Remote Sensing of Environment 94 (2005) 31 – 38

www.elsevier.com/locate/rse

Application of wavelet analysis to the study of spatial pattern of

morphotectonic lineaments in digital terrain models. A case study
Gyozo Jordana,b,c,*, Bertram Schottd,1
a
Geological Institute of Hungary, Budapest, Hungary
b
Uppsala University, Institute for Earth Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
c
Joint Research Centre of the European Commission, Ispra, Italy
d
University of Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands

Received 23 February 2004; received in revised form 6 August 2004; accepted 15 August 2004

Abstract

Tectonic faults are often associated with characteristic geomorphological features such as linear valleys, ridgelines and slope breaks that
can be identified as lineaments in remotely sensed images or digital terrain models. Lineaments of tectonic origin are often characterised by
periodicity and characteristic spatial pattern. Unlike traditional methods of autocorrelation, variogram, lineament density and Fourier
analysis, wavelet analysis is capable of capturing and describing both periodicity and spatial pattern of lineaments. In this paper, a case study
is shown for the application of wavelet analysis to morphotectonic lineament investigation. Results of wavelet analysis are compared to
traditional methods. Although this study involves DEM-derived morphological lineaments, the presented wavelet analysis can be also used
for lineaments derived from remotely sensed images. These results hold for this case study and provide a good assessment of the relative
abilities of wavelet analysis, but it remains to be seen how effective it is for other data sources, areas and geological terrain.
D 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Digital elevation model; Digital terrain modelling; Lineament; Morphometry; Structural geology; Tectonic geomorphology; Wavelet analysis

1. Introduction series of pixels having similar terrain values (Koike et al.,

Tectonic faults are often associated with characteristic
geomorphological features such as linear valleys, ridge-
lines and slope breaks that can be identified as lineaments
in remotely sensed images or digital elevation models
(DEMs). Lineaments are defined as straight linear
elements visible at the Earth’s surface and which are the
representations of geological and/or geomorphological
phenomena (Clark & Wilson, 1994). In geomorphometric
analysis, a linear feature can have geometric origin only
and represent a change in terrain elevation, such as a
valley or ridgeline, slope break or inflex line. In terms of
digital terrain modelling, a lineament is a continuous
* Corresponding author. Joint Research Centre of the European
Commission, Ispra, Italy. Tel.: +39 0332 785202.
E-mail address: gyozo.jordan@jrc.it (G. Jordan).
1
Present affiliation: Vishay Electronic GmbH, Selb, Germany.
0034-4257/$ - see front matter D 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.rse.2004.08.013
1998).
One of the most important characteristics of faulted
rock is that fractures and related morphological linea-
ments are often located equidistantly (Ramsay & Hubert,
1987; Siegal & Gillespie, 1980), and thus periodicity of
morphological lineaments can be an indication of tectonic
origin. Equidistant morphological lineaments can also be
associated with linear sand dunes (Bullard et al., 1997)
and glacial lineaments (Clark, 1993), for example;
however, it is usually fairly easy to distinguish these
from geological lineaments, on the basis of shape and
from remotely sensed spectral indications of surface
cover. Another important feature of faulted rock is the
spatial pattern of fractures and related morphological
lineaments that is characteristic to the stress field causing
rock fracturing (Prost, 1994; Keller & Pinter, 1996). The
basis of morphotectonic lineament analysis is that under
certain conditions periodicity and spatial pattern of
32 G. Jordan, B. Schott / Remote Sensing of Environment 94 (2005) 31–38
fractures are reflected by the associated geomorphologic
features.
Analysis of periodicities and spatial pattern of morpho-
tectonic lineaments is not a trivial task. Autocorrelation,
variogram and Fourier analysis have been used to study
periodicities in digital terrain models (Harrison & Lo, 1996;
Jordan, 2003). Problems for these methods emerge from the
fact that valleys often curve and there are confluences down
valley and that ridge height and spacing may vary (Evans,
1972). In addition, these methods are insensitive to the
spatial heterogeneity; that is, they cannot capture a linea-
ment pattern if it is present only in a certain location or in a
part of the studied terrain. Spatial pattern of lineaments and
location of heterogeneities are most commonly studied by
lineament density calculation. This method gives the
location of morphotectonic lineaments but cannot yield
information on periodicities. Common in all of these
methods is that they need large number of lineaments for
statistical calculations thus these are unable to analyse single
features. Since lineaments are single lines resulting in
impulse signal characteristics, Fourier analysis is unable to
handle them. Wavelet analysis has been developed to
overcome these shortcomings of other signal processing
methods (Daubechies, 1990), and thus it offers a convenient
means of analysing morphotectonic lineaments in DEMs.
Previous geological studies have shown that the Káli
Basin located to the north of Lake Balaton in Hungary was
preformed by Cretaceous compressional tectonics resulting
in NE–SW reverse faults and folds (Budai et al., 1999) (Fig.
1A). The basin was further shaped by left-lateral strike-slip
faults in a stress field with N–S oriented shortening axis
during the Miocene (Dudko, 1997). According to the simple
Fig. 1. (A) Geology of the study area. Fault lines and fold axes indicated in geological maps are shown. (B) Shaded relief model for the Káli Basin, Hungary.
Light arrow indicates illumination direction. Heavy arrows show N–S lineament zones identified by wavelet analysis. See text for details.
shear model with left-lateral shear sense, NW–SE-facing
large slopes in the north and south are parallel to the
principal displacement zone (PDZ) (Fig. 1B), N–S running
valleys follow extensional faults and NW–SE running slope
edges correspond to antithetic shears (Dudko, 1999; Jordan,
2003) (Fig. 1B). These three major directions were also
identified by digital morphotectonic analysis (Jordan &
Csillag, 2001; Jordan et al., 2003).
The objective of the paper is to investigate spatial
periodicity and pattern of the N–S oriented lineaments
identified in the DEM of the Káli Basin by means of wavelet
analysis. Results of wavelet analysis are compared to
traditional methods of autocorrelation analysis, variogram
analysis, Fourier analysis, lineament density map and visual
image interpretation, and advantages of wavelet analysis are
discussed.
2. Study area
The Káli Basin is located in the southwestern part of the
Balaton Highland in the Carpatho–Pannonian region in
Hungary (Trunko, 1995; Budai et al., 1999). The southern
bordering hills are made up by folded Permian red
sandstone (Fig. 1A). In the central and eastern parts, gently
folded Triassic sediments are exposed. The majority of the
basin is filled with horizontally bedded Tertiary clastic
sediments. Late Miocene to Pliocene basaltic volcanics
occur in the northern and western parts of the area (Fig. 1A).
The western boundary of the basin is marked by a series of
volcanic cones aligned in a narrow N–S zone. SE-verging
reverse faults in the northern domain and folds in the
 G. Jordan, B. Schott / Remote Sensing of Environment 94 (2005) 31–38
southern part formed during the Cretaceous (Fig. 1A).
Strike-slip faulting dominated in the region during the
Miocene, and extensional tectonics characterised the latest
Tertiary (Late Miocene and Pliocene). At present, the area is
seismically inactive.
A DEM of the Káli Basin was obtained from the national
DTA-50 digital grid elevation database, initially produced via
a third-order spline function to interpolate from an original
data set of 10-m contour lines. The horizontal resolution of
the grid is 50
50 m and the vertical resolution is 1 m.
Elevations above sea level are given as integers in metres.
3. Methods
3.1. Extraction of lineaments from DEM
Two lineament extraction procedures were applied in this
study: (1) interactive visual lineament interpretation of
terrain models and (2) an automatic procedure using digital
drainage network extraction to identify valley and ridge-
lines. Eight shaded relief models were calculated at an
azimuth interval of 458 and constant insolation inclination
of 508, using Lambertian reflection method and six-time
vertical exaggeration. For the analysis of flat basin areas, a
20 times vertical exaggeration was applied. Lineaments
represented by boundaries between light and dark tones in a
shaded relief image indicate slope changes. Since locations
of shading change with illumination azimuth and inclina-
tion, lineament identification was enhanced by the overlay
of elevation contour map showing the exact location of
valleys, ridges and slope breaks. Lineaments were manually
digited in each model and then the resulting eight lineament
maps were combined into one. Lineaments were also
digitised on screen from slope, aspect, curvature and
directional derivative maps (Jordan & Csillag, 2001,
2003). Valley lines were defined by digital drainage network
extraction method using the TOPAZ hydrological model
(Garbrecht & Martz, 1995). All the obtained lineaments
were combined into one map by overlay and manual
elimination of line replicates. Distribution and relationships
among lines were then described by length and orientation
frequencies calculated for the entire study area or subareas.
A lineament density map was calculated for the N–S
(NF108) lineaments using a 250
250 m moving window.
Finally, lineaments were extracted from a 1:100,000 DEM
(100
100 m resolution) covering half of the Balaton
Highland in order to check if morphological features found
in the Káli Basin are also present at a regional scale (Jordan
et al., 2003).
3.2. Wavelet analysis of morphotectonic lineaments
From a signal processing point of view, periodicity and
pattern analysis of lineaments requires a method that can:
(1) analyse signal frequency, (2) capture the location of
33
signals features, and (3) handle binary indicator functions.
Fourier analysis has been widely used for frequency
analysis of images, but location information is lost by
transforming the signal to the frequency domain. When
looking at a Fourier transform of a signal, it is impossible to
tell where a particular event took place. Short-time Fourier
Transform (STFT) uses a moving window to obtain location
information (Gabor, 1956); however, due to the fixed
window size, time and frequency information can be
obtained with limited precision that is determined by the
window size. Fourier analysis also fails to satisfy criteria 3
because it is incapable of analysing indicator functions.
Wavelet analysis is however capable of revealing aspects of
data that other signal analysis techniques miss, such as
breakdown points, discontinuities and self-similarity (Mal-
lat, 1989; Lee & Yamamoto, 1994). In general, signals with
sharp changes can be better analysed with an irregular
wavelet than with a smooth sinusoid. Local features can be
described better with wavelets that have local extent.
Continuous wavelet transform (CWT) used in this study
is defined as the sum over all time of the signal multiplied
by scaled, shifted versions of the wavelet function w:
Z
C ðscale; positionÞ ¼ f ðt Þwðscale; position; t Þdt
The results of the CWT are many wavelet coefficients C,
which are a function of scale and position. Scaling a wavelet
means stretching it based on the scale factor. Shifting a
wavelet function f(t) by k means delaying it as represented
by f(t-k). Wavelet analysis comprises the following simple
steps: (1) a selected wavelet function is compared to a
section at the start of the original signal, (2) wavelet
coefficient C is calculated that represents how closely
correlated the wavelet is with this section of the signal; the
higher C is, the more the similarity, (3) the wavelet is shifted
to the right, and steps 1 and 2 are repeated until the whole
signal is covered, and (4) steps 1 through 3 are repeated for
all scales (Misit et al., 2001). This procedure results in the C
coefficients at different scales by different sections of the
signal. In the C coefficient plot, the x-axis represents
position along the signal, the y-axis represents scale, and
grey shade at each x–y point represents the magnitude of the
wavelet coefficient C (see Fig. 4).
In this study, continuous 1D wavelet analysis was
performed on the N–S lineaments because visual inspection
of the terrain models and the lineament map suggested
equidistance in this set. The rose diagram showed very little
angular dispersion in this direction (see Fig. 2A); thus,
lineaments of NF108 orientation were extracted for further
analysis. Analysis of lineament density map (see Fig. 2B)
suggested that, despite the strong discontinuity of these
lineaments, N-oriented lineaments are found in well-defined
N–S running zones, justifying the extension and connection
of lineaments within these zones. Thus, NF108 lines were
rotated to N08 around their centre point and were extended
to the upper and lower map boundaries. This resulted in
34 G. Jordan, B. Schott / Remote Sensing of Environment 94 (2005) 31–38

Fig. 2. (A) Lineament map. Black lines are line features (valleys, ridges and slope breaks) digitised from the terrain models. Thick light-grey lines show fracture
lines shown in geological maps. Thick dark-grey lines show fracture lines recognised by other studies. Inset: rose diagram of lineaments. (B) Lineament density
map for N–S (NF108) lineaments. Light tones indicate higher densities. Topographic contours are also shown. Heavy and light arrows show location and width
of lineament zones calculated by wavelet analysis, respectively.

parallel running N-oriented lines with alternating densities,
much similar to a bar code. This dimageT was then sampled
along a perpendicular E–W line and a binary indicator
function was created so that values 1 and 0 were assigned to
the line intersection and background points, respectively.
Instead of numerical processing, all these calculations were
performed by means of basic vector analysis calculations.
The resulting binary indicator function was used for wavelet
analysis. The continuous wavelet analysis used the Mexican
hat wavelet transform in this study (Misit et al., 2001).
Wavelet analysis was performed with MATLABR Wavelet
Toolbox in a few seconds of processing time.
3.3. Other methods for morphotectonic lineament analysis
Autocorrelation and Fourier analyses reveal lineation
(anisotropy) and periodicity of landscape due to faulting or
folding. The autocorrelation property can also be studied by
calculating semivariograms in different directions (Curran,
1988). In order to overcome the problem of converging
ridges of alternating height, analysis in this study was
limited only to valley lines defined by the TOPAZ digital
drainage network extraction method. A binary image of the
extracted channel network was used to create an artificial
elevation model of valleys (Jordan, 2003). In order to
increase signal width, channel lines were widened with
mathematical morphology dilatation using a 3
3 structuring
element (Gonzalez & Woods, 1993). Background pixels
were assigned zero while channel pixels received a constant
elevation value. In this way a DEM was obtained depicting
a horizontal plane with three-pixel wide channel lines
carved into it. The three pixel-wide drainage lines were
then smoothed with a 3
3 average filter. This resulted in the
widening of the deep canyons into valleys with smoothly
curving sides (Jordan, 2003). The resulting valley network
had uniform depth and it was used for analysis of periodicity
by means of autocorrelation, Fourier and directional vario-
gram analysis.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Lineament extraction and verification
According to the rose diagram of lineaments (Fig. 2A),
three major orientations characterise the morphology of the
study area: (1) NE–SW, (2) NW–SE and (3) N–S. Valleys,
ridgelines and slope breaks corresponding to these three
directions crosscut the entire study area indicating a regional
origin of these features. Extracted lineaments also run across
various lithologies and are parallel to the known tectonic
lines of the area (Fig. 1A). Among the three sets of
lineaments, the N–S oriented set contains the shortest lines
on average and it has very little directional dispersion (Fig.
2A). This set is most apparent in the western part of the
study area. Slope edges corresponding to the N–S linea-
ments are sharp (Fig. 1B).
Verification of the lineament map was made by
comparison with other data. Lineaments extracted from
the gravity map using digital edge detection methods
 G. Jordan, B. Schott / Remote Sensing of Environment 94 (2005) 31–38 35

(Vertesy & Kiss, 1995) coincide with lineaments identified
by the terrain modelling in this study. Previous studies in the
Káli Basin (e.g., Nemeth & Martin, 1999) have recognized
N–S orientations of volcanic structures such as basalt dykes
associated with faults (Fig. 2A). Digitised lineament maps
of two remotely sensed image analysis studies using aerial
photographs (Csillag, 1989) and satellite images (Marsi &
Sikhegyi, 1985) also show a fair correspondence with the
DEM-based lineament map. The major lines in the three
principal directions are all present in the regional-scale
DEM and these can be followed far beyond the study area
(Jordan et al., 2003).
4.2. Spatial analysis of lineaments with traditional methods
The lineament density map (Fig. 2B) calculated for the
N–S oriented lineaments shows that linear morphological
features in this direction are the most frequent in a few N–S
zones. These zones are more or less equidistant from each
other and they are found in the western part of the basin

Fig. 3. (A) Directional second derivative image in E–W direction. Image is smoothed with 3
3 moving average kernel to improve visual interpretability.
Arrows emphasise N–S lineation. (B) Autocorrelation analysis of the DEM. Contour lines and grey scales show correlation values. Positive values are
emphasised with darker tones. R=0.3 and r=0.4 contour lines are outlined with white. White arrow indicates NE–SW anisotropy direction. (C) Periodogram of
the channel network. (D) Variograms of the channel network in the E–W, NE–SW and NW–SE directions shown by dotted line, light- and dark-grey lines,
respectively. Arrows and figures indicate periodicity in the E–W direction.
36 G. Jordan, B. Schott / Remote Sensing of Environment 94 (2005) 31–38
only. The exact location of these zones is hard to identify
with this method and thus their spacing cannot be measured
accurately (Fig. 2B).
Second-order directional derivatives were calculated by
convolution filtering in the four principal compass direc-
tions and resulting grey-scale maps were stretched and
displayed. Second-order derivatives in the horizontal direc-
tion revealed prominent N–S linear features shown in Fig.
3A. It is interesting that these features are present only in the
western half of the image.
Autocorrelation analysis was performed after extraction
of a linear trend and subsequent 5
5 average smoothing of
the DEM in order to study lineation (anisotropy) and
periodicity due to faulting or folding (Jordan, 2003).
Autocorrelation analysis for the whole area and the drain-
age-based artificial DEM both showed that NE–SW
morphological features are the most prominent causing
anisotropy with NE–SW lineation (Fig. 3B). However,
autocorrelation analyses failed to show periodicities of
lineaments (Jordan, 2003; Jordan & Csillag, 2003).
Fourier analysis was carried out for the original DEM
and for the drainage-based artificial DEM. The results of the
analysis for the drainage network are shown in the
periodogram in Fig. 3C. Although the analysis reveals that
the large-scale elements are by far the most important since
the spectrum declines rapidly as scale decreases and these
features have a clear orientation in the NE–SW direction, it
failed to identify periodicity in the studied DEM. This is due
to that the previously identified zones of morphological
lineaments are discontinuous and Fourier analysis cannot
capture the location of single signal features. Fourier
analysis was not performed on the binary lineament map,
because Fourier methods cannot analyse binary indicator
function.
Variograms in the E–W, NE–SW and NW–SE directions
were constructed for the drainage-based artificial DEM (Fig.
3D). The variogram in the E–W direction displays a periodic
shape, suggesting that the N–S running valleys are periodic
Fig. 4. (A) Wavelet coefficient plot for the N–S (NF108) lineaments. Solid crosses indicate local maxima. (B) Three-dimensional display of the wavelet
coefficient plot to emphasise local maxima indicated by arrows. Shading according to wavelet coefficients. See text for details.
with about 3000 m separation on average. For comparison,
this type of pattern is absent from the variograms
constructed for the original elevation model (Jordan,
2003). Although directional variograms could capture
periodicities of the N–S lineaments, it could not show
location and spatial asymmetry of associated lineaments
suggested by the lineament density and second-order
directional derivative maps.
4.3. Spatial analysis of lineaments with wavelet analysis
Result of the wavelet analysis performed on the E–W
profile for the N–S lineaments is shown in Fig. 4A. The
series of small features at small scales along the x-axis of the
coefficient plot are due to random noise in the signal. The
large maximum on the top corresponds to the half period of
the profile size of the map. More interesting are the four
local maxima in the wavelet coefficient plot (Fig. 4A).
These are approximately equidistantly located (2100, 2800
and 2200 m, respectively) at distances of 700, 2800, 5600
and 7800 m from the western map boundary. This shows
that high density of N–S lineaments are found in well-
defined zones that are located at regular distances from each
other. The gained separation distances correspond well to
the approximately 3000 m periodicity obtained by vario-
gram analysis. If we plot the location of these zones on the
shaded relief (Fig. 1B) and lineament density (Fig. 2B)
maps a good correspondence with morphology and results
of lineament analysis is found.
Unlike variogram analysis, the wavelet coefficient plot
shows that zones of N–S lineaments are found in the
western half of the study area only. This was confirmed by
the visual inspection of directional derivatives map (Fig.
3A) and by the lineament density map (Fig. 2B). The
identified local maxima (Fig. 4B) are all found at the same
wavelet scale showing that the lineament zones have
approximately the same width of 1000 m. When this width
is plotted over the lineament density map a good agreement
 G. Jordan, B. Schott / Remote Sensing of Environment 94 (2005) 31–38
among the widths of the lineament zones obtained by the
two methods is seen (Fig. 2B).
5. Conclusions
Bias in autocorrelation and variograms, due to large
morphological features, alternating-height and convergent
ridges, could be reduced by applying these techniques to
valley lines only (Jordan, 2003). Two-dimensional autocor-
relogram provided a measure of anisotropy due to tectonics
but failed to capture periodicity in the terrain. Fourier
analysis performed on the digitally extracted drainage
network also provided a measure of terrain anisotropy
without indicating periodicity. E–W variogram obtained
from the extracted channel network revealed periodicity in
the N–S valleys without showing the spatial origin of
corresponding signal features in the Káli Basin. Lineament
density map and E–W second-order directional derivative
map revealed zones of N–S lineaments and asymmetry in
the Káli Basin without providing measure of their perio-
dicity and width.
The traditional lineament analysis methods used in this
study could show either the periodicity or location and
spatial asymmetry of N–S lineament zones, but only wavelet
analysis was capable to provide alone all these information
together with actual measures for lineament periodicity and
location. Wavelet analysis has proved to be superior to
Fourier analysis in the investigation of geomorphologic
lineaments in this study.
Traditional lineament analysis methods usually require a
large number of repetitions to be able to capture periodicity.
Thus, these methods have been used primarily to regional-
scale studies although landform observations are at the local
scale. However, wavelet analysis is capable to capture single
signal features thus it is efficient both on the regional and
local scales. The presented local-scale study has demon-
strated this advantage of wavelet analysis as well.
In this study, 2D lineament analysis was reduced to a 1D
signal processing problem. This required the following
steps: (1) based on lineament rose diagram, a set of
lineaments were selected, (2) using the lineament density
map, lines in this set were checked if they form zones, (3) a
binary indicator function perpendicular to the lineament set
was created and the wavelet coefficient plot was calculated.
Although this study involved morphological lineaments
derived from a DEM, the presented wavelet analysis method
can be equally used for lineaments derived from remotely
sensed images. These results hold for this case study and
provide a good assessment of the relative abilities of wavelet
analysis, but it remains to be seen how effective it is for
other data sources, areas and geological terrain.
Together with geological evidence (Jordan et al., 2003),
the tectonic origin of N–S linear morphological features in
the Káli Basin was shown by periodicity found by wavelet
analysis. Asymmetric arrangement of N–S lineaments found
37
by wavelet analysis is in agreement with the tectonic model
of the area (Dudko, 1999).
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