in deep sea is due to the scattering of light.
ii) The smoke and dust particles in the atmosphere over cities scattered, orange and yellow
colours more than other colour of small wave lengths. Hence, the sky appears grayish.
2. Sky would appear black in day time of earth had no atmosphere: If earth had no atmosphere,
there would be no gas (no scatterer). So, there will be no scattering of light. Hence, the sky would
appear dark.
Note: For astronauts far from the atmosphere of the earth, the sky appears dark as there is no
scattering of light.
3. Danger signals are red in colour: This is because the red is least scattered by fog or smoke.
Therefore, it can be seen in the same colour at a distance.

4. Red colour of sun at sunrise and sunset: Light from the sun near the horizon passes through
thicker layers of air and larger distance in the earth’s atmosphere before reaching our eyes. However,
light from the sun over head would travel relatively shorter distance. At noon, the sun appears white
as only a little of the blue and violet colours are scattered. Near the horizon, most of the blue light,
and shorter wave lengths are scattered away by the particles. Therefore, the light reaches our eyes is
of longer wavelengths. This gives rise to the reddish appearance of the sun.
5. Clouds are in white colour: Clouds are made of water droplets of different sizes. The tiniest
droplets scatter more blue light than other colours. Droplets of size greater than the tiniest droplets
scatter more green light and the largest droplets scatter more redlight. As, all the colours are scattered
by the droplets in the clouds, so the resultant light is white. Hence, clouds appear white.

1
Note: Intensity of scattered light, Ia l 4 . Where ' l ' is the wavelength of the incident light. We know
that, wave length of red light is greater than the wave length of blue or violet light. Therefore, the
intensity of scattered red light is less than the intensity of the scattered blue or violet light.
Tyndall Effect: The phenomenon of scattering of light by dust, smoke and water droplets suspended
in air is known as Tyndall effect.
Tyndall effect is seen,
i) from dust particles in air when sun light comes through a window or a slit in a window.
ii) When sun light comes down through the clouds.
iii) when head light beams comes through fog and mist.
iv) when sunlight comes down through dense forest.
Experimental arrangement for observing the scattering
of light in a colloidal solution to show how the sky
appears blue,
and the sun appears red at sunrise and sunset:

Note: workout all NCERT textual and exercise questions.

Worksheet - 1

1. How does the focal length of eye lens change when we shift looking from a distant object to
a nearby object?
2. A person with a myopic eye cannot see objects beyond a distance of 1.5 m. What would be the
power of the corrective lens used to restore proper vision?
3. The near point of a hyper metropic person is 75 cm. calculate the focal length and power of a
convex lens used in his spectacles.
4. How does the eye control the amount of light entering it?
5. Why can you not see an object clearly if it is placed very close to your eyes?
6. Name the component of white light that deviates the least and the component that deviates
the most while passing through a glass prism.
7. How can you recombine the components of white light after a prism has separated them?
8. A glass prism is able to produce a spectrum when white light passes through it but a glass slab
does not produce any spectrum. Explain why?
9. What are the conditions for observing a rainbow?
10. Name the part responsible for the power of accommodation of the human eye.
11. What kind of lens is present in the human eye?
12. Name one defect of vision which cannot be corrected by any type of spectacle lenses?
13. Why do we have two eyes instead of one eye?
14. A person is able to see objects clearly only when these are lying at distance between 50 cm and
300 cm from his eye.
i) what kind of defect of vision he is suffering from?
ii) what kind of lenses will be required to increase his range of vision from 25 cm to
infinity?
15. Explain why the colour of the sun looks different at different times of the day.
Worksheet - 2

1. Define ‘power of accommodation’ of human eye?

2. Draw a labeled diagram of the human eye and explain its working.
3. Explain with the help of labeled ray diagram, the defect of vision called myopia, and how it is

corrected by lens?
4. Explain with the help of labeled ray diagram, the defect of vision called hyper metropia, and

how it is corrected by a lens?

5. Differentiate myopia and hypermetropia.
6. Name the defect of vision which makes the eye-lens cloudy resulting in blurred vision.
7. What is the other name of oldage hypermetropia?
8. What is meant by ‘dispersion of light’ and ‘spectrum’?
9. Name the various colours of spectrum.
10. Draw a labeled diagram to show the rainbow formation.
11. What is atmospheric refraction? What causes atmospheric refraction?
12. Name two effects of atmospheric refraction.
13. What is Tyndall effect? Give examples.
14. Why does sky appear blue?
15. Why are ‘danger’ signal lights red in colour?
16. Why does the sun appear red at sunrise and sunset?
17. Why does the sky appear dark and black to an astronaut instead of blue?
18. What causes the scattering of blue component of sunlight in the atmosphere?
19. Explain the concept of advance sunrise and delayed sunset.
20. On what factor the colour of scattered light depends?

CHAPTER 12: ELECTRICITY

Electricity is a source of energy that has an important place in modern society. It is a controllable and
convenient form of energy for a variety of uses in homes, schools, hospitals, industries and so on.
Electric Charge: Electric charge is a physical property of a matter or substance which causes it to
experience a force when placed near other matter or substance.

 Electric charges are of two types: Positive charge and negative charge.
 SI unit of electric charge is coulomb (C).
 Any charged body has a total electric charge (Q) which is an integral multiple of charge on an
electron (e)
 Q = �ne Where n = 1,2,3,…..
 e = 1.6 X 10-19 C
 6.25 X 1018 electrons constitute one coulomb of charge.
 Conductors: Those substances through which electric charges can flow are conductors.
 Examples: Metals, metal alloys, human body etc.
 Insulators: Those substances through which electric charges cannot flow are insulators.
 Examples: glass, rubber, most plastics, paper, wood, cotton etc.
 Electric Potential: The electric potential at a point in an electric field is defined as the work
done in moving unit positive charge from infinity to that point.
 Electric Potential difference: The potential difference between two points is defined as the
amount of work in moving a unit charge from one point to other point.
work done(W ) W
 Potential difference (V) = ch arg e ( Q ) V =
Q

 It’s SI unit is volt (V).

 One Volt: One volt is the potential difference between two points in a conductor when one
joule of work is done to move one coulomb of charge from one point to other.
1J
 1V =
1C
 The potential difference is measured by means of an instrument called the voltmeter.
 The voltmeter is always connected in parallel across the points between which the potential
difference is to be measured.
 The electric potential difference across the ends of conductor is maintained by a cell or a
battery.
 Electric Current: An electric current is defined as the amount of charge flowing through any
cross-section of a
 conductor in unit time.
 Let ‘Q’ be the net charge flow through a cross – section of a conductor in time ‘t’ then,
ch arg e ( Q ) Q
 Electric current ( I ) = time t I=
( ) t
 It’s SI unit is ampere (A).
 One ampere: If one coulomb of charge flows through any cross – section of the conductor in
one second, then the electric current through that conductor is said to be one ampere.
1C
 1A =
1S

 The electric current is measured by means of an instrument called the Ammeter.

 The ammeter always connected in series in a circuit through which the current is to be
measured.
 Potential difference drifts the electrons from one end to the other end of the conductor. Hence,
current begins to flow in the conductor.




 The conventional direction of electric current is from positive terminal of a cell to negative
terminal which is opposite to actual flow of electrons.
 Electric circuit: A continuous and closed path of an electric current is called an electric circuit.
 Circuit diagram: Diagram which indicates how different components in a circuit have been
connected by using the electrical symbols is called circuit diagram.
 Symbols of components in an electric circuit diagram:

 Ohm’s Law: It gives the relation between current and potential difference. According to this,
 “the electric current (I) flowing in a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference (V) across the ends of the conductor, provided the temperature remains the same.”

Va I
 V = RI
 Where ‘R’ is called ‘resistance’ of the conductor.
 Note: The graph between current and potential difference is found
 to be a straight line passing through the origin.
V
 Resistance of a conductor is the slope of graph between I and V. R = I

 Resistance: It is the property of a conductor to oppose the flow of charges through it.
 It’s SI unit is ohm ( W )
 One Ohm: If the potential difference across the two ends of a conductor is IV and the current
1Volt
through it is 1 A, then the resistance R, of the conductor is 1 W . 1 Ohm = 1 ampere

 Cause of resistance: When the electrons move from one part of the conductor to the other part
they collide with electrons and with the atoms, ions present on the body of the conductor. Due to
these collisions, there is some opposition to the flow of current through the conductor. So, electric
current is inversely proportional to the resistance.
 A component used for regulating current without changing the voltage source is called
variable resistance or Rheostant.
 Factors on which the Resistance depends:
 i) The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length (R a l).
 ii) The resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to its area of cross – section (R a
1
)
A
 iii) The resistance of a conductor depends upon the nature of the material of the conductor.
 Iv) The resistance of all pure metals increases on raising the temperature and decreases on
lowering the temperature. But the resistance of alloys is almost unaffected by temperature.
1
 Resistivity or specific resistance: From R a l and R a , We get
A
rl RA
R= �r=
A l
 Where r is the constant of proportionality and known as the resistivity or specific resistance.
 If A = 1 and l = 1 then r = R.
 Thus, resistivity of a conductor is defined as “the resistance of the conductor of unit length and unit
area of cross – section.”
 Unit of resistivity is Ohm metre ( W m )
 Resistivity of a substance does not depend upon its length and area of cross section.
 It depends on the nature of the material of which the substance is made up of.

 Note:

 We use copper, Aluminium wires for the transmission of electricity because these have low
resistivity.
 Resistivity value is generally high for alloys than their original metals and alloys do not oxidise
readily at high temperature. For this reason, then are commonly used in electrical heating devices
like electrical Iron, toasters etc.

 Classification of the substances on the basis of their electrical resistance:
 Good Conductor: Those substances which have very low electrical resistance are called good
conductors.
 Examples: Silver is the best conductor of electricity, copper and aluminium metals are also good
conductors.
 Resistors: Those substances which have comparatively high electrical resistance, are called
resistors.
 Examples: The alloys like nichrome, manganin and constantan.
 Insulators: Those substances which have infinitely high electrical resistance are called insulators.
 Examples: Rubber, Wood etc.

 Resistance of a system of resistors:
 Equivalent resistance of the series combination of resistance: Two or more conductors are said
to be connected in series if they are connected one after the other such that the same current flows
through each conductor when some potential difference is applied across the combination.
 Consider three conductors having resistances R1, R2 and R3 respectively connected in series across
a cell.





 Let current ‘I’ be flowing through resistance.

 If V1, V2 and V3 be the potential differences across resistances R1, R2 and R3 respectively, then the
potential difference across the combination of the resistances ‘V’ can be written as,
V = V1 + V2 + V3
 According to Ohm’s law V1 = I R1
 V2 = I R2
 V3 = I R3
 I Rs = I R1 + I R2 + I R3
 Rs = R1 + R2 + R3
 Where, Rs = effective resistance of series combination of R1, R2 and R3.
 Note:
 If ‘n’ resistors are connected in series, then the effective resistance or equivalent resistance of the
series combination is given by, Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 + - - - - - + Rn
 To increase the total resistance in a circuit, resistors should be connected in series.
 Equivalent resistance of the parallel combination of resistors: Two or more resistors are said
to be connected in parallel if one end of each resistor is connected at one common point and the other
end of each resistor is connected at the other common point such that the potential difference across
each resistor is equal to the applied potential difference across the combination of the resistors.
 Consider three conductors having resistances R1, R2 and R3 respectively connected in parallel
across a cell.




 Let ‘V’ be the applied potential difference across A and B. The current ‘I’ drawn from the cell
divides into three parts I1, I2 and I3 at point A. Current I1 flows through R1, current I2 flows through R2
and current I3 flows
 through R3.
 I = I1 + I 2 + I 3
 According to Ohm’s law:
V V V
 I1 = , I2 = , I3 = then,
R1 R2 R3
 From I = I1 + I 2 + I 3
V V V V
 = + +
R p R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1
 = + +
Rp R1 R2 R3

 Where Rp = effective resistance of parallel combination of R1, R2 and R3.

 Note:
 If n resistances are connected in parallel then the effective resistance of the combination is given
by,
1 1 1 1 1
 = + + + ....... +
R p R1 R2 R3 Rn
 To decrease the total resistance in a circuit, resistors should be connected in parallel.
 Disadvantages of series circuit for Domestic Wiring:
 1. In series circuit, if one electrical appliance stops working due to some defect, then all other
applicances also stop working.
 2. In series circuit, all the electrical appliances have only one switch due to which they cannot be
turned on or off separately.
 3. In series circuit, the appliances donot get the same voltage as that of the power supply line.
 4. In the series connection of electrical appliances, the overall resistance of the circuit increases too
much due to which the current from the power supply is low.
 Advantages of parallel circuits in Domestic Wiring:
 1. In parallel circuit if one electrical appliance stops working due to some defect, then all other
appliances keep working normally.
 2. In parallel circuits, each electrical appliance has its own switch due to which it can be turned on
or off independently, without affecting other appliances.
 3. In parallel circuits, each electrical appliance gets the same voltage as that of the power supply
line.
 4. In the parallel connection of electrical appliances, the overall resistance of the house hold circuit
is reduced to which the current from the power supply is high.
 Heating effect of electric current:
 The production of heat in a conductor due to the flow of electric current through it is called
heating effect of electric current.
 Amount of heat produced in a conductor through which current flows:
 work W
 Potential difference = V = ( or ) W = VQ
ch arg e Q
Q
 Since Q = It from I =
t
� W =V I t

 This work done is equal to heat produced in the conductor.

 H = V I t (in joule)
 Other Expressions for the amount of Heat produced:
 Using ohm’s law; V= IR
 H=V I t becomes H= I 2Rt
V V2
 Using I = ; it can also be written as H= t
R R
V2
 Thus, heat produced in a conductor H = V I t = I 2 Rt = t
R
 Joule’s law of heating:
 Joule’s law can be stated as:
 The amount of heat produced in a conductor is
 i) directly proportional to the square of the electric current passing through it. [ H a I2 ]
 ii) directly proportional to the resistance of the conductor. [ H a R]

 iii)directly proportional to the time for which the electric current flows through the conductor [H a t].
 H = I2 R t
 Note:
 A given current will produce more heat in a high resistance wire than in a low resistance wire.
 A given current will produce more heat per unit time if the resistors are connected in series than
when they are connected in parallel.
 Practical applications of the heating effect of current:
 1. The heating effect of current is utilised in the working of electrical heating appliances such as
electric Iron, electric kettle, electric toaster, electric oven, room heaters, geysers etc.
 2. The heating effect of electric current is utilised in electric bulbs for producing light. Generally,
tungsten metal is used for making the filaments of electric bulbs because it has a very high
melting point ( of 33800 C).
 3. The heating effect of electric current is utilised in electric fuse for protecting house hold wiring
and electrical appliances. Fuse is a wire made of a material whose melting point is very low.
Electric fuse in the circuit melts when large current flows in the circuit.
 Disadvantages with heating effect of current:
 i) A current produces always some heat, whether we use the heat or not. If the heat produced
cannot be utilised, it represents a wastage of energy.
 ii) A considerable amount of energy is thus wasted in the transmission of electricity from the
generating station to our homes.
 iii) The heat produced in a device may damage the device, unless proper cooling arrangements
are made.
 To dissipate the heat produced in T.V sets, monitors etc, their cabinets have grills for air to pass.
Certain components of a computer get so hot that they have fans to cool them.
 Electrical Energy:
 “ The work done by a source of electricity to maintain a current in an electrical circuit is known
as electric energy.”
W Q
 From V = and I= we get W =V I t
Q t
 Work done is equal to the electric energy consumed in the circuit.
 Electric energy, E =V I t
 Electric power:
 “Electric power is defined as the amount of electric energy consumed in a circuit per unit time.”
E
 Electric power = P=
t
V It
 P=
t
 P =V I
 Using V = I R � P = I R
2

V V2
 Using I = �P=
R R
V2
 Thus, P = VI = I 2 R =
R
 Units of power: SI unit of power is watt (W)
 1 watt = 1 Volt X 1 ampere = V A
 Definition of watt: Electric power is said to be 1 watt if 1 ampere current flows through a circuit having 1
volt potential difference.


 Other units of power:
 i) 1 kilo watt = 103 W = 1 KW ii) 1 mega watt = 106 W = 1 M W
 iii)1 giga watt = 109 W = 1 G W iv) 1 horse power = 746 W = 1 hp
 Note:
 Electric energy = Electric power X time
 Commercial unit of electrical energy: [Kilo watt hour (KWh)]
 A kilo watt hour is the amount of electric energy consumed by 1000 watt electric appliance when it
operates for one hour.
 Relation between KWh and joule:
 1 K w h
J � J�
 = 1 X 1000 X X 3600 S QW = �
�
S � S�
 = 3600000 J
 = 3.6 X 106 J
 1 K W h = 3.6 X 106 J.
 Note: Work out all text book questions and exercise questions from NCERT TEXT BOOK.

 Worksheet - 1
 1. Calculate the current in a circuit if 500 C of charge pass on through it in 10 minutes.
 2. Calculate the amount of charge that would flow in 2 hours through an element of an electric
bulb drawing a current of 0.25 A.
 3. An electric bulb draws a current of 0.2 A, when the voltage is 220 volts. Calculate the amount of
electric charge flowing through it in one hour.
 4. Calculate the resistance of a conductor if the current flowing through it is 0.2 A when the
applied potential difference is 0.8 V.
 5. We have a copper wire of resistance R. This wire is pulled so that its length is doubled
(temperature remains constant). Find the new resistance of the wire in terms of its original
resistance.
 6. A cylinder of a material is 10 cm long and has a cross – section of 2 cm2. If its resistance along
the length be 20 ohms, what will be its resistivity?
 7. A wire is 1.0 m long, 0.2 mm in diameter and has a resistance of 10 W . Calculate the resistivity
of its material.
 8. Four resistors of 2 W each are joined end to end to form a square ABCD. Calculate the
equivalent resistance of the combination between any two adjacent corners.
 9. A wire of resistance 20 ohm is bent in the form of a closed circle. What is the effective resistance
between two points at the ends of any diameter of the circle?
 10. Calculate the amount of heat produced in an electric heater of resistance 1000 ohms if 6 A
current is passed through it for 10 minutes.
 11. Calculate the electric energy consumed by a 1200 W toaster in 20 minutes.
 12. An electric iron has a rating of 750 W, 220 V. Calculate the current passing through it and its
resistance, when in use.
 13. An electric lamp is marked 100 W, 220 V. It is used for 5 hours daily. Calculate its resistance,
while glowing and the energy consumed in KWh per day.
 14. When two resistances R1 and R2 are connected in parallel, the net resistance is 3 ohm. When
connected series, its value is 16 W . Calculate the values of R1 and R2.
 15. A current of 4 A exists in a 10 ohm resistor for 4 minute. Find the charge and the number of
electrons that pass through any cross – section of the resistor in this time.




 Worksheet - 2

 1. Calculate the number of electrons constituting one coulomb of charge per second through any
cross section of a conductor.
 2. How much work is done in moving a charge of 2 C across two points having a potential
difference of 12 V?
 3. How much energy is given to each coulomb of charge passing through a 6 V battery?
 4. How many electrons pass through a lamp in one minute if the current be 200 mA?
 5. Calculate the current supplied by a cell if the amount of charge passing through the cell in 4
seconds is 12 C?
 6. A 2 Volt cell is connected to a 1 W resistor. How many electrons come out of the negative
terminal of the cell in 2 minutes?
 7. A torch bulb when cold has 1 W resistance. It draw a current of 0.3 ampere when glowing from
a source of 3 V. Calculate the resistance of the bulb when glowing and explain the reason for the
difference in resistance.
 8. A current of 0.2 ampere flows through a conductor of resistance 4.5 W . Calculate the potential
difference at the ends of the conductor.
 9. A resistance of 6 ohms is connected in series with another resistance of 4 ohms. A potential
difference of 20 volts is applied across the combination. Calculate the current through the circuit
and potential difference across the 6 ohm resistance.
 10. Resistors R1, R2, R3 having values 5 W , 10 W , 30 W respectively are connected in parallel across
a battery of 12 volts. Calculate
 i) Current through each resistor ii) Total current iii) Total resistance
 11. How can three resistances of 2 W , 3 W , & 6 W be connected to give the total resistance of
 a) 4 W b) 1 W
 12. An electric lamp, whose resistance is 20 W , and a conductor of 4 W resistance are connected to
 a 6 V battery. Calculate
 a) The total resistance of the circuit, b) The current through the circuit, and
 c) The potential difference across the electric lamp and conductor.
 13. What is a) the highest, b) the lowest total resistance that can be secured by combinations of
four coils of resistance 4 W , 8 W , 12 W , 24 W ?
 14. A piece of wire having a resistance R is cut into four equal parts. How will the resistance of
each part of the wire will compare with the original resistance? If the four parts of the wire are
placed in parallel, how will the resistance of the combination compare with the resistance of the
original wire?
 15. When two resistances R1 & R2 are connected in parallel, the net resistance is 3 W . When
connected in series, its value is 16 W . Calculate the value of R1 & R2.
 16. An electric geyser has the ratings 2000W, 220V marked on it. What should be the minimum
rating in whole number of a fuse wire that may be required for safe use with this geyser?
 17. A wire is stretched so as to make its length double. What is the effect on its resistivity and
why? Consumed if this bulb is lighted for 4 hours.
 18. Name and state the law which relates the potential difference in a circuit to the magnitude of
current that flows through it. Give its mathematical expression and draw the theoretical graph
too.



 19. A household uses the following electric appliances.
 i) Refrigerator of rating 400 W for ten hours each day.
 ii) two electric fans of rating 80 W each for twelve hours each day.
 iii) six electric tubes of rating 18 W each for six hours each day. Calculate the electricity bill of
the household for the month of June if the cost per unit of electric energy is Rs. 3.00.

 20. How much current will an electric heater coil draw from a 220 volt line, if the resistance of the
heater coil is 40 ohm?
 SOLVED NUMERICLES:
1. If an electric lamp lights for 2 h drawing 0.4 A of current, calculate the amount of charge
that has passed through the lamp.
SOLUTION
Here
Current I = 0.4 A
Time t = 2 h = 2 x 3600 = 7200 seconds
Charge Q = ?
Now, Q = I x t
∴ Q = 0.4 x 7200 = 2880 = 2.88 x 103 C

2. How much current will an electric heater having resistance 45 ohm draw if it is connected to
a 220 V line ?
SOLUTION
Here
Resistance R = 45 Ω
Voltage V = 220 V
Current I = ?
According to Ohm's law,
I = V/R
∴ I = 220/45 = 4.89 A

3. A lamp of resistance 20 Ω is joined to a battery of 12 V. Find the value of the resistance to be

connected in series with the lamp in order to get current of 0.5 A.

SOLUTION Here
Voltage V = 12 V
Current I = 0.5 A
Resistance of the lamp R1 = 20 Ω
Resistance to be connected R2 = ?
If R is the equivalent resistance of the circuit, then
R = V/I = 12/ 0.5 = 24 Ω
But, R = R1 + R2

∴ 24 = 20 + R2

∴ R2 = 4 Ω

4. Calculate the net(equivalent) resistance of the circuit if resistances of 10 Ω, 5 Ω and 15 Ω are

connected in parallel.

SOLUTION
Let the three resistances connected in parallel be
R1 = 10 Ω, R2 = 5 Ω, R3 = 15 Ω
If their net resistance is R, then
 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
∴ 1/R = (1/10) + (1/5) + (1/15)

∴ 1/R = (3 + 6 + 2)/30 = 11/30

∴ R = 30/11 = 2.73 Ω

5. Three resistances of 5 Ω, 10 Ω and 30 Ω are connected in parallel with a battery of 12 V. Find

out(a)the current passing through each resistance, (b)the total current of the circuit,(c) the
equivalent resistance of the circuit.

SOLUTION
Here the three resistances are
R1 = 5 Ω, R2 = 10 Ω, R3 = 30 Ω
Voltage V = 12 V
Let the currents passing through the three resistances be I1,I2,I3,respectively and the
equivalent resistance be R.
Using Ohm's law, we get
I1 = V/R1
∴ I1 = 12/5 = 2.4 A
I2 = V/R2
∴ I2 = 12/10 = 1.2 A
I3 = V/R3
∴ I3 = 12/30 = 0.4 A
Thus, net current I = I1 + I2 + I3
∴ I = 2.4 + 1.2 + 0.4 = 4.0 A
Again, 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
∴ 1/R = 1/5 + 1/10 + 1/30
∴ 1/R = 1/3
∴R=3Ω

6. An electric iron draws a current of 5.0 A. If its resistance is 44 Ω, calculate the energy consumed in 5
minutes.
SOLUTION:
Here, current I = 5 A, resistance r = 44 Ω,
time t = 5 minutes = 5 x 60 = 300 seconds.
Now, W = I2 R t = (5)2(44)(300) = 330000 J

7. If an electric lamp draws 500 mA with voltage of 2.5 V, calculate the power and the energy
consumed in 1 minute.
SOLUTION
Here, voltage V = 2.5 V, current I = 500 mA = 0.5 A, time t = 1 min = 60 seconds
Now, power P = V x I = 2.5 x 0.5 = 1.25 watt
And energy consumed in 1 minute W = P x t
∴ W = 1.25 x 60 = 75 joule
 8. A 100 W lamp glows for 2 hours per day calculate the energy consumed in 30 days.
SOLUTION
Here power of lamp P = 100 watt = 0.1 kW
time t = 2 x 30 = 60 h (2 h/day x 30 days)

Now energy consumed in 30 days

W = P x t = 0.1 x 60 = 6 kWh

9. If 300 mA current passes through a lamp, how many electrons will pass through it in 1
minute ?
SOLUTION:
Here, current I = 300 mA = 0.3 A
time t = 1 minute = 60 seconds
Now, charge Q = I x t = 0.3 x 60 = 18 coulomb
and no. of electrons = (total charge)/(charge on 1 electron)
∴ no. of electrons = (18)/(1.6 x 10-19)
= 1.125 x 1020 electrons

10. If a current of 5 mA passes through a resistance of 2200 Ω, find out the voltage drop on it.
SOLUTION:
Here, current I = 5 mA = 0.005 A and resistance R = 2200 Ω
Now, voltage drop V = IR = 0.005 x 2200 = 11 V

CHAPTER 13: MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

Magnetic Field:
The space around a magnet where the magnetic force of attraction or repulsion can be detected is
called magnetic field.
Magnetic lines of force or magnetic field lines:
A line such that the tangent at any point on it gives the direction of the magnetic field at that point is
called a magnetic field line.
Properties of magnetic field lines:
i) The magnetic field lines always begin from the N – pole of a magnet and end on the S – pole of the
magnet. But magnetic field lines run from S – pole to N – pole with in the magnet. So, magnetic
field lines are closed continuous curves.
ii) The field lines are close together near the poles and spread out away from them. The field is
stronger where the field lines are more closely packed. So, the field is stronger near the poles than
at other points.
iii) The field lines never intersect. If two field lines were
to intersect then a compass needle placed at
the point of intersection would point in two
different directions, which is not possible.
Magnetic field due to a current through a straight conductor:

Magnetic field around a current carrying straight conductor or

wire is represented by concentric circles centred at the conductor or wire.
 The strength of the magnetic field due to a current carrying conductor
is directly proportional to the amount of current flowing through it.
 The strength of the magnetic field due to a current carrying conductor is inversely proportional to
the distance from the conductor.
Right hand thumb rule:
The direction of the magnetic field around a straight conductor
carrying current can be determined by this rule.
According to it;
“If a current carrying conductor is imagined to be held in the right
hand such that the thumb points in the direction of the current,
then the curled fingers of the hand indicate the direction of magnetic field”.
Magnetic field due to a current through a circular loop:

A circular wire can be considered as the combination of very – very

small straight wires. Each small straight section of the circular loop
contributes to the magnetic field lines and the direction of all these
Lines are in the same direction. Hence, the magnetic field due to circular
Wire carrying current is more than the magnetic field due to
a straight wire carrying the same current.
Right hand thumb rule is used to determine the direction of the
Magnetic field produced due to a current carrying circular wire.
The direction of the magnetic field at the centre of the circular wire is perpendicular to the plane
of the circular wire.
The strength of the magnetic field due to current carrying circular wire is
i) Directly proportional to the amount of current flowing through it.
ii) Inversely proportional to its radius.
iii) Directly proportional to the number of turns of the wire (or loop).
Magnetic field due to a current in a solenoid:
A solenoid is a coil of many turns of an insulated copper wire closely wound in the shape of tight
spring. When an electric current flows through a solenoid, a magnetic field is set up around the
solenoid which is similar to the magnetic field of a bar magnet. The magnetic field is the same at all
points inside the solenoid. One end of the solenoid acts as South Pole and the other end acts as North
Pole. The strong magnetic field produced inside a solenoid is used to magnetise the rod of a magnetic
material like soft iron, when placed inside the solenoid. This magnatised material is known as
electromagnet. Electromagnets are used to lift heavy iron pieces in case of cranes. They are used in
many devices like electric bell, electric horn, telephone receiver, microphones, radio set, television,
loudspeakers etc. The strength of magnetic field produced by a current carrying solenoid depends on
the no.of turns in the solenoid) the strength of current in the solenoid, iii) the nature of core material
used in making solenoid.
Differences between electromagnet and a permanent magnet:
Electromagnet Permanent Magnet
1. It produces very strong magnetic force. 1. It produces a comparatively weak force of
attraction.
2. Its strength can be changed by 2. The strength of a permanent magnet can not
Changing the no.of turns in its coil or by be changed.
Changing the current passing through it.
3. The polarity of an electro magnet can be 3. The polarity of a permanent magnet is fixed
Changed by changing the direction of and cannot be changed.
Current in its coil.

Force on a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field:

A current carrying conductor placed in magnetic fixed experiences a force in a direction

perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field. Due to this force, the current carrying
conductor will displace from its rest position. Direction of force experienced by a current carrying
conductor placed in a magnetic field is given by Fleming’s left hand rule.

Fleming’s left hand rule:

If the forefinger, second finger and thumb of the left hand are
Stretched at right angles to each other, with the fore finger in
The direction of the field and the second finger in the direction
Of the current then the thumb indicates the direction of the force.

Factors on which the force acting on the current carrying conductor depend:
The force acting on a current carrying conductor placed in the magnetic field depends upon:

i) The strength of the magnetic field:

If the conductor is placed in a strong magnetic field, it experiences a large force.

ii) The strength of the electric current:

If large current flows through the conductor placed in the magnetic field, it experiences a large
area.
iii) The length of the conductor:
A long conductor experiences a greater force than the short conductor, when placed in the
magnetic field.
The Electric motor:
A motor is a device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Principle of a motor:
A motor works on the principle that when a rectangular coil is placed in a magnetic field and current
is passed through it, a force acts on the coil which rotates it continuously.
Uses of D.C. Motor:
1. It is used in electric cars, rolling mills, electric cranes and electric lifts.
2. It is used in drilling machines, electric fans, hair dryers, record players, tape recorder and blowers.
3. It is used in centrifugal machines like mixers and blenders, refrigerators and washing.
Electromagnetic Induction:
The phenomenon in which an electric current is induced in a circuit because of a changing magnetic
field is called electromagnetic induction.
The value of induced current depends upon
i) The number of turns in the coil. ii) The strength of the magnet.
iii) The speed with which the magnet moves towards the coil.
Direction of induced current in a conductor can be determined by Fleming’s Right hand rule.
Fleming’s right hand rule:
If the fore finger, second finger and thumb of the right
hand are stretched at right angles to each other,
With the fore finger in the direction of the field and the
Thumb in the direction of the motion of the wire then
The current in the wire is in the direction of the second finger.
Electric Generator:
An electric device used to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy is called an electric
generator.
Principle of Electric generator:
It works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. When the coil of electric generator rotates in a
magnetic field, induced current flows in the circuit connected with the coil.
Direct and Alternating Current:
Direct Current: An electric current whose magnitude is either constant or variable but the direction of
flow in a conductor remains the same is called direct current (D.C). Frequency of D. C is zero.
Alternating Current:
An electric current whose magnitude changes with time and direction reverses periodically is called
alternating current (A.C).
The frequency of house hold supply of A. C in India is 50 Hz. This means, A.C. completes 50 cycles
in one second. Thus, A.C used in India changes direction 100 times in one second.
Advantages of A.C over D.C:
1. The cost of generation of A.C is less than the cost of generation of D.C.
2. A.C can be easily converted into D.C, using a device known as rectifier.
3. A.C can be controlled without much loss of electric power than D.C.
4. A.C can be transmitted to distant places without much loss of electric power than D.C.

Domestic Electric Circuits:

In our houses we receive AC electric power of 220 V with a frequency of 50 Hz.
One of the wires in this supply is with red insulation, called live wire. The other one is of black
insulation, which is a neutral wire.
The potential difference between the two is 220 V.
The third is the earth wire that has green insulation and this is connected to a metallic body deep
inside earth. It is used as a safety measure to ensure that any leakage of current to a metallic body
does not give any severe shock to a user.
Usually there are two separate circuits in a house, the lighting circuit with a 5A fuse and the power
circuit with a 15A fuse.
All the electrical appliances are connected in parallel across the live wire and the neutral wire.
Safety measures in using Electricity:
1. An electric fuse is a safety device to save the electrical appliances from burning when large
current flows in the circuit. It is a wire made of copper or aluminum or tin – lead alloy. The
melting point of the material of which the electric fuse wire is made should be low.
2. The insulation on the wires should be of high strength.
3. Wires carrying electricity should not be touched bare footed.
4. Electric circuits should be switched off during lightning.
5. Earthling: When the live wire touches the metal casing of an electric appliance, the electric current
flows from the casing of the appliance to the earth through the copper wire. As the earth offers very
low or almost no resistance to the flow of current, so large current passes through the copper wire
instead of human body. This large current heats the circuit and hence the fuse melts. As a result of
this, the circuit is switched off automatically and the electric appliance is saved from burning.
Moreover, the human body suffers no electric shock.
Over Load: If the total current drawn through a wire by the appliances connected to it exceeds the
safety limit for that wire, it gets over heated. We say that the overheating is due to overloading.
Sometimes overloading is caused by connecting too many appliances to a single socket. Overloading
can occur when the live wire and the neutral wire come into direct contact.
Short Circuiting: When the live wire and neutral wire touch each other, the resistance of the circuit
so formed is very, very small. Since the resistance is very small, the current flowing through the wires
becomes very large and heats the wires to a dangerously high temperature, and a fire may be started.
Worksheet 1
1. What does crowding of magnetic field lines indicate?
2. Why does a current carrying conductor kept in a magnetic field experience force? What is the
direction of force acting on the conductor?
3. An electric fuse of rating 3A is connected in a circuit in which an electric iron of power 1 KW is
connected which operates at 220 V. What would happen? Explain.
4. Can a magnetic field be produced without using a magnet? If yes, how?
5. What conclusion do you get from the observation that a current carrying wire deflects a
compass needle placed near it?
6. Name five devices where permanent magnets are used.
7. What are the various ways in which the strength of magnetic field produced by a current
carrying circular coil can be increased?
8. Explain different ways to induce current in a coil.
9. Which effect of electric current is utilized in the working of an electric fuse?
10. When is the force experienced by current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field
largest?
11. Describe an experiment to show that a magnetic field exerts a force on a current – carrying wire.
12. What is electromagnetic induction? Describe an experiment to demonstrate it.
13. What do you understand by live, neutral and earth wires? Do all the three normally carry
electricity?
14. What is the function of the earth wire in electric lines? Why is the metallic body of an
electric appliance connected to the earth wire?
15. An electric heater is rated 2 kW, 220 V. If a fuse is to be connected to it, should it be rated 5 A or 15
A?

Worksheet 2
Questions based on Activities.
I. Observe the diagram carefully and answer the following questions.
a) What do these concentric circles represent?
b) How can the direction of the magnetic field be found?
c) Does the direction of magnetic field lines get reversed if the direction
Of current in the copper wire is reversed?
d) What happens to the deflection of the compass needle placed at a given point if the
current in the copper wire is changed?
e) What happens if the current is increased in the conductor? What does it indicate?
f) What happens to the deflection of the needle if the compass is moved from the copper
wire but the current through the wire remains the same?
 g) State 3 factors on which the strength of the magnetic field due to a current carrying
straight conductor depends?
II. Suppose a straight wire is bent in the form of a circular loop and current is passed through it as
shown in the fig.
a) What does concentric circles represents.
b) What happens to the concentric circles in the middle of the loop?
c) At the centre of the circular loop, the arc of these big circles would
appear as straight lines. What does it tell us?
d) What happens if the circular coils have n turns?
e) Name the scientist who first suggested that a magnet exerts an equal and opposite forces
on the current carrying conductor?

f) State 3 factors on which the magnetic field produced at the centre of a current carrying
circular wire depends?
III.Current is made to pass through A1 rod from end B to A. It is observed
that the rod is displaced towards the left.

a) Name the rule applied in this case.

b) Why does the rod get displaced?
c) Reverse the direction of current flowing through the rod and
in which direction the rod gets displaced. Why?
d) What happens to the direction of force on the rod by interchanging the two poles of the
magnet?
e) State two factors on which the direction of the force on the conductor depends upon.
f) When the displacement of rod is maximum and minimum.
g) What happens to the force exerted on the conductor when current in the rod AB is
increased?
h) What happens when a strong horse shoe magnet is used?
i) What happens when the length of the rod AB is increased?

IV. Take a hallow card board. Now wrap a coil of an insulated copper wire near left end of the
hallow card board. Connect this coil (called primary coil) with a battery through a one way key.
Wrap another coil of an insulated copper wire near right end of the hallow card board. Connect
this coil (called secondary coil) with a galvanometer as shown in the figure.

a) What happens in the secondary coil when current flows in the primary coil?
b) What happens in the secondary coil when current is removed in the primary coil?
c) Give detailed explain for (a) & (b)
d) Name this phenomenon
e) Define Electromagnetic Induction
f) State 3 factors on which induced current depends.
V. From the following simple experiment we can show that an electric current can be produced in
a closed circuit without the use of an electrochemical cell or battery but by moving a bar magnet
towards or away from the closed circuit. The coil is connected to a sensitive galvanometer as
shown in the figure. State the observation.

a) When a bar magnet with its north pole facing the coil was moved towards the coil.
b) When a bar magnet was moved away from the coil in fig 2
c) When the bar magnet was stationary near the coil
d) Name the scientist who performed this experiment.

Magnetic effects : revision questions.

1) An electric fuse of rating 3A is connected in a circuit in which an electric iron of power 1 KW is
connected which operates at 220 V. What would happen? Explain.
2) What is electromagnetic induction?
3) What is the principle on which electric motor works?
4) Distinguish between an electro magnet and a bar magnet.
5) What are the properties of magnetic field lines of force.
6) what is the function of the earth wire in electric circuit? Why is the metallic body of an electric
appliance connected to the earth wire?
7) An electric heater is rated 2 kW, 220 V. If a fuse is to be connected to it, should it be rated 5 A
or 15 A?
8) What is the basic difference between over loading and short circuiting?
9) What is meant by a solenoid? Draw the diagram to represent magnetic field lines of a solenoid.
10) What is Fleming’s left hand rule. Give two applications of it.
 CHAPTER 14: SOURCES OF ENERGY

Energy: Energy is the capacity to do work

Law of conservation of energy: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only be changed
from one form to another.”

For example,

i) if we drop a plate from a height, the potential energy of the plate is converted mostly to sound
energy when it hits the ground.

ii) If we light a candle, the chemical energy in the wax is converted to heat energy and light energy
on burning.
Source of Energy: ‘A source of energy is one which can provide adequate amount of energy in a
convenient form over’. For example,

The potential energy of a rock high up on a hill cannot be used to cook food, but the chemical energy
in cooking gas (LPG) can, so, the rock is not a source of energy, but LPG is some common sources of
energy include fire wood, coal, petroleum, natural gas, flowing water, wind and uranium.

The sun is the ultimate source of all forms of energy available on the earth.

What is a good source of energy?

A good source of energy should have the following characteristics.

i) Which would do a large amount of work per unit mass or per unit volume.

ii) Which is easy to store iii) Which is easy to transport

iv) which is safe to handle and use v) which supply useful energy in a controlled manner

vi) which is easily available or accessible vii) which is cheap i.e, it should be economical

viii) which does not cause environmental pollution.

Fuel and characteristics of an ideal fuel:

The materials which are burnt to produce heat energy are known as fuels.

Examples: wood, coal, LPG, kerosene, diesel and petrol.

A good fuel:

i) should release large amount of heat energy on burning

ii) should burn with out giving out any smoke or harmful gases.

iii) should be cheap and easily available

iv) should be easy to handle, safe to transport and convenient to store

v) should not leave much ash behind after burning

vi) should have a high calorific value and proper ignition temperature value.
Calorific value of a fuel:

The amount of heat produced by burning a unit mass of the fuel completely is known as its calorific
value.

Example: hydrogen gas has the highest calorific value of 150 kilojoules per gram.

Note: i) Calorific value of a fuel is expressed as joule / gram or kilo joule / gram

ii) The minimum temperature to which a fuel must be heated so that it may catch fire and start
burning, is known as its ignition temperature.

Classification of sources of energy:

Classification based on the reserves:

Renewable sources of energy:

Renewable sources of energy are those which can be generated by us or which are constantly being
generated by natural processes or whose supply is unlimited.

Examples: Wood, Hydro energy, Wind energy, Solar energy, Tidal energy, Ocean thermal energy,
Geo thermal energy, Biomass energy.

Non Renewable sources of energy: Non Renewable sources of energy are those which were
produced in the past by natural processes, whose supply is limited and which we cannot generate
ourselves.

Examples: Fossil fuels (Coal, Petroleum and Natural gases) and Nuclear fuels such as uranium.

Classification based on how long we have been using it:

Conventional sources of energy:

Sources of energy that have been in use for centuries are called conventional sources of energy.

Examples: Wood, Coal, Petroleum and flowing water. Here, Coal and petroleum etc are non-
renewable conventional sources while sources like flowing water are renewable conventional sources.

Non-conventional sources of energy:

Sources of energy that we have started using in new ways or only in recent times are called non-
conventional sources of energy.

Examples: Solar energy, geothermal energy, tidal energy, ocean wave energy, nuclear energy etc.

Note that non-conventional energy sources are renewable.

FOSSIL FUELS:

The combustible substances formed from the dead remains of the animals and plants which were
buried deep under the surface of the earth over millions of years are called fossil fuels.

Examples: Coal, petroleum and natural gas.

COAL:

 It is a mixture of carbon and compounds of carbon containing oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur.
 A lot of heat is produced during the burning of coal which makes it a good fuel.
 By heating strongly in the absence of air [destructive distillation], 98% carbon (coke) can be
obtained which is a better fuel than coal because it produces more heat and does not produce
smoke.
 Uses of Coal: Coal is,
 i) used as a fuel for heating purposes in homes and industry.
 ii) used in thermal power stations.
 iii) used in manufacture of fuel gases like coal gas, manufacture of petrol and synthetic
etc.
 PETROLEUM:
 Petroleum derived from Greak words petra (rock) and oleum (oil).
 The crude oil petroleum is a complex mixture of several solid, liquid and gaseous
hydrocarbons mixed with water, salt and earth particles.
 Refining of petroleum by fractional distillation gives us: petroleum gas, petrol, diesel,
kerosene and fuel oil.
 Fuel oil is a better fuel than coal because fuel oil burns completely and does not leave any
residue.
 Domestic fuel LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) mainly consists of butane.
 [ Its calorific value 50 KJ / g].
 Natural gas:
 It mainly consists of methane (about 97%) and small quantities of ethane and propane.
 When natural gas in liquid form is subjected to high pressure, we get compressed natural gas
(CNG) which is being used increasingly as a fuel in transport.
 Natural gas is used as a domestic and industrial fuel.
 Natural gas is used as a fuel in thermal power plants.

Disadvantages of fossil fuels:

1. The burning of coal leaves behind a lot of ash into the air causing air pollution.
2. Burning of fossil fuels like coal and petrol produces carbon dioxide. Excess carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere is increasing the green house effect, leading to unnatural global warming.
3. When coal and petrol do not burn completely, carbon monoxide is produced. Excessive
inhalation of this poisonous gas can cause death.
4. Combustion of fossil fuels causes Acid rain, which damages soil, water bodies, crops, living
tissues and structures like Taj Mahal.
5. The burning of fossil fuels produces smoke which pollutes the air.
Why are we looking at alternate source of energy?
Inspite of number of disadvantages of fossil fuels, we mainly depend upon these fuels for our
energy requirements. However, the deposits of fossil fuels are limited in quantity and the formation
of these fuels takes a very long period of time. Therefore, these sources of fuels can be completely
finished in future. So, we look at alternate sources of energy like sun, the wind, the ocean etc to
reduce the pressure on the use of fossil fuels or conventional sources of energy.
THERMAL POWER PLANT:

Oil or Coal is burnt in a furnace to produce heat energy. This heat energy is used to boil water in a
reservoir. The steam produced in water reservoir is allowed to fall on a turbine under high pressure.
The steam falling on the turbine rotates it with high speed. A generator or dynamo connected with
the Turbine through an axle rotates with high speed and produces electricity.

Sequence of energy conversion in a thermal power point.

Heat energy � mechanical energy � electrical energy
The disadvantage with thermal power plant: The burning of coal or oil in a thermal power plant
causes environmental pollution and global warming.
Hydro Power and Hydro Electric Power Plant:
The electricity produced by the flowing water is known as hydro electric power.
Electricity generated by using the kinetic energy of flowing water is called hydro electricity.

For a large hydroelectric plants, water from a river is diverted to a large reservoir; which is an
artificial lake to store water. A high dam is constructed on one side of the reservoir to hold back the
water. The generator is at the base of the dam, on its other side. Water flows down through pipes
from near the top of the dam to generator house below. It strikes the blades of a water turbine with
tremendous speed, making it rotate. The turbine rotates the shaft of a generator to which it is
connected. This makes the generator produce electricity.

Advantages of hydro electric power plants:

1. The generation of electricity from flowing water does not produce any environmental pollution.
2. The source of energy is free and renewable.
3. The cost of electricity generation is low compared to electricity generated from other types of
power plants.
4. The construction of dams on rivers helps in controlling floods, irrigation of agriculture land,
developing fishing zones and developing water sports for recreation etc.
Disadvantages of Hydroelectric power plants:
1. A large number of people residing near the site of a dam are dislocated.
2. A large number of plants and wild life in the area of the dam submerged in water.
3. Hydroelectric plants cannot be constructed everywhere.
Improvements in the technology for using conventional sources of energy:
Bio mass: Bio mass is the organic matter which is used as a fuel to produce energy. Bio mass includes
wood, agricultural wastes and cow dung. Bio mass is renewable source of energy because it is
obtained from plants and animals.
Wood and Charcoal: Wood has been a major source of energy since man discovered fire. It is still
used as a fuel for cooking and heating. A traditional stove (chulha) operates at a very low efficiency.
The burning of wood produces a lot of smoke which pollutes the air, and the calorific value of wood
is low (17 KJ/g). wood can be more efficiently utilized by converting it into charcoal.
Charcoal is prepared by destructive distillation (burning in an insufficient supply of oxygen) of
wood. Charcoal is mainly carbon.
Why Charcoal is a better fuel than wood?
i) Charcoal produces almost twice the heat produced by wood.
ii) charcoal produces much less smoke than wood.
iii) charcoal is compact fuel which is easy to handle and convenient to use.
Note: Charcoal is very expensive than the wood because 1 kg of wood produces only 250 g charcoal.
It is the disadvantage of using the charcoal as a domestic fuel.
Cow Dung: Cow dung has been traditionally used as a fuel in India. The dung is shaped into flat
cakes, dried and used as fuel for cooking. Burning of dung cake produces some heat and a lot of
smoke. They do not burn completely; they produce a lot of ash as residue.
Since there are many disadvantages in using the cow – dung as fuel directly, it is better to prepare
biogas (gobar gas) from cow dung. And also the spent dung can be used as a manure.
Bio Gas:
Bio gas (Gobar gas) is produced by the anaerobic degradation of animal or plant wastes in the
presence of water. Anaerobic degradation is the decomposition which takes place in the absence of
oxygen. It is carried out by the micro-organisms called anaerobic bacteria.
Bio gas is a mixture of various gases such as methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and hydrogen
sulphide. The chief constituent of bio gas is methane gas which is about 75% by volume. In a bio gas,
only methane gas and hydrogen gas are combustible components. Methane is an excellent fuel.
Bio gas Plant:

A bio gas plant has a digester in which the bio mass is decomposed, a mixing tank for mixing the bio
mass with water, an out flow tank and a means of collecting gas.
The biomass eg: cow dung, is mixed with water in the mixing tank to form slurry. The slurry from
this tank flows into the digester, which is a sealed chamber. The biomass decomposes here and
expands, and the gas produced presses down the slurry. This causes the spent slurry to overflow into
the out flow tank. The spent slurry is used as manure.
The upper part of the digester has an out let for gas. To prevent excessive pressure build up, the gas
is removed from time to time.
Advantages of bio gas:
i) Bio gas has high calorific value.
ii) Bio gas is cheaper than most common fuels.
iii) A bio gas plant is quite simple and can be easily built in rural areas.
iv) Use of bio gas in rural areas leads to saving of fire wood, and reduces deforestation.
v) Bio gas burns without smoke and hence does not cause air pollution.
vi) Bio gas is a clean fuel that burns without producing ash and smoke.
vii)The spent slurry is good manure.
viii) There is no storage problem for bio gas as it is supplied by pipes directly from the gas plant.

Wind Energy:
Air in motion is called wind.
The kinetic energy of the wind is also known as wind energy.
A wind mill is a device in which the energy of the wind is used to rotate a set of blades, and the
rotational energy of the blades is used to do some work (mechanical energy).

Advantages of wind energy:

i) The source of energy is free.
ii) Wind energy produces no smoke and no harmful gases.
iii) A small wind – electric plant can be setup near a factory to provide pollution free power for
its use.
Limitations of wind energy:
i) A wind electric generation works only on winds of at least 15 kmph. So they cannot be
established everywhere.
ii) The wind energy forms require a large area of land. (For 1 M W generator – 2 hectares of
land).
iii) The setting up of wind energy forms is very expensive.
Scope of wind energy:
It is estimated that India can produce more than 45,000 MW of electricity from wind energy. By 2005,
India had an installed wind – electric capacity of about 2500 MW. This made India among the top five
producers of electricity from wind along with Germany, USA, Denmark and Spain. The state leading
in wind – electric generation was Tamil Nadu (380 M W electricity).
Solar Energy:
The energy emitted by the sun in the form of heat and light is known as solar energy.
The sun contains mainly hydrogen and helium. Nuclear Fusion among them gives, a large amount
of energy in the form of radiations like visible rays, infra – red rays, ultra violet radiation, gamma
rays, X – ray and radio waves.
The amount of solar energy received per second by one square metre area of the near earth space
(Exposed perpendicularly to the rays of sun) at an average distance between the sun and the
earth is called solar constant.
The value of solar constant = 1.4 KJ / S / m2
= 1.4 KW m-2
Solar energy devices:
1. Box type solar cooker:

It contains a special box in which the food to be cooked is placed. The box is made of an
insulating material such as plastic or wood. The box may be double – walled, with an
insulating material between the outer and inner walls. This reduces heat loss due to conduction
more effectively.

The inner walls are painted block to increase heat absorption. The box is covered with a glass
sheet. This reduces heat loss by radiation and traps heat, which increases the temperature inside
the box. The covered box is made airtight to reduce heat loss by convection. To increase the
amount of sunlight going into the box, a plane mirror is hinged at an angle at the top of the box.
The food to be cooked is taken in a vessel and placed inside the cooker. The temperature inside
the cooker reaches 100 – 1400 C in about 2 – 3 hours in summer.
2. Solar water heater:
In a solar water heater, sunlight is allowed to fall on a box made of a poor conductor of heat.
The glass top of the box lets in sunlight and traps heat. Water enters a tube that is painted black
to increase the absorption of heat. It is bent several times to increase its length inside the box.
This allows the water flowing through it sufficient time to absorb heat. Hot water collects in
the tank of the heater for use.
3. Concave reflector type solar cooker:
It consists of a large concave reflection or solar concentration. The sun rays are focussed by this
reflector at a point F. The intense beam of sun rays
increases the temperature of point F to
2000 C. The food to be cooked in container is placed at point
F. The concave reflector must be rotated so that it always
face the sun for effective cooking of food.
4. Solar Furnace:
It consists of a large number of movable plane mirrors and a parabolic reflecting surface.
Plane mirrors reflect the sun light towards the reflecting surface. This beam is focussed at a small
0
area where the temperature may be raised to 3000 C.
A water reservoir placed at F is heated to produce steam. This steam under high pressure is
used to rotate the turbine of a generator to produce electricity. A solar furnace when used to
produce electricity is known as solar power tower.
5. Solar cell:
A device which converts sunlight into electrical energy is known as solar cell.
Solar cells are made from semiconductor materials like silicon, Germanium having Gallium as
impurity which are able to conduct electricity much better. When sun light falls on a solar cell,
a potential difference of about 0.5 – 1 V develops across it. The power of solar cell depends on its
surface area.
Small solar cells are, therefore suitable for use in only those electronic devices that require very
little power such as calculators and watches. A typical cell can produce
0.7 W of electricity when exposed to the sun.
6. Solar Panel:
A group of solar cells are connected to each other in a certain pattern forms a solar panel.
During day time, sun light falling on the solar panel is converted into electrical energy which
is stored in a battery connected to it. As soon as sunlight stops falling on it, the battery begins to
supply current to the appliances connected to it.
Limitations of solar energy devices:

i) Food cannot be cooked on a cloudy day, at night time and Food cannot be cooked quickly with
solar cookers.
ii) Solar devices initial cost is high.
iii) They cannot used to operate heavy machinery
iv) The entire process of making solar cells is still very expensive. Since, the special grade silicon
is needed for making them. Silver wire is used to inter – connect solar cells for making solar
panels.
v) Solar cells efficiency is low. They can convert only about 25% of the light energy falling on
them into electricity.
Energy from the sea:
1. Tidal energy:
Due to the gravitational pull of mainly the moon on the spinning earth, the level of water in the
sea rises and falls. This phenomenon on is called high and low tides and the difference in sea levels
gives us tidal energy. Tidal energy is harnessed by constructing a dam across a narrow opening to
the sea. A turbine fixed at the opening of the dam converts tidal energy to electricity.
2. Wave energy:
The kinetic energy possessed by huge waves near the sea shore can be trapped to generate
electricity.
The waves are generated by strong winds blowing across the sea. A wide variety of devices have
been developed to trap wave energy for rotation of turbine and production of electricity.
3. Ocean thermal energy:
The water at the surface of the sea or ocean is heated by the sun while the water in deeper
sections irrelatively cold. This difference in temperature is exploited to obtain energy in ocean –
thermal- energy plants. These plants can be operated if the temperature difference between the
water at the surface and water at depths up to 2 km is 293 K (200 C) or more. The warm surface
water is used to boil a volatile liquid like ammonia. The vapours of the liquid are then used to
run the turbine of generator. The cold water from the depth of the ocean is pumped up and condense
vapour again to liquid.
Note:
The energy potential from the sea is quite large, but efficient commercial exploitation is
difficult.
Geo Thermal Energy:
Due to geological changes, molten rocks formed in the deeper hot regions of earth’s crust are
pushed upward and trapped in certain regions called ‘hot spots’. When underground water comes
in contacts with the hot spot, steam is generated. Sometimes hot water from that region finds out lets
at the surface.

Such out lets are known as hot springs. The steam trapped in rocks is routed through a pipe
to a turbine and used to generate electricity.

The cost of production would not be much, but there are very few commercially viable sites
where such energy can be exploited. There are number of power plants based on geothermal energy
operational in Newzealand and United States of America.

Nuclear Energy:
Nuclear Fission:
In nuclear fission, the nucleus of a heavy atom (such as uranium, plutonium or thorium), when
bombarded with low – energy neutrons, can be split apart into lighter nuclei. When this is done, a
tremendous amount of energy is released if the mass of the original nucleus is just a little more than
the sum of the masses of the individual products. The fission of an atom of uranium, for example,
produces 10 million times the energy produced by the combustion of an atom of carbon from coal.
In a nuclear reactor designed for electric power generation, such nuclear ‘fuel’ can be part of a self –
sustaining fission chain reaction that releases energy at a controlled rate. The released energy can be
used to produce steam and further generate electricity. Indian Nuclear power reactors have the
installed capacity of less than 3% of the total electricity generation capacity of our country. However ,
many countries are meeting more than 30% of their electrical power needs from nuclear reactors.
Nuclear Fusion:
This is a safer process for nuclear energy generation.
“The process of two or more light nuclei combining to form a heavier nucleus is called nuclear
fusion.”
Eg: 1 H + 1 H � 2 He + + energy
2 2 3
n
(deuteron) (helium-3) (neutron)
In this reaction, the mass of the product nucleus is less than the combined mass of the
starting nuclei. The difference of mass is converted to energy, given by E = mc 2.

In a series of reactions, hydrogen of sun gets converted into helium. Such nuclear fusion
reactions are the sources of energy in the sun and other stars.
The hydrogen bomb – is based on thermonuclear fusion reaction. A nuclear bomb based on the
fission of uranium or plutonium is placed at the core of the hydrogen bomb. This nuclear
bomb is embedded in a substance which contains deuterium and lithium. When the nuclear bomb
(based on fission) is detonated, the temperature of this substance is raised to 107 K in a few micro –
seconds. The high temperature generates sufficient energy for the light nuclei to fuse and a
devastating amount of energy is released.
Advantages of Nuclear Energy:
i) It produces a large amount of useful energy from a very small amount of nuclear fuel
(like uranium – 235).
ii) There is no need for putting in nuclear fuel for two to three years if once the nuclear fuel is
loaded into the reactor.
iii) It does not produce gases like CO2 which contributes to greenhouse effect or SO 2 which causes
acid rain.
Dis advantages of Nuclear energy:
i) The waste products of nuclear reactions are radioactive which keeps on emitting harmful
nuclear radiations for thousands of years. So, it is very difficult to store or dispose off nuclear
wastage safely.
ii) The accidents in nuclear reactors lead to the leakage of radioactive materials which can cause
damages to the plants, animals, humans and the environment.
iii) The high cost of installation of nuclear power plants and the limited availability of uranium fuel
make the large scale use of nuclear energy prohibitive.
Environmental Consequences of the increasing demand for energy:
1. The combustion of fossil fuels is producing acid rain and damaging plants, soil and aquatic life.
2. The burning of fossil fuels is increasing the amount of greenhouse gas CO2 in the atmosphere.
3. Deforestation is causing soil erosion and destroying wild life.
4. Hydro – power plant construction is disturbing ecological balance.
5. Nuclear power plants are increasing radio activity in the environment.
How long will energy Resources of earth last?
We have been using energy resources of the earth at a very rapid rate in the past.
It has been estimated that the world’s known coal reserves are expected to last for another 200
years compared to around 40 years for the known petroleum oil reserves and around 60 years for
the known reserves of natural gas.
The steps which can be taken to reduce energy consumption:
1. Switch off electrical appliances when not needed.
2. Use energy efficient electrical appliances like CFL to save electricity.
3. Good quality stoves should be used.
4. Pressure cookers should be used to save fuel.
5. Solar cookers, Solar water heaters should be used
6. The use of biogas as fuel should be encouraged in rural areas.
7. Bicycles should be used for short distances.
Note:
Work out all NCERT Text Book Questions and Exercise Questions.
Worksheet - 1
1. Name two gases, other than carbon dioxide, that are given out during of fossil fuel and
contribute towards acid rain formation.
2. How is charcoal obtained from wood?
3. What is the main basic cause for winds to blow?
4. What is the minimum wind velocity required to obtain useful energy with a wind mill?
5. Name the factor which enables the ocean to act as a store house of energy.
6. Name the main constituent of a biogas and its approximate percentage content
7. Name two main combustible components of bio gas.
8. The mass number of three elements A, B and C are 2, 180 and 235. Which one of them is
suitable to make a hydrogen bomb?
9. Why is bio gas considered as ideal fuel for domestic use?
10. Justify the statement, “Hydrogen is a cleaner and better fuel than CNG.”
11. Out of two solar cookers, on was covered by a plane glass slab and the other was left open.
Which of the two solar cooker will be more efficient and why?
12. Why are many thermal power plants set up near coal or oil fields?
13. Why are solar heating devices painted black?
14. Write the problems faced in construction of big dams.
15. Why is nuclear fusion reaction considered better?
Worksheet- 2
1. Define renewable and non renewable sources of energy? Give examples.
2. What is a good source of energy?
3. What are the characteristics of ideal feel?
4. What is meant by conventional sources of energy? Give examples.
5. What is a fossil fuel? Give examples.
6. Name any four fractions obtained from petroleum which are used as fuels.
7. What is the composition of liquefied petroleum gas?
8. Explain why, natural gas is a good fuel?
9. State important uses of CNG these days.
10. Compare sun and the fossil fuels as the sources of energy.
11. With the help of a labelled diagram, explain the working of a solar cooker.
12. What are advantages and disadvantages of using a solar cooker?
13. State advantages and disadvantages of solar cells?
14. What is biomass?
15. What are the raw materials used for making biogas?
16. Why is biogas considered an ideal fuel for domestic use?
17. Explain how, geothermal energy is used to generate electricity?
18. Explain nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
19. What are the advantages and disadvantages of nuclear energy?
20. What steps would you suggest to reduce energy consumption?
 CHAPTER 15: OUR ENVIRONMENT
Introduction
The environment includes our physical surroundings like air (or atmosphere), water bodies, soil
(land) and all the organisms such as plants, animals, human beings and micro organisms like bacteria
and fungi (called decomposers).
The waste materials produced by the various activities of man and animals are poisonous to some
extent and can be divided into two main groups :
1. Biodegradable wastes, and
2. Non-biodegradable wastes.
Ecosystem
 An ecosystem is a self-contained unit of living things (plants, animals and decomposers), and
their non-living environment (soil, air and water). e.g. a forest, a pond, a lake, a green land etc.
 There are two components of an ecosystem : biotic component and abiotic component.
 Biotic component : It includes three types of organisms:
a) Producer
b) Consumer
c) Decomposer/saprophyte
 Abiotic component
 Consumers can be further divided into three groups : herbivores, carnivores and omnivores.
 Planktons are very minute or microscopic organisms freely floating on the surface of water in a
pond, lake, river or ocean. Planktons are of two types : Phytoplanktons and Zooplanktons.
 The microscopic aquatic plants freely floating on the surface of water are called
phytoplanktons.
 The microscopic aquatic animals freely floating on water are called zooplanktons. The freely
floating protozoa are an example of zooplankton.
 The micro-organisms which break down the complex organic compounds present in dead
organisms like dead plants and animals and their products like faeces, urine, etc. into simpler
substances are called decomposers.
Food Chains and Webs
The sequence of living organisms in a community in which one organism consumes another
organism to transfer food energy, is called a food chain.
A food chain is unidirectional where transfer of energy takes place in only one direction In aquatic
ecosystem of the biosphere, like fresh water ponds, lakes or sea, the food chain starts with
microscopic free floating plants (phytoplankton)
The various steps in a food chain at which the transfer of food (or energy) takes place are called
trophic levels.
The inter-connected food chains operating in an ecosystem which establish a network of relationships
between various species, is called a food web.
How do our activities affect the environment Global Warming
The addition of certain pollutants like the carbon dioxide gases increases the temperature of the earth.
The reduction in the forest cover also contributes to the heating of earth. This is called global
warming.
Ozone Layer formation and importance Ozone (O3) is a molecule formed by three atoms of oxygen.
Ozone, is a deadly poison. It shields the surface of the earth from ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the
Sun. This radiation is highly damaging to organisms.
Ozone at the higher levels of the atmosphere is a product of UV radiation acting on oxygen (O2)
molecule. The higher energy UV radiations split apart some molecular oxygen (O2) into free oxygen
(O) atoms.
The depletion of ozone layer is due to CFC (chloro fluorocarbons).
SOME IMPORTANT POINTS
Flow of materials in an ecosystem is cyclic but flow of energy is unidirectional.
There is a continuous transfer of energy from one trophic level of organisms to the next in a food
chain.
Ten percent law states that only 10 percent of the energy entering a particular trophic level of
organisms is available for transfer to the next higher trophic level.
The increase in concentration of harmful chemical substances like pesticides in the body of living
organisms at each trophic level of a food chain is called biological magnification.
The disposal of waste should be done in a scientific way. There are different methods of waste
disposal. The method to be used depends on the nature of the waste. Some of the important modes of
waste disposal are :
(i) Recycling
(ii) Preparation of compost
(iii) Incineration
(iv) Landfill
(v) Sewage treatment

1) ECOLOGY – The study of the interaction of living organisms with each other and their
surroundings is called ecology.
2) ENVIRONMENT – Everything that surrounds organisms and influences its life.
a) Biotic components of environment --- The living organisms .e.g. Plants and animals.
b) Abiotic components of environment --- The nonliving components like water, air, light, etc.
It is the sum total of all external conditions and influences that affect the life and the development of
organisms i.e.it includes all the biotic and abiotic factors.
3) ECOSYSTEM – All interacting organisms (Biotic components) in an area together with the
nonliving (Abiotic components) constituents of environment. (Functional unit of an environment)
Functions of ecosystem:-
a) Flow of energy
b) Cycling of nutrients (bio-geo chemical cycles).
4) PRODUCERS --- They make the energy from sunlight available to the rest of the ecosystem.
5) CONSUMERS --- Animals cannot manufacture their own food. They are called consumers.
6) BIODEGRABLE ---- Substances that are broken down (biologically) by the action of bacteria or
other saprophytes.
e. g. – Paper.
7) NONBIODEGRABLE --- Substances that are not broken down (Biologically) by the action of
bacteria or saprophytes. e. g. Plastic.
8) FOOD CHAIN ---- A succession of organisms in an ecological community that constitutes a
continuation of food energy from one organism to another as each consumes a lower member and in
turn is preyed upon by a higher member.
GRASS → GRASSHOPPER → FROG → SNAKE
Importance of food chain
1.It helps in transfer of food energy from one organism to another.
2.It is a pathway for the flow of energy.
3. It helps in understanding the interdependence amongst different organisms.
Trophic levels are the various steps in the food chain.
Producers --- first trophic level
Herbivores --- second trophic levels
Carnivores --- third trophic level
Top carnivores --- fourth trophic level
9) FOODWEB ----- It is a network of food links between populations in a community.
10) FLOW OF ENERGY -Ten percent law Energy available at each successive trophic level is 10 % of
the previous level. (Lindeman 1942)
The law states that, “only a 10 % amount of the total available energy is transferred from one trophic
level to the next. The rest 90% of energy is used up or lost to the surrounding.”
11) BIOLOGICAL MAGNIFICATION --- Progressive accumulation of non biodegradable waste at
various trophic levels of food chain.
1. Differences between food chain & food web
Food chain
1. The process of eating & being eaten to transfer food energy.
2. It forms a part of food web.
3. It has limited populations.
Food web
1. It is a system of interconnected food chains.
2. It contains many food chains.
3. It has several populations of different species.
2. HOW DO OUR ACTIVITIES AFFECT THE ENVIRONMENT?
Two major problems:-
a) Depletion of ozone layer
b) Disposal of waste Good ozone and bad ozone
The thick blanket of ozone layer in the atmosphere which forms a protective cover & prevents UV
radiation from reaching the earth‘s surface. This is called good ozone and is found in the
stratosphere. Ozone when present in the troposphere act as a pollutant. This harmful ozone is called
bad ozone.
3. Depletion of ozone layer: The ozone layer protects all the organisms from the harmful ultra violet
rays.
Ozone depleting substances: CFCs, N2O, CH4 , CCl4
These chlorine containing compounds are used in:
Aerosols, solvents, refrigerants and fire extinguishers.
Ozone hole developed over Antarctica.
4. Effects of ozone depletion on human health- Due to depletion of ozone layer UV radiations
reaches the earth and cause:
i) skin cancer ii) increased chances of cataract
iii) suppression of immune system . Managing the garbage we produce
5. Reasons for large production of garbage
i) Improvement in life style
ii) Changes in attitude (more things become disposable)
iii) Population explosion iv) Changes in packaging (non -biodegradable)
6.Will the impact of removing all the organisms in a trophic level be different for
different tropic levels? Can the organisms of any trophic level be removed without causing any
damage to the ecosystem?
Removal of all the organisms of a trophic level will affect the entire ecosystem of that area. Its impact
on different trophic levels will be different because of the organisms of a trophic level are directly
dependent on them while the organisms of other trophic level are indirectly depend on them for their
food. For example, killing of herbivores will increase the number of carnivores and killing of
carnivores will increase the number of herbivores. Most of the organisms will die of starvation.
7.How do flows of energy occur in tropic level?
Energy is used and conveyed from one trophic level to another is a food chain. This is called flow of
energy. Green plants capture about 1% of the solar energy during photosynthesis. A part of this
trapped energy is used by plants in performing their metabolic activities and some energy is released
at heat into the atmosphere. The remaining energy is chemical energy stored in the plants as
‘carbohydrates’.
When plants are eaten up by herbivores, the chemical energy stored in the plants is transferred to
these animals. These animals (herbivores) utilize some of this energy for metabolic activities, some
energy is released as heat and the remaining energy is stored.
8.What are the characteristics of energy transfer in the biosphere?
(i) Energy is supplied by the sun and it is not created in the biosphere. Energy is only converted from
one form to another in the biosphere.
(ii) There is a continuous transfer of energy from one trophic level to the next in a food chain.
(iii)At each trophic level, some of the energy is utilized by the organisms for their metabolic activities.
(iv) At each trophic level, some amount of energy is utilized for the composition of decomposers.
(v) At each trophic level, there is loss of energy, which goes into the environment and remains un-
utilized.
(vi) At each trophic level, the amount of energy available is less than that available at the previous
level.
9.Why is energy flow considered as unidirectional?
The flow of energy is unidirectional and non cyclic. The energy captured by the autotrophs does not
return to the sun, and the energy which passes to the subsequent levels does not come back to
autographs. The amount of energy goes on successively decreasing from the producers to the
carnivores.
10.What is biomass?
The amount of organic matter present in an organism is called biomass.
11.What will happen if we kill the organisms in one trophic level?
The balance in ecosystem will be disturbed because in an ecosystem every trophic level is interlinked
with the other. Thus, absence of any one trophic level will surely create problems for the other
trophic level dependent on the previous one.
12.Define biomagnifications?
The increase in concentration of a chemical per unit weight of the organisms with successive rise in
trophic level is called biomagnifications.
13.How does a food web an important factor of our environment? Describe its four benefits.
(i) Starvation: Food web does not allow any population to starve when members of lower trophic
level decrease in number.
(ii) Checking Overpopulation: Food web does not allow a species to overgrow as increased
availability will increase the chance of higher number of its predations.
(iii) Endangered Population: It allows endangered population to grow in size.
(iv) Stability: Food webs provide stability to ecosystems.
14.What is 10% Law?
The energy available at each successive trophic level is only 10 percent of the previous level.
15.How much energy will be available to hawks in the food chain comprising hawk, snake, paddy
and mice, if 1,000 J of energy is available to wheat plants from the sun?
Wheat plants represent the producer level. They trap only 1% of the sun’s energy falling on them. So,
the energy available in wheat will be 1% of 1,000 J which will be 10 J. We can now show the food
chain and apply ten percent law to it.
Wheat plant (10J) ------10%-----> Mice (1J)----10%-----> Snake (0.1J) -----10% ----> Hawk (0.01J)
Thus, the energy available to the hawk will be 0.01 J.
16. Differentiate between food chain and food web?
Food chain
1. Food chain consists of a single series of food relations.
2. It has maximum 4-6 trophic levels of different species.
3. Each organism uses a particular food.
4. Starvation is observed whenever the members of lower trophic level decrease in number.
Food web
1. Food web is a complex network of several series of food chains or food relations.
2. It has a number of trophic levels or populations of different species.
3. Each organism can use different types of type of food.
4. Food webs do not allow starvation and help in increasing the population of endangered species.
17.Why is damage to the ozone layer a cause of concern? What steps are being taken to limit this
damage?
Ozone layer has become a cause of concern because depletion of ozone layer can cause serious effects
on human body and other organisms of the environment like -
(i) Cancer in human beings.
(ii) Loss of immunity in humans.
(iii) Destruction of aquatic life and vegetation.
(iv) Temperature changes and rainfall failures.
Steps being taken to reduce it are:
(i) By reducing the use of CFCs — Many countries have already banned the use of CFCs.
(ii) By developing substitutes of CFCs — Scientists have already developed some substitutes which
are ozone-friendly.
18. Which compounds are responsible for the depletion of ozone layer?
Ozone depleting substances like chlorofluorocarbons, hydrocarbon, N 2O, chlorine, etc. are
responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer.
19. Which disease is caused in human being due to depletion of ozone layer in the atmosphere?
Ozone layer is located in the atmosphere as a part of stratosphere. Skin cancer is caused in human
being due to depletion of ozone layer in the atmosphere.
20. How is ozone formed in the upper atmosphere? Which compounds are responsible for the
depletion of ozone layer?
The ozone layer occurs naturally in the stratosphere. The ozone layer is formed when intense UV
radiation from the sun reacts with ordinary molecules of oxygen (O2) in the stratosphere to dissociate
into single oxygen atoms (O). Single oxygen atoms are very reactive they combine with O2 to form
O3. The CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons), halons, nitrous oxide, methane, carbon tetrachloride and
chlorine are responsible for the depletion of ozone layer.
21. When is World Ozone Layer Preservation Day celebrated?
World Ozone Layer Preservation Day is celebrated on September 16.
22. What is green house effect?
The gases like CO2 and methane absorb infra red radiations of the sun and cause heating of the earth.
It is known as green house effect.
23. How is ozone layer formed in the atmosphere? What is the function of this layer?
The ozone layer occurs naturally in the stratosphere. The ozone layer is formed when intense UV
radiation from the sun causes ordinary molecules of oxygen (O2) in the stratosphere to dissociate into
single oxygen atoms (O). Single oxygen atoms are very reactive and combine with O 2 to form O3.
O2 +UVradiation→O+O
O + O2 → O3 (ozone)
Function: Ozone absorbs UV radiation from the sun, thus shielding the earth’s surface from the
harmful effects of this radiation eg: skin cancer.
24. Give an example to illustrate that indiscriminate use of pesticides may result in degradation of
environment.
The pesticide used in crop field are washed down into the water bodies. From water bodies these are
absorbed by the aquatic plants and animals of a food chain and thereby degrades the environment.
25. Explain the role of decomposers in the ecosystem?
Role of decomposers are as follows:
1. Return the nutrients to the nutrient pool.
2. Help in completing the different biogeochemical cycles, Thus they maintain balance in the
ecosystem.
VALUE BASED QUESTIONS:
1 a) It is often advised to stop our vehicles engine at red light and also to drive car / vehicles at
constant speed. Based on the above statement, answer the following question. 1. Which type of
fuel is used in vehicles? Is it renewable or non renewable?
b) How can you contribute towards saving these fuels at your level?
1 Fossil fuel – non renewable
Traveling in Metro (MRTS) / Public transport
Opting for CNG as a motor fuel instead of petrol & diesel.
Associated Value: The learners will adopt all these fuel saving techniques in their life.
2 Number of vultures is decreasing remarkably. Now a day’s which is a matter of concern?
a) Vultures belong to which category of animal.
b) What is their role in nature to maintain ecological balance?
i. Scavenger
ii. Help in recycling in nature by eating dead animals.
Associated Value: The learners will be able to understand and participate in maintaining ecological
Balance by not harming other creatures.
3 Newspaper reports about the alarming increase in pesticides level in packed food items Some of
states have even banned these food items.
a) What are the sources of these pesticides in these food items?
b) Name the biological phenomenon associated with accumulation of pesticide in the food chain.
1. Chemicals (Pesticides, Fertilizers) used in agricultural practices.
2. Biological magnification.
Associated Value : The learners will be able to apply rational approach while using such pesticides &
will be more careful towards using packaged food.
4 Ozone depletion / Ozone hole is a cause of concern now a days.
a) What are the causes of ozone depletion?
b) As students what steps will you advise to reduce ozone depletion?
1. Chloro fluoro carbon (CFCs) released into atmosphere disintegrate the ozone molecule.
2. Stop using devices that release CFCs.
Associated Value : The learners will be more educated and will be more vigilant & judicious towards
using equipments /chemical that produces CFCs in order to protect ozone layer.
5. Acid rain is causing damage to monuments / Buildings etc. and also harms the flora and fauna.
a) What is the cause of acid rain?
b) What essential changes in our daily life can lie done to prevent acid rain / damage caused by
acid rain?
1. Oxides of Nitrogen &sulphur released from vehicular & industrial emissions on mixingwith rain
water produces acid rain.
2. Traveling in metro (MRTS) instead of fossil fuel driven vehicles.
Associated Value: The learners will adopt Eco-friendly lifestyle so that lesser amount of (No)x and
(So)x released into atmosphere which are the main contribution factor causing Acid Rain.
6 Plastic production is increasing day by day in spite of the fact that plastic is harmful for the
environment. Based on the above statement answer the following:
a) What are the harmful effects of plastic usage?
b) In our day to day situation what are the alternatives that we can use instead of plastics.
ANS 6i Environmental pollution
Burning plastics can cause pollution
Plastic cause harm to the cattle / animals if enter inside their alimentary canal.
ii. Paper bags / jute bags can be used instead of plastic bag.
Any other relevant view of the student
Associated Value: The learners will be discouraged to use plastics as a source of packaging, storing
as it is non biodegradable.
7. (a) Some items decompose in nature very easily, as they are biodegradable and some items do not
decompose as they are non-biodegradable.
(b) We should replace non-biodegradable materials by biodegradable materials wherever possible. In
addition, non-biodegradable materials should be segregated from biodegradable materials while
disposing them.
(c) I will request the local municipality office to provide two separate waste disposal bins, one for
biodegradable waste and the other for non-biodegradable waste. Through the local counselor or
MLA, I will arrange a talk on safe disposal of waste to educate and encourage people totalize the
waste disposal bins to the optimum.
8. (a) Due to large scale removal of frogs, the population of frogs got reduced in the village. Due to
absence of frog in food chain, grasshopper/mosquito → frog → snake, the population of grasshoppers
and mosquitoes has gone up. Mosquitoes are the carriers of malaria vector and grasshoppers damage
the crop.
(b) Every organism has a very important role in nature and we should not disturb this food chain
artificially. If one link is removed from the food chain, the whole chain gets disturbed and new
problems arise.
(c) I will request him not to renew his contract for supply of frogs with the colleges. This will increase
the frogs population and population of mosquitoes and grasshoppers will decrease and a balance will
be attained soon.
9. (a) We should be very careful in using chemical insecticides and weedicides.
(b) We must wash food properly to remove any external pesticides. However, systemic pesticides
cannot be removed by washing.
(c) Use of organic pesticides such as neem oil and manure should be encouraged by government
though it’s various schemes.
10. (a) Due to ozone hole over Antarctica, harmful ultraviolet rays reach on earth which may have
caused skin cancer to Mr.Hazarika.
(b) We must protect the ozone layer by minimising the useof cholorofluorocarbons.
(c) By arranging street plays, painting competition, etc.
11 (a) Ayush can make few banners requesting tourists to keep the beach clean and put it in different
locations at the beach.
He can also mobilise a few volunteer from local people to start a cleanliness drive on the beach. The
volunteers should be motivated to do the cleanliness drive once or twice every month.
(b) The government can enforce law to prevent people from throwing items on the beach. Designated
place should be kept for eating at the beach. Plastics should not be allowed on the beach. Garbage
bins should be placed at proper distances for easy waste disposal.
 CHAPTER 16: MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES
1. Anything in the environment which can be used is called a natural resource.
Controlling system for the use of natural resources in such a way as to avoid their wastage and to use
them in the most effective way is called management of natural resources.
Ganga Action Plan (GAP) was formulated to reduce pollution load of river Ganga by more than 75%.
The water quality has been tested from time to time by checking Coliform (group of harmless bacteria
in human intestine) number/ 100 ml.
2. Forest and wild life :
 Forests are vast areas, located far away from human inhabitation where wild plants of various
kinds grow and animals of different varieties live without the intervention of humans.
 Forests are “biodiversity hot spots”.
 A person with an interest or concern in something is called a stakeholder.
(A) To consider the conservation of forests, we need to look at the stakeholders who are :-
(i) The people who live in or around forests, are dependent on forest products for various aspects of
their life.
(ii) The Forest Department of the Government which owns the land and controls the resources from
forests.
(iii) The industrialists — from those who use `tendu’ leaves to make bidis to the ones with paper mills
— who use various forest produce.
(iv) The wild life and nature enthusiasts who want to conserve nature in its pristine form.
 A major programme called silviculture has been started to replenish the forests by growing
more trees and plants.
Steps for conservation of energy resources are :
(i) Save electricity, water etc by not using useless.
(ii) Use energy efficient electrical appliances to save electricity.
(iii) Use pressure cooker for cooking food.
(iv) Use solar cookers.
(v) Encourage the use of biogas as domestic fuel
(vi) Fuel efficient motor vehicle should be designed to reduce consumption of petrol and diesel.
3. Pollution
(A) When coal and petroleum based fuels (like petrol and diesel) are burnt, the products
of combustion are : Carbon dioxide, Water, Sulphur dioxide and Nitrogen oxides and if
combustion take place in an insufficient supply of air (or oxygen), then some carbon monoxide
is also produced. Out of all the products of combustion
of these fuels, only water is harmless and does not affect the environment. All other
products are harmful and hence pollute the environment.
(B) The harnessing of water resources by building dams has social, economic
and environmental implications. Alternatives to large dams exist. These are locale-specific and
may be developed so as to give local people control over their local resources.
 The fossil fuels, coal and petroleum, will ultimately be exhausted. Because of this and because
their combustion pollutes our environment, we need to use these resources judiciously.
 The destruction of forests affects not just the availability of forest products but also the quality
of soil and the sources of water.
 Large scale killing of snakes disrupts the food chains in which snakes occur and creates and
imbalance in nature.
 The various sources of water which are available to us are: Rains, Rivers, Lakes, Ponds, Wells,
Oceans and Glaciers (Snow mountains). Rain is a very important source of water.
 The pollution of river water is caused by the dumping of untreated sewage and industrial
wastes into it.
 The contamination of river water can be usually found from two factors :
(i) the presence of coliform bacteria in river water, and
(ii) measurement of pH of river water.
(a) Rain water harvesting is an age-old practice in India. Water-harvesting techniques
used depend on the location where it is to be used.
Various advantages of water stored in the ground are :-
(i) The water stored in ground does not evaporate.
(ii) The water stored in ground spreads out to recharge wells and provides moisture for crops
over a wide area.
(iii) The water stored in ground does not promote breeding of mosquitoes (unlike stagnant
water collected in ponds or artificial lakes).
(iv) The water stored in ground is protected from contamination by human and animal
1. How should substances like plastic, glass, metal, paper be recycled at individual or community
level?
Two steps required for recycling of material are:
. The waste material should he segregated so that it does not affect the recycling process.
. These substances should then be sent to recycling centres present in the city.
The recycling process needs energy.
2. What is reuse strategy? Why is the strategy of reusing the objects considered better than the
recycling strategy?
Any object which can be reused should not, be thrown away. Objects like used envelopes, plastic and
paper bags can be reused. Jam, pickle and squash bottles can be reused for storing kitchen items. It is
a better strategy than recycling of material as it does not require any energy or effort.
3. Do you think that the use of forest resources by, local people will lead to an exhaustion of these
resources?
The use of forest resources by local people cannot exhaust these resources because they have
developed practices to ensure that the resources are used in a sustainable manner.
4. Why do we need to use our resources carefully?
. Resources are limited.
. Human population is increasing at a tremendous rate due to improvement in health care. So, the
demand for these resources is increasing at an exponential rate.
5. What was the effect on local people when the British took over the management of forests?
Local people were forced to depend on very small areas of the forest. But, when the Britishers took
over the management of the forests, they overexploited the forests, and its resources, for their own
purposes.
6. Why are industries not interested in sustainability of any particular area of' a forest?
For industries forest is a source of raw materials. A big industry 1obbies for the contract of one
particular area, for example, the area where teak is growing at very low prices' Moreover, after
getting the teak, they leave this area barren and move on to the area further away from where they
will get more teak. They have nothing to lose and do not consider it their duty to ensure that one
particular area should have optimum amount of resources for the generations to come.
7. Which movement was the result of grass root level effort to end the alienation of people front
their forests?
Chipko movement or 'Hug the Trees movement' occurred in Reni village in Garhwal, high up in the
Himalayas, during the early 1970s. A logging contractor was allowed to fell the trees. His workers
came when men folk were not present, so the ladies together went to the forest and each lady hugged
one tree trunk and didnot allow the workers of the contractor to fell the trees.
8. What is Ganga Action plan?
People have now become aware of the unthinking exploitation of the natural resources. One of the
results of this awareness is the Ganga Action Plan. Ganga water has become polluted and a coliform
bacterium is found growing in the water indicating the presence of disease-causing organisms.
Coliform bacteria is present in our intestines also" The project for cleaning Ganga water, initiated in
1985, is a multi-crore project"
9. Check the pH of the water supplied" to your house by using universal indicator or litmus paper.
Check pH of the water of the local water-body pond, river, lake, and stream. Can you say whether
the water is polluted, or not on the-basis of pH of the local water body of your area?
As an activity you should check the pH of the water supplied to your house by using universal
indicator or litmus paper. You can also check pH of water of local water body like pond, river, lake or
stream. The pH of the water indicates its acidity or alkalinity' Increased acidity or alkalinity of water
causes harmful effects. The presence of acids results in the killing of microorganisms which releases
toxic substances that pollute water. Increased alkalinity causes algae to grow in abundance which
reduces the oxygen content of the water body, killing the organisms in the body and causing their
putrefaction, thus polluting the water.
10. Does prejudice against traditional use of forest areas have any basis? Justify your answer with
the help of an example.
There is no basis for prejudice against the traditional use of forest areas. The great Himalayan
National Park within its reserved area contains alpine meadows, which were grazed by sheep in
summer. Nomadic shepherds brought their flock to this alpine meadow in summer. When this
meadow was made into a national park this practice was stopped. The result of this action was that,
without grazing by sheep, the grass grew very tall and then fell over. This prevented fresh growth
frombelow.
11. How has water been made available to all the people in ancient India?
Local interventions like dams, tanks and canals were in use.
These were managed by local people who assured that the basic minimum requirement of water for
agriculture and daily needs were met throughout the year.
Use of stored water was strictly regulated and the system for cropping patterns was based on
availability of water. The cropping patterns were on the basis of experience gained through decades
and centuries. Maintenance of these irrigation systems was also done by the local people.
12. What are the uses of dams?
. Large dams ensure the storage of adequate water for irrigation.
. Dams also help in generating electricity.
. Canal systems leading from these dams have been able to supply water to far offplaces where there
is scarcity of water. For example, the Indira Gandhi Canalbrought water to large areas of Rajasthan
due to which it has now become agreen area to a great extent.
13. What are the three problems addressed, against the construction of dams?
There is strong opposition against the construction of large dams such as Tehri dam on river Ganga
and raising the height of Sardar Sarovar dam on Narmada-
This also led to the Narmada Bachao Andolan' The problems are:
. Large number of peasants and tribals are displaced without being adequately compensated'
. Large amount of money goes into the construction of large dams' while thebenefits obtained are not
high.
. Dam construction causes deforestation and loss of biodiversity, as large area: are required to
construct them.
14. What is watershed management? What is its aim? What are its benefits?
Watershed management emphasizes scientific conservation of soil and water so as toincrease the
biomass production'
Its aim is to develop primary resources of land and water and to produce secondary resources for
plants and animals to be used without causing ecological imbalance
Benefits of watershed management:
. Increase in the production and income of the watershed community'
. Decrease in the chances of droughts and floods'
. Increase in the life of the downstream dams and reservoirs
15. Why do we need to use our resources judiciously?
.Our resources are limited.
.Human population is increasing at a tremendous rate due to better healthcarefacilities. So, the
demand for all resources is increasing at an exponential rate.
.The management of natural resources requires a long-term planning to makethe resources last for
many generations to come, and also to stop short-termexploitation.
.Management should ensure that the resources are equally shared, so that thebenefits are given
equally to the poor people and the rich such that the powerfulare not the only people who are
benefitted.
.Precautions should also be taken to protect the environment, while theseresources are extracted or
used. For example, duri.ng mining, slag, a waste, isproduced which pollutes the environment.
16. What are conservationists and, wildlife enthusiasts doing for con serving forests and wildlife?
Have they involved the local people? Give an example of the participation of local people.
Conservationists and wildlife enthusiasts have a lot to say in the management ofthe forest and
wildlife. Primarily, aim of the conservationists was to protect largeanimals like tigers, lions, elephants
and rhinoceros. Later, they recognised theneed to preserve biodiversity as well. They also involved
local people for traditionalconservation of forests. One example has been cited here.
' For the Bishnoi community in Rajasthan, conservation of forests has been areligious work.
' Amrita Devi Bishnoi in 1731 sacrificed her life along with 363 other people forthe protection of
Khejri trees in Khejrali village near Jodhpur in Rajasthan.
' The Government of India has recently instituted an 'Amrita Devi Bishnoi National Award for
Wildlife Conservation' in the memory of Amrita Devi Bishnoi.
17. How was sal forests revived?
The Forest Department in West Bengal recognised the threat by militant peasants A.K. Banerjee, a
forest officer, involved the villagers in reviving the sal forests in Arabari forest range of Midnapur
district. The local villagers were involved to protect the 1,272 hectares of badly degraded sal forests.
Villagers were employed in silviculture and harvesting programmes. They were also given 25% of the
final harvest and allowed to collect fuel, wood and fodder on payment of a nominal fee. With this
type of participation, the sal forests recovered remarkably by 1983 and the forest were valued at Rs.
12.5 crore.
18. What are the advantages of underground water?
. Advantages ofunderground water are:
. It does not evaporate.
. Recharging of the wells occurs as water goes downwards. . It provides water for vegetation over a
wide area"
. It does not provide conditions for breeding of mosquitoes like in stagnant water.
. It usually does not get contaminated by human and animal waste.

19. Coal is used in thermal power stations, and, petroleum products like petrol and diesel are used
as means of transport like motor vehicles, ships and aero planes. We cannot really imagine life
without a number of electrical appliances and constant use of transportation. Mention some ways
by which our consumption of coal and. petroleum products can be reduced.
Burden on coal and petroleum can be reduced by using public transport and carpooling; Cycling and
walking should be preferred. Fuels which do not cause any kind of pollution like alcohol, hydrogen
and water, will help in reducing the consumption of coal and petroleum.
.Cheaper fuels like CNG or LPG should be used. They produce less poisonous gases' wherever
possible, wind energy, tidal energy, geothermal energy and solar energy should be used.
.Production of electricity requires coal and petroleum. So, instead of electricity other forms of energy
should be used like solar energy tidal energy, wind energy and atomic energy.
. Cooking, lighting and heating can be done by using biogas or solar energy.
.Systems like metro railways are a good means of transportation, these are very fast and cause very
little pollution.
20. What changes can you make in your habits to become more environment-friendly?
We should switch off the electrical appliances when not in use. Water and food should not be wasted.
Close the tap when not in use. Dump the objects made of plastic and glass in designated recycling
boxes. Plastic, paper, or glass must be recycled or reused and not dumped with other wastes. This is
because objects made of plastic do not get decomposed easily. Besides soil fertility, they badly affect
our environment. We should dispose the wastes safely and not disperse in public places. These are a
few things that can be done to become more environment- friendly.
21. What would be the advantages of exploiting resources with short-term aims?
There should be a judicious use of natural resources as they are limited in nature. We should not
exploit resources for our short term gains as this would only lead to depletion of natural resources for
the present generation as well as generations to come. Hence, we can say that there are hardly any
advantages of exploiting natural resources for short term gains.
22. How would these advantages differ from the advantages of using a long-term perspective in
managing our resources?
In the case of a long-time perspective in managing our resources, these resources will last for the
generations to come. This management ensures uniform distribution among the people. It conserves
the natural resources for many years and not just for a few years, as in the case of a short-term
perspective in conserving natural resources.
23. Why do you think there should be equitable distribution of resources? What forces would be
working against an equitable distribution of our resources?
Natural resources of the Earth must be distributed among the people uniformly so that each and
every one gets his share of the resource.
Human greed, corruption, and the lobby of the rich and powerful are the forces working against an
equitable distribution of resources.
24. Why should we conserve forests and wildlife?
We should conserve forests and wildlife to preserve the biodiversity (range of different life-forms) so
as to avoid the loss of ecological stability. A large number of tribes are the habitants in and around
the forests. If the forests are not conserved, then it may affect these habitants. Without proper
management of forest and wildlife, the quality of soil, the water sources, and even the amount of
rainfall may be affected. Without forest and wildlife, life would become impossible for human beings.
25. Suggest some approaches towards the conservation of forests.
Some approaches towards the conservation of forests are as follows:
(a) People should show their participation in saving the forest by protesting against the cutting of
trees. For example, Chipko Andolan
(b) Planting of trees should be increased. Rate of Afforestation must be more than that of
deforestation.
(c) Some people cut precious trees such as Sandal wood to earn money. Government should take legal
steps to catch these wood smugglers.
(d) Habitants of forests must not be bothered by the forest officials. Otherwise, this would result in
the clash between tribal people and the government officials, thereby enhancing the naxal activities in
forests.
Find out about the traditional systems of water harvesting/management in your region.
One of the traditional systems of water harvesting used in our region is tanks.
Compare the above system with the probable systems in hilly/mountainous areas or plains or plateau
regions.
In plains, the water harvesting structures are crescent-shaped earthen embankments. These are low,
straight, and concrete.
In hilly regions, the system of canal irrigation called Kulhs is used for water harvesting.
This involves a collection of rain water in a stream, which is then diverted into man-made channels
down the hill sides.
26. Find out the source of water in your region/locality. Is water from this source available to all
people living in that area?
The source of water in our region is ground water. Water from the source is available to all the
people living in that area.
27. What changes would you suggest in your home in order to be environment-friendly?
Changes that can be undertaken in our homes to be environment-friendly are listed below:
(i)Switch off the electrical appliances when not in use.
(ii)Turn the taps off while brushing or bathing and repair the leaking taps.
(iii)Throw biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste into separate bins.
(iv)Construct composting pits.
(v)Food items such as jam, pickles, etc., come packed in plastic bottles. These bottles can later be used
for storing things in the kitchen.
28. Can you suggest some changes in your school which would make it environment-friendly?
Changes that can be undertaken in our schools to make it environment friendly are listed below:
(i) Electricity can be saved by switching off lights and fans when not required.
(ii) Turn the taps off when not in use.
(iii) Biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes should be thrown into separate bins.
29. We saw in this chapter that there are four main stakeholders when it comes to forests and
wildlife. Which among these should have the authority to decide the management of forest
produce? Why do you think so?
The forest department of the government should have the authority to decide the management of
forest produces. This is because the forest department is the care taker of the forest land and is
responsible for any damage to the forest.
30. How can you as an individual contribute or make a difference to the management of (a) forests
and wildlife, (b) water resources and (c) coal and petroleum?
(a) Forest and wildlife:
(i) We should protest against the cutting of trees (deforestation).
(ii) We should protest against the poaching of wild animals.
(iii) We should stop the annexation of forest land for our use.
(b) Water resources:
(i) Turn the taps off while brushing or bathing and repair leaking taps.
(ii) We should practice rainwater harvesting.
(iii) We should avoid the discharge of sewage and other wastes into rivers and other water resources.
(c) Coal and petroleum:
(i) We should take a bus or practice car pooling to avoid excessive use of petroleum.
(ii) We should stop using coal as a fuel (angithis).
(iii)We should use alternative sources of energy such as hydro-energy and solar energy instead of
depending largely on coal and petroleum.
31. What can you as an individual do to reduce your consumption of the various natural resources?
Natural resources such as water, forests, coal and petroleum, etc. are important for the survival of
human beings. The ways in which we can reduce the consumption of various natural resources are as
follows:
(i) We should stop the cutting of trees (deforestation).
(ii) We should use recycled paper to reduce the cutting down of trees.
(iii) We should not waste water.
(iv) We should practice rainwater harvesting.
(v) We should practice car pooling to avoid the excessive use of petroleum.
(vi) We should use alternative sources of energy such as hydro-energy and solar energy.
32. List five things you have done over the last one week to −
(a) conserve our natural resources
(b) increase the pressure on our natural resources
(a) To conserve our natural resources:
(i) Travel by a CNG bus for long distances and walk for short distances
ii) Use recycled paper
(iii) Throw biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste into separate bins
(iv) Plant trees
(v) Harvest rainwater
(b) To increase the pressure on our natural resources:
(i) Use non-renewable resources of energy
(ii) Waste water
(iii) Waste electricity
(iv) Use plastics and polythene bags for carrying goods
(v) Use escalators
33. On the basis of the issues raised in this chapter, what changes would you incorporate in your
life-style in a move towards a sustainable use of our resources?
One should incorporate the following changes in life-style in a move towards a sustainable use of our
resources:
(i) Stop cutting trees and practice plantation of trees.
(ii) Stop using plastic and polythene bags for carrying goods.
(iii) Use recycled paper.
(iv) Throw biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste into separate bins.
(v) Waste minimum amount of water while using and repair leaking taps.
(vi) Practice rainwater harvesting.
(vi) Avoid using vehicles for short distances. Instead, one can walk or cycle to cover short distances.
To cover long distances, one should take a bus instead of using personal vehicles.
(vii) Switch off electrical appliances when not in use.
(viii) Use fluorescent tubes in place of bulbs to save electricity.
(ix) Take stairs and avoid using lifts.
(x) During winters, wear an extra sweater to avoid using heaters.

VALUE BASED QUESTIONS:

1 Chipko movement was stared in 1970s in a small village of Garhwal high up in Himalayas
villagers stood against greedy contractors. Women folk hugged the trees. The chipko – movement
spread slowly to all nearby areas under the leadership of Shri Sunder LalBahuguna. 1. Do you feel
inspired by this movement which prevented felling of trees. 2. Do you think that local people are
real stake holders? 3. Which old belief has been challenged by chipko movement?
1. Yes 2. Yes 3 Chipko movement has challenged the old belief that forests are meant only for timber.
Gift of trees to us is soil, water, oxygen. Associated Value : The learners will be motivated for Tree
plantation drive and will be discouraged to be a part in reckless cutting of trees.
2 There are certain N.G.O‟s which motivate the general public to donate clothes books toys,
stationary items, utensils etc to them. There N.G.O.‟s further segregate and distribute these items
to the needy. In your opinion what objective / objectives are fulfilled by this initiative?
1. Good initiative approach of reuse 2. Sensitizing general public towards community Associated
Value : The learners will become more socially responsible citizen by contributing their share towards
much generous acts of society towards their under privileged fellows.

3 Reena is a student of class X of a Govt. School she is a member of Eco club of her school. What
suggestions would like to give Reena to improve the environment in her school?
1. Growing plants and trees in the open area in the school. 2 Arrangement for water harvesting 3.
Reporting any kind of water leakage in the school. Associated Value : The learners will be motivated
to act like a eco-club members and participate actively in its all environment saving activities
4 Human population was less in early days. Men used to live in harmony with nature however, in
present time tremendous growth of population and science & technology is resulting in fast
depletion of natural resources. 1. Don’t you think, it is high time that humans should realize that
their own survival is in danger if they do not follow the path of sustainable development. 2. What
are the ill effects of unsustainable development?
1. Yes 2. Global warming, degradation of environment health hazards. Associated Value : The
learners will appreciate the fact that rational use of natural resourses is their responsibilities towards
saving has nature for future generations as well.

5 My sister is in habit of keeping the tap open while brushing her teeth. She loves to bathe under
shower. My neighbour uses hosepipe attached to drinking water supply pipe for washing his
scooter & car. According to me their way of handling the most precious source water is absolutely
wrong. 1. Do you agree with me or not? 2. What changes in the above situation can be done to
conserve water.
1. Agreed 2. One should minimize use of water, should not keep the taps open when not in use,
should use bucket of water for cleaning purpose for taking bath, as these practices consume less
water. Associated Value : The learners will start using water resources more judiciously to avoid its
waste
6 Govt. of India has recently instituted an Amrita Devi Bishnoi National Award for wildlife
conservation in the memory of Amrita Devi Bishnoi. Who sacrificed her life along with 363 others
for the protection of khejri trees near Jodhpur in Rajasthan. Based an the above statement answer
the following question. 1. How trees are important to us? 2. How can you protect trees? 3. What is
the significance of Van Mahotsava?
1 Trees are the basis of human and animal life; no life can exist without them. We are directly or
indirectly dependent on the trees for all our requirements. 2. We can protect trees by taking care of
these. By reducing our needs and by not wasting the paper. 3. mahotsava is the festival celebrated to
enhance the plantation of trees. Associated Value : Same as in 1.

7 Sneha and Sugandha are friends. Sneha belongs to a rich family and she believes in throwing
and discarding the things after use while Sugandha does not like wastage and she reused the
things. Based on above information answer the following questions :- 1. How reusing the things
avoid wastage. 2. List any two examples where you can reuse the things. 3. What change can you
make in your habits to become more Eco-friendly.
1. Reusing means using the things again and again thus without wastage of any energy we can use
the things. 2. Old envelop can be reused. Old news papers can be used to make cards, pots,
decorative pieces etc. 3. By adopting the principles of three „R‟s we can make ourselves Eco-Friendly.
Associated Value : The learners will be motivated to adopt 3 R‟s (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle) in their life
to save her environment.

8 Business is not only about accumulating wealth and glory. It is not about growth for the sake of
size. It is about being a good corporate citizen and the admirer of the environment. How can you
say that being a good citizen is more important than becoming a successful businessman? How
can you become a good and responsible citizen?
Being a good citizen is more important than becoming a successful business man because if we are
not good citizen our action will take our country towards destruction. Associated Value : The
learners will appreciate the fact that one should not involve in any business gain activity which may
also harm the environment.

9 Water is one of our most precious commodities and no life can survive without it. It has been
predicted that water scarcity will become the subject of “Wars” is the near future. 1. Write any two
ways in which water is getting polluted? 2. Write any two measures to stop water pollution at your
level?
1. By industrial waste. By human activities. By not throwing waste materials and garbage into water.
2. By sensitizing people about harmful effects of water pollution. or any other methods. Associated
Value : The learners will become more responsible by discouraging any activity in their life that may
cause water pollution.

10 Tourism sector is a major source of income for Govt. To obtain more income the hills are being
converted into tourist places where rest houses and resorts are made and millions of tourists visit
those hills. They throw plastic covers, bottles and other litter there and destroy them. As a
responsible citizen of the country what two precautions you would take while visiting tourist
place.
While visiting to tourist places we should not throw garbage and waste materials. 1. We should not
try to temper with the natural beauty of that place. Associated Value : The learners will appreciate
the very idea of keeping the tourist spot clean whenever they visit their as these are our natural
heritage.

11 Human actions are leading to environmental problems. But we need not feel powerful or
helpless as there are many things we can do to make a difference. Keeping in view the above
statement answer the following questions:- 1. What are the three R’s which can make a difference
in our environment. 2. How can you contribute at your own level to save the environment.
1. Reduce reuse and recycle 2. By becoming Eco-friendly By planting trees, by not throwing garbage
etc.
12. There is a garbage bin installed near your school gate where children and other staff of the school
throw waste food, tetra pack, plastic, waste paper, empty mineral water bottle, etc. The bin is cleared
by municipality every day which they dump in a landfill area.
a) Can you suggest any improvement in this waste disposal system of your school?
b) What action will you take in your school to conserve energy?
c) Give an idea which can discourage travelling of students by personal car.
13. Rapid industrialisation of the world is associated with rapid deforestation and extinction of
various species. Large scale felling of trees, poaching, etc have disturbed the ecological balance. Total
forest coverage in the world is decreasing at an alarming rate and combined effort from all the stake
holders to stop deforestation is the need of the hour. Unless forest cover is restored, biodiversity is
preserved; the civilization will not last long.
(a) Who is your favourite environmentalist?
(b) What are the environmental issues he is associated with?
(c) How would you like to contribute towards conservation of nature?